Chapter 9 Gas Exchange

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Biology CIE 
9. Gas Exchange
CONTENTS
9.1 The Gas Exchange System
9.1.1 The Human Gas Exchange System
9.1.2 Distribution of Tissues
9.1.3 Recognising Tissues
9.1.4 Recognising Structures
9.1.5 Structures & Functions of the Gas Exchange System
9.1.6 Gas Exchange Processes
Page 1 of 22
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9.1 The Gas Exchange System YOUR NOTES


9.1.1 The Human Gas Exchange System
The Human Gas Exchange System
Gas exchange takes place in the human thorax. This is a collection of organs and
tissues in the chest cavity
The main structures of the human gas exchange system
Thorax structures table
Page 2 of 22
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Remember to pay attention to command words in exams, as they will be
asking different things. For example, a question asking you to “Describe” the
structure of the alveoli is different from a question asking you to “Explain”
the structure of the alveoli.“Describe” questions are asking you to give an
account of something or to write events or processes in a logical
order.“Explain” questions are asking you to write why something happens or
to link its structure to its function – as a result of this, “because” will be an
important part of your answer.
Page 3 of 22
9.1.2 Distribution of Tissues YOUR NOTES


Distribution of Tissues in the Gas Exchange System
Cartilage is a strong and flexible tissue found in various places around the body
One place is in rings along the trachea, called Tracheal rings
These rings help to support the trachea and ensure it stays open, while
allowing it to move and flex while we breathe
Ciliated epithelium is a specialised tissue found along the trachea down to the
bronchi. Each cell has small projections of cilia which sweep mucus, dust and
bacteria upwards and away from the lungs and the epithelium itself
Ciliated epithelium showing cilia, basement membrane, goblet cell and nucleus
Goblet cells can be found scattered throughout the ciliated epithelium in the
trachea
They are mucus-producing cells that secrete viscous mucus which traps dust,
bacteria and other microorganisms and prevents them from reaching the lungs
The mucus is then swept along by the cilia of the ciliated epithelium upwards
and is swallowed
The mucus and any microorganisms will then be destroyed by the acid in the
stomach
The alveoli have a lining of thin squamous epithelium, that allows for gas
exchange
The squamous epithelium forms the structure of the alveolar wall and so is
very thin and permeable for the easy diffusion of gases
Smooth muscle can be found throughout the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles
Page 4 of 22
It helps to regulate the flow of air into the lungs by dilating when more air is YOUR NOTES
needed and constricting when less air is needed 
Each alveolus is surrounded by an extensive network of capillaries
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries and into the alveoli to be
exhaled, while oxygen diffuses the other way from alveoli and into the
capillaries to be carried around the body
These capillaries have a diameter of around 3-4µm, which is only wide enough for
one red blood cell to travel through at any one time
This ensures that there is sufficient time and opportunity for gas exchange to
occur
Worked example: Protection against pathogens
Explain how the lining of the trachea, bronchus and bronchioles provide
protection against pathogens.
Cilia beat to move mucus away from the lungs and up towards the mouth. Mucus is
produced by goblet cells and acts as a barrier to pathogens from entering the
ciliated epithelium. The mucus also traps bacteria and microorganisms, while
blood vessels bring macrophages to engulf any pathogens in phagocytosis.
Page 5 of 22
9.1.3 Recognising Tissues YOUR NOTES


Recognising Tissues in the Gas Exchange System
Cartilage
Cartilage micrograph
Cartilage – electron micrograph
Page 6 of 22
The cartilage in the trachea has a ‘glassy’ appearance due to its translucent YOUR NOTES
protoplasm 
It contains no nerves or blood vessels
Ciliated epithelium
Ciliated epithelium – photomicrograph
Ciliated epithelium – electron micrograph
Ciliated epithelial cells are distinctive due to their narrow cell bodies and hair-like
cilia located along the apical layer
The cilia are tiny projections which greatly increase the surface area of the cell
Page 7 of 22
Goblet cells YOUR NOTES


Goblet cell – light micrograph
Page 8 of 22
YOUR NOTES

Goblet cells – electron micrograph
Goblet cells can be found scattered among the ciliated epithelium of the trachea
and bronchi
They are distinctive in the epithelium due to their lack of cilia (although they still
have some microvilli projecting outwards)
The nucleus is found towards the basal (bottom) layer of the cell, with a large Golgi
apparatus and mucus granules found towards the apical layer
Squamous epithelium
Page 9 of 22
YOUR NOTES

Squamous epithelium – light micrograph
Squamous epithelium – electron micrograph
Squamous epithelium is made of thin, flat squamous cells

Smooth muscle
Page 10 of 22
YOUR NOTES

Smooth muscle – light micrograph
Smooth muscle – electron micrograph
The cells of smooth muscle are tightly packed and are found beneath the ciliated
epithelium
Page 11 of 22
Unlike skeletal muscles, they are not striated and so don’t show any cross stripes YOUR NOTES
under a microscope 
Capillaries
Capillary – photomicrograph
Capillary – electron micrograph
Capillaries are distinctive from other blood cells due to their tiny diameter (~4 μm)
Their walls consist of a single layer of epithelial cells
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9.1.4 Recognising Structures YOUR NOTES


