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YOUR NOTES
A Level Biology OCR 
5.3 Neuronal Communication
CONTENTS
5.3.1 Neurones
5.3.2 Mammalian Sensory Receptors
5.3.3 Resting Potentials
5.3.4 Action Potentials
5.3.5 Transmission of Nerve Impulses
5.3.6 The Refractory Period
5.3.7 Factors that Affect the Speed of Conduction
5.3.8 The Role of Synapses
5.3.9 Transmission Across a Cholinergic Synapse
Page 1 of 29
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5.3.1 Neurones YOUR NOTES


Neurones
Neurones are specialised cells of the nervous system which carry electrical impulses
around the body
A bundle of neurones is known as a nerve
There are different types of neurones
The following features are found in all types of neurone
Neurones have a long fibre known as an axon
They have a cell body that contains the nucleus and other cellular structures
The end of the axon, known as the axon terminal, contains many nerve endings
The nerve endings at the axon terminal allow neurones to connect to many other
neurones and receive impulses from them, forming a network for easy
communication
Some neurones are myelinated, their axon is insulated by a myelin sheath with small
uninsulated sections along its length (called nodes of Ranvier)
The myelin sheath is formed by specialised cells known as Schwann cells which wrap
themselves around the axon.
This means that electrical impulses do not travel down the whole axon, but jump from
one node to the next so that less time is wasted transferring the impulse from one cell
to another
In non-myelinated neurones the axon is uninsulated
The impulse travels more slowly as it moves through the entire length of the axon
Page 2 of 29
YOUR NOTES

The diagram shows the structure of a myelinated neurone

There are three main types of neurone: sensory, relay and motor
Sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to the CNS (brain or spinal cord)
Relay (intermediate) neurones are found entirely within the CNS and connect sensory
and motor neurones
Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
Each type of neurone has a slightly different structure
Motor neurones have:
A large cell body at one end that lies within the spinal cord or brain
A nucleus that is always in its cell body
Many highly-branched dendrites extending from the cell body, providing a large
surface area for the axon terminals of other neurones
Relay neurones have:
Short, but highly branched, axons and dendrites
Sensory neurones have:
A cell body that branches off in the middle of the cell
A single long dendron that carries impulses to the cell body and a single long axon that
carries impulses away from the cell body
Page 3 of 29
YOUR NOTES

The three types of neurone – the red line shows the direction of impulses. Note that the axon
always carried impulses away from the cell body.
 Exam Tip
You may be asked to identify the different types of neurones in a diagram. It can be
helpful to memorise the key differences between them – such as the location and
size of the cell body.
Page 4 of 29
5.3.2 Mammalian Sensory Receptors YOUR NOTES


Mammalian Sensory Receptors
A cell that responds to a stimulus is called a receptor cell
Receptor cells are transducers – they convert energy from one form (such as light, heat or
sound) into energy in an electrical impulse within a sensory neurone
Each receptor will only respond to a specific stimulus
Receptors of the body act as transducers

Receptors of the Body and their Stimuli Table
Page 5 of 29
YOUR NOTES

Pacinian corpuscles
In any area of the skin, there are a range of different receptors present
The different receptors have different structures and positions within the skin
Pacinian corpuscles are a type of mechanoreceptor found deep in the skin
They are present in the skin of fingers, soles of the feet as well as in joints, tendons and
ligaments
They respond to changes in pressure
When these receptors are stimulated by pressure on the skin it leads to the
establishment of a generator potential
Page 6 of 29
Different skin receptors are found in different regions and have different structures YOUR NOTES
Pacinian corpuscles are found at the ends of sensory neurone axons 
They are not a separate cell, but instead are made of many layers of membrane around the
end of the neurone separated by a gel
The gel between the layers contains positively charged sodium ions (Na+)
The section of axon surrounded by layers of membrane contains stretch-mediated
sodium ion channels which open when sufficient pressure is applied
This allows (Na+) to flow into the neurone, so that an electrical potential difference across
the axon membrane is established - the generator potential
The axon of the sensory neurone is surrounded by layers of membrane
Page 7 of 29
YOUR NOTES

