CELL-THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

CELL–THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Introduction :
Cell is a basic unit of life and It is considered as stuctural and functional unit of an organism. Robert
Hooke (1665) discovered cell. He first observed the cell in a piece of dead cork cells. He described cell
in his book “Micrographia”.
Leeuwenhoek (1674) first obseved animal cell and used the term “Animalcule” for it.
The study of cell stucture is called cytology. The study of cell sturcture, function & Reproduction is called
Cell biology.
Term ‘cytology’ was coined by ‘Hertwig’ who wrote a book entitled ‘cells & tissues’. Robert hook is
known as ‘father of cytology’.
Swanson is called the ‘Father of modern cytology’
According of Dutrochet (1824) ‘Cell is the basic unit of life’. He believed in individuality of cells.
Lamarck stated that all living beings are formed of cells.
Loewy and seekevitz (1963) defined cell as the unit of biological actvity delimited by a selective perme-
able membrane and capable of self reproduction in a medium free from other living systems.
Cell Theory :
Malthias Schleiden (German botanist) and schwann (German Zoologist) jointly proposed cell theory
in 1839.
Its main features are as follows
(i) All living organisms consist of cells and their products.
(ii) All cells are structurally and metabolically similar.
(iii) Cells perform Vital activities of an organism.
(iv) Each cell is unit of heredity.
(v) New cell arises from pre existing cells “Omnis cellulae cellula”. It is called cell lineage theory.
This concept was given by Rudolph virchow (1855).
Objections :
(1) Bacteria and cyanobacteria do not bear nucleus and membrane bound cell organelles.
(2) Viruses are acellular and do not contain cellular machinery.
(3) RBCs and sieve tube cells live without nucleus.
(4) Protozoans and many thallophytes have a uninucleate differentiated body that cannot be divided into
cells. They are acellular.
Modern cell theory :

It is also known as cell doctrine or cell principle.
(1) All living organisms are made up of cells having protoplasm, nucleus, organelles and a covering
membranes.
(2) Functions of living organisms are the sum total of the activities of their cells.
(3) Cell can survive independantly but organelles cannot do so.
(4) Any cell arises from pre-existing cell.
(5) It is unit of structure, function and heredity.
(6) Life exist in cells.
(7) Growth of an organism is due to increase in size and number of cells.
Types of cells :
(1) Undifferentiated cells – Also called stem cells. They are unspecialised and usually possess power of
division. eg- root and shoot apices, vascular cambium, cork cambium, skin cells, germinal epithelium,
bone marrow, cells of zygote etc.
(2) Differentiated cells – Also called as Post mitotic cells. They are specialized to perform special function
and cell division is absent.
NEET_ Cell Biology Page -1

(3) Dedifferentiated cells – Actually they are specialized cells but lose their specialization and induce
division. It helps in healing of wounds, regeneration in animals or vegetative propagation in plants, cell
culture experiments.
Cell - An open system :
An open system is one which is separated from its surroundings by a boundary that allows transfer of
material in and out of the cells. Cell is an open system because it recieves a number of materials & energy
from outside and liberates energy as heat.
Cell Organisation : On the basis of nucleus, Dougherty (1957) recognised two types of cellular
organisation these are prokaryotic and Eukaryotic.
Dodge (1964) recognised mesocaryotic organisation in dinoflagellates.

ULTRA STRUCTURE OF ANIMAL CELL

Prokaryotic Cell – Cell that bears naked genetic material i.e. nucleus is without envelop is known as
prokaryotic cell. This group is represented by bacteria, blue green algae, mycoplasma.
They have following characters :-
(i) Like eukaryotic cells, they are different in shape and size but small than eukaryotes & divide rapidly.
(ii) Naked genetic material is called genophore / Nucleiod
(iii) Genomic DNA is circular & termed as single chromosome.
(iv) Beside genomic DNA, small circular DNA is also present in many bacteria called plasmid which make
them antibiotic resistant & also responsible for bacterial transformation.
(v) Prokaryotic cell envelope consists of three layers–outer glycocalyx, middle cell wall and innermost cell
membrane.
(vi) If these envelopes are stained by Gram stain then they are called Gram positive bacteria while other
those don’t have are called Gram negative bacteria.
(vii) Glycocalyx, a polysacchride envelope forms either loose sheath slime layer or thick and tough
structure capsule.
(viii) Plasma membrane extensions like vesicles, tubules and lamellae not only help in cell wall formation,
DNA replication, secretion, increase in surface area but also form some specific structure for specific
function like mesosome for respiration (analogous to mitochondria) and chromatophore for
photosynthesis (analogous to chloroplast).
(ix) Cell wall form some filamentous extensions called flagellum. It consists of filament, hook & basal body
and helps in locomotion.
(x) Besides flagella, Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the bacteria but do not play a role in
motility. The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein. The fimbriae are small bristle
like fibres sprouting out of the cell that provides attachment to substratum or host tissue.
Point of Remember :
(1) Virus is acellular and connecting link between living and non living.
(2) Smallest procarytoic cell–Mycoplasma laidlawii (0.1 -0.3 m)
(3) Largest unicellular Eukaryotic cell - Acetabularia alga - (10cm).
(4) Smallest unicellular Eukaryotic (plant) Cell– Chlamydomonas.
(5) Smallest unicellular Eukaryotic (animal) Cell– Plasmodium (2 m).
(6) Longest animal cell –Human nerve cell (90cm).
(7) Longest plant cell –Ramie (Boehmaria)–55cm, jute fibre–30–90cm, hemp–1metre.
(8) Largest cell–Ostrich egg cell (170mm×150mm)
(9) Small cell has higher surface volume ratio than the larger cell.

Cell wall :
It was first studied by Robert Hooke in cork cells.
It is outer most dead covering around plant cell. That is secreted by cytoplasm/(Protoplasm).
It is found in plant cells fungi, prokaryotes like bacteria and cyanobacteria, few protists. It is absent in
Animals, Mycoplasma.
Structure of the cell wall :

The diameter of cell wall varies from 0.1–10 m.
In plant cell it is usually composed of cellulose. but in bacteria & BGA it is composed of peptidoglycan
& DAPA. In fungi it consists of chitin.
A cell wall contains (a) matrix (b) fibrils (c) depositions
Chemical Compostion of cell wall :

Matrix : Water–60%. Hemicellulose–5–15%. Pectic Substances–2–8%. Lipids–0.5–3.0%. Proteins–1–2%
Microfibrils : Cellulose / fungus cellulose–10–15%.Other depostions 0.025%. Cellulose is a main component
of cell wall.
The cell wall is formed of following layers
(i) Middle Lamella (ii) Primary wall (iii) Secondary Wall (iv) Tertiary wall
(i) Middle Lamella :

It is thin amorphous cementing layer for joining of two adjacent plant cells. It is composed of pectin as
calcium and magnesium pectate. It is absent on the outer free surface of cell and plasmodesmata.
Retting of fibres and softening of fruits are due to dissolution of calcium pectate in middle lamella by
pectinase enzyme.
(ii) Primary wall :

It is elastic, permeable, thin, single layered outer most wall layer of plant cell. Its diameter is 0.1–3 m
Cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin contents are roughly in equal amount in primary wall.
Root hairs, parenchymatous cells and meristematic cells are formed of only primary wall.
Its growth takes place by intussusception (Addition of materials with in the existing wall).
(iii) Secondary wall :

It lies inside the primary wall. Its diameter is 3–10 m. Its growth takes place by Accretion (deposition of
materials over the surface of existing structure). It consists of at least three layers–S1, S2, S3, This
wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose & pectin. Number of different materials may be deposited in
the wall.

(a) Lignin : It is formed by polymerisation and dehydrogenation of aldehydes and alcohols of coniferyl
and coumaryl. It reduces the water content of the wall matrix and increases its hardness. The deposi-
tion of lignin on the cell wall is called lignification that provides strengthening to the cell wall.
(b) Suberin : It is fatty substance that makes the wall impermeable. It reduces the transpiration rate in
plants. It is found in the cork and casparian strips of endodermal cells. The deposition of suberin is
called suberisation.
(c) Cutin : It lies as a distinct layer on the outside of the epidermal cell wall. It is fatty substance that
reduces the rate or epidermal or surface transpiration. Other substances may also be deposited in the
cell wall such as silica (Ex: grasses), minerals waxes, tannins, resins, gums.
Differences Betw een Primary and Secondary W alls

S. S.
Primary W all Secondary W all
No. No.
1 It is single layered formed in young 1 It is three or more layered formed when
grow ing cell. the cell has stopped grow ing.
2 Cellulose microfibrils are shorter, 2 Cellulose microfibrils are longer, closely
wavy and loosely arranged. arranged, straight and parallel.
3 Cellulose content is compartively low. 3 Cellulose content is compartively high.
4 Hemicellulose is upto 50%. 4 Hemicellulose is about 25%.
5 Pits are usually absent. 5 Pits are common.
6 It grows by intussusception. 6 It grow s by accretion.
7 Lipid content is 5-10%, protein is 5%. 7 Lipid is absent, protein content is 1% or
less.
Thickenings of cell wall :

(a) Spiral thickenings (b) Annular thickenings (c) Scalariform thickenings
(d) Reticulate thickenings (e) Pitted thickenings
Pits : They represent unthickened areas in the secondary walls of plant cells that occur as depressions. A
pit contains pit chamber and a pit membrane. The latter is composed of primary wall and middle
lamella.
Pits are two types
(a) Simple pits : It bears uniform width of the pit chamber.

(b) Bordered pits : Its chamber is flask:shaped due to overarching of secondary wall on its mouth. Its pit
membrane has thickening of suberin called Torus. In bordered pits the diffusion is regulated by torus and
it functions as a valve. These pits are found abundantly in tracheids of gymnosperms (have maximum
number of bordered pits) and in vessels of angiosperms.
(iv) Tertiary wall : Sometimes innermost layer of the secondary wall is distinct both chemically as well as
in staining properties due to the presence of xylans. It is called tertiary wall e.g tension wood in
gymnosperms.

Point of remember
(1) Plasmodesmata (Strasburger, 1901) : The cytoplasmic bridges between adjacent plant cells are
called plasmodesmata. They contain E.R. tubules called Desmotubules.
(2) Expansin : It is special protein that take part in growth of cell wall by loosing cellulose microfibril and
addition of new cell wall material in the space.
(3) Extensin : This protein connects pectin and hemicellulose.
(4) Cell Coat : In many animals and protistans distinct layer of glycocalyx is found in the outer surface
of cells. It is fibrous and composed of oligosaccharides. It helps in cell recognition, protection etc.
Cell Membrane :
It is outermost covering of the cell that is elastic, living, pliable, hydrophilic and selective permeable
membrane. It is found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
The term Cell Membrane coined by Nageli and Cramer (1855). Plowe (1931) used the term plasmalemma.
Robertson (1959) used the term unit membrane due to similarity in structure and composition in all
membranes.
Structure :
Cell membranes are not visible under optical microscope due to its extreme thinness. It can be observed
in
electron microscope. It appears trilaminar or tripartite layer under electron microscope.
Chemically a cell membrane contains proteins (44–76%), Lipids (20–53%), carbohydrates (1–5%), water
(20%). DNA, RNA are absent.
Proteins are globular in nature including structural, enzymatic, carrier, permease and receptor proteins.
Lipid are usually phospholipids (55% of total Lipids) that are amphiatic / amphipathic containing
polar hydrophilic heads and nonpolar hydrophobic tails. Other lipids present in cell membranes are
cholesterol, cerebrosides, gangliosides and sphingomyelins. Cholesterol provides regidity and stability to
the cell membrane.
Carbohydrates of cell membranes are small unbranched or branched chains of oligosaccharides. They
combine with both lipids and protein molecules on outer surface of the membrane and form glycolipids
and glycoproteins respectively.
Model of cell membrane :

(i) Lipid Model : Firstly, structure of cell membrane was studied by Overton (1885) and postulated that
cell membrane is composed of a continous layer of lipid material.
Gorter and grandel studied erythrocyte empties and stated that cell membrane is composed of Lipid
bilayer only.
(ii) Lamellar or sandwitch model : Plasma membrane bears both Lipids and protein in distinct layers.
(a) Danieli and Davson Model : According to this model plasma membrane is trilaminar in which double
phospholipid layer is sandwitched in between two layers of globular proteins (P:L:L:P). The lipid
bilayer is 35 Aº thick whereas each layer of protein is 20Aº thick thus plasmamembrane is 75Aº
thick.

(b) Unit membrane model : It was proposed by Robertson (1959). He stated that lipid bilayer is surrounded
by extended - protein. He gave unit membrane concept.
All these models are unable to explain the selective permeability and elasticity of plasma
membrane.
(iii) Fluid mosaic model : It was proposed by Singer and Nicholson (1972). It is most recognized model
for plasma membrane. they stated that plasmamembrane contains lipid bilayer in which protein are
found on both outer and inner side to form mosaic pattern. Thus they described it as protein ice-
bergs in sea of lipids.
(A) Lipid : Central viscous gel like, Lipid bilayer is quasifluid and composed of phospholipids that provide
fluidity. lipid provide elasticity and stability to the plasma membrane.
(B) Protein : Proteins are of two types.
(a) External or extrinsic proteins :
It is peripheral protein (30% of total protein). It can be easily removed Ex: Spectrin in RBC, ATPase.
(b) Integral or intrinsic proteins :

It is about 70% of total protein. These can not be separated easily. Ex : Cytochrome oxidase. They
may function as carriers, permeases, enzymes, receptors. Some large globular intrinsic proteins pass as
a helix into the lipid bilayer from outside to inside to form tunnel proteins or transmembrane proteins.
The latter act as channels for passage of water soluble materials and water.
The plasma membrane is asymmetric due to oligosaccharides which form glycolipids & glycoprotein
alongwith lipids & proteins respectively. Both glycolipids & glycoproteins form glycocalyx. Oligosaccha-
ride part in glycocalyx acts as recognition centre, site for attachment and provides antigen specificity to
cell membranes, blood grouping, immune response and matching of tissues in transplantation of organs.
Lipid molecules show flip flop movement (transverse diffusion or can move from one side to the other
side across the membrane). This type of movement is absent in protein molecules.

Special points of cell membrane :
(i) Phospholipid usually show exchange of molecule from one monolayer to the monolayer of other side it
is called as flip-flop movement
(ii) Through ESR (electro spin resonance), it is revealed that flip-flop mechanism is absent in protein
molucules
(iii) Protein & lipid both can show rotetional & lateral diffusion in membrane
(iv) Eukaryotic plasma membrane contains cholesterol but in prokaryotes hopanoides are present instead
of it
(v) Spectrin, a helical extrinsic protein used to attach with intrinsic protein at the inner side of membrane &
make cytoskeleton with microtubule & microfilament
(vi) Porins the intrinsic protein found in the outer mitochondrial & bactrial membrane
(vii) Permease, translocase etc. act as carriers for the transport of materials.
(viii) Cell membrane is diffrential permeable.
(ix) Glycoproteins & glycolipids provide antigen specificity eg. RBC antigen, fertilizin- antifertilizin reac-
tion
(x) lipid provide fluidity, elasticity and stability & make growth, formation of cell junctions, cell division and
endocytosis possible.
(xi) Fat soluble substances can channelise directly across lipid layer
(xii) Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion along the concen-
tration gradient, i.e., from higher concentration to the lower.
(xiii) Water may also move across this membrane from higher to lower concentration. Movement of water
by diffusion is called osmosis.
(xiv) The polar molecules cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid bilayer, they require a carrier protein of
the membrane to facilitate their transport across the membrane called as facilitate diffusion.
(xv) Some ions or molecules are transported across the membrane against their concentration gradient,
i.e., from lower to the higher concentration. Such a transport is an energy dependent process, in which
ATP is utilised and is called active transport, e.g., Na+/K+ Pump.
Modification of cell membrane

(1) Microvilli :
They are finger like evagination (.6 – .8 m in length) found on cell surface also called as brush border.
they helps in absorption such as intestinal cells, hepatic cells, uriniferous tubules. In intestinal epithelium
microvilli are very large (approx - 3000 per cell). They also increases the surface area having web of micro
filaments, actin, myosin, spectrin etc.
(2) Endocytic Vesicles :
They are infolding of membranes for taking fluid and solid pieces by the formation of Pinosomes and
phagosomes.
(3) Sheaths :
Plasma membrane grows over cilia and flagella form sheaths.
Cell junctions :
These are modifications of cells membrane & found mostly in animal cells. These occur as cementing
material called adherens, fusion called occludens, strip around the cells called zonula, spot called
macula. Few common cell junctions are as follow.
(i) Desmosomes (maculae adherens) : These are welded areas between adjacent cells containing
intercellular thickening materials, transmembrane linkers with tonofibrils. Ex: stratified squamous
epithelium.
If intercellular thickening is found on one side, it is called Hemidesmosomes.
(ii) Gap junctions (maculae occludentes or Nexus) : They bear hydrophilic intercellular channels
(formed by special protein cylinders or connexons) for the passage of substances. Ex: heart wall.
(iii) Tight junctions (Zonulae Occludentes) : Plasma membrane of two cells fused to form occluding
junctions, Ex: epithelial cells, brain cells.
(iv) Terminal Bars (Zonulae Adherentes) : Desmosomes without tonofibrils in which discoid thickenings
are replaced by bands of microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
(v) Interdigitations : These are formed by infoldings of two adjacent membranes at place of contact
Ex: epithelial cells.