Recognising Structures in the Gas Exchange System
Trachea
Trachea cross-section
A tracheal cross-section shows the large lumen which air has to travel through
The innermost cells of the trachea are the ciliated epithelia with projections called
cilia
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YOUR NOTES

Trachea – light micrograph
The cells of the ciliated epithelium are shown here – the cells are tightly packed
and interspersed with goblet cells, which are shown in white
Trachea – electron micrograph
The density of the cilia are shown in this electron micrograph

The cilia are essential for sweeping bacteria and dust-filled mucus away from the
lungs and up the trachea into the back of the mouth
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This mucus is then swallowed, with any pathogens hopefully destroyed by the YOUR NOTES
acidic conditions in the stomach 
Bronchi
Bronchi cross-section
Bronchi are distinctive from the trachea because their lumen is narrower; 8.7mm
instead of 18mm
However, like the trachea, they are lined by ciliated epithelium
Bronchioles
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Bronchiole – photomicrograph YOUR NOTES

Bronchioles are approximately 1mm or less in diameter 
Smooth muscle and cuboidal epithelium are found in their walls
Alveoli
Alveoli
Emphysema alveoli
Alveoli have a sponge-like appearance under a microscope due to their air spaces.
Page 16 of 22
They are surrounded by an extensive capillary network and are lined by squamous YOUR NOTES
epithelium 
Walls of the trachea & bronchus
Walls of the trachea
The tracheal lumen is around 15 to 20 mm and is lined by ciliated epithelia

The tracheal wall is surrounded by strong and flexible cartilage which flexes
during breathing
The smooth muscle of the trachea constricts and allows air to be expelled with
more force
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YOUR NOTES

Walls of the bronchus
Like the trachea, the bronchus is lined with ciliated epithelium

The cartilage hoops provide structural support to the bronchi and the gland ducts
secrete mucus in the bronchial tubes
Page 18 of 22
9.1.5 Structures & Functions of the Gas Exchange System YOUR NOTES

The Gas Exchange System: Structure & Functions
Ciliated epithelial cells, goblet cells and mucous glands play vital roles in
maintaining the health of the gas exchange system
Cartilage, smooth muscle, elastic fibres and squamous epithelial tissue all play
important structural roles in maintaining the gas exchange system
Structures & functions in the gas exchange system table
Worked example: Effect of cystic fibrosis on lung function

Describe the cause of cystic fibrosis and explain how cystic fibrosis affects the
function of the lungs
Page 19 of 22
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele of the CFTR gene. Cystic fibrosis YOUR NOTES
affects the lungs by goblet cells producing thick, sticky and dehydrated mucus. 
This mucus is much harder for cilia to sweep up the trachea and to the mouth and
so mucus accumulates in the airways. As the mucus traps bacteria but the mucus
can’t be removed, this leads to frequent infections and eventually scar tissue in the
lungs. The fact that mucus obstructs the airways means that gas exchange is less
efficient as it is harder for oxygen to reach the lungs and harder for carbon dioxide
to be exhaled, causing breathing problems.
 Exam Tip
Make sure that you don’t confuse the cilia in the respiratory system for
microvilli in the small intestine. At first glance they appear similar, but they
have very different functions! Cilia are for sweeping mucus while microvilli
are for the absorption of nutrients.
Page 20 of 22
9.1.6 Gas Exchange Processes YOUR NOTES


Gas Exchange Processes
The exchange of oxygen and dioxide occurs between the alveoli and the capillaries
in the lungs
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in a process of simple diffusion;
(passive movement from high to low concentration)
The air in the alveoli contains a high concentration of oxygen. The oxygen diffuses
from the alveoli and into the blood capillaries, before being carried away to the
rest of the body for aerobic respiration
The blood in the capillaries has a relatively low concentration of oxygen and a high
concentration of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood and
into the alveoli and is then exhaled
The movement of blood through the capillaries surrounding the alveoli maintains a
concentration gradient to drive diffusion of oxygen into the blood
Features of the alveoli table
Page 21 of 22
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Remember that blood arriving to the lungs in capillaries is deoxygenated,
while blood leaving the capillaries is oxygenated and returns to the left side
of the heart.
Page 22 of 22

Chapter 9 Gas Exchange

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9.1 The Gas Exchange System YOUR NOTES

The main structures of the human gas exchange system

Thorax structures table

9.1.2 Distribution of Tissues YOUR NOTES

9.1.3 Recognising Tissues YOUR NOTES

Cartilage – electron micrograph

Ciliated epithelium – photomicrograph

Ciliated epithelium – electron micrograph

Goblet cells YOUR NOTES

Goblet cell – light micrograph

Goblet cells – electron micrograph

Squamous epithelium – light micrograph

Squamous epithelium – electron micrograph

Squamous epithelium is made of thin, flat squamous cells

Smooth muscle – light micrograph

Smooth muscle – electron micrograph

Capillary – electron micrograph

9.1.4 Recognising Structures YOUR NOTES

Trachea – light micrograph

Trachea – electron micrograph

The density of the cilia are shown in this electron micrograph

Bronchiole – photomicrograph YOUR NOTES

Walls of the trachea

The tracheal lumen is around 15 to 20 mm and is lined by ciliated epithelia

Walls of the bronchus

Like the trachea, the bronchus is lined with ciliated epithelium

Worked example: Effect of cystic fibrosis on lung function

9.1.6 Gas Exchange Processes YOUR NOTES

Features of the alveoli table

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