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Your notes
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Your notes
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Your notes
Sensory neurones are long and have a cell body branching off the middle of the axon
Relay neurones are short and have a small cell body at one end with many dendrites branching off it
Motor neurones are long and have a large cell body at one end with long dendrites branching off it
Exam Tip
A way to remember which neurone is which:
Sensory neurones connect a sense organ eg. eye, nose, tastebuds to the CNS
Motor neurones result in a response, which is often movement; think of a moving motorbike
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Your notes
A reflex
1. The pin (the stimulus) is detected by a pain/pressure/touch receptor in the skin
2. Sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the spinal cord (the coordinator)
3. Electrical impulse is passed on to relay neurone in the spinal cord
4. Relay neurone connects to motor neurone and passes the impulse on
5. Motor neurone carries impulse to a muscle in the leg (the effector)
6. The muscle will contract and pull the foot up and away from the sharp object (the response)
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Your notes
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Your notes
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Reflex actions are:
1. Automatic
2. Fast
3. Protective
A common exam question is to be asked to draw arrows on the neurones in the reflex arc diagram to
show the direction of movement of the impulse. Make sure you read questions carefully – not all
questions have a line underneath them to write an answer, so they can be easy to miss!
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A synapse
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Your notes
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Your notes
Exam Tip
For maximum marks you will need to be able to understand the structure and functioning of a synapse
and explain what happens at each step.
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Once the receptor cell in the sense organ has been stimulated, it generates an electrical impulse
This is passed on to a sensory neurone which carries the impulse to the central nervous system
Here a response will be decided on and the impulse will be passed to a motor neurone (via a relay
neurone)
The motor neurone carries the impulse to the effector (muscle or gland)
The effector carries out the response
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The eye
Function of the parts of the eye:
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Your notes
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Your notes
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Your notes
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Accommodation: Extended
Accommodation: The function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects Your notes
The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called accommodation
The lens is elastic and its shape can be changed when the suspensory ligaments attached to it
become tight or loose
The changes are brought about by the contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles
When an object is close up:
The ciliary muscles contract (the ring of muscle decreases in diameter)
This causes the suspensory ligaments to loosen
This stops the suspensory ligaments from pulling on the lens, which allows the lens to become
fatter
Light is refracted more
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Your notes
Exam Tip
The focusing of the eye on distant and near objects is complex and it can be hard to remember what is
happening. This is something you can work out in an exam if you have forgotten – staring at your hand
right in front of your eye will make your eyes feel tight and tired after a few seconds. This is because the
ciliary muscles are contracted. Staring at an object far away feels relaxing and comfortable because
the ciliary muscles are relaxed.
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Exam Tip
Do you ever wonder why your night vision is black and white? It's because the low light intensity isn't
enough to stimulate cone cells, so only rod cells are stimulated. Remember, only the cone cells can
detect colour.
Also, if you look directly at a dim star at night, it disappears, but reappears if you look slightly to one
side of it. (Never look directly at the Sun!) This is because, when looking straight at the star, the light
falls on the fovea, which has more cones so fewer rods, so the low light intensity won't be enough to
stimulate the rods. Looking slightly off to the side allows the light to fall away from the fovea, onto
more rod cells, so the star reappears in your peripheral (edge) vision!
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Your notes
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Hormones only affect cells with target receptors that the hormone can bind to. These are either found
on the cell membrane, or inside cells. Receptors have to be complementary to hormones for there to
be an effect. Your notes
The liver regulates levels of hormones in the blood; transforming or breaking down any that are in
excess.
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Your notes
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Glucagon: Extended
Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving the production of Your notes
two hormones - insulin and glucagon
Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration are made in the pancreas
Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver and muscle cells to convert excess
glucose into glycogen to be stored
Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and stimulates liver and muscle cells to convert
stored glycogen into glucose to be released into the blood
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Exam Tip
It is worth learning this list of effects of adrenaline as it is a fairly common exam question and can be
worth several easy marks.
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14.1.9 Homeostasis
Your notes
The Concept of Negative Feedback: Extended
Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set point and returns conditions
to this set point
It works in the following way:
if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce it again
if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise it again
Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels down and then
bringing them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow range of what is considered ‘normal’
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Your notes
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Exam Tip
Type 2 diabetes is not in the specification, so you don't need to learn the details of it. This is the
diabetes form that doctors are most concerned about because it is linked to obesity and lifestyle
factors.
You only need to know the symptoms and treatment of Type 1 diabetes.
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Regulation is controlled by the brain which contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the
blood
The skin also has temperature receptors and sends nervous impulses to the brain via sensory Your notes
neurones
The brain responds to this information by sending nerve impulses to effectors in the skin to maintain
the temperature within a narrow range of the optimum, 37°C
Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation to prevent too much body heat being lost
through the skin
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Your notes
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Your notes
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14.1.11 Tropisms
Your notes
Gravitropism & Phototropism
Tropisms
Plants can respond to changes in environment (stimuli) for survival, e.g. light, water, gravity
Their responses are usually much slower than animals
They grow either towards a stimulus (known as a positive response) or away from a stimulus (known as
a negative response)
The responses are known as tropisms
It is very important to a plant that its roots and shoots grow in the right directions
Shoots must grow upwards, away from gravity and towards light, so that leaves are able to absorb
sunlight
This means that shoots have a positive phototropic response and a negative gravitropic response
Roots need to grow downwards into the soil, away from light and towards gravity, in order to anchor
the plant and absorb water and minerals from the soil particles.
This means that roots have a negative phototropic response and a positive gravitropic response
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Your notes
Placing a plant on its side shows the gravitropic responses (also known as geotropic responses)
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Investigating Tropisms
Investigating Phototropisms Your notes
Three identical plants are set up as shown below (A, B and C)
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Your notes
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Your notes
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Investigating Gravitropisms
Your notes
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Your notes
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In the first petri dish all radicles (roots) have grown downwards (positive gravitropic response)
regardless of which way they were initially facing (horizontal, up or down) and all plumules (shoots)
have grown upwards (negative gravitropic response) Your notes
In the second petri dish, all radicles and all plumules have all grown neither up nor down but straight
outwards in whichever direction they were placed as the effect of gravity has been cancelled out by
the revolving of the clinostat - they have shown no gravitropic response at all
The experiment needs to be done in a lightproof box in order to cancel out the effect of light on the
growth of the seedlings
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The role of auxin can be tested using seedlings placed in a box that has a slit on one side, only allowing
light in from one direction:
Your notes
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Your notes
Auxin plays a role in a plants response to gravity, affecting plant shoots and roots in different ways
When shoots grow away from gravity it is known as negative geotropism
Gravity modifies the distribution of auxin so that it accumulates on the lower side of the shoot
As seen in the phototropic response, auxin increases the rate of growth in shoots, causing the
shoot to grow upwards
When roots grow towards gravity it is known as positive geotropism
In roots, higher concentrations of auxin results in a lower rate of cell elongation
The auxin that accumulates at the lower side of the root inhibits cell elongation
As a result, the lower side grows at a slower rate than the upper side of the root
This causes the root to bend downwards
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Exam Tip
Your notes
You should be able to explain the results of an experiment like this into the effect of light on the growth
of shoots.
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