Functions of plasma membrane :
Membrane Transport :
Cell membrane is considered as selective permeable membrane. Passage of substances across
biomembranes occur by following methods.
(I) Passive Transport : It involves following methods (i) Diffusion (ii) Osmosis (iii) Facilitated diffusion
(II) Active transport : In this method, movement of substances occur against their concentration gradient
by consuming ATP. It can be done by Na+- K+ exchange pump.
(III) Bulk transport : It take place by two methods.
(i) Endocytosis : The inward transport of material by means of carrier vesicles is called endocytosis. it
includes two types.
(a) Pinocytosis or Potocytosis (Cell Drinking) : Intake of fluid substances by plasmalemma in the form
of vesicles (Pinosome) is called pinocytosis.
(b) Phagocytosis (Cell eating) : Intake of solid food substances by plasmalemma in the form of vesicles
(Phagosome) is called phagocytosis.
(ii) Exocytosis (Cell vomitting or emiocytosis) : It is reverse of endocytosis in which waste materials
are removed from the cell. It involves reverse pinocytosis.
Point of remember
(1) Microvilli : Finger like projections of plasma membrane that increase surface area of cells for
absorption.
(2) Mesosomes : These are infoldings of cell membrane in gram (+)ve bacteria. They help in
respiration, septum formation, separation of replicated DNA.
Cytoplasm :
It lies between the nucleus and cell membrane. The term Cytoplasm coined by Strasburger (1882). It
includes two parts.
(1) Cytosol / Hyaloplasm / Ground plasm : Liquid part of cytoplasm except cell organelles
Cytoplasmica matrix or cytosol : It can exist in sol and gel state called plasmasol and plasma gel.
Plasmagel present towards peripheri called ectoplast and plasma sol is internal called endoplast. Matrix
is made up of crystallo-colloidal solution(true solution+colloidal solution).
Functions :
(1) Matrix provides raw-material to organelles for their functioning.
(2) Organelles change their material through cytoplasmic matrix.
(3) Product of cell organelles are passed out into matrix.
(4) Matrix synthesizes various substances like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, nucleotides etc.
(5) Various processes occur in cytoplasmic matrix like glycolysis, pentose pathway and anaerobic
respiration.
(6) It is always in motion to circulate the material inside the cells.
Cytoplasmic streaming : It is also called as protoplasmic streaming or cyclosis occur in eukaryotic
cells. It is of 2 types.
(1) Rotation : Matrix continuously moves in one direction around large central vacuole eg- Hydrilla
leaves.
(2) Circulation : Matrix moves in different directions around different vacuoles of the cell. eg- Staminal
hair of tradescantia.
Function :
(1) Help in movement of organelle such as chloroplast in relation to light intensity.
(2) Distribution of various substances and food vacuole in Amoeba.
(3) Formation of pseudopodia in Amoeba and in repair of membrane and in heat distribution.
(4) Trophoplasm : It involves cell organelles and cell inclusions.
Cell Inclusions :
They are non living substances also known as ergastic bodies. They are of three types–
(1) Reserve food : It includes starch, glycogen, fat droplets and aleuron grains.

(i) Starch grains : They are insoluble found in chloroplast and amyloplasts of plant cells. They are simple
(occur singly) and compund (two or more than two) eg- Rice, Oat, Each starch grain has a central
proteinaceous area called hilum surrounded by starchy layer. It may be concentric or ecentric.
(ii) Glycogen granules : Granules are oval, circular or flattened found in animal cell near to SER inside
the liver and muscle cells. They stain red with iodine.
(iii) Fat droplets : Found in animal cells (in adipocytes) and in plant cells (in endosperm of castor, coconut
and in cotyledons of peanuts, mustard).
(iv) Aleurone Grains : They are storage proteins found in aleuroplast. They are (1) amorphous (2) protein
matrix having crystalloid eg. outer layer of endosperm of maize, barley (3) Globoidal protein matrix (4)
Both crystalloidal and globoidal matrix of endosperm of castor seeds.
(2) Excretory or secretory products : Mucus in several animal cells, essential oils, alkaloids, resins,
gums, tanins, latex etc. Melanins (brownish or blackish) secreted by melanop and lipochromes (or-
ange, yellow or red coloured) by lipopheres.
(3) Mineral matter : Silica found in epidermal cells of grasses. Calcium Carbonate crystals (cystolith)
found in epidermal cells of momordica, hypodermal leaf cells of Banyan.
Calcium oxalate occurs in the form of powdery mass (crystal sand) in atropa, star shaped sphaerophide
in Colocasia, Begonia, Chenopodium prismatic crystals in dry scales of Onion, needle shaped raphides
in lemna, Eichhornia.
Cell Organelles :
(1) Plastids :
These are double membraned, DNA containing largest organelles in plant cells. They disovered by
Haeckel (1865). They are of three types.
(i) Leucoplasts (ii) Chromoplasts (iii) Chloroplasts
(i) Leucoplasts : Colourless, Largest plastids. They classified on the basis of stored material
(a) Amyloplasts : They store carbohydrates in the form of starch.
(b) Aleuroplasts or Proteinoplasts : They store proteins.
(c) Elaioplasts : They store oil or fats.
(ii) Chromoplasts : They are coloured plastids those have fat soluble carotenoids. eg- carotene in carrot,
red pigments in tomato & chillies (lycopene), attractive colour to flowers, fruits, seeds.
(iii) Chloroplasts (Schimper) :
Chloroplast is a double membraned, self replicating, DNA containing, oxidative, energy transducing, semiau
tonomous largest organelle of cell. It is also called autoplasts or photosynthetic apparatus or Kitchen
of cell.
Number : A green Mesophyll cell of leaf of an Angiosperm has 20–40 chloroplasts.

Size :
its size is 4–6 m × 2–4 m
Shape :
Structure of Chloroplast :
Each chloroplast contains three parts
(i) Envelope (ii) Stroma (iii) Lamellar system
(i) Envelope :
It contains two lipoprotein unit membranes. The diameter of each membrane is 90–100Å. 100–200Å broad
space lies between these two membranes. It is called periplastidial space.Outer membranes freely permeable
and whereas inner membrane is selective permeable.
(ii) Stroma (Matrix) :

It is highly proteinaceous. It has double stranded circular DNA (0.5% that is rich in G - C ratio &
discovered by Ris and Plaut) called cp-DNA or plastidome. Other components are RNA (2–3%),
plastoglobules (fat globules), 70s ribosomes, proteins (50–60%), lipids (25–30%), chlorophyll (5–10%),
carotenoids (1–2%), minerals (Fe, Cu, Mg, Mn, Zn, Co) and enzymes of dark reaction of photosynthesis.
Rubisco is the most abundant enzyme on the earth. It forms 16% protein of the chloroplast.
(iii) Lamellar system :

It is composed of double membrane bounded tubular sacs called thylakoids or baggy trousers (term
coined by Menke (1962).Thylakoids are structural units of chloroplast. These (2–100) thylakoids are
stacked to form granum. Each chloroplast has 40–60 grana. The latter is absent in the chloroplasts of
algae and bundle sheath chloroplasts of C4 plants. These chloroplasts are called Agranal chloroplasts.Two
grana are inter connected by long tube structure called fret lamellae (stroma lamellae).
Inner membrane of thylakoid contains Quantasomes (Discovered by Park and Biggins) or
photosynthetic functional units. Each of them consists of 230 chlorophyll molecules (160 chl a + 70
chl b) and about 50 carotenoid molecules.
Chloroplast is considered as semi autonomous cell organelle due to presence of DNA , RNA, 70s
ribosomes and proteins synthesis systems.
Origin : All types of plastids have common origin from proplastids (sac like non:lamellar structures).

Point of remember
(1) All the three types of plastids are interchangeable but chromoplasts do not change to
other plastids.
(2) Etioplasts : In the absence of light these plastids occur.
(2) Mitochondria :
Mitochondria first observed in striated flight muscles of insect as granular structure by Kolliker (1880).
Altman (1890) gave its detailed description and called bioblasts .The term mitochondria used by Benda (1897).
Meves (1904) observed mitochondria in Nymphaea plant. Seekevitz called them power house of cell.
Mitochondria is stained by janus green B
Shape & size :

Saucer and oval are two common shapes of mitochondria. Size of mitochondria is 1–10 m x 0.5-2 m.
Number :
Structure of Mitochondria :
Mitochondria is double membraned cell organelle. The diameter of each membrane is 60–75Aº and
separated by 80–100Aº broad space that is called perimitochondrial space (Outer chamber).
Inner membrane is folded to form cristae (palade 1952) that increase surface area. Shape of cristae is
finger like in plants, plate like in fungi, vesicular in Euglena. Outer surface of inner membrane is called
C- face whereas inner surface called M-face.
The inner membrane and cristae bear electron transport chain and tennis racket like particles called
Oxysomes or Elementary particles. or F0–F1 particles or ETP (Electron transport particles) or
ATPase particles or Fernandez and Moran particles. The latter are 104–105 in number. F0–F1 particles
extracted by Racker (1967) hence they are also called Racker’s particles. These are considered as
functional unit of mitochondria and they are the site of oxidative phophorylation. Head part of Oxysomes
contains ATPase ( ATP synthase ) enzymes for oxidative phophorylation.

Mitochondrial matrix is found in inner chamber. The former contains double stranded naked, circular, 5
long prokaryotic DNA (mt-DNA That is rich in G–C ratio), 70S ribosomes ( 55S ribosomes in mitochon-
dria of mammals), RNA (5-7%) hence mitochondria considered as semi autonomous cell organelles.
Other components of matrix includes protein (60–70%) lipids (25–35%) 70 types of enyzmes. 70% of
total enzymes of cell are found in mitochondria.
The circular mt DNA is 1% of total DNA of cell and discovered by Nass and Margit (1963).
Origin : They have originated from the symbiosis of a prokaryotic organism (aerobic bacteria) with a
host cell that was anaerobic and derived its energy only from glycolysis (Endosymbiotic hypothesis).
Functions of mitochondria :
(i) Most of the ATP are produced by mitochondria during respiration. These ATP are required for
performing various metabolic activities. Thus mitochondria is called power house of cell.
(ii) Enzymes of krebs cycle, fattly acids synthesis, amino acids synthesis are found in matrix.
(iii) The gene for male sterility in maize plants is found in mt DNA. thus it helps in cytoplasmic
inheritance.
(iv) Mitochondria help in Vitellogenesis in oocytes.
(v) Heme protein required for haemoglobin, cytochrome and myoglobin is synthesized in
mitochondria.
Point of remember
(1) All mitochondria of a cell are called chondriome.

(2) Enzymes like succinic dehydrogenase, ATPase and cytochrome oxidase are found in inner
membrane of mitochondria.
(3) Mitochondria are rich in Manganese (Mn).
(4) In bacteria the Mesosomes bear enzymes of aerobic respiration hence these are called Chondrioid.
Thus Mesosome and Mitochondria are analogous organelles.
(5) When ATP concentration is low or the respiratory chain is inhibited the mitochondria are in inactive
or orthodox state. Under this state matrix of the mitochondria occupies a larger area and outer
chamber is narrow. In an active or the condensed state, mitochondria are actively participated in
ATP synthesis/electron transport, the cristae are more randomly distributed and matrix is reduced
and outer chamber is quite large.
(6) If outer membrane of mitochondria is removed then it is called as mitoplast.
Endomembranous System :
Many membraneous cell organelles are co-ordinated in their functions like ER, GB, Lysosome and vacuole
so they are considered together as endo membranous system.

3. Enodoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) :
Garnier firstly observed it as Ergestoplasm.
It was discovered by Porter and Thompson (1945) and the name Enodoplasmic Reticulum coined by
Porter.
It is 3-dimensional and interconnected system of membrane-lined channels that run through the cyto-
plasm.
It is found in plasmodesmata in the form of desmotubules.
Structure of E.R. :
The membrane of endoplasmic reticulum is 50–60 Aº thick.
E.R. is found in three forms

(i) Cisternae : They are flat interconnected sac-like structures. The diameter of each cisternae is
40–50 nm.
(ii) Vesicles : These are oval or rounded sacs and diameter of each vesicle is 25–500 nm.
(iii) Tubules : They are tube like extensions that connect cisternae and vesicles. Diameter of each tubule
is 50–100 nm.
Enzymes of E.R. : NADH-Cytochrome C-reductase, glucose - 6 - phosphatase, Nucleotide diphosphatase,
Mg++ activated ATPase, Cytochrome b5, cytochrome P450, cytochrome P448.
Types of Endoplasmic reticulum :

On the basis of nature of its membranes, endoplasmic reticulum is of two types.
(i) RER – Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ii) SER – Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Functions of E.R. :
(i) It acts as cytoskeleton. It provides mechanical support to the colloidal cytoplasmic matrix.
(ii) It helps in quick intracellular transport.
(iii) It takes part in the formation of nuclear envelope after telophase.
(iv) SER takes part in detoxification of toxic chemicals with the help of cytochrome P 450.
(v) It provides membranes to Golgi apparatus for the formation of vesicles and lysosomes.
(vi) RER provides site for the protein synthesis, because it has ribosomes on its suface.
(vii) It provides a large surface inside the cell for various physiological activities.
(viii) SER synthesize Lipids (phospholipids, chlolesterol), sterols and steroid hormones , visual pigments
from vitamin A in retinal cells, Glycogen.
Point of remember
(1) Microsomes : They are fragments of RER that are obtained by high speed centrifugation and
Fragementation of cell.
(2) Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (S.R.) : SER that occur in skeletal and cardiac muscles are called SR. It
strores Ca++ for release during muscles contraction.
(3) Nissl granules : RER of nerves cells are called nissl granules.
(4) GERL : Golgi associated ER from which lysosomes arise
4. Golgi Complex :
It was first observed by George (1867) but the credit of discovery was given to the Camillo Golgi (1898).
He discovered it in the cytoplasm of nerve cells of cerebrum of barn owl and cat and named it internal
reticular apparatus.
Cajal (1914) used the term golgi bodies. Dalton and Felix (1954) studied its structure under electron
microscope. It is extremely pleomorphic as its shape and form vary in cells.
Golgi complex is also Known as Dictyosome (plant golgi body), Lipochondria (Rich in lipids), traffic
police of cell, Idiosome, Baker’s body, Dalton complex, Golgisome, export house/middle man of
cell. A plant cell has 10–20 dictyosomes.
Structure of Golgi complex :

The shape and size of Golgi complex depend upon the physiological state of the cells. The diameter is
0.5–1 m in a typical plant dictyosome.
Structurally golgi complex is composed of four parts
1. Cisternae 2. Tubules 3. Vesicles 4. Golgian Vacuoles
1. Cisternae : Golgi complex is madeup of stack of generally 4–8 membrane bound saccules or cister-
nae. in fungi, a dictyosome is unicisternal. Cisternae show asymmetry and polar-two faces. concave or
Distal or maturing trans face is near cell membrane and cis or convex or Proximal or forming (F) face is
towards RER and nuclear membrane.

2. Tubules : They form a complex network towards the periphery and trans face of the Golgi apparatus.
they interconnect the different cisternae.
Cisternae
Fig : Golgi apparatus
3. Vesicles : They are small sacs that arise from tubules. They are of two types smooth and coated. Out of
them smooth vesicles contain secretory substances hence these are called secretory vesicles.
4. Golgian Vacuoles : These are expensions of cisternae at trans face. Some of them act as lysosomes.
Functions :
(i) Secretion : Golgi complex is a centre of reception, finishing, packaging and secreting for a variety of
materials in the cells. After modifications materials are packed in vesicles, the latter are budded off
from maturing face of golgi body and released out side the cell that is called Exocytosis or revevrse
pinocytosis.
(ii) Formation of new cell wall : Pectic compounds of middle lamella and various polysaccharides of the
cell wall are secreted by Golgi complex.
(iii) Glycosidation & Glycosylation : Golgi complex cause glycosidation (addition of oligosaccharides to
phospholipids of membranes) of lipids and glycosylation of protein synthesized on RER to form
glycolipids and glycoproteins.
(iv) Formation of acrosome : Acrosome of sperms is synthesised by Golgi complex during
spermiogenesis.
(v) Formation of Lysosome : Vesicles of Golgi complex and ER take part in the synthesis of primary
lysosomes ( GERL system).
(vi) Vitellogenesis : Golgi complex acts as the centre around which yolk is deposited.
(vii) Root cap cells are rich in Golgi bodies which secrete mucilage for lubrication of root tip.
(viii) Hormones : Production of hormones by endocrine glands is mediated through it.
Origin :
Golgi bodies mainly arise from SER.
5. Lysosomes :
(Suicidal bags or recycling centres or scavenger of cell)
These are smallest single membrane bounded microbodies. Lysosome discovered by De Duve in liver of
rat. Lysosomes observed by Novikoff (1956) under TEM. P. Matile (1964) discovered them in plants like
Neurospora.
Lysosomes are spherical irregular or rod like, filled with 40 types of enzymes that are termed as Acid
hydrolases. These digestive enzymes usually function in acidic medium or pH 4–5. Acidic conditions
are maintained inside the lysosomes by pumping of H+ or of protons into them.

