Psychology of Learning § 

 Quantitative Research - is
defined as a systematic
WEEK 1 investigation of phenomena by
gathering quantifiable data and
performing statistical,
. Determining When Learning
mathematical, or computational
Has Occurred
techniques
§  Performing a completely new
§ Qualitative - is primarily
behavior
exploratory research. It is used to
§  Changing the frequency of an
gain an understanding of
existing behavior
underlying reasons, opinions, and
§  Changing the speed of an
motivations. It provides insights
existing behavior
into the problem or
§  Changing the Intensity of
§  helps to develop ideas or
existing behavior
hypotheses for potential
§  Changing the complexity of
quantitative research.
existing behavior
 
§  Responding differently to a
Question: What are the best way to
stimulus
research on human learning?
 
 
Do some reflection. How can you
III. Learning Principles and
tell if you are able to learn on
Theories
something?
It identifies certain factors that
 
influence learning and describe the
II. Types of Learning Research
specific effects these factors have
§  Basic Research - also called
§  Law – Is when a principle is
pure research or fundamental
observed repeatedly and stands
research, has the scientific
the test of time
research aims to improve scientific
§  Theory – It provides explanation
theories for improved
about the underlying mechanisms
understanding or prediction of
natural or other phenomena
§  Applied Research -is a
methodology used to solve a
specific, practical issue affecting an
individual or group
IV. Sample Theories in V. Advantages of Theory
Psychology of Learning §  It allows us to summarize the
§  Behaviorism - also known as results of many research studies
behavioral psychology, is a theory and integrate numerous principles
of learning based on of learning.
§  the idea that all behaviors are §  It provides starting points for
acquired through conditioning. conducting new research
§  Social Cognitive Theory - §  It helps us make sense of and
describes the influence of explain research findings
individual experiences, the actions  
of others, and environmental VI. Potential Drawbacks of
factors on individual health Theories
behaviors. §  No single theory explains
§  Gestalt Psychology - everything researchers have
emphasizes that the whole of discovered. It focusses only on
anything is greater than its parts. certain aspects of learning
§  Cognitive Development Theories may affect the new
Theory - is the construction of information that published
thought processes, including
remembering, problem solving, and
decision-making, from childhood
through adolescence to adulthood.
§  Sociocultural Theory -
describes learning as a social
process and the origination of
human intelligence in society or
culture.
 
Question: Are you interested in
creating your own theory on
learning?
 
Psychology of Learning
WEEK 2
I. What is Nervous System?
 The nervous system is a
complex collection of nerves
and specialized cells known
as neurons that transmit
signals between different
parts of the body.  cells, muscle, or gland cells.
II. Divisions of Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System
 It comprises the Brain and
Spinal Cord
 It connects what we sense
(Hear, Smell, Smell, Taste
and Feel)
 To what we do (e.g. how we
move our arms and legs)
2. Peripheral Nervous System
 It serves as a messenger
system
 It carries information from
receptor cells-cells
specialized to detect kinds of
 stimulation from the
environment
III. Neurons
 The neuron is the basic
working unit of the brain, a
specialized cell designed to
transmit information to other
nerve cells, muscle, or gland
cells.
 Neurons are cells within the
nervous system that transmit
information to other nerve
1. Kind of Neurons
 Sensory Neurons - Carry
incoming information from
receptor cells
 Interneurons - It integrates
Sensory and Motor Neurons
 Motor Neurons - It send
messages about how to
behave and respond to parts
of the body.
2. Parts of Neurons
 Soma - Contains the cell`s
Nucleus
 Dendrites - It receives
message from other neurons
 Axon - It transmits
information to other neurons.
  Terminal Buttons - It is
located on the ends of axon
which contains certain
chemical substance.
 Myelin Sheath - A White fatty
substance which covers an
axon for some neurons
 
IV. Synapse
 Gap between two neurons
 This is where two neurons
interact
 The transmission of
information within neurons is
electrical in nature
 The transmission of
information between neurons
is chemical in nature.
 When the electrical impulse
move with axon it will signal
the terminal buttons to release
chemicals known
as Neurotransmitter.
V. Glial Cells
·         It surrounds the neurons and
provide support for and insulation
between them.
 