The process of converting mechanical pressure into a nervous impulse in a Pacinian

corpuscle
 Exam Tip
Receptors can be cells, specifically adapted parts of a cell (e.g. the Pacinian
corpuscle) or proteins on the cell surface membrane.Many sensory receptors are
found in sensory organs such as the eye or ear.
Page 8 of 29
5.3.3 Resting Potentials YOUR NOTES


Resting Potentials
Neurones transmit electrical impulses, which travel rapidly along the neurone cell surface
membrane from one end of the neurone to the other
In a resting axon (one that is not transmitting impulses), the inside of the axon always has
a negative electrical potential compared to the outside of the axon
This is called the resting potential
This potential difference (when there are no impulses) is usually about -70mV
The inside of the axon has an electrical potential about 70mV lower than the outside
Two factors contribute to establishing and maintaining the resting potential:
The active transport of sodium ions and potassium ions
Differential membrane permeability
The active transport of sodium ions and potassium ions
Carrier proteins called sodium-potassium pumps are present in the membranes of
neurones
These pumps use ATP to actively transport 3 sodium ions out of the axon for every 2
potassium ions that they actively transport in
This means that there is a larger concentration of positive ions outside the axon than there
are inside the axon
The movement of ions via the sodium-potassium pumps establishes an electrochemical
gradient
A differential membrane permeability
The cell-surface membrane of neurones has selective protein channels that allow sodium
and potassium ions to move across the membrane by facilitated diffusion
The protein channels are less permeable to sodium ions than potassium ions
This means that potassium ions can diffuse back down their concentration gradient, out of
the axon, at a faster rate than sodium ions
Page 9 of 29
YOUR NOTES

The resting potential is maintained by the net movement of positively charged ions out of
the axon
Page 10 of 29
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember that the resting potential is maintained by a sodium-potassium pump

which requires ATP energy from respiration in order to actively pump sodium and
potassium across the membrane.
Page 11 of 29
5.3.4 Action Potentials YOUR NOTES


Action Potentials
Action potentials
Unlike a normal electric current, an action potential is not a flow of electrons but instead
occurs via a brief change in the distribution of electrical charge across the cell surface
membrane
Action potentials are caused by the rapid movement of sodium ions and potassium ions
across the membrane of the axon
There are channel proteins in the axon membrane that allow sodium ions or potassium
ions to pass through
These are known as voltage-gated channel proteins. They open and close depending
on the electrical potential (or voltage) across the axon membrane
They are closed when the axon membrane is at its resting potential
Several different things occur during an action potential: stimulus, depolarisation,
repolarisation, hyperpolarisation and the return to resting potential
Stage 1: Stimulus
A stimulus triggers sodium ion channels in the membrane to open allowing sodium ions to
diffuse into the neurone down an electrochemical gradient
The stimulus can either be an electrical impulse from another neurone or a chemical
change to the membrane of the neurone
When a large enough stimulus is detected by a neurone, the resting potential can be
converted into an action potential
The potential difference across the membrane must reach a threshold of around
-55mV to trigger depolarisation
Stage 2: Depolarisation
When the threshold (around -55mV) is reached, an action potential is stimulated and the
following steps occur:
Voltage-gated sodium ion channels in the axon membrane open
Sodium ions pass into the axon down the electrochemical gradient (there is a greater
concentration of sodium ions outside the axon than inside. The inside of the axon is
negatively charged, attracting the positively charged sodium ions)
The movement of sodium ions reduces the potential difference across the axon
membrane as the inside of the axon becomes less negative – a process known as
depolarisation
Depolarisation triggers more channels to open, allowing more sodium ions to enter
and causing more depolarisation
This is an example of positive feedback
The action potential that is generated will reach a potential of around +30mV
Stage 3: Repolarisation
Page 12 of 29
Very shortly (about 1 ms) after the potential difference has reached +30mV, all the sodium YOUR NOTES
ion voltage-gated channel proteins in this section close, stopping any further sodium 
ions diffusing into the axon
Potassium ion voltage-gated channel proteins in this section of axon membrane now
open, allowing the diffusion of potassium ions out of the axon, down their concentration
gradient
This returns the potential difference to normal (about -70mV) – a process known as
repolarisation
This is an example of negative feedback.
Stage 4: Hyperpolarisation
Potassium ion channels are slow to close and as a result, too many potassium ions diffuse
out of the neurone causing a short period of hyperpolarisation
This means that the potential difference across this section of axon membrane briefly
becomes more negative than the normal resting potential
Stage 5: Returning to the resting potential
Once the potassium ion voltage-gated channel proteins are closed the sodium-
potassium pump restores the resting potential
The sodium ion channel proteins in this section of membrane become responsive to
depolarisation again
Action Potential Table
Page 13 of 29
YOUR NOTES