The Lysosomes are absent in prokaryotic cells, RBCs, higher plants. They are abundently found in
phagocytic and secreted cells like WBC, Kupffer’s cells, histocytes, pancreatic cells, liver cells.
It is 15–20 in liver cells. The diamater of lysosome is 0.2–0.8 m.
Types of Lysosomes :
Lysosomes show pleomorphism and are of four types.
(i) Primary lysosomes : These are newly synthesized lysosomes from Golgi complex by GERL system.
They contain inactive enzymes.
(ii) Secondary lysosomes (hetorophagosomes or phagolysosomes) : It is formed by the union of
primary lysosome with food vacuole (Phagosome).
(iii) Tertiary lysosomes (residual bodies or telolysosomes) : After digestion the products are
absorbed in to the cytoplasm. The undigested remains are left in the lysosome. It is called residual
body. This moves to the surface and throws the contents by exocytosis.
(iv) Autophagic vacuoles (Autophagosomes or cytolysosomes) : Complex lysosomes formed by
union of many primary lysosomes around old / dead organelle/cell and digest them. The phenomenon
is also called autophagy or autodigestion. Worn out aged or injured cells are also disposed of similarly
(apoptosis). Hence lysosomes are also called disposal bags. Autophagic vacuoles provide nourish-
ment during starvation.
Functions :
(1) Intracellular Digestion & Extracellular Digestion (2) Body Defense (Heterophagy)
(3) Autophagy (4) Removal of obstructions
(5) Mobilisation of Reserves (6) Cell Division
(7) Autolysis (8) Crinophagy
6. Ribosomes :
(Protein factories) :
Claude (1941) first observed ribosomes and used the term Microsomes for them.
They were discovered by Robinson and Brown (1953) in plant cell and Palade (1955) in animal cell.
Palade coined the term ribosome. These are smallest, naked (membraneless) submicroscopic
ribonucleoproteins particles or palade particles or engine of the cell or protein factories.
Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells except mature RBC and mature sperm.
The number of Ribosomes is 20000–30000 in prokaryotic cell and 104 –105 in eukaryotic cell
Types of ribosomes :
(i) Cytoplasmic ribosomes (ii) Organelle ribosomes
(i) Cytoplasmic ribosomes : In prokaryotes they freely lie in cytoplasm and 70S type whereas in
eukaryotes they are freely attached to ER and nuclear membrane & 80S type.
(ii) Organelle ribosomes : These are found in organelle of eukaryotic cells like mitochondria, plastids,
nucleus.

Size of the ribosomes depends upon sedimentation coefficient in the ultra centrifuge. It is mesured in
Svedberg units (S).
Structure of Ribosomes :
Each ribosome consists of two unequal subunits, larger dome shaped and smaller oblate-ellipsoid.
The larger subunit contains a protuberance, a ridge and a stalk whereas smaller subunit has
platform, cleft, head and base.
The two subunits of 80S ribosomes are 60S and 40S & The two subunits of 70S ribosomes are 50S and
30S. 0.001 M Mg++ concentration is required for the association of two subunits as a result intact ribo-
some is formed.
30S + 50S = 70S
40S + 60S = 80S
If the concentration of Mg++ increased 10 times then two ribosomes fuse to form dimer (70S + 70S = 100S
dimer,80S + 80S = 120S dimer).
Chemical composition of Ribosomes :
Functions :
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. Free ribosomes form structural and enzymatic proteins that
are used inside the cell whereas attached ribosomes forms proteins for transport.
Point of Remember
(1) Chaperons : These are specific proteins that help in folding and transport of proteins into organelles
& are synthesized on ribosomes.
(2) Tsao and sato (1959) reported ribosomes in nucleoplasm.
7. Centrioles :
It is submicroscopic membraneless, cylindrical structure.
The length of each centriole is 500nm (5000Aº) and diameter is 150 nm. (1500Aº).
It was firstly seen by Van Benden. The clear cytoplasm (Zone of exclusion) around centriole is called
centrosphere or kinoplasm or cytocentrum. Both centrioles are commonly called Diplosomes.
T. Boveri (1888) coined the term centrosome or central apparatus for centrioles and centrosphere.
Centrioles are usually found in all the animal cells except Amoeba.

Centrioles are absent in higher plants.
Although centriole is found in those
plants that bear flagellate stage in the
life cycle. Ex: Many green algae,
Bryophytes, pteridophytes, cycads.
Each centr iole is composed of 9
peripheral triplet fibrils of microtubules
but in the central part these are absent.
Thus centriole has 9 + 0 arrangement
of tubules.
The size of each peripheral triplet fibril
is 25nm and It consists of three
subfibrils – C,B, A from outside towards
innerside.
A is spherical or tubular shaped
whereas
B&C are C–shaped. A consists of 13
protofilaments.
A linker connects two peripheral triplet fibrils in such a way that A subfibril of a peripheral triplet fibril is
connected with C sub fibril of adjacent peripheral triplet fibril. This linker is called C–A linker.
In the central part a proteinecious Hub is present . Its diameter is 2·5nm. Nine radial spokes arise from
Hub. The tip of each spoke has a thickening ‘X’ before attachment on ‘A’ subfibril of a periphral triplet fibril.
‘Y’ thickening connects two ‘X’ thickenings the former is also connect at C–A linker by a connective.
The main function of centriole is locomotion and the role of centriole in cell division is secondary function.
Centriole is surrounded by amorphous structures called massules or perecentriolar satellite. Massules
act as nucleating centre for the growth of microtubules during Aster formation. Formation of new centriole
starts in S-phase but completes in G2-Phase of Interphase.
Thus new centriole arises from pre-existing centriole in G2– phase without presence of DNA due to
massules Centrioles take parts in synthesis of Basal bodies, cilia, flagella, spindle poles.
Distal centriole of sperm synthesizes Axial filament of sperm.
Proximal centriole of sperm stimulate cleavage in fertilized egg after fertilization.
Centriole does not bear intracellular compartment.
8. Cilia and Flagella :

The basic structure of cilia and flagella is similar. Structure of cilia or flagella was given by Engleman.
The diameter of cilia or flagella is 0·15 .. Structurally cilia or flagella is composed of four parts.
(a) Basal body :

It is also known as Blepharoplast, Basal granule or kinetosome.
The arrangement of Microtubules is 9 + 0 similar as centriole. It forms cilia and flagella.
(b) Rootlets :
They originate from outer surface of Basal part of cilia or flagella. Each of them consists of Bundles of
Microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the basal body.
(c) Basal plate :

It lies between Basal body and shaft. One subfibril is disappeared from peripheral triplet in this plate.
Two central singlet fibrils originate from basal plate.

(d) Shaft :
It is elongated part composed of three parts.
(i) Covering membrane (Extension of plasmalemma) (ii) Matrix (iii) Axoneme
Axoneme is main part. The length of cilia is 2–10 m and it is about 150 m in flagella.
Cilia or flagella shows 9 + 2 arrangement of tubules (According to Fawcett & porter).
Nine peripheral doublet fibrils are tilted at 10º. Nine peripheral doublet fibrils and two central
singlet fibrils are composed of tubulin protein.
Each peripheral doublet fibril contain subfibrial A & B. B is comparatively broad and A is rounded and
comparatively narrow.
A subfibril has two side arms or lateral arms composed of dynein protein. Out of them outer arm has
hook. Inner arm show ATPase activity. It also generates force for the movement of cilia thus it is
considered as locomotory motor for cilia.
Two peripheral doublet fibrils are connected by A–B linker composed of nexin protein.
A spoke originates from each subfibril A and grows towards central part.
The tip of each spoke is swollen that is called head which is connected with central proteinaceous sheath
by transitional junction.
Cilia and flagella are different in no, length, distribution & function.
Point of Remember
(1) Cilia or flagella are absent in Red algae, Blue green algae or cyanobacteria, Angiosperms,
Pinus, Arthropods.
(2) Cilia or flagella performs power stroke and recovery stroke for locomation .
(3) Cilia or flagella beat at the rate of 10–40 stroke/Sec. In Monas stigmatica (a flagellate protist),
its rate is 260 m/sec. (about 40 cell length / sec.) and in Paramecium it is 1500 m / sec,
(about 12 cell length/sec).
(4) The common term for cilia and flagella is undulipodium.
(5) True cilia are kinocilia where as stereocilia are cilia like structure without basal body.
(6) Flagella are either whiplash type (smooth surface) or Tinsel type (hairy surface). The
microscopic hairs are called flimmers.

Differences between Cilia & Flagella
9. Micorobodies :
These are smallest single membrane bounded organelles that participate in oxidation reactions other than
those of respiration.
(i) Sphaerosomes (Oleosomes) :

They discovered by Perner. They originate from SER. These are abundant in cotyledon and endosperm
of oily seeds. The major function of sphaerosomes is synthesis and storage of fat.
(ii) Peroxisomes (uricosomes) :

They discovered by De duve (1965). They are found in both plant and animal cells. A photosynthetic cell
contains 70–100 peroxisomes. The diameter of peroxisome is 0.5 –1.0 m.
They contains oxidative enzymes like urate oxidase, D-amino acid oxidase, -hydroxy acid oxidase and
-hydroxy acid oxidase. Catalase performs detoxification of H2O2.
In plants, peroxisomes are the site of photorespiration. Peroxisomes also take part in -oxidation of fat.
(iii) Glyoxysomes :
These are largest microbody. These were observed by Breidenbach and Beevers (1967) from en-
dosperm of germinating castor bean seeds. These are common in Neurospora. germinating oily seeds of
castor, groundnut and cucumbers, yeast .
These are the sites of -oxidation of fat and Glyoxylate cycle they are highly specialized peroxisomes.
(iv) Transosomes :
They discovered by Press in ovary follicle cells of Birds (Aves). Transosome is triple layered organelle
that helps in yolk formation.
(v) Lomasomes :
They lie between cell membrane and cell wall & discovered by Moore and maclear (1961) in fungi. They
help in cell proliferation and elongation for diffusion of substances required in cell wall formation.
10. Cytoskeletal structures :

They are non-membranous protein fibres or fine tubular structure that form the supportive network in the
cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cell, these are of three types
(i) Microtubules (ii) Microfilaments (iii) Intermediate filaments

(i) Microtubules : De Robertis and Franchi
(1963) discovered microtubules in axoplasm of
myelinated nerve fibres. The term microtubule
coined by slautterbach.
These are absent in prokaryotes, some

eukaryotic cells like RBC, Slime molds and
Amoeba.
Microtubules are hollow, unbranched, non
contractile tubules.
Diameter of microtubules is 25nm. With 15nm

core. These are formed of helically arranged
protofilaments of and -tubulin protein with
each turn having 13 subunits.
They help in movement of cilia / flagella, poleward

movement of chromosomes in cell division.
microtubules determine plane of future cell plate
formation.
(ii) Microfilaments (Paleviz) : They lie beneath the cell membrane. These are contractile rods or filaments
of globular protein actin which are helically interwined with a diameter of 6 to 10 nm. They take part in
cytoplasmic streaming, membrane undulations, cleavage, sol-gel conversion, contraction of muscles,
movement of microvilli.
(iii) Intermediate filaments :
They are solid, unbranched, tough, non-contractile rope like bundles of proteins in eukaryotic cells & their
diameter is 8–10 nm. They provide stability to cells.
Nucleus :
It was first seen by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek in RBC of salmon fish.
It was discovered by Robert brown (1831) in orchid’s root cell.
J. Hammerling performed grafting experiments involving exchange of nucleus in Acetabularia (Unicellu-

lar green algae) & proved the role of nucleus in heredity, growth, morphogenesis. He proved that
nucleus is the master organelle of the cell.
It is largest extracytoplasmic component of cell that controls morphology, function and heredity.
Occurence : It is found in all eukaryotic cells except mature mammalian Erythrocyte and in mature sieve
tube of higher plant. In prokaryotic cell the nucleus is without distinct nuclear membrane that is called
nucleoid.
Number : Usually single nucleus is found in a cell. In Paramecium two nuclei are present.
multinucleated condition is found in some organisms this contion is called syncytium ( arises due to
fusion of cells) Ex: Ascaris or coenocytic (due to repeated nuclear divisons without cytokinesis) Ex:
Vaucheria, Rhizopus.
Shape and size : The size of Nucleus is 5–25 ..
The size of the nucleus depends on the volume of cell, amount of DNA protein and metabolic activity of
cell. In a cell there is a definite nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio (given by Hertwig).
(Vn )
Nucleocytoplasmic index = (V ) (V ) Vn = Volume of nucleus
c n
Vc=Volume of cell
It is largest components of cell. It is usually spherical shape. It may be oval or elliptical or Disc shaped .

Strucuture of Nucleus :
Nucleus consists of following parts :

(1) Nuclear membrane :
Nucleus is bounded by two envelopes outer and inner membrane. The diameter of each membrane is
60Aº–90Aº. 100Aº–700Aº broad perinuclear space lies between these two membranes.
Ribosomes are present on the outer surface of nuclear membrane.
10% part of nuclear membrane bears pores that are called nuclear pores. The size of pore is
200Å – 800Å.
Pore are of two types (a) simple, (b) complex.
In complex pore bleb / plug / septa / Annulus are present. Annuli and pore jointly form annulated pore
complex that is composed of nine cylinders in which one central cylinder and eight peripheral cylinder are
present.
Pores help in exchange of various substances between cytoplasm & Nucleoplasm.
(2) Nucleoplasm (Karyolymph–Strasburger) :

It is jelly like fluid, Its pH is 7·4 ± 0·2. It is reservoir of Nucleosides, enzyme of DNA and RNA synthesis.
Its peripheral part is dense jelly like fibrous part that lies below nuclear membrane it is called fibrous
lamina or Nuclear lamina (Harris & Porter 1952).
Nuclear lamina provides strength to the nuclear membrane. It also performs reformation of nuclear membrane
during Cell division.
(3) Chromatin network :

It consists of DNP (Deoxyribonucleoprotein). The term chromatin was coined by Walther Flemming.
It is stained by Acetocarmine after that two types of regions are formed.
(i) Euchromatin :
It is light stained, fibrous , uncoiled transcriptionally active DNA that shows high frequency of crossing
over. Its size is 20–30nm.
(ii) Heterochromatin :
It is dark stained tightly coiled, granular, transcriptionally less active that has low frquency of crossing
over size is more than 100nm.

Point of Remember
The terms Euchromatin & hetero chromatin coined by Emil Heitz
The structural and functional unit of chromatin is nucleosome.
(4) Nucleolus :
It was discovered by Fontana, described by Wagner and the term Nucleolus coined by Bowman.
It is absent in RBC, sperm, Yeast, muscle fibres, young embryo cells and Procaryotes.
It is largest part of nucleus (35%) and it is membrane less, dense, DNA free subcellular structure.
Usually 1–4 nucleoli, are found in a nucleus of Diploid cell. At least one nucleolus is found.
1600 nucleoli have been reported in the oocytes of xenopus (An amphibian)
Nucleolus consists of four parts.
(i) Pars amorpha : It is amorphous region rich in RNA polymerase.
(ii) Pars granulosa : Small granules of 150 –200Aº size are present. They are composed of protein and
RNA (ratio 2 : 1).
(iii) Pars fibrosa : The size of fibres is 50–
80Aº They are supposed to be precursor of
granular part.
(iv) Pars chromosoma (Nucleolar chromatin)
It involves two part.
(a) Perinucleolar chromatin : That surrounds
nucleoli.
(b) Intranucleolar chromatin : Perinucleolar
chromatin is embedded at many places in
nucleoli to form it.
Functions of Nucleolus :
(1) It is site of r-RNA synthesis.
(2) It synthesizes ribosomes therefore it is called ribosome factories.
(3) It takes part in the synthesis of spindle during cell division.
Origin :
Nucleolus is connected with NOR (Nucleolar organizer Region) of chromatin. NOR synthesizes nucleo-
lus at the end of cell division.
Point of Remember
1. True nucleolus is called Plasmosome

2. Chemically nucleolus contains 10% rRNA, 5% DNA and 85% non histone proteins.
3. It is believed that Ca++ ions are responsible for the maintenance of organisation of nucleolus.
Functions of Nucleus :
1. It stores genetic information in its DNA molecules that can be passed on the daughter cells.
2. Nucleus controls all metabolic activites of the cell by controlling the synthesis of enzymes.
3. All variations are caused by changes in genetic material present in the nucleus.
4. It helps in cell differentiation by allowing certain particular sets of genes to operate.

5. It directs the synthesis of some structural proteins and chemicals required for cell growth and mainte-
nance with the help of RNA.
Chromosomes :
These were Discoverd by Hofmeister (1848) in pollen mother cells of Tradescantia (=Rhoeodiscolor).
Strasburger (1875) gave detailed description of chromosome. The term chromosome coined by Waldeyer
(1886).
They represent physical basis of inheritance.
Size–Chromosomes are 0.5 –30 m in length and 0.2–3 m diameter.
Plants generally have larger chromsomes than animals and amongst plants, monocots have bigger
chromosomes than dicots.
Sutton and Boveri (1902) proposed chromosome theory of inheritance independently.
During cell division, Dehydration & condensation of chromatin network take place as a result chromatin is
converted into chromosomes.
Metaphagic chromosome has two threads like chromatids that attached to each other by a narrow non-
stainable area called centromere.
On the basis of position of the centromere, chromosomes are of following types.
(i) Metacentric : Centromere is found in middle and at anaphase chromosome is V-shaped.
(ii) Sub-metacentric : The position of the centromere is subcentral. Anaphasic stage L-shaped.
(iii) Acrocentric : The position of the centromere is subterminal. Anaphasic stage J-shaped.
(iv) Telocentric : Centromere terminal, anaphasic stage is I- shaped.
Metaphase stage is best stage to observe size, shape, morphology etc. of chromosomes.

Chemical composition :
DNA–40%, Histone –50%, Non-histone proteins–8.5%, RNA–1.5%, trace amount of Ca ++, Fe++,
Mg++, lipids.
Ultrastructure of Chromosome :
Eukaryotic chromosome contains following parts
(i) Pellicle : Outermost thin covering of chromosome.
(ii) Matrix : It consists of proteins, lipids & RNA in which
chromonemata remain embedded.
(iii) Chromonema : There is two chromonemata (term

coined by Vejdovsky) when chromosome has two
chromotids. Chromonemata is coiled structure. Its coiling
is of two types.
(a) Paranemic : The coils of chromonemeta are easily
separable.
(b) Plectonemic : Coils are not easily separable.
According to Unineme folded fibre model of DuPraw
(1966),There is a single long DNA in each chromosome.
It is coiled & recoiled to give a multifibre look.
According to solenoid model (Finch and klug-1976), DNA with histone forms a beaded string. The
beads are nucleosomes.
(iv) Centromere (Primary constriction) : Narrow non stainable area where two chromatids are joined. The
surface has disc or kinetochore on either side for attachment of microtubules belonging to chromosomal fibre.

(v) Secondary constriction : They are narrow areas of two types. NOR and joints. NOR or nucleolar
organiser region is secondary constriction-I capable of forming nucleolus in telophase. It is
found on chromosome number 13, 14, 15, 20, 21.
Joints or secondary constriction-II are areas involved in breaking and fusion of chromosome segments.
(vi) Satellite (Trabant) : It is knob like part distal to NOR. The chromosome that bears satellite is called
SAT (Sine acid Thymonucleinico) chromosome.
(vii) Telomeres : These are nonsticky terminal ends of chomosome or seal ends of chromosomes. They
prevent the sticking of one chromosome with other. They are rich in Guanine base. Telomerase
enzyme is found in this part of chromosome.
Point of Remember
(1) On the basis of number of centromere , Chromosomes are of following types.

(i) Monocentric : It is common type in which one centromere is present in a chromosome.
(ii) Dicentric : In which two centromeres are present in a chromosome Ex: maize
(iii) Polycentric : Many centromeres Ex: germ line chromosome of Parascaris equorum.
(iv) Acentric : chromosome without centromere.
(2) In human chromosomes are metacentric, submetacentric & Acrocentric. But telocentric
chromosome are absent.
(3) Earlier it was supposed that human somatic cell has 48 chromosomes.
(4) According to Tijo & Levan (1956) the number of chromosomes in each human cell is 46. (22
pair Autosomes & one pair sex chromosomes)
(5) According to Denver system, all autosomes are distinguished on the basis of shape size and
position of centromere and placed in to 7 groups.
(i) Groups A : 1–3 pairs,large, metacentric.
(ii) Groups B : 4 –5 pairs, large, submetacentric.
(iii) Groups C : 6–12 pairs medium sized, submetacentric.
(iv) Groups D : 13–15 Pairs medium sized, Acrocentric.
(v) Groups E : 16–18 Pairs, 16th metacentric, 17th–18th submetacentric.
(vi) Groups F : 19–20 Pairs, short sized metacentric.
(vii) Groups G : 21–22 pairs small sized, Acrocentric 21 is smallest autosomal chromosome.
Special type of chromosomes :

(I) Lampbrush chromosomes :
They firstly observed by Flemming (1882). They described by Ruckert (1892). These are found in yolk
rich primary oocytes of Amphibians like Newt (Triturus), spermatocytes of many animals, giant
nucleus of Acetabularia.
They are found in permanent diplotene stage of meiosis. The size upto 5.9 mm (5900 m).
The Axis of lamp-brush chromosome is composed of DNA and matrix of RNA & proteins
Its lateral loops help in synthesis of RNA and yolk.

(II) Polytene chromosomes (Salivary glands chromosomes) :
They discovered by Balbiani (1881) in the cell of salivary glands of Chironomus larva of Dipterian
insect. The term polytene chromsomes coined by Kollar and Kalling.These are also found in malpighian
tubles, endosperm, antipodal cells, salivary glands of Drosophila.
The size of polytene chromosomes is 2000 m. They are found in permanent prophase stage.
They become giant due to endomitosis or endoduplication. Large swellings are found on some
places of each strand that are called puffs (Balbiani rings). In puffs DNA is uncoiled for rapid transcrip-
tion of RNA.
Karyotype :
Chromosomes have some specific features
(a) Number of chromosomes (b) Relative size (c) Position of centromere
(d) length of arm (e) secondary constriction (f) satellites.
All such features by which a particular set of chromosomes (chromosomal complement) can be identified,
is called karyotype of a species or it is chromosomal complement of organism providing description of
various aspects of all the chormosomes like number, relative size, position of centromere, length of arms
and centromeric ratio, secondary constriction and satellites.
The techniques that are used to study the karyotyping are as follows :
(A) Banding technique : This technique allows detection of repetitive DNA, discovered by (Casperson)
DNA is stained with specific dye.
(i) Q-banding : Staining with quanacrine mustard and produce bands in the region rich in A & T.
(ii) G-banding : Giemsa stain is used for staining that produces bands in the region rich in sulphur rich
protein. Absent in plant.
(iii) R-banding : Reverse of giemsa it produces band in the region of sulphur deficient protein.
(iv) C-banding : For bringing the staining of the centric area or constitutive heterchromatin / Y-chromo-
some.
(v) T-banding : Stain to telomeric region.
(vi) N-banding : Nucleolar organiser region is stained.
(vii) F-banding : Staining with fuelgen dye.
Fish & Mcfish :

(Fluorscence in situ hybridization & Multicolour fluoresence in situ hybridization).
DNA probes are labelled with radiactive or non-radioactive substance and locate the position of specific
DNA sequences on chromosomes.
In MCFISH, DNA is labelled with fluorochrome and allow the use of one or more colours to locate the
position of one or more DNA sequences simultaneously on the same chromosomes.

Flow cytometry :
It is recent technique where a suspension of many thousands of chromosomes is made and the suspended
chromosomes are stained with DNA binding fluorochrome.
As these chromosomes pass through the cytometer, the fluorescence is measured for individual chromo-
some and the result is represented in the form of histogram.
Each peak in this histogram exhibits one chromosome or a group of chromosomes of same size.
It is very accurate technique and can detect a difference as small as 1.5-4 mega-base pairs (mbp)
It helps in detection of Aneuploidy, deletion, duplication of a part of chromosome.
Other use of karyotyping :

(i) It helps to establish evolutionary relationship among different species.
(ii) It suggests primitive or advance features of an organism.
Read & digest

(1) Mesokaryotic cell :
Histone protein absent but nucleus with nuclear membrane present. Chromosomes are condensed
and visible even in interphase. Ex: Dinoflagellates
(2) Protoplasm :
(i) The Living matter of cell. The Living substance of cell was first obseved by corti (1772).
(ii) Dujardin (1836) reported jelly like mass in Amoeba and coined the term ‘Sarcode’ for it.
(iii) Van mohl (1864) recognised protoplasm and its importance in cell division in plant cells.
(iv) Purkinje (1839) found viscous, semi transparent greyish substance in animal embryo cells
and used the ‘Protoplasm’. He also observed similarity between the protoplasm of plant and animal
cells.
(v) Max Schultze (1861) proposed ‘Protoplasm theory’ and stated that living matter of cell is proto-
plasm.
(vi) Huxley (1863) stated that protoplasm is the ‘physical basis of life’ as it is capable of converting
chemical energy in to energy of life (Biological energy) .
(vii) Protoplasm includes cytoplasm and nucleoplasm. Protoplasm is a polyphasic crystallo colloidal
solution (stated by Kolliker, 1862).
Many theories proposed to explain the nature of protoplasm.
(i) Alveolar theory Butschli

(ii) Fibillar theory Fisher and Flemming
(iii) Granular theory Altman
(iv) Colloidal theory Fisher.
(v) Reticular theory Hanstein, Klein and Carnoy
(vi) Sol-Gel theory Hyman.
(vii) Crystallo colloidal theory Kolliker (most recognized theory)
Organismal theory : Sachs (1874) proposed that body of all living organisms is continuous mass of
protoplasm which remains divided in completely in to small centres.
But kolliker’s crystallo colloidal theory is the best to explain the nature of protoplasm.
(3) Hyaloplasm : Cytoplasm – All cytoplasmic structures (organelles and inclusions).
(4) Nucleus is largest extra cytoplasmic cell orgenelle.

(5) Fluidity of cell membrane is due to non-polar ends of phospholipids.
(6) Protoplast : It includes all the living constituents of the protoplasm. Naked cell without cell
wall is also called protoplast.
(7) Calmodulin : Calcium protein complex often associated with microtubules and microfilaments,
taking part in motility and regulation of certain enzyme systems.
(8) Idiogram : A diagrammatic representation of karyotype of a species showing morphological
chraracteristics of the chromosome is called idiogram.
(9) Cells of WBC, skin cell, oral mucosa are taken for Karyotyping.
(10) Q-banding has shown that down syndrome is due to trisomy of chromsome 22 and not 21 as metioned
in literature.
(11) Vacuoles : They firstly described by Spallangini. Vacuoles are non cytoplasmic fluid filled sacs
bounded by single membrane called tonoplast.The diameter of tonoplast is 50Aº that is less than
plasma membrane hence it is thinner than plasma membrane. Vacuoles are of four types.
(i) Food vacuoles : These vacuoles contain digestive enzymes.
(ii) Gas vacuoles (Pseudovacuoles) : These are found in some prokaryotes like blue grean algae where
they perform buoyancy regulation and they also protect the cell from UV radiation.
(iii) Contractile vacuole : It is found in some protists like Amoeba, Paramecium and Chlamydomonas. It
expands to receive water this process is called diastole when it contracts to expell water outside. It is
called systole. It performs osmoregulation and excretion. Contractile vacuole is analogous organ to
liver.
(iv) Sap vacuoles : It contains sap or water. In plants single large central vacuole is present whereas in
animal cell several small vacuoles are found. Sap is non living content of cell. K+ are abundantly
present is sap. Its Na+ ions maintain turger pressure. Sap contains sugar, amino acid, Tannin, esters,
phenols, enzymes, calcium oxalate, organic acid - (acetic acid and fumeric acid), resin, gum, miner-
als (Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K), Pigments (Anthocyanin, Anthoxanthin). Anthocyanin is water soluble pig-
ment. It provides colour to the petals of flowers (Blue, Purple or violet, Black and Pink colour). Sap
also maintains osmotic pressure of cell. pH of vacuolar cell sap is acidic and hypertonic. Most com-
mon element and organic acid in sap vacuole are K+, acetic acid.

CELL CYCLE (CELL DIVISION)
Privost & Dumas described cell division. They studied cleavage of fertilized egg of frog.
Remak studied cleavage of fertilized egg and stated that new cell arises from pre-existing cell.
Rudolf Virchow stated that new cell develops from the division of pre-existing cell.
Strasburger stated that new nucleus arises from pre-existing nucleus. Strasburger firstly observed mito-
sis in plant cell.
Van Beneden and Flemming discovered mitosis in animal cell. The term ‘Mitosis’ coined by Flemming.
Strasburger, Van Benden, Winwarter, Braur, Sutton studied meiosis.
The term meiosis coined by Farmer and moore.
Some substances stimulate cell division these are called mitogen - Eg: Cytokinins, Epidermal growth
Factor or EGF, Platelet Derived Growth Factor or PDGF, Lymphokines.
Some substances inhibit cell division these are called mitotic poison Eg: Cyanides, Azides, Chalones,
Colchicine.
Low Surface volume ratio, Nucleocytoplasmic ratio also stimulate cell division in the cell.
Cell Cycle (Howard & Pelc 1953) :

It involves programmed cyclic changes in the cell that leads to change in cellular components and
ultimately cell divides to form two cells. This process is genetically controlled. The duration between two
cell cycles is generation time.
Cell cycle involves two stages :

(1) Interphase or I-phase or Intermitosis or Nondividing phase or Energy phase.
It is longest phase. It is differentiated into three stages.

(A) G1-phase or first gap phase or first Growth phase or pre synthetic phase or post mitotic phase
Its duration is 42% of total time of cell division.
In this phase some changes occur like synthesis of RNA, proteins, Enzymes for DNA synthesis, Amino
acids for Histone formation.
NEET Cell Biology Page -32

Some time, G1-phase arrest at the middle and cell undergoes differentiation it is called G0 phase (Lajtha).
The Deciding factors are energy producing substances and mitogens this point is called chack point.
Once a cell is passed from check point this stage is called Antephase (Bullough) Now cell will divide even
in unfavourable conditions.
Size of cell and Nucleus becomes doubled in G1 phase.

(B) S-phase (Synthetic phase) :
It is invisible phase of Mitosis.
Its duration is 33% of total time.
Replication of DNA of chromosome takes place in S-phase
Histone protein synthesizes in this phase.
Replication of centrioles (centrosome) starts in S- phase.
(C) G2-phase (Second Gap phase or second Growth phase or postsynthetic phase or pre-mitotic
phase) :
Synthesis of RNA and proteins takes place. Replication of centrioles (centrosome) completed in
G2 - phase. Tubulin protein is formed. Its duration is 21% of total time.
Cyclin protein : Cyclin dependent protein Kinases (CDK) regulate the cell cycle.
(2) M-Phase (Mitotic phase) :

Its duration is 4% of total time. It divides into two stages
(A) Karyokinesis (B) Cytokinesis
Mitosis :
(A) Karyokinesis (Schneider 1887) :
It can be divided into four stages for sake of convinience
(I) Prophase (II) Metaphase (III) Anaphase (IV) Telophase
(I) Prophase : It is longest phase. Its duration is 2·1% of total time.
It involves three phases.
(a) Early prophase :

Chromatin undergoes dehydration to form long thin & coiled chromosomes that are called spiralization
and their ends are indistinct they look like a boll of wool this stage is called spireme stage.
Centrosomes move away to each other and move towards opposite poles.
(b) Mid prophase :

Chromosomes are thickened and shifted in the peripheral part of nucleus.
Formation of Astral rays starts. Nuclear membrane starts breakdown. Nucleolus reduces in size.
(c) Late prophase :
Chromosome are comparatively thickened. Centrosomes are reached to the opposite poles.
In this phase nuclear membrane is disappeared. Nucleolus & ER are also disappeared.
Aster is formed at each pole by a pair of centrioles and astral rays. Centrioles start formation of spindle
fibres. Centrosome helps in the initiation of cell division in animal cells by forming spindle. In plant cells
centrosome is absent. The spindle fibre arise from tubulin protein by gelation in the cytoplasm thus in plant
cell centriole and asters have no role in the formation of spindle apparatus. The middle broad part of
spindle apparatus is called equator.

Point of remember
(1) Prometaphase : Some scientists considered prometaphase stage between prophase and metaphase.
In this stage aster formation is completed. Formation of spindle fibres is also completed. Nuclear
membrane and nucleolus are completely disappeared.
(2) Eumitosis : Formation of Extranuclear spindle and degeneration of nuclear membrane involve in it.
(3) Premitosis : In some protists, fungi and Algae, Formation of Intranuclear spindle takes place.
Nuclear membrane exists.
(II) Metaphase :
Its duration is 0·4%. Chromosomes are thick, shorten and distinct.
The shape, size and structure of chromosomes can be studied in the metaphase stage.
Spindle fibres consists of 93-95% tubulin protein, 3-5% RNA and trace amount of Actin, myosin & Lipid.
Spindle fibres are of three types.
(A) Continuous fibres : That connect two poles.
(B) Discontinuous fibres : They originate from a pole and do not reach at other pole.
(C) Chromosomal fibres : They connect chromosome and poles.
The tightening of chromosomal fibres brings chromosomes at the equator. This process is called
congression or metakinesis.
The centromeres of all the chromosomes arrange in linear sequence at the equator to form single metaphase
plate.
Kinetochore of chromosomes connect chromosomes to the spindle fibre. Each chromosomes has two
distinct chromatids. The arms of each chromosome lie in different direction and the centromere lie on
equator.
(III) Anaphase :
Its duration is 0·3%. Anaphase promoting complex or APC becomes activated. It causes equatorial division
in each chromosome as a result the no. of chromosomes becomes doubled.
Now half chromosomes move towards one pole and remaining half chromosomes move towards opposite
pole by the constriction of chromosomal fibre. It is called Anaphasic movement.
The chromosomes are inter connected by interzonal fibres.
At this time centromere of each chromosome lies towards poles and its arms behind it.
The rate of Anaphasic movement of each chromosome is 0·2 m to 5 m / min. 20–25 ATP are consumed
by a chromosome during anaphasic movement.
Each chromosome has single chromatid & it is V-shaped / L-shaped / J-shaped / I-shaped.
(IV) Telophase :
It is reverse of prophase & its duration is 1·3% of total time. Chromosomes are reached on the opposite
poles and now they become uncoiled and converted into long thin chromatin network. Nuclear membranes

is reappeared NOR forms Nucleolus. Thus each pole has a nucleus in telophase stage. Spindle fibres are
disappeared.
(B) Cytokinesis (Whitemen) :

It is a division of cytoplasm. It starts in late anaphase & Completed at the end of telophase.
Cytokinesis comprises two types.
(i) Cell furrow or cell cleavage method :

A viscous fibrous dense Mid body is formed in the centre. Constriction of peripheral microfilaments takes
place toward centre (Centripetal) and finally both sides meet and two daughter cells are formed
Ex: Animal cell.
(ii) Cell plate method :

In case of plant cell, some spindle fibres exist that form phragmoplast.
Golgi vesicles and some ER vesicles deposite in the central part of phragmoplast and their deposition
proceeds towards peripheral part (centrifugal) and finally a cell plate is formed followed by the formation
of middle lamella.
Now Primary wall deposites at each side of middle lamella and ultimately both cells get seperated to form
two daugther plant cells.
Meiosis :
It is essential for sexual reproduction. It involves meiosis-I and
meiosis-II. Interphase involves - G1, S, G2 Phase. Out of them
G2 phase is short. Centrosome replicates in this stage.
Meiosis-I :
M-phase-It involves karyokinesis & cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis : It involves prophase-I, Metaphase-I,
Anaphase-I, Telophase-I.
(A) Prophase-I :
It is longest phase. It can be differentiated into five stages.
(i) Laptotene : Chromatin is condensed to form chromosomes.
All the chromosomes converge towards a common point near
centrosome and form basket like arrangement this stage is called
boquet stage. In some plants they form synzetic knot Eg:
Lilium.
The chromatids of chromosomes are not distinct due to nucleoprotein.
(B) Zygotene :
Chromosomes are comparatively small & thick. Homologous
chromosomes perform pairing. One homolgous
chromosome is maternal and second is paternal. This pairing of
two homolgous chromosomes is called synapsis / Syndesis
(Mont Gomery 1901). It forms Bivalent. Synapsis involves three
types.
(i) Procentric : It starts from centromere and proceeds towards

terminal parts.
(ii) Proterminal : It begins from terminal part.
(iii) Inter mediate type : It can begin at any point of chromosomes.
0·3% Replication of DNA takes place in this stage. Nucleoprotein core form a complex that is called
syneptonemal complex (Discovered by Moses :1956).
Syneptonemal complex consists of one central element and two lateral element.
Each lateral element lies between two chromatids of a chromosome. Each central element lies between
two chromosomes.
(c) Pachytene :
In this stage Recombination nodule (Zinkler-1977) is formed be-
tween two nonsister chromatids.
The exchange of segments of nonsister chromatids between two
homolgous chromosomes of a Bivalent is called crossing over
(Morgan). Recombinase enzyme catalyzes this process.
Syneptinemal complex starts dissolving.
(d) Diplotene :
Syneptonemal complex is completely dissolved and chromatids
of bivalents are distinct.
Each Bivalent has four chromatids and two centromeres.
Homologous chromosomes of each Bivalent start seperation. They
are connected at certain points these are called chiasmata
(janssen 1909) and the Bivalents are now called tetrad. Chiasmata
are the results of Crossing over. In some animals chromosomes
become enlarged in size in Diplotene stage they are called
Lampbrush chromosome Eg : Amphibians. Nuclear membrane
starts disintigration. Nucleolus decreases in size.
(e) Diakinesis :
Separation of Homologous chromosomes proceeds towards terminal part
(terminalization) by the shifting of chiasmata towards chromsomal ends.
Centrioles are reached on opposite poles and form aster with astral rays
spindle is formed that is amphiastral in animal cell and anastral in plant
cell.
(B) Metaphase-I :
Congression brings the bivalents on Equator. Bivalents arrange in two raws on equator to form Double
metaphasic plate.
The arms of homologous chromosomes lies parallel to the equator and their centromeres are projected
outwardly towards poles.
Each chromosome in a bivalent is connected to the spindle pole of its side by a single kinetochore
microtubule (chromosomal tractile fibre) instead of two as in metaphase of mitosis.
(C) Anaphase-I :
In this stage reduction division takes place & segregation of Mendelian factors occurs.The chromosome
no. becomes half (2n–n). Maternal and paternal chromosomes of each bivalent are completely seperated
it is called disjunction.
They move in opposite direction towards opposite poles due to constriction of chromosomal fibres. It is
called anaphasic movement. Thus Bivalents are converted in univalents. Each univalent has divergent two
chromatids.
At the end of this phase chromosomes are reached at opposite poles.
(D) Telophase-I :
Regrouping of Dyad chromosomes occur at each pole
Chromosomes undergo despirilization, become thin & elongated. Nucleolus is rarely formed. Nuclear mem-
brane reappears and each pole has a haploid nucleus.

Cytokinesis may or may not occur after meiosis-I
In some plants like Trillium and most animals Metaphase-II directly occurs after Anaphase-I or telophase-
I enters into Prophase-II.
Interkinesis :
It is called intrameiotic interphase. In this phase some deficient substance form but synthesis of DNA does
not occur.
Meiosis-II :
It is also called homotypic or Homoeotypic or equational division. It is just like mitosis but occurs in
halpoid nuclei.
At the end of meiosis-II four haploid cells are formed that are genetically different.
Significance of meiosis :
(a) Variations :
(i) Independent assortment of chromosomes
(ii) Crossing over (iii) Irregular disjunction
(iv) Gene mutation during replication & nicking for crossing over.
(b) Polyploidy : Failure of chromosomes to separate during anaphase-I leads to polyploidy.

(c) Maintenance of chromosome number
(d) Sexual reproduction

Types of Meiosis :
(i) Zygotic or Initial meiosis :It occurs during zygote or zygospore germination Ex: Ulothrix, Spiro-
gyra, Chlamydomonas.
(ii) Sporic or Intermediate meiosis :
Meiosis occurs at the time of microspore or megaspore formation Ex: Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
Gymnosperms, Angiosperms.
(iii) Gametic meiosis or Terminal meiosis :
It occurs at the time of gamete formation Ex: Animals
Point of remember
(1) Amitosis : It was discoverd by Remak. In this type, nucleus elongates& constricted in the middle
and divide to form two daughter nuclei. Spindle formation is absent Ex: meganucleus of Parmaecium,
cells of endosperm.
(2) Brachymeiosis : It is found in ascus bearing fungi that includes two reduction divisions and one
equational division which reduce the chromosome number from tetraploid to haploid stage.
Mitosis takes place in the somatic cells.

Mitosis Meiosis
1. Mitosis takes place in the somatic cells. 1. It occurs either in the reproductive cells or at the time
of germination of zygote or zygospore.
2. The cells undergoing mitosis may be 2. The cells undergoing meiosis are always diploid.
haploid or diploid.
3. It is a single division which produces two cells. 3. Meiosis is a double division. It gives rise to four cells.
4. Subsequent mitotic divisions are similar to 4. The two divisions of meiosis are not similar. The first
one is the earlier ones. heterotypic or reductional while the second one is homo
typic or equational like mitosis.
5. Each chromosome replicates in the interphase 5. The chromosomes replicate only once, prior to meio-
before every division. sis.
6. The number of chromosomes remains the same 6. The number of chromosomes is reduced to one half
after mitosis. after Meiosis.
Prophase
7. Prophase is of shorter duration. 7. Prophase I is of longer duration while prophase II is

very brief.
8. Each chromosome has two distinct chromatids. 8. Chromosomes of prophase I do not show distinct
chromatids.
9. No bouquet stage is recorded. 9. Chromosomes of animals and some plants show con
vergence towards one side during early prophase I. It is
known as bouquet stage.
10. Pairing of chromosomes does not occur 10. Pairing or synapsis of homologous chromosomes
in mitosis takes place during zygotene of prophase I and contin-
ues upto metaphase I.
11. A synaptinemal complex is absent. 11. Synapsed homologous chromosome develop a syn-
aptinemal complex.

12. Crossing over is absent. 12. Crossing over or exchange of similar segments be-
tween nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
usually takes place during pachytene stage.
13. Chiasmata are absent. 13. Chiasmata or visible connections between homolo-
gous chromosomes of bivalents are observed during diplo
tene, diakinesis
Metaphase
14. Centromeres produce a single metaphasic plate. 14. A double metaphasic plate is formed by centromeres
in metaphase I but only one in metaphase II.
15. Only the centromeres lie at the equator. 15. Limbs of the chromosomes mostly lie at the equator
The limbs of chromosomes are oriented in while the centromeres project towards the poles in
various directions. metaphase I.
16. A centromere is connected with both the 16. A centromere is connected to one spindle pole in
spindle poles. metaphase I but both in metaphase II.
17. Two chromatids of a chromosome are 17. The two chromatids of a chromosome are often
genetically similar. genetically dissimilar due to crossing over.
Anaphase
18. A centromere splits length-wise to form two 18. Centromeres do not divide during anaphase I but do
centromeres in the beginning of anaphase. so in anaphase II.
19. Anaphasic chromosomes are single stranded. 19. Chromosomes are double stranded in anaphase I but
single stranded in anaphase II.
Telophase
20. Telophase is longer and produces interphase 20. Telophase I is shorter and nuclei never enter the inter
nuclei. -phase.
Cytokinesis
21. Cytokinesis follows every mitosis. 21. Cytokinesis often does not occur after the first or
It produces two cells. reductional division. It is then simultaneous after second
division to result in four new cells.

Type (I) : Very Short Answer Type Questions : [01 Mark Each]
1. Write the function of plasmodesmata.
2. Why Lysosome is considered as sucidal bag ?
3. Differentiate Pinocytosis and phagocytosis.
4. ‘New cells generate from Pre-existing cells’ who gave this concept.
5. Write the name of membrane less two cell organelles.
6. What is spireme stage?
7. Why meiosis called the reduction division?
8. What is G0 stage?
9. Which stage shows replication of DNA?
10. In which phase crossing over is present.
Type (II) : Short Answer Type Questions : [02 Marks Each]

11. Differentiate cilia & flagella.
12. Why mitochondria is known as power house of cell.
13. Differentiates
(i) Euchromatin and heterochromatin.
(ii) Microtubules and Microfilaments.
14. Write the types of chromosomes on the basis of position of centromere.
15. Draw the labelled diagram of cilia/flagella.
16. Describe the significance of meiosis
17. Name the stage of cell cycle at which following event occurs
(i) Chromosomes are moved to pole
(ii) Centromere splits and chromatid separate.
(iii) Pairing between homologous chromosomes takes place.
(iv) Crossing over between homologous chromosomes takes place.
Type (III) : Long Answer Type Questions: [03 Mark Each]

18. Explain the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane.
19. Explain the structure of centriole.
20. Why chloroplast is called semiautonomous cell organelle.
21. Differentiate RER & SER.
22. Write the function of following cell organelles
(i) Peroxisome (ii) Sphaerosome (iii) Glyoxysome.
23. Analyse the events during every stage of cell cycle and notice how the following two parameters change
(i) Number of chromosomes (N) per cell
(ii) Amount of DNA content per cell.
24. Differntiates between plant cytokinesis and Animal cytokinesis.
NEET_CELL BIOLOGY PAGE # 40

Type (IV) : Very Long Answer Type Questions: [05 Mark Each]
25. Explain the structure of chloroplast with suitable diagram.
OR
Draw the labelled diagram of mitochondria & explain its structure and function.
26. Explain the structure of Nucleus with the help of diagram.
OR
Describe the structure of Golgi body and give its functions.
27. Explain the following. 2+2+1
(i) Centrosome
(ii) Endomembrane System
(iii) Cytoskeleton
28. With the help of diagrams, explain the various stages of meiosis-I
OR
What is mitosis? Explain its various stages.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is the smallest cell
(1) Human nerve cells (2) Chlamydomonas (3) Virus (4) PPLO
2. Names of Schleiden and Schwann are as sociated with
(1) Theory of cell lineage (2) Nucleus function as controling centre of cell
(3) Theory of natural selection (4) Cell theory
3. All cell are derived from pre-existing cells” is the famous generalization of -
(1) Schultz (2) Schleiden (3) Lamarck (4) Virchow
4. Cell wall is the secretory product of
(1) Lysosomes (2) Cytoplasm (3) Plasmodesmata (4) Middle lamella
5. Cell division is not present in the cells of
(1) Skin (2) Gonads (3) Brain (4) Bone marrow
6. ‘Protoplasm is physical basis of life’ was stated by
(1) Purkinje (2) Huxley (3) Rudolf virchow (4) Schwann
7. The cells discovered in thin section of cork by Robert hooke were actually
(1) Cellulose (2) Living cell (3) Cell coat (4) Cell wall
8. One of the following is an exception to cell theory
(1) Bacteria (2) Prokaryotes (3) Blue green algae (4) Bacteriophage
9. Small cell are metabolically active as they have
(1) Higher surface area to volume ratio (2) higher nucleocytoplasmic ratio
(3) Lower nucleocytoplasmic ratio (4) both (1) & (2)

10. Match list-1 with list-2 and select the correct answer
List-I List-II
A Nucleolus (i) Lipid storage
B Sphaerosomes (ii) Glycolate metabolism
C Peroxisomes (iii) Transport of macromolecules
D Plasmodesmata (iv) RNA synthesis
Codes - A B C D
(1) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
(2) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(3) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(4) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
11. The sol-gel nature of protoplasm is due to -
(1) its colloidal nature (2) Presence of inorganic salts
(3) Presence of living cell inclusions (4) Presence of water
12. Which of the following features are related with mesokarotic cell
(1) Nucleus is present (2) Present in dinoflagellates
(3) Histone protein is absent (4) All correct
13. Some cellular structures are bounded by single or double membranes while some others are without mem-
brane. Match the organelle in List I with the nature of membranes in List II and select the correct answer-
List-I List-II
(A) Transosomes (i) Without membrane
(B) Lysosomes (ii) Single membrane
(C) Ribosomes (iii) Triple membrane
(D) Nucleus (iv) Double porous membrane
A B C D
(1) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(2) (iii) (i) (ii) (i)
(3) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(4) (ii) (iii) (i) (iii)
Cell Wall
14. Which is the thickest wall layer
(1) Middle lamella (2) Tertiary wall (3) Primary wall (4) Secondary wall
15. Torus is found in
(1) Desmosome (2) Simple pits (3) Bordered pits (4) Plasmodesmata
16. Cell wall was first studied by
(1) Bonner (2) Strasburger (3) Robert Hooke (4) Flemming
17. Ripening fruit becomes soft due to
(1) Dissolution of pectate of middle lamella (2 ) Conversion of strach into sugar
(3) Jelly formation at acidic pH (4) Incorporation of pectin in middle lamella
18. The intercellular structure separating the walls of two adjacent cells is
(1) Primary wall (2) Middle lamella (3) Plasma membrane (4) Secondary wall

19. Rigidity in the cell wall is due to
(1) Cellulose (2) Suberin (3) Lignin (4) Pectin
20. The phragmoplasts are precursors of
(1) Cell plate (2) Chloroplast (3) Chromoplast (4) Leucoplasts
21. One of the following is an essential organelle for cell wall formation
(1) Peroxisome (2) glyoxisome (3) lysosomes (4) lomasome
Cell membrane
22. The term ‘Plasmalemma’ was introduced by
(1) Plowe (2) Robertson (3) Nageli (4) Cramer
23. Correct sequence of protein (P) and lipid (L) in cell membrane is
(1) L-P-P-L (2) P-P-L-L (3) P-L-L-P (4) L-P-L-P
24. Cell recognition and adhesion occurs due to the following component of the plasma membrane
(1) Protein (2) Lipids
(3) Proteins and lipids (4) Glycoproteins & glycolipids
25. According to the 'Unit membrane' model of Robertson” the total thickness of cell membrane is about
(1) 1.0 nm (2) 150 nm (3) 7.5 nm (4) 200 nm
26. According to Singer and Nicolson which of the following are present in plasma membrane
(1) Chitin and phospholipid (2) Phospholipid, extrinsic and intrinsic protein
(3) Carbohydrates and protein (4) Hemi cellulose and cellulose
27. Trilamellar model proposed by
(1) J.D. Robertson (2) Danielli and Davson (3) Gorter and Grindell (4) Singer and Nicolson
28. Plasma membrane is asymmetric because
(1) Lipids present in the outer and inner side of the bilayer are different
(2) Extrinsic proteins are more abundant on the inner surface than on the outer surface
(3) Oligosaccharides are attached only to the external surface of lipids and proteins of a biomembrane
(4) All of these
29. According to widely accepted “fluid mosaic model” cell membranes are semi-fluid, where lipids and integral
proteins can diffuse randomly. In recent years, this model has been modified in several respects. In this
regard, which of the following statements is incorrect?
(1) Proteins in cell membranes can travel within the lipid bilayer
(2) Proteins can also undergo flip-flop movements in the liplid bilayer
(3) Proteins can remain confined within certain domains of the membranes
(4) Many proteins remain completely embedded within the lipid bilayer
30. Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane proposes that
(1) A lipid bilayer with embedded proteins only
(2) A lipid bilayer with proteins on the outer surface only
(3) A lipid bilayer coated with proteins on both the surfaces
(4) A lipid bilayer with proteins of two types, embedded (intrinsic) and superficial (extrinsic)
31. Carrier molecules facilitating transport across cell membrane are
(1) Proteinaceous (2) Fatty acids (3) Starch (4) Alkaloids
32. Plasma membrane particularly in animal cell is elastic due to
(1) Lipids (2) Proteins (3) Carbohydrates (4) None of these

Plastids
33. Which of the plastid stores protein
(1) Elaioplast (2) Chloroplast (3) Amyloplast (4) Aleuroplast
34. The pigment which is not found in chloroplast is-
(1) carotene (2) chlorophyll (3) xanthophyll (4) anthocyanin
35. The most abundant protein in the plant world is found in
(1) Root hairs (2) Mitochondria (3) Chloroplasts (4) Viruses
36. If we separate the cell organelles of a living cell what part should be alive-
(1) Endoplasmic reticulum (2) Chloroplast
(3) Cell wall (4) ribosomes
37. The endosymbiotic theory explains-
(1) The origin of the nucleus
(2) The origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts
(3) Why prokaryotic cells are different from eukaryotic cells
(4) Where the endomembrane system came
38. Chloroplasts are called semi-autonomous structures due to presence of-
(1) RNA only (2) DNA only (3) Both RNA and DNA (4) Pigment and proteins
39. The process in which excess molecule of glycolate passes out of the chloroplast and enter in peroxisome
and oxidised, is called-
(1) Respiration (2) Photosynthesis (3) Photorespiration (4) All of the above
40. Which one is universal photosynthetic pigment in green plants
(1) chl a (2) chl c (3) chl d (4) chl e
41. Chlorophyll a and chlorphyll b is distinguished by the presence of –CHO and –CH3 group. Which chlorophyll
has –CHO group and which has CH3 group-
(1) CH3 in chl a and CHO in chl. b, (2) CHO in chl a and CH3 in chl. b
(3) Chl a had both CHO and CH3 group (4) None of the above
42. Dimorphic chloroplasts are found is-
(1) C3 Plants (2) C4 Plants (3) Aquatic plants (4) Xerophytic plants
43. Fret channels are characteristics of–
(1) Mitochondria (2) Dictyosomes(3) ER (4) Chloroplast
44. The complex liquid matrix of chloroplast is called–
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Cytosol (3) Hyaloplasm (4) Stroma
45. In the ripening fruit, chloroplasts become–
(1) Non photosynthetic chloroplasts (2) Non photosynthetic chromoplasts
(3) Leucoplasts (4) Amyloplasts
46. Trapping centre of bacteria is–
(1) P700 (2) P630 (3) B890 (4) B700
47. Cup shaped and star shaped chloroplasts are found in–
(1) Spirogyra and Cladophora (2) Ulothrix and Chara
(3) Chlamydomonas and Zygnaema (4) Vaucheria and Fritschiella
48. Larger thylakoids in chloroplast are called–
(1) Grana lamellae (2) Stroma lamellae (3) Grana (4) Loculus

49. A piece of corrot and a flower is put in water separatly. The water becomes purple in case of carrot but remain
colourless in flower case . It is due to–
(1) In flowers, carotenoid pigments are fat soluble and found in chromoplast and not come out in water.
(2) In carrot, Anthocyoxin pigments are found in cell sap which are water soluble.
(3) In flowers pigments are found in cytoplasm while in carrot, pigments are localized in vacuoles.
(4) Both (1) and (2) are correct.
50. Which organelle contain vitamin E and K?
(1) Golgi bodies (2) ER in nerve cell (3) Chloroplast (4) Mitochondria
51. The role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis is–
(1) Photolysis of water (2) To absorb light
(3) Photo Chemical conversion (4) Dark assimilation
52. In chloroplast proteinaceous granule surrounded by starch forms a compact body called–
(1) Paramylum (2) Dictyosome (3) Microsome (4) Pyrenoid
53. Agranal chloroplasts are found in –
(1) Mesophyll of maize leaves (2) Bundle sheath of mango leaves
(3) Bundle sheath of sugarcane leaves (4) Mesophyll of pea plants
Mitochondria
54. Mitochondria are the site of
(1) ATP formation (2) Cellular respiration (3) Electron transport (4) All of these
55. Which of the following structure is present in mitochondria.
(1) Oxysome (2) Polysome (3) Dictyosome (4) Quantasome
56. Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in
(1) Chloroplasts (2) Vacuoles (3) Mitochondria (4) Ribosome
57. Cytochrome oxidases are found
(1) On outer wall of mitochondria (2) In the matrix of mitochondria
(3) In the lysosomes (4) On cristae of mitochondria
58. In living cells mitochondria can be stained with
(1) Neutral red (2) Janus green (3) Crystal violet (4) Aceto-orcein
59. Mtiochondria are not found in
(1) Liver cells (2) Proteins (3) Mature RBCs (4) Immature RBCs
60. Mitochondria and chloroplast contain
(1) DNA (2) DNA + RNA (3) DNA + RNA + ribosomes (4) Proteins
61. The shape of cristae in mitochondria shows variations in different organisms which of the following is correct
for it
(1) Tubular – Mitochondria of animal cell
Plate like – Mitochondria of Euglena
Vesicular – Mitochondria of plant cell
(2) Vesicular – Mitochondria of Euglena
Plate like – Mitochondria of animal cell
tubular – Mitochondria of plant cell
(3) Tubular – Mitochondria of Euglena
Vesicular – Mitochondria of animal cell
Plate like – Mitochondria of plant cell
(4) None of these

62. Synthesis of ATP in mitochondria takes place
(1) In the matrix (2) In the intracristal space
(3) At the cristae (4) At the outer membrane
63. The mitochondrial DNA differs from the nuclear DNA in
(1) Lacking association with histone (2) Being circular in nature
(3) Having higher C–G ratio (4) All of these
64. Inner mitochondrial membrane contains enzymes called-
(1) NADH cytochrome reductase and monomeric oxidase
(2) Adenylate kinase and nucleoside diphosphokinase
(3) ATP-synthetase, Succinic dehydrogenase and respiratory chain enzymes
(4) Malate and isocitrate dehydrogenase, Fumerate, Aconitase and Citrate synthetase
65. Mitochondria are absent in-
(1) Blue green algae (2) W.B.C. of mammals
(3) Red algae (4) Green algae
66. Mitochondria are yellow in colour due to the presence of
(1) Carotene (2) Anthocyanin (3) Riboflavin` (4) Xanthophyll
67. Cytoplasmic organelle having vitamin E and Vita. B2 is-
(1) Chloroplast (2) Peroxisomes (3) Mitochondria (4) None
68. A single mitochondrion is found in
(1) Nostoc (2) Ulothrix (3) Microsterias (4) Rhizopus
69. The inner membrane of mitochondria bears foldings called cristae these cristae
(1) Increase ATP supply (2) Keep external substances away
(3) Increase the thickness of wall (4) Increase surface area
70. Oxysomes or elementary particles are centre of oxidative phosphorylation are found in-
(1) Inner membrane of chloroplast (2) Outer membrane of mitochondria
(3) Perimitochondrial space (4) Inner membrane of mitochondria
71. Mitochondrial DNA is naked without histone, double stranded and circular, discovered by Nass and Nass It
is rich in
(1) C–A ratio (2) A–G ratio (3) A–T ratio (4) G–C ratio
72. Which one is absent in human RBC?
(1) Enzymes (2) Biomembrane (3) Hyaloplasm (4) Kreb's cycle
73. Enzyme ATPase is found in head of oxysome that is called–
(1) F0 (2) F1–F0 (3) F1 (4) None of these
74. Which of the following observations most strongly support the view that the mitochondria have electron
transport system?
(1) Mitochondria have a folded inner membrane
(2) Mitochondria have a property to concentrate in cells which form locomotory structures.
(3) Disruption of mitochondria yields membrane fragments which are able to synthesize ATP.
(4) A protein capable of utilizing ATP is obtained from mitochondria.
75. If a cell is placed under anaerobic condition–
(1) ER will disappear (2) Mitochondria will multiply
(3) Mitochondria will disappear (4) Mitochondria and ribosomes will multiply speedly.

76. Outer and inner membrane of motochondria are–
(1) Structurally similar but functionally different (2) Functionally similar but structurally different.
(3) Structurally and functionally similar (4) Structurally and functionally dissimilar
77. Most of the biological energy is supplied by mitochondria through–
(1) Breaking of sugars (2) Oxidising TCA substrate
+
(3) Reduction of NADP (4) Breaking of Proteins
78. Protein synthesis occurs in–
(1) Stroma of chloroplast (2) Matrix of mitochondria
(3) Cytoplasm (4) All of the above
79. Inner membrane of mitochondria–
(1) Cytochrome oxidase (2) Succinic dehydrogenase
(3) Malic dehydrogenase (4) Both (1) and (2)
80. Mitoplast is–
(1) Mitochondria without inner membrane (2) Mitochondria without outer membrane
(3) Membraneless mitochondria (4) Another name of mitochondria
81. In the middle piece of the sperms the cytoplasm which surrounds the mitochondria is called
(1) Manchette (2) Acrosome (3) Centrosome (4) Microsome
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
82. Endoplasmic reticulum often bears
(1) Centrioles (2) Lysosomes (3) Ribosomes (4) Plastids
83. Microsomes are related to
(1) Endoplasmic reticulum (2) Spherosomes
(3) Lysosomes (4) Plasmalemma
84. Plasmodesmata often has ER (endoplasmic reticulum) tubule called as
(1) Symplasm (2) Desmotubule (3) Apoplasm (4) Intermediate filaments
85. Which of the following is associated with detoxification of drugs and muscle contraction by the release and
uptake of Ca2+ ions
(1) Golgi complex (2) RER (3) SER (4) Free ribosomes
86. The site of detoxification reaction in liver is
(1) SER (2) Free ribosomes (3) RER (4) hydrophobic interaction
87. In GERL system ER is -
(1) RER (2) SER (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these
88. ER is involved in all of the following except-
(1) Production of ribosomes (2) Synthesis of lipids
(3) Synthesis of proteins (4) Transportation of molecules to the cell membrane for export.
89. Which organelle help in the synthesis of lipids, cholesterol, steroids and visual pigments in epithelial cells of
retina.
(1) RER (2) SER (3) Golgi bodies (4) All of these
90. Myeloid bodies, sarcoplasm of muscles and nissl granules are rich in-
(1) Fats (2) Golgi bodies (3) Lipids (4) ER
91. The close functional relationship between ER, Golgi, Lysosome are represent as-
(1) GERL system (2) Vacuolar system (3) Annulated lamellae (4) None of the above

92. ER is extensively developed in-
(1) Liver (2) Panereas (3) Fibroblast (4) All of the above
93. ER of rapidly dividing cells is-
(1) Non functional (2) Highly developed (3) Less developed (4) Absent
94. Bosophilic ergastoplasm is found in abundance in-
(1) Embryo Cells (2) absorptive cells
(3) cells of degestive glands (4) cell of kidney
Golgi Complex
95. Cell organelles associated with secretion are -
(1) Mitochondria (2) Ribosomes (3) Chloroplasts (4) Golgi complex
96. Besides giving out secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus is also concerned with formation of
(1) Grana of chloroplasts (2) Plastids
(3) Cell plates after cells division in plants (4) Lysosomes
97. The Golgi complex is specialized for
(1) Glycosylation of lipids and proteins (2) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy
(3) Generation of ATP (4) Intracellular digestion
98. Which one takes part in acrosome synthesis
(1) Golgi apparatus (2) Lysosome (3) Nucleus (4) Mitochondria
99. If the cells are broken up and sedimented by centrifugation the new structure formed in one of the fraction
is
(1) Lysosomes (2) microsome (3) ribosome (4) centrosomes
100. The organelle that moves materials out of the cell is-
(1) ER (2) Lysosomes (3) Golgi bodies (4) Ribosomes bound on ER
101. In plant cells the number of golgi bodies increases during-
(1) Respiration (2) Cell division (3) Translocation (4) Food synthesis
102. Golgi apparatus is absent in-
(1) Yeast (2) Liver cells (3) Blue green algae (4) higher plants
103. Which organelle is located near the nucleus and contains stack of flattened cisternae structures?
(1) Centrosome (2) Chloroplast (3) Golgi bodies (4) Centriole
104. Golgi bodies are maximum in
(1) Root cap cells (2) Root tip cells (3) Calyprogen (4) Quiesent centre
105. Secretory vesicles are pinched off as zymogen granules from _____ side of dictyosomes-
(1) Plain (2) Convex (3) Concave (4) All sides
Lysosome
106. Lysosomes are celled "suicide bags” because they have
(1) Catabolic enzymes (2) Food vacuole (3) Hydrolytic enzymes (4) Parasitic activity.
107. Autophagic vacuoles digest.
(1) Cell organelles (2) Solid particles of Phagosomes
(3) Fluid droplets of pinosomes (4) None of the above
108. Which of the following organelle show polymorphism
(1) Golgi apparatus (2) lysosome (3) Mitochondria (4) Chloroplast

109. The mitochondria serves as a marker for cytochrome oxidase and the Lysosomes serve for ........
(1) Succinic dehydrogenase (2) Catalse
(3) Galactosidase (4) Acid phosphatase
110. Which types of lysosomes contribute to the ageing process
(1) Primary lysosomes (2) Secondary lysosomes
(3) Autophagic vacuoles (4) Residual bodies
111. Most of hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes function at-
(1) Basic pH (2) Any pH (3) Neutral pH (4) Acidic pH
112. During fertilization sperm release hydrolytic enzyme from the acrosome vesicle, which is called as-
(1) Post mortum (2) Peroxisome (3) Giant lysosome (4) Lysosome
113. Pri. lysosome + phagosome forms-
(1) Residual body (2) Secondary lysosome
(3) Autophagic vacuole (4) None
114. In plant cell lysosome is absent but a plant cell with lysosome exceptionally is-
(1) Spirogyra (2) Neurospora (3) Acetabularia (4) Riccia
Ribosome
115. Engine of the cell is
(1) Ribosome (2) Lysosome (3) Vacuole (4) Mitochondria.
116. Ribosomes are attached to endoplasmic reticulum through
(1) r-RNA (2) Hydrophobic interaction
(3) t-RNA (4) Ribophorins
117. The smallest organelles in the cell are
(1) Dictyosomes (2) Lysosomes (3) Microsomes (4) Ribosomes
118. The larger sub-unit of 80 S ribosomes contain the following RNA molecule
(1) 23 S, 5.8 S. 5.0 S (2) 28 S, 5.8 S. 5.0 S (3) 25 S, 5.8 S. 5.0 S (4) 25 S, 5.8 S. 5.0 S
119. Protein synthesis in an animal cell occurs
(1) Only on the ribosomes present in the cytosol
(2) Only on ribosomes attached to the nuclear envelope and ER
(3) On ribosomes present in the cytoplasm as well as in mitochondria
(4) On ribosomes present in the nucleolus as wall as in cytoplasm
120. More ribosomes would be found in-
(1) Dead cells (2) Lignified cells
(3) Parenehymatous cells (4) Meristematic cells
121. Ribosomes are
(1) Amphoteric (2) Positively charged
(3) Negatively charged (4) None
122. Peptidyl transferase is found on-
(1) A-site of smaller unit of ribosome (2) P-site of larger unit of ribosome
(3) Entire ribosome (4) mRNA
123. Site of formation of ribosomal precursor in cell is-
(1) Stroma (2) Nucleus (3) Nucleolus (4) Golgi body
124. Specific cells which secretes protein contain large number of
(1) ER (2) Free ribosomes (3) Bound ribosomes (4) Golgi bodies

125. In ribosomes two subunits are -
(1) Joins only at the time of protein synthesis (2) Lie freely in cytoplasm
(3) Dissociates at the end of protein synthesis (4) All of the above
126. Ergasomes are formed by-
(1) 5 ribosomes (2) More than 4 ribosomes attached to ER
(3) more than 5 ribosomes attached to a mRNA (4) Cluster of ribosomes
127. 77 ribosomes are found in-
(1) mitochondria (2) archaebacteria (3) Fungi (4) Bacteria
128. Sedimentation coefficient is represented by S. Greater the size of ribosome unit-
(1) Greater will be the value of S (2) Smaller will be the value of S
(3) Value of S will be same (4) It has no relation with the size
129. 70 S type of ribosomes are found in-
(1) Eukaryotic cells (2) Mitochondria
(3) Prokaryotic cells (4) All of these
Cilia & Flagella & Centrioles

130. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) powers the movement of cilia and flagella, adenosine triphosphatase activity
is present in
(1) Nexin protein (2) Dynein protein (3) Massule (4) Both (1) & (2)
131. Basal bodies are associated with the development of-
(1) Cilia and flagella (2) Cell plate
(3) Phragmoplast (4) Kinetochore
132. Cilia and flagella have-
(1) Dissimilar internal structure and are of similar size
(2) Dissmilar internal structure and are of unequal size
(3) Similar internal structure and are of dissimilar size
(4) Similar internal structure and are of equal size
133. Neuromotor apparatus in chlamydomonas involves-
(1) Centriole (2) Basal bodies (3) Flagella (4) All of these
134. 0+9 microtubular structure is found in-
(1) Centriole (2) Basal body (3) Blepharoplast (4) All of these
135. Pick up the incorrect pair-
(I) movement of cilia - sweeping or pendular stroke
(II) Giant lysosome - sperm acrosome
(III) Movement of flagella - independent to each other
(IV) Giant centriole - Oocytes and sperms
(V) Basal body (kinetosome) - 9 + 0 fibrillar arrangement
(VI) Number of flagella for cell - 2 to 4
(1) Only I is incorrect (2) Only IV is incorrect

(3) IV and VI are incorrect (4) all are incorrect
136. Protein tubulin does not occur in-
(1) Flagella (2) Plasma membrane (3) Cilia (4) Microtubule

137. Centrosome is
(1) Cytoplasmic structure of animal cells
(2) A nuclear structure of animal cells
(3) Cytoplasmic structure of plant cells
(4) Cytoplasmic structure of animal cells and some lower plants
138. Centrosome is rich in
(1) RNA (2) DNA (3) ATP (4) Enzymes
139. In cilia microtubular fibrils are of doublet nature and are tilted by 10º angle so that subfibril A is close to
centre. In centriole, microtublar fibrils are triplet nature and are tilted by
(1) 10º (2) 30º (3) 40º (4) 45º
140. Basal body could be another name of centriole in view of internal structure when
(1) It gives rise to spindle (2) It divides during mitosis
(3) It gives basic reactions (4) It gives rise to cilia and flagella.
141. Which is not a compartment in the cell
(1) Nucleus (2) Centriole (3) Mitochondria (4) Chloroplast
142. Centriole and centrosome are found in the cell of
(1) Animals (2) Green plants (3) Bacteria (4) Cyanobacteria.
Microbodies
143. Which of the following organelle possess oxidases and are associated with oxidation reaction other than
those of respiration
(1) Sphaerosomes (2) Peroxisomes (3) Lysosomes (4) Golgi
144. Which of the following organelle takes part in photorespiration
(1) Glyoxisome (2) Peroxisome (3) Dictyosome (4) ER
145. Catalase forms peroxisome protein and utilizes H2O2 to oxidise alcohol in liver and converts H2O2 into H2O so
it is also called as safty valve. It’s opposite enzyme in peroxisome is -
(1) Cyt P–450 (2) Cathepsin (3) Cyt b5 (4) Oxidase
146. Glyoxylate cycle occuring in glyoxysomes is a modified form of-
(1) Calvin cycle (2) Glycolysis (3) Kreb’s cycle (4) Glycolate cycle
147. Plant lysosomes rich in fats and taking part in -oxidation of fattyacids are-
(1) Lysosomes (2) microsomes (3) Sphaerosomes (4) Glyoxysomes
148. Urate oxidase is found in-
(1) Cell membrane (2) Lomasomes (3) Mitochondria (4) Peroxisome
149. From endosperm of germinating castor bean extruded cell organelles are-
(1) Peroxisomes (2) Glyoxisomes (3) Transosomes (4) None
150. Glyoxylate cycle plays an important role in conversion of-
(1) Glycerol into carbohydrate (2) Fatty acids into carbohydrates
(3) Proteins into carbohydrates (4) Simple carbohydrates into complex carbohydrates
Vacuoles
151. Vacuole is surrounded by a single membrane called
(1) Plasmalemma (2) Vacuole wall (3) Tonoplast (4) Tono membranous
152. A large and mature plant cell has-
(1) Many Vacuoles (2) A large vacuole
(3) No vacuole (4) Many small vacuoles and a large vacuole

153. In a plant cell vacuole contains-
(1) Water (2) Dissolved salts (3) Gases (4) All of these
154. Cell sap is-
(1) Non living part of cytoplasm (2) Living part of cytoplasm
(3) Living matter of cell (4) Non living part of vacuole
155. Vacuolar cell sap has pH-
(1) Alkaline and hypotonic (2) Neutral and isotonic
(3) Acidic and hypertonic (4) Equal to cytoplasm and isotonic
156. Organic acid and most common element in sap vacuole-
(1) Ca++, acitic acid (2) K+, oxaloacetic acid (3) Ca++, citric acid (4) K+, acetic acid
157. In Amoeba, medium of food vacuole are-
(1) Alkaline (2) Acidic
(3) First alkaline and then acidic (4) First acidic then alkaline
158. Vacuoles help in-
(1) Making cell light (2) Storing wastes and food particles
(3) Separating water from cytoplasm (4) All of the above
Nucleus
159. The cell nucleus was discovered by
(1) De Duve (2) Robert Brown (3) Robert Hooke (4) Virchow
160. Nuclear material without nuclear membrane is found in
(1) Mycoplasma and green algae (2) Bacteria and green algae
(3) Bacteria and cyanobacteria (4) Cyanobacteria and red algae
161. Genome is
(1) Diploid set of chromosomes (2) Haploid set of chromosomes
(3) A single chromosome (4) None of the above
162. A constriction on the chromosomes is called
(1) Centromere (2) Centrosome (3) Centriole (4) Chromomeres
163. Nucleolus takes part in the synthesis of
(1) rRNA (2) tRNA (3) mRNA (4) None of these
164. Who was the German biologist who proved that the nucleus determines the characters of the cell and the
individual.
(1) Boveri (2) Sutton (3) Hertwig (4) Hammerling
165. Number of chromosomes in definite nucleus is/are
(1) Triploid (2) Diploid (3) Polyploid (4) Haploid
166. The genetic material of the bacterial cell is localised within a discrete region, called as
(1) Nucleus (2) Nucleolus (3) Plasmid (4) Nucleoid
167. In bacterial cell DNA is extensively looped and coiled with help of
(1) Acid proteins (2) Histones
(3) Basic nucleoid protein called as polyamines (4) Actin
168. Nucleolus is produced from
(1) 1st constriction (2) Nucleolar organising region of certain chromosomes
(3) Nuclear envelope (4) ER

CELL DIVISION
169. The plane of cell wall formation and spindle formation is determined by
(1) microtubules (2) microfilaments
(3) vesicles of Golgi bodies (4) ER
170. Sex cells have
(1) same amount of DNA as that of body cell (2) twice the amount of DNA as that of body cell
(3) half the amount of DNA as that of body cell (4) variable amount of DNA.
171. Anastral mitosis is found in
(1) Plants (2) Animals (3) All living cells (4) Prokaryotes
172. The best stage to view structure, size and to count the number of chromosomes is
(1) Metaphase (2) Late prophase (3) Early anaphase (4) I-phase
173. In which stage size of nucleus increases
(1) I-Phase (2) Prophase (3) Early prophase (4) Mid prophase
174. Which is called direct cell division
(1) Mitosis (2) Amitosis (3) Meiosis (4) All cell divisions
175. During synapsis, the number of chromonemata / DNA in bivalent chromosome are.
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 8 (4) 16
176. In meiosis, chromosomes separate at
(1) Anaphase-I (2) Anaphase-II (3) Diakinesis, (4) Diplotene
177. In plant cells, division of cytoplasm occurs by
(1) Cell plate (2) Cleavage (3) Furrowing (4) Invagination
178. Brachymeiosis is
(1) failure of meiosis-II (2) failure of metaphase (3) failure of prophase (4) doubling of chromosomes
179. E.coli / Bacteria does not show alternation of generations because of absence of
(1) Syngamy (2) Nucleus (3) Chromosomes (4) Reduction division
180. Where would you look for active cell division in plant
(1) Inernodal region (2) Cortex (3) Apex (4) Pith
181. The metabolic or energetic phase with most cytogenetic activity is
(1) Meiosis (2) Interphase (3) M–Phase (4) Pachytene
182. Which among the following is most active and of longest duration in animals?
(1) Diplotene (2) Leptotene (3) zygotene (4) Pachytene
183. In which stage of cell division the nucleus looks like a ball of wool (spireme stage)?
(1) Prophase (2) Anaphase (3) Prophase-I (4) Cytokinesis
184. The common mitogen is –
(1) Temperature (2) Cytokinin (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) Colchicine
185. In which phase of I-Phase, damaged DNA is repaired?
(1) G1 (2) G2 (3) S Phase (4) M Phase
186. The centriole divides at–
(1) G1 Phase (2) S phase (3) Anaphase (4) G2 Phase
187. The gap between 2 successive divisions is called–
(1) Interkinesis (2) Interphase (3) I-phase (4) Generation time

188. The type of meiosis occuring before fertilization is called
(1) zygotic (2) sporic (3) gametic (4) azygotic
189. The active phase, also called metabolic or energetic phase with most cytogenetic activity is
(1) Interphase (2) M–Phase (3) Meiosis (4) Pachytene
190. Which of the following shows syndetic knot in plants -
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene (3) Pachytene (4) Diplotene
191. Which of the following will undergo meiosis and mitosis both
(1) Oocytes (2) Spermatids (3) Interstitial cells (4) Gonads
192. Quiescent cells in the root tip cells are in which phase of cell cycle of mitosis
(1) G1 (2) G0 (3) G2 (4) M
193. Tetrad is a group of
(1) 4 cells (2) 2 haploid cells
(3) 4 haploid cells (4) 4 cells arranged in tetrahedral manner.
194. To observe chiasmata, the most appropriate stage of meiosis would be
(1) metaphase-II (2) diakinesis (3) diplotene (4) pachytene
195. The number of chromatids in a chromosome at metaphase is
(1) two in mitosis and one in meiosis (2) one in mitosis and two in meiosis
(3) two in mitosis and two in meiosis (4) two in mitosis and four in meiosis.
196. For studying meiosis which is most suitable material
(1) Root tips / shoot tips (2) mature anthers
(3) Young floral buds (4) young anthers / Testes of Grasshopper
197. The time between the end of telophase and commencement of next prophase is called
(1) M-phase (2) Post mitotic phase (3) Pre mitotic phase (4) G2 phase.
198. Intranuclear mitosis is also called
(1) extranuclear (2) endomitosis (3) karyochorisis (4) brachymitosis
199. Type of meiosis just before gamete formation i.e. gametogenesis is
(1) terminal (2) initial (3) intermediate (4) none of these
200. Inhibitors of cell division are
(1) cyanides and azides (2) colchicine
(3) chalones and UV–rays (4) all of the above.
201. The mitosis was observed in animal cells by
(1) Walter Flemming (2) Strasburger (3) Hertwig (4) moore
NCERT BASED QUESTIONS

202. Read the following statements and choose the correct option.
(i) The physio-chemical approach to study and understand living organisms is called "Reductionist Biology".
(ii) Cell theory which is proposed by Schlieden and Schwann explains how new cells arise.
(iii) Centriole is a single membranous cell organelle helps in cell division in animal cell.
(iv) Prokaryotes lack membrane bounded cell organelles.
Select the correct statements.
(1) (i) & (ii) (2) (ii) & (iii) (3) (ii) & (iv) (4) (i) & (iv)

203. Which statement is incorrect ?
(1) Smallest cell is mycoplasma which is 0.3 in length
(2) Largest isolated single cell is ostrich egg.
(3) Nerve cells are the longest cells and can be seen by naked eyes.
(4) Human R.B.C is about 7 m in diameter
204. Select the pair of correct statements with respect to prokaryotic cell.
(i) The genomic DNA is circular and naked
(ii) Large circular DNA outside the genomic DNA is known as plasmid
(iii) Plasmid DNA confers certain unique phenotypic character to bacteria.
(iv) Prokaryotic cells are devoid of cell organelles.
(1) i & ii (2) ii & iii (3) ii & iv (4) i & iii
205. Read the following statements & check out the option with incorrect statements with respect to prokaryotes.
(i) Prokaryotic cell's envelop consists of a tightly bounded three layered structures with outer to inner
arrangement as cell membrane, glycocalyx & cellwall.
(ii) Mesosomes and chromatophores are the cell membranes extensions
(iii) Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres helpful in attachment with a substratum.
(iv) Thin filamentous extension from the cellwall of bacteria are called flagella.
(1) only (i) (2) (i) & (ii) (3) (i) & (iv) (4) only (ii)
206. Polysome is :
(1) r - RNA + Ribosome (2) m - RNA + Ribosome
(3) t - RNA + lysosome (4) m - RNA + Lysosome
207. Movement of polar molecule across plasma membranes is possible through
(1) Diffusion (2) Osmosis (3) Carrier proteins (4) All of above
208. Endomenbranous system is formed by
(1) ER + Golgibody + Lysosome + Vacuole (2) ER + Ribosome + Lysosome + Vacuole
(3) ER + Ribosome + Mitochondria + Plastid (4) ER + GB + Ribosome + Lysosome
209. The cell organelle responsible to make luminal and extra-luminal compartment in eukaryotic cell is -
(1) ER (2) GB (3) Nucleus (4) Vacuole
210. Arrangement of golgi apparatus in a cell is :
(1) Convex Cis/forming face is towards cell membrane
(2) Concave Cis/forming face is towards cell membrane
(3) Convex Cis/forming face is towards Nucleus while concave trans or maturing face is towards plasma
membrance.
(4) Convex Cis/forming face is towards Plasma membrane while concave trans or maturing face is towards
Nucleus.
211. Match the columns
Column-I Column-II
(i) Fat (a) Amyloplast
(ii) Xanthophyll (b) Aleuroplast
(iii) Protein (c) Elaioplast
(iv) Starch (d) Chromoplast
(1) i – b ii – d iii – a iv – c (2) i – c ii – d iii – b iv – a
(3) i – b ii – d iii – c iv – a (4) i – c ii – b iii – d iv – a
212. Checkout the incorrect statement
(1) Nuclear pores are the passages through which movement of RNA and Protein molecules take place in
both the directions between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
(2) Nucleus contains only one nucleolus exclusively
(3) Chromosome contains DNA, RNA, histones and some non-histone proteins.
(4) A single human cell has approximately 2m long thread of DNA distributed among 46 chromosomes.
213. Read the following statement and select the correct option that bears true statements -
(i) After S-phase DNA number become twice but chromosomes remain same i.e. 2n.
(ii) A cell in G0 phase in metabolically active and can enter in division phase depending on the requirement of
organism.
(iii) Cell division is a progressive process that shows the distinct boundries between various stages.
(iv) At the end of prophase GB, ER, Nucleolus and nuclear envelope get disappear
(1) i, ii & iv (2) i, ii & iii (3) ii, iii & iv (4) all of these
214. Formation of syncytium as in the liquid endosperm in conconut is possible when :
(1) Karyokinesis is eventually followed by cytokinesis
(2) Cytokinesis is eventually followed by karyokinesis
(3) Cytokinesis is eventually not followed by cytokinesis
(4) Karyokinesis is eventually not followed by cytokinesis.
215. Match the columns
Column-I Column-II
(i) Zygotene (a) X-shape chiasmata
(ii) Pachytene (b) Formation of bivalent/ tetrad
(iii) Diplotene (c) Terminalization
(iv) Diakinesis (d) Recombination
(1) i – d ii –a (iii) –b iv – c (2) i – a ii – d iii – b iv – c
(3) i – b iii – d iii – a iv – c (4) i – a ii – b iii – d iv – c
216. Identify the metaphase-I from the following figures
(1) (2)
(3) (4)

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The biochemical component of erythrocyte membrance determining blood group is :
(1) lipoprotein (2) glycoprotein
(3) phosphoprotein (4) hemoprotein
2. If the haploid number for a species is three each dividing diploid cell during mitosis will have how many
chromatids at anaphase ?
(1) 3 (2) 6 (3) 9 (4) 12
3. A high surface area to volume ratio in cells is important because it :
(1) enables efficient transfer of wastes, nutrients and gases across the cell membrane
(2) prevents overproduction of cell proteins due to structural limitations
(3) allows many antigens on the surface for identification of self and non self
(4) provides for better structural support to cope with externel physical pressure
(5) allows for cell division
4. Which statement is false ?
(1) During the process of exocytosis, the lumen (inner) surface of a secretory vesicle becomes the inside
of the plasma (cell) membrane
(2) Cilia, microtubules and flagella are all associated with movement in cells
(3) A function of the nucleus is duplicating the genes for cell division
(4) Proteins that are to be secreted by the cell are generally synthesized by the membrane-bound ribo
somes
(5) Active transport involves movement of molecules into a cell against their concentration gradient
5. Which of the following description describes the cell shown in figure?
(1) 8 chromosomes, 4 homologous pair (2) 8 chromosomes, 8 homologous pairs

(3) 16 chromosomes, 8 homologous pair (4) 16 chromohomes, 4 homologous pairs
6. Which statement best describes the process of endocytosis ?
(1) A vesicle within a cell fuses with the plasma membrane and releases its contents to the outside
(2) Solid particles of liquids are taken up by a cell through invagination of the plasma membrane
(3) Investmemt in one cytosis reduces the ability of the parent to assist another cytosis
(4) One region of an embryo directs the development of a neighbouring region of an embryo through move-
ment of cells
(5) An organism obtains its energy from light and organic compounds

7. Match the following cellular organelles with their functions :
A. Rough endoplasmic reticulum 1. Makes ATP
B. Mitochondria 2. Convert cellular polymers to monomers
C. Golgi complex 3. Synthesize proteins to be used inside the cell
D. Free ribosomes 4. Synthesize proteins to be used outside the cell
E. Lysosomes 5. Move materials out of the cell
Codes : A B C D E
(1) 2 1 5 3 4 (2) 3 1 2 4 5 (3) 4 1 5 3 2 (4) 5 4 3 1 2
8. Fluid mosaic model depicts the 3-dimensional structure of cell membrane and can explain many of the
vital membrane functions. Which one of the following statements is inconsistent with it ?
(1) Penetration of compounds through membrane does not depend on molecular size
(2) Protein-lined pores traverse the lipid bilayer
(3) Proteins and lipids of the membrane are in dynamic fluid stages
(4) The lipid bilayer is sandwiched between proteins
9. Structure of plasma membrane is shown. Here ‘X’ indicates :
(1) glycoprotein (2) cholesterol tail (3) peripheral protein (4) cytoskeleton
10. Centrioles :
(1) hold sister chromatids together during metaphase
(2) are duplicated before cell division
(3) are only present during cell division
(4) consist of DNA and histones
(5) are found in plants cells
11. A red blood corpuscle (RBC) was kept in a solution and treated so that it become inside-out. What will be the
polarity of the phospholipid bilayer in this cell ?
(1) (2)
(3) (4)

12. Membrane compositions of three cell types are tabulated below.
Me mbrane Com position (%)

Cell Type
Protein Phospholipid Ste rol
Rat liver cell 46 30 20
Maize leaf cell 40 35 8
E. coli 74 26 0
The % composition of inner mitochondrial membrane is likely to be

(1) 40 : 30 : 20 (2) 42 : 33 : 9 (3) 43 : 33 15 (4) 76 : 24 : 0
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS OF CELL DIVISION
13. Select the correct pair–
Phase of meiosis Events that occurs
1. Prophase I Crossing over occurs
2. Metaphase I Sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles
3. Anaphase I Homologous chromosomes arrange in linear sequence.
(1) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(2) 1 is correct, 2 and 3 are false
(3) 1 and 3 are correct, 2 is false
(4) 1 and 2 are correct, 3 is false
14. Meiosis occur in Rhizopus & yeast –
(1) Oosphere, Ascus (2) Zygospore, Ascus mother cell
(3) Oogonium, Ascospore (4) Thallus, Dikaryon
15. In pachytene–
(1) Chromatids are not visible (2) chromomeres are not visible
(3) Chromosomes stain faintly (4) Chromosomes coil more
16. Cell division occurs when the cell
(1) is haploid (2) becomes diploid
(3) attains optimum growth (4) Any time of life
17. At which stage of cell cycle, cell has undergone differentiation?
(1) G3 (2) G1 (3) G4 (4) G0
18. In Chlamydomonas/ Ulothrix and in Spirogyra meiosis occurs during–
(1) Gametangium (2) Oosphere formation
(3) egg formation (4) Zygospore/zygote germination
19. Which one of the following pair is correctly matched–
(1) Anaphase I – Homologous chromosomes are separated
(2) Metaphase I – Pairing of maternal and Paternal homologous chromosomes takes place
(3) Interphase – A nuclear envelop encloses each haploid set of chromosomes.
(4) Prophase I – Non-homologous chromosomes are separated
20. In meiosis, how many times nucleus divides?
(1) Once (2) Twice (3) Does not divide (4) Four times
21. Which substage of I phase is of shortest duration?
(1) G1 (2) G2 (3) S (4) All of these

22. G1 is also called as–
(1) Pre synthetic phase (2) Post mitotic phase (3) I Gap period (4) All are correct
23. In binary fission or amitosis, two daughter cells formed are of
(1) Unequal size (2) Mostly unequal size
(3) equal size (4) Equal or unequal size both
24. In metaphase I, from each centromere of a chromosomes, how many chromosomal fibres (tracticle fibres)
arise towards poles?
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 1 (4) 4 – 20
25. In which stage of spermatogenesis the chromosomes are associated with tetrads?
(1) Pachytene (2) Leptotene (3) Zygotene (4) Diplotene
26. How many mitotic divisions occur in a cell of shoot tip to form 256 cells?
(1) 8 (2) 128 (3) 255 (4) All wrong
27. Acentric chromosomes at anaphase lies at –
(1) Pole (2) Hang (3) Equator (4) All wrong
28. Centriole is in cell division in animal cell required for –
(1) Spindle formation (2) Nucleolus reappearance
(3) Chromosome segregation (4) None of the above
29. Mechanism of genetic continuity in mitosis is due to–
(1) Crossing over
(2) Pairing
(3) Segregation of maternal and paternal chromosomes
(4) Duplication of DNA
30. Aribonucleo-protein structure called synaptonemal complex is reported by moses 1956. It is visible from–
(1) Zygotene through pachytene (2) Leptotene through diplotene
(3) Pachytene through diplotene (4) Diplotene through metaphase
31. Size of nucleolus increases in–
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene (3) Pachytene (4) All of these
32. What is the cause of cell division?
(1) Decrease in surface area/volume ratio due to growth of cell
(2) Nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio decreases due to increase in size of cell
(3) Disturbance in DNA and RNA ratio
(4) All of the above
33. Colchicine inhibits cell division bring polyploidy –
(1) Inhibiting splitting of centromere at anaphase
(2) Inhibiting spindle formation at premetaphase
(3) Splitting chromosomes
(4) Not allowing disappearance of nuclear membrane
34. Mitosis occurs in–
(1) Red bone marrow (2) Meristems
(3) Stratum germinativum (4) All of the above
35. In Neurospora, one mitosis occurs after meiosis and therefore, sequence of ascospores will be
(1) 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 (2) 2 - 4 - 2 (3) both 1 & 2 correct (4) None of the above.

36. How many meiosis are required to produce 10 seeds of Cyperus
(1) 20 (2) 13 (3) 1.25 (4) 2.5
37. In Pinus, number of chromosomes in pollen grains is 6. the number of chromosomes in endosperm after
fertilization will be
(1) 6 (2) 36 (3) 12 (4) 24
38. To observe chiasmata & terminalization the most appropriate stages of meiosis would be–
(1) zygotene, diplotene (2) leptotene, pachytene
(3) Diplotene, diakinesis (4) Pachytene, zygotene
39. In the nucleus of an egg the amount of DNA is present = 10pg. Find the amount of DNA which will be present
at the end of G2 phase of mitosis
(1) 5 Pg (2) 10 Pg (3) 20 Pg (4) 40 Pg
40. In angiospermic plant what is the minimum number of meiotic divisions required to obtain 200 grains (fruit)?
(1) 100 (2) 200 (3) 250 (4) 300
41. The spindle microtubules are polar, their orientation is –
(1) '+' and '–' both ends towards the equators (2) '+' end towards the poles
(3) '+' and '–' both ends towards the poles (4) '–' end towards the pole
42. An organism has 20 pairs of chromosomes. How many chromosomes will be at the end of meiosis I and in
daughter cells at the end of meiosis II?
(1) 10, 20 (2) 20, 20 (3) 10, 5 (4) 10, 10
43. C–Mitosis is
(1) Mitosis without anaphase (2) Mitosis without spindle at metaphase
(3) Nucleus with polyploidy (4) All of the above
44. A bacterium that divides once in half hour how many bacteria are formed after 24 hrs. of growth?
(1) 212 (2) 224 (3) 248 (4) 247
45. During meiosis crossing over occurs at 4–strand stage (Pachytene). This was proved by the observation
that–
(1) Mostly 2 gametes out of 4 formed during meiosis are recombinants
(2) All 4 gametes show recombinations
(3) Chiasmata occur at 4 strand stage
(4) All correct
46. All the following events happen in prophase I of meiosis except–
(1) Terminalization (2) Chiasma (3) Segregation (4) Synapsis
47. Meiosis in ferns like pteris occurs during–
(1) Gamete formation (2) Sporogenesis (Formation of spores)
(3) Germination of spores (4) Zygote germination
48. In meiosis four daughtor cells are formed that are differ from each other due to–
(1) Crossing over
(2) Difference in chromosome number
(3) Crossing over and independent assortment
(4) Independent assortment only
49. How many cells are involved in meiosis to produce 128 male gametes?
(1) 32 (2) 64 (3) 127 (4) 16

50. A meiosis produces–
(1) 50% paternal and 50% maternal chromosomes
(2) 100% recombinants
(3) 50% parental combinations and 50% recombinants
(4) Both (1) and (3) are correct
51. How many successive generations of mitosis must occur to produce 256 cells?
(1) 7 (2) 8 (3) 128 (4) 255
52. Law of segregation of mendel occurs during–
(1) Anaphase I (2) Anaphase II (3) Metaphase I (4) Metaphase II
AIIMS CORNER
1. High energy bond of ATP are between (AIIMS - 1999)
(1) C–C (2) C–O (3) C–N (4) O–P
2. Which of the following is present between cell walls of the plant cell (AIIMS - 1999)
(1) Lomasome (2) Microsome (3) Lysosome (4) Middle lamella
3. Shape of metacentric chromosome in anaphase is (AIIMS - 1999)
(1) L-shaped (2) V-shaped (3) J-shaped (4) I-shaped
4. Cell wall is absent in (AIIMS - 2000)
(1) Amoeba (2) Chara (3) yeast (4) E. Coli
5. The organelle connected with -oxidation or fat digestion is (AIIMS - 2002)
(1) Glyoxysome (2) Sphaerosome (3) Peroxisome (4) Mitochondrian.
6. In glycolysis, glucose molecule is converted into (AIIMS - 2002)
(1) PEP (2) RuBP (3) Acetyl Co-A (4) Pyruvic acid
7. Plasmodesmata connections help in (AIIMS - 2003)
(1) Cytoplasmic streaming
(2) Synchronous mitotic divisions
(3) Locomotion of unicellular organisms
(4) Movement of substances between cells.
8. Which one is the wrong statement regarding cell organelles (AIIMS - 2005)
(1) Lysosomes are double membraned vesicles budded off from Golgi bodies and contain digestive en-
zymes
(2) Endoplasmic reticulum consists of a network of membranous tubules and helps in transport, synthesis
and secretion.
(3) Leucoplasts are bounded by two membranes, lack pigments but contain their own DNA and protein
synthesising machinery.
(4) Sphaerosomes are single membrane bound and are associated with synthesis and storage of lipids.
9. Which is common between chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts (AIIMS - 2006)
(1) Presence of pigments (2) Presence of thylakoids and grana
(3) Storage of starch, proteins and lipids. (4) Ability to multiply by a fission-like process.

10. Enzyme catalase is found in (AIIMS- 2006)
(1) lysosome (2) spherosome (3) peroxisome (4) All of these
11. The telomeres of eukaryotic chromosomes consists of short sequences of (AIIMS - 2007)
(1) Cytosine rich repeats (2) Thymine rich repeats
(3) Adenine rich repeats (4) Guanine rich repeats.
12. Match the following - (AIIMS - 2007)
(a) tRNA (i) Linking of amino acids
(b) mRNA (ii) Transfer of genetic information
(c) rRNA (iii) Nucleolar organising region
(d) Peptidyl transferase (iv) Transfer of amino acid from cytoplasm to ribosome.
(1) a–(iv) b–(ii), c–(iii), d–(i) (2) a–(i), b–(iv),c–3, d–(ii)
(3) a–(i), b–(ii),c–(iii), d–(iv) (4) a–(i), b–(iii),c–2, d–(iv)
13. How many sperms are formed from a secondary spermatocyte? (AIIMS - 2008)
(1) 4 (2) 8 (3) 2 (4) 1
14. In humans at the end of first meiotic division, the male germ cells differentiate into the (AIIMS - 2009)
(1) primary spermatocytes (3) secondary spermatocytes
(3) spermatids (4) spermatogonia
15. What is correct about the movement of substance across the membrane in facilitated diffusion ?
(1) it is an active transport (AIIMS - 2010)
(2) it doesn't cause transport of molecules from low concentration to high concentration
(3) it is insensitive to inhibitors
(4) it is a very specific transport
16. Who invented electron microscope? (AIIMS - 2010)
(1) Janssen (2) Edison (3) Knoll & Ruska (4) Landsteiner
17. The percentage of cell surface that is impermeable for ions is - (AIIMS - 2011)
(1) 1% (2) 99.9% (3) 90% (4) 73%
18. Satellite of chromosome is - (AIIMS 2011)
(1) rich in RNA and deficient in DNA (2) rich in DNA and deficient in RNA
(3) rich in protein (4) lacks DNA
19. Which of the following ions are necessary for assembly of microtubules? (AIIMS 2011)
+ + 2+ - + 2+ + 2+
(1) Na and K (2) Ca and Cl (3) Ca and Mg (4) Na and Ca
20. Basis of life are - (AIIMS 2011)
(1) nucleic acids(2) proteins (3) nucleoproteins (4) amino acids
21. Which chromosome may lost during cell division? (AIIMS 2012)
(1) Giant chromosome (2) Acentric chromosome
(3) Polycentric chromosome (4) Telocentric chromosome
22. Three morphological forms of golgi complex are (AIIMS 2012)
(1) Lamellae, tubules and vesicles (2) Cisternae, tubules and vesicles
(3) Cisternae, tubules and lamellae (4) Granum, thalykoids and vesicles

ASSERTION / REASONING
In each of the following questions a statement of Assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding
staterment of Reason (R) just below it. Of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(1) If both assertion and resaon are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false
(4) If both assertion and reason are false
23. Assertion : Leucoplasts give rise to other types of plastids.
Reason : Chromoplasts do not get changed to other types of plastids
(1) (2) (3) (4)
24. Assertion : ER connects two adjacent protoplasts.
Reason : ER forms desmotubules.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
25. Assertion : Some proteins of the ER are formed by free ribosmes in the cytosol.
Reason : Most of the proteins are synthesised by free ribosomes.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
26. Assertion : Golgi complex is absent only in prokaryotic cells.
Reason : All eukaryotic cells contain Golgi complex.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
27. Assertion : Lysosomes show stability in the living cell.
Reason : Lysosomal membrane is not digested by the lysosomal enzymes.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
28. Assertion : Chiasmata is formed during diplotene.
Reason : Chiasmata are formed due to deposition of nucleoproteins.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
29. Assertion : During zygotene, chromosomes show bivalent stage.
Reason : Bivalent is half the number of chromosomes.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
30. Assertion : Meiosis takes place in pollen mother cells.
Reason : Each pollen mother cell produce 4 haploid pollen grains.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
31. Assertion : Mitosis maintains the genetic similarity of somatic cells.
Reason : Chromosomes do not undergo crossing over.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
32. Assertion : Cristae are the infoldings of outer membrane of mitochondria.
Reason : Electron transport occurs in mitochondrial matrix.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
33. Assertion : Interphase is divisible into three stages – G1, S and G2.
Reason : S-phase is also called invisible M-phase.
(1) (2) (3) (4)

34. Assertion : Spireme stage of chromosomes occur in telophase stage.
Reason : In spireme stage, the chromosomes appear like a ball of wool.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
35. Assertion : Mitotic spindle is made of microtubules.

Reason : Mitotic spindle disappear after the end of mitosis.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
36. Assertion : Chiasmata is formed during diplotene.

Reason : Chiasmata are formed due to deposition of nucleoproteins.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
37. Assertion : Homologous separate at anaphase-I.
Reason : The two chromatids of a chromosome separate at anaphase II formed during meiosis.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
38. Assertion : Mitochondria and chloroplasts are semiautonomous organelles. (AIIMS - 2005)
Reason : They are formed by division of per-existing organelles as well as contain DNA but lack protein
synthesising machinery.
(1) If both assertion and resaon are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false
(4) If both assertion and reason are false.
39. Assertion : F1 particles are present in the inner mitochondrial membrane. (AIIMS 2008)
Reason : An electron gradient formed on the inner mitochondrial