IV. Parts of The Brain
Three Major Components of the
Brain
I. Hindbrain
§ Hindbrain, also called
rhombencephalon, region of the
developing vertebrate brain that is
composed of the medulla
oblongata, the pons, and the
cerebellum.
§ The hindbrain coordinates
functions that are fundamental to
survival, including respiratory
rhythm, motor activity, sleep, and
wakefulness.
§ Cerebellum – Involves in
balance and complex motor
behavior.
II. Midbrain
§ The midbrain serves important
functions in motor movement,
particularly movements of the eye,
and in auditory and visual
processing.
§ Reticular Formation – is a key
player attention and
consciousness.
III. Forebrain
This is where the most complex
activities such as cognitions took
place. This is where
the Cerebrum is located.
Two hemispheres of the c. Hypothalamus - Pays a crucial
Cerebrum role in many important functions,
including: releasing hormones.
a. Left Hemisphere - has to do
regulating body temperature.
with logic, such as in science and
mathematics.  
b. Right Hemisphere - VII. Methods in Brain Research
coordinates the left side of the  Studies with animals
body and performs tasks that have
do with creativity and the arts.  Postmortem Studies
The four lobes of cerebrum  Case studies of people with
brain injuries and other
a. Frontal Lobes - Important for pathological conditions
cognitive functions and control of
voluntary movement or activity  Electrical Recording
b. Parietal Lobes - processes  Neuroimaging
information about temperature,  
taste, touch, and movement
VIII. Development of the Brain
c. Occipital Lobes - Primarily
responsible for vision.  The beginnings of the brain
emerge late in the first month
d. Temporal Lobes - Which is of prenatal development
important for interpreting the
sounds and language we hear  Synapse among neurons
begin to form before birth
The Other parts of forebrain
 Shortly after birth rate of
a. Limbic System – Essential to synapse formation increases
learning, memory, emotion and dramatically
motivation
▪ Hippocampus – Involved in
attention and learning
▪ Amygdala – Involved in emotions
and automatic emotional reactions
b. Thalamus – Plays role in
arousal, attention and fear
Psychology of Learning
WEEK 3
I. Basic Assumptions in
Behaviorism
 Principles of Learning should
apply equally to different
behaviors and to a variety of
animal species
 Learning processes can be
studied most objectively when
the focus of study is on stimuli
and response.
 Internal processes tend to be
excluded or minimized in
theoretical explanations.
 Learning involves a behavior
change
 Organisms are born a blank-
slates
 Learning is largely the result
of environmental events
II. Thorndike's law of effect
 Law of Effect - Stated that
responses followed by a
satisfier tend to be learned.
 Edward L. Thorndike
experiments with animals
during the last part of the 19th
century.
III. John B.  Watson
He argued that psychology must
deal with the control and prediction
of behavior and that behavior-not
introspection, consciousness, or
the mind-is the basic data of
scientific psychology.
IV. Classical Conditioning
1. This theory is developed by Ivan
Pavlov.
2. In classical conditioning,
a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is
paired with an unconditioned
stimulus until it is capable of
bringing about a
previously unconditioned response,
now called the conditioned
response.
3. This theory in learning deals with
reflexes, or responses that are
evoked from a specific stimulus.
4. For example, Watson and
Rayner conditioned a young boy to
fear a white rat (the conditioned
stimulus) by associating it with a
loud, sudden noise (an
unconditioned stimulus).
Eventually, through the process of
generalization, the boy learned to
fear stimuli that resembled the
white rat.
5. Principles in Classical
Conditioning:
 Generalization - People may
also respond similarly to
different environmental
stimuli, a process Skinner
called stimulus generalization.
 Extinction – Occurs when a
conditioned stimulus
disappeared
 Spontaneous Recovery – The
reappearance of the
previously extinct response.
V. Operant Conditioning
a. This theory is developed by B.F.
Skinner.
b. Scientific Behaviorism
 Skinner believed that human
behavior, like any other
natural phenomena, is subject
to the laws of science, and
that psychologists should not
attribute inner motivations to
it.
 Although he rejected internal
states (thoughts, emotions,
desires, etc.) as being outside
the realm of science, Skinner
did not deny their existence.
He simply insisted that they
should not be used to explain
behavior.
 Philosophy of Science -
Skinner believed that,
because the purpose of
science is to predict and
control, psychologists should
be concerned with
determining the conditions
under which human behavior
occurs so that they can
predict and control it.
c. Operant Conditioning
A form of learning theory that
states that a response increases in
frequency because of being
reinforced or punished. Three
factors are essential in operant
conditioning:
 the antecedent, or
environment in which
behavior takes place
 the behavior, or response
 the consequence that follows
the behavior
d. Principles in Operant
Conditioning
 Shaping – It is Used to mold
complex human behavior,
 Operant Discrimination – It
means that different
organisms will respond
differently to the same
environmental contingencies.
  Stimulus Generalization -
People may also respond
similarly to different
environmental stimuli, a
process Skinner called
stimulus generalization.
 Extinction – Occurs when a
conditioned stimulus
disappeared
e. Reinforcement and
Punishment
Reinforcement - Anything within
the environment that strengthens a
behavior.
§ Positive reinforcement- is any
stimulus that when added to a
situation increases the probability
that a given behavior will occur.
§ Negative reinforcement - is the
strengthening of behavior through
the removal of an aversive
stimulus.
Punishment - Any event that
decreases a behavior either by
presenting an aversive stimulus or
by removing a positive one.
§ Positive Punishment - is any
stimulus that when added to a
situation to decrease the probability
that a given behavior will occur.
§ Negative Punishment - is the
weakening of behavior through the
removal of an reinforcing stimulus.
f. There are four basic intermittent
schedules:
Fixed-ratio, on which the organism
is reinforced intermittently
according to the number of
responses it makes
Variable-ratio, on which the
organism is reinforced after an
average of a predetermined
number of responses
Fixed-interval, on which the
organism is reinforced for the first
response following a designated
period of time
Variable interval, on which the
organism is reinforced after the
lapse of varied periods of time. The
tendency of a previously acquired
response to become progressively
weakened upon
Psychology of Learning
WEEK 4
Applying Behaviorist Principles
to Classroom Management
A. Creating a productive classroom
climate
 Students should experience
academic tasks in contexts that
elicit pleasant emotions-feelings
such as enjoyment, enthusiasm
and excitement rather than in
context that elicit anxiety,
disappointment and anger.       
B. Myths and misconceptions about
reinforcement and punishment
 Reinforcement is bribery
 Reinforcement leads to
dependence on concrete, external
rewards for appropriate behavior
 Reinforcing one student for being
good teaches other students to be
bad
 Punishment reduces self-esteem
 Eliminating a problem behavior
does not eliminate the underlying
cause of the behavior
C. Using reinforcement to increase
productive behavior
 Specify desired behavior up front
 Identify consequences that are
truly reinforcing for each learner
 Make sure that learners will gain
more than they lose by changing
behavior
 Explicitly describe response-
consequence contingencies
 Administer reinforcement
consistently
 Gradually shape complex behavior
 Use objective criteria to monitor
progress
 Foster the ability to delay
gratifications
D. Strategies for reducing
undesirable behavior
1. Extinguishing responses
 Make sure that a particular
response no longer leads to
reinforcement.
2. Presenting noncontingent
reinforcement
   Some researchers have found
that presenting desired
consequences noncontingently-for
instance, giving attention at
unpredictable times or providing
breaks from difficult tasks can lead
to decrease in inappropriate
behavior.
3. Reducing Other Behaviors
   Rather than using non-contingent
reinforcement, a teacher or
therapist might identify specific
behaviors that will be reinforce
while also making sure that the
behavior to be eliminated isn`t
reinforced.
E. Using Punishment
   Inform learners ahead of time
about what behaviors will be
punished
   Describe undesirable behaviors
in clear, concrete terms
   Whenever possible, administer
punishment immediately after the
inappropriate behavior
   Explain why the behavior is
unacceptable
   Administer punishment within the
context of a generally warm,
supportive environment
   Be consistent in administering
punishment
   Modify the environment so that
misbehavior will be less likely to
occur
   Teach and reinforce more
appropriate behavior
   Choose a punishment that is truly
punishing without being overly
severe
 
II. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
A. What is Applied Behavior Analysis
(ABA)
 It is based on the assumption that
serious problem behaviors are,
like most human behaviors, the
result of past and present
response-consequence
contingencies.
 It involves the application of the
variety of behavioral concepts
including reinforcement, shaping,
cueing, extinction and punishment.
 Often used in education and
therapy for students with special
needs.
B. Frequently used ABA Strategies
1. Behavior that focus on an intervention
is identified in observable measurable
terms.
2. Target behaviors are measured both
before and during interventions.
3. Environmental conditions that are
possibly encouraging problem behavior
are identified.
   Antecedent - stimuli and events
that the person encounter
   Behaviors -  response that the
person subsequently made
   Consequences - stimuli and
events that immediately follow the
behaviors
4. Specific intervention or treatment plan
is developed and implemented.
5. The treatment is monitored for
effectiveness as it progresses and it`s
modified if necessary.
6. Measures are taken to promote
generalizations of newly acquired
behavior.
7. Treatment is phased out after the
desired behavior is acquired.
C. Using ABA with large groups proceeding to the subsequent
lesson.
1. Group Contingency
4. School assessment practices
   Entire groups must perform a
desired behavior in order for    Backward design - a planning of
reinforcement to occur. one and more end-of-instruction
assessment precedes rather than
2. Token Economy
follows instructional planning
   Individuals who behave
   Formative Assessment -  an
appropriately are reinforced with
ongoing, flexible, and more
token reinforcers –perhaps play
informal diagnostic tool
money, points or checkmarks that
can be traded for backup    Summative Assessment -
reinforcers, which are the objects conducted at the end of instruction
or privileges of each person`s to determine what students have
choice ultimately learned
3. Schoolwide Positive Behavior
Support
D. Implications of behaviorism for
classroom instruction and
assessment
1. Identifying instructional goals and
objectives
   It focusses on specific
information and skills away from
information and skills that are not
identified.
2. Programed instruction and computer
assisted instruction
   It is a method of presenting new
subject matters to students in a
graded sequence of controlled
steps.
3. Mastery Learning
   An approach to instruction in
which students are required to
learn the material in a lesson to a
high level of proficiency before