The five stages of an action potential: stimulus, depolarisation, repolarisation,

hyperpolarisation and return to resting state
 Exam Tip
Action potentials travel as a wave of depolarisation across the length of the
neurone.
Page 14 of 29
5.3.5 Transmission of Nerve Impulses YOUR NOTES


Transmission of Nerve Impulses
Once the action potential has been initiated in a neurone, the depolarisation moves, in one
direction along the entire length of an axon like a wave.
Transmission along an axon
An action potential triggered in the neurone causes depolarisation of that section of the
axon
The current causes the opening of sodium ion channels a little further up the axon
This causes an influx of sodium ions in this section of the axon generating an action
potential in this direction
The previous section of the axon is in the repolarisation stage (the sodium channels are
closed and potassium channels are open) and is unresponsive
This makes the action potentials discrete events and means the impulse can only travel in
one direction
Page 15 of 29
YOUR NOTES

How an impulse is transmitted in one direction along the axon of a neurone

The all or nothing principle
When receptors (such as chemoreceptors) are stimulated, they are depolarised
If the stimulus is very weak or below a certain threshold, the receptor cells won’t be
sufficiently depolarised and the sensory neurone will not be activated to send impulses
If the stimulus is strong enough to increase the receptor potential above the threshold
potential then the receptor will stimulate the sensory neurone to send impulses
This is an example of the all-or-nothing principle
An impulse is only transmitted if the initial stimulus is sufficient to increase the
membrane potential above a threshold potential
Rather than staying constant, threshold levels in receptors often increase with
continued stimulation, so that a greater stimulus is required before impulses are sent
along sensory neurones
Page 16 of 29
YOUR NOTES

The receptor potential increases as the strength of the stimulus increases. As the strength
of stimulus increases beyond the threshold, the frequency (not amplitude) of impulses
increases.
 Exam Tip
Remember that in a myelinated the depolarisation only occurs at the nodes but still
occurs in one direction as the previous node is still in the repolarisation stage.
Page 17 of 29
5.3.6 The Refractory Period YOUR NOTES


The Refractory Period
After the action potential, there is a period of time when both sodium ion channels are
closed (during repolarisation) and potassium ion channels are closed (during
hyperpolarisation).
When this occurs, this section of the axon membrane is in a period of recovery and is
unresponsive
This is known as the refractory period
The refractory period begins when repolarisation starts and ends when the resting state is
reestablished
The importance of the refractory period
The refractory period is important for the following reasons:
It ensures that action potentials are discrete events, stopping them from merging into
one another
It ensures that ‘new’ action potentials are generated ahead (ie. further along the
axon), rather than behind the original action potential, as the region behind is
‘recovering’ from the action potential that has just occurred
As a result, an impulse can only travel in one direction, which is essential for the
successful and efficient transmission of nerve impulses along neurones
The existence of the refractory period also means that there is a minimum time
between action potentials occurring at any one place along a neurone
Page 18 of 29
The length of the refractory period is key in determining the maximum frequency at YOUR NOTES
which impulses can be transmitted along neurones (between 500 and 1000 per 
second)
Page 19 of 29
5.3.7 Factors that Affect the Speed of Conduction YOUR NOTES


Factors that Affect the Speed of Conduction
The speed of conduction of an impulse refers to how quickly the impulse is transmitted
along a neurone
It is determined by multiple factors:
Myelination (ie. whether or not the axon is insulated by a myelin sheath)
The diameter of the axon
Temperature
Myelination
In unmyelinated neurones, the speed of conduction is very slow
This is because depolarisation must occur along the whole membrane of the axon
By insulating the axon membrane, the presence of myelin increases the speed at which
action potentials can travel along the neurone:
The myelin sheath is formed from Schwann cells
In sections of the axon that are surrounded by a myelin sheath, depolarisation (and
the action potentials that this would lead to) cannot occur, as the myelin sheath
stops the diffusion of sodium ions and potassium ions
Action potentials can only occur at the nodes of Ranvier (small uninsulated sections
of the axon)
The local circuits of current that trigger depolarisation in the next section of the axon
membrane exist between the nodes of Ranvier
The presence of Schwann cells means the action potentials ‘jump’ from one node to
the next, this is known as saltatory conduction
Saltatory conduction allows the impulse to travel much faster (up to 50 times faster)
than in an unmyelinated axon of the same diameter
Page 20 of 29
YOUR NOTES

Transmission of an action potential in a myelinated axon by saltatory conduction

Diameter
An impulse will be conducted at a higher speed along neurones with thicker axons
compared to those with thinner axons
Thicker axons have an axon membrane with a greater surface area over which the diffusion
of ions can occur
This increases the rate of diffusion of sodium ions and potassium ions through
protein channels, which in turn increases the rate at which depolarisation and action
potentials can occur
Axons with a greater diameter also possess a greater volume of cytoplasm (which contains
ions). This reduces their electrical resistance so that an action potential can push into the
next section faster
Temperature
Some animals, such as mammals, maintain very stable body temperatures. Temperature
does not usually affect the speed of nerve impulses in these animals
The body temperature of other animals can vary with the environment
For example, cold-blooded reptiles
Colder conditions can slow down the conduction of nerve impulses
The colder temperatures mean there is less kinetic energy available for the facilitated
diffusion of potassium and sodium ions during an action potential
Page 21 of 29
5.3.8 The Role of Synapses YOUR NOTES


The Role of Synapses
The junction where two neurones meet is known as a synapse
A synapse consists of a presynaptic knob, synaptic cleft and postsynaptic membrane
Synapses that use acetylcholine (ACh) as a neurotransmitter are described as
cholinergic synapses
The structure of a cholinergic synapse

Transmission at a synapse
Electrical impulses cannot ‘jump’ across synapses
When an electrical impulse arrives at the end of the axon on the presynaptic neurone (also
called the synaptic knob), chemical messengers called neurotransmitters are released
from vesicles at the presynaptic membrane
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and temporarily bind with
receptor molecules on the postsynaptic membrane
This stimulates the postsynaptic neurone to generate an electrical impulse that then
travels down the axon of the postsynaptic neurone
The neurotransmitters are then destroyed or recycled to prevent continued stimulation of
the second neurone, which could cause repeated impulses to be sent
Page 22 of 29
YOUR NOTES

The events that occur when an action potential reaches a cholinergic synapse
Page 23 of 29
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 There are many synoptic links with synapses and transport across membranes.

Page 24 of 29
5.3.9 Transmission Across a Cholinergic Synapse YOUR NOTES


Transmission Across a Cholinergic Synapse
There are over 40 different known neurotransmitters
One of the key neurotransmitters used throughout the nervous system is acetylcholine
(ACh)
Synapses that use the neurotransmitter ACh are known as cholinergic synapses
The detailed process of synaptic transmission using ACh is as follows:
1. The arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic membrane causes
depolarisation of the membrane
2. This stimulates voltage-gated calcium ion channel proteins to open
3. Calcium ions (Ca2+) diffuse down an electrochemical gradient from the tissue fluid
surrounding the synapse (high concentration of calcium ions) into the synaptic
knob (low concentration of calcium ions)
4. This stimulates ACh-containing vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane,
releasing ACh molecules into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis
5. The ACh molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and temporarily bind to
cholinergic receptors in the postsynaptic membrane
6. This causes sodium ion channels to open
7. Sodium ions to diffuse down an electrochemical gradient into the cytoplasm of the
postsynaptic neurone
8. The sodium ions cause depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane, re-starting the
electrical impulse once the threshold is reached
9. The ACh molecules are broken down and recycled
This prevents the sodium ion channels staying permanently open and stops
permanent depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane,
The enzyme acetylcholinesterase catalyses the hydrolysis of the ACh molecules
into acetate and choline
10. The choline is absorbed back into the presynaptic membrane and reacts with acetyl
coenzyme A to form ACh, which is then packaged into presynaptic vesicles ready to
be used when another action potential arrives
Page 25 of 29
YOUR NOTES

Synaptic transmission using acetylcholine (ACh)

Key features of synapses
Page 26 of 29
Unidirectionality YOUR NOTES

Synapses ensure the one-way transmission of impulses 
Impulses can only pass in one direction at synapses because neurotransmitter is
released on one side and its receptors are on the other – chemical transmission cannot
occur in the opposite direction
This prevents impulses from travelling the wrong way, back to where they were initiated
Summation
Sometimes, a single impulse that arrives at a synaptic knob is insufficient to generate an
action potential in the post-synaptic neurone because:
Only a small amount of acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft
This means only a small number of the gated ion channels are opened in the axon
membrane
Therefore an insufficient number of sodium ions pass through the membrane
So the threshold potential is not reached
The small amount of acetylcholine attached to receptors is broken down rapidly by
acetylcholinesterase
To overcome this, the effect of multiple impulses can be added together in a process
known as summation
There are several benefits of summation
It allows for the effect of a stimulus to be magnified
A combination of different stimuli can trigger a response
It avoids the nervous system being overwhelmed by impulses
Synapses act as a barrier and slow down the rate of transmission of a nerve
impulse that has to travel along two or more neurones
They only allow the impulses to pass on if there has been input from other
neurones and receptors
There are two types of summation:
Temporal
Spatial
Temporal summation
If multiple impulses arrive within quick succession the effect of the impulses can be
added together to generate an action potential
A large amount of acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft
Therefore a large number of the gated ion channels open
So a sufficient number of sodium ions pass through the membrane
Spatial summation
Multiple impulses arriving simultaneously at different synaptic knobs stimulating the same
cell body can also generate an action potential through spatial summation
The multiple impulses result in a large amount of acetylcholine being released into the
synaptic cleft which results in the generation of an action potential
Page 27 of 29
YOUR NOTES

Temporal summation involves only one synaptic knob whereas spatial summation involves
multiple synaptic knobs. The different types of summation produce different shaped
graphs.
Inhibitory and excitatory synapses
Excitatory neurotransmitters can stimulate the generation of an action potential in a
Page 28 of 29
This is done by opening sodium ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane which YOUR NOTES
causes depolarisation if a threshold is reached 
inhibitory neurotransmitters can prevent the generation of an action potential in a
They do this by opening potassium ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane which
causes hyperpolarisation of the membrane
If a neurone is subject to both excitatory and inhibitory synapses the following happens:
Sodium ions enter the cell body following stimulation by the excitatory synapse
The stimulation of the inhibitory synapse causes potassium ions to diffuse out of the
cell body
This cancels out the effect of the sodium ions entering
The threshold potential is not reached so no action potential is generated
The inhibitory synapse (Y) causes the membrane potential to decrease, cancelling out the
effect of the excitatory synapse (X) so that the threshold is not reached and no action
potential is generated
Page 29 of 29

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5.3 Neuronal Communication

5.3.1 Neurones YOUR NOTES

The diagram shows the structure of a myelinated neurone

5.3.2 Mammalian Sensory Receptors YOUR NOTES

Receptors of the body act as transducers

The axon of the sensory neurone is surrounded by layers of membrane

The process of converting mechanical pressure into a nervous impulse in a Pacinian

5.3.3 Resting Potentials YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.3.4 Action Potentials YOUR NOTES

The five stages of an action potential: stimulus, depolarisation, repolarisation,

5.3.5 Transmission of Nerve Impulses YOUR NOTES

How an impulse is transmitted in one direction along the axon of a neurone

5.3.6 The Refractory Period YOUR NOTES

5.3.7 Factors that Affect the Speed of Conduction YOUR NOTES

Transmission of an action potential in a myelinated axon by saltatory conduction

5.3.8 The Role of Synapses YOUR NOTES

The structure of a cholinergic synapse

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.3.9 Transmission Across a Cholinergic Synapse YOUR NOTES

Synaptic transmission using acetylcholine (ACh)

Unidirectionality YOUR NOTES

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