Psychology of Learning
WEEK 5
- Bandura's Social Cognitive
Theory
I. Principles of Social Cognitive Theory
1. It takes an agentic perspective, which
means that humans have some limited ability
to control their lives.
2. It recognizes that chance encounters and
fortuitous events often shape one's behavior.
3. It places more emphasis on observational
learning;
4. It stresses the importance of cognitive
factors in learning;
5. It suggests that human activity is a function
of behavior and person variables, as well as
the environment
6. It believes that reinforcement is mediated by
cognition.
II. Biography of Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura was born in Canada in 1925,
but he has spent his entire professional life in
the United States. He completed a Ph.D. in
clinical psychology at the University of Iowa in
1951 and since then has worked almost
entirely at Stanford University, where he
continues to be the most active of all
personality theorists in investigating his own
hypotheses.
III. Human Agency
Bandura believes that human agency is the
essence of humanness; that is, humans are
defined by their ability to organize, regulate,
and enact behaviors that they believe will
produce desirable consequences. Human
agency has four core features:
1. Intentionality, or a proactive commitment to
actions that may bring about desired outcomes
2. Foresight, or the ability to set goals
3. Self-reactiveness, which includes people
monitoring their progress toward fulfilling their
choices
4. Self-reflectiveness, which allows people to
think about and evaluate their motives, values,
and life goals.
IV. Reciprocal Determinism
Social cognitive theory holds that human
functioning is molded by the reciprocal
interaction of:
1. Behavior
2. Person variables, including cognition
3. Environmental events
V. Chance Encounters and Fortuitous
Events
The lives of many people have been
fundamentally changed by a chance meeting
with another person or by a fortuitous,
unexpected event. Chance encounters and
fortuitous events enter the reciprocal
determinism paradigm at the environment
point, after which they influence behavior in
much the same way as do planned events.
VI. Self-System
The self-system gives some consistency to
personality by allowing people to observe and
symbolize their own behavior and to evaluate it
on the basis of anticipated future
consequences. The self-system includes both
self-efficacy and self-regulation.
A. Self-Efficacy
a. Their beliefs that they can or cannot
exercise those behaviors necessary to bring
about a desired consequence.
b. Efficacy expectations differ from outcome
expectations, which refer to people's prediction
of the likely consequences of their behavior.
c. Self-efficacy combines with environmental
variables, previous behaviors, and other
personal variables to predict behavior
d. High self-efficacy and a responsive
environment are the best predictors of
successful outcomes.
e. It is acquired, enhanced, or decreased by 2. Enactive Learning - Learning by doing and is
any one or combination of four sources: reinforced by the consequences of
 mastery experiences or performance, actions/outcomes.
 social modeling, or observing someone of
3, Vicarious Learning - Learning by observing
equal ability succeed or fail at a task;
others.
 social persuasion, or listening to a trusted
person's encouraging words;
 physical and emotional states, such as
anxiety or fear, which usually lowers self-
efficacy.

B. Self-Regulation
It involves controlling one's behavior, emotions,
and thoughts in the pursuit of longterm goals.
VII. Learning
People learn through observing others and by
attending to the consequences of their own
actions. Although Bandura believes that
reinforcement aids learning, he contends that
people can learn in the absence of
reinforcement and even of a response.
1. Observational Learning - The heart of
observational learning is modeling, which is
more than simple imitation, because it involves
adding and subtracting from observed
behavior. At least three principles influence
modeling:
a. People are most likely to model high-status
people
b. People who lack skill, power, or status are
most likely to model
c. People tend to model behavior that they see
as being rewarding to the model
Bandura recognized four processes that
govern observational learning:
a. Attention, or noticing what a model does
b. Representation, or symbolically representing
new response patterns in memory
c. Behavior production, or producing the
behavior that one observes
d. Motivation; that is, the observer must be
motivated to perform the observed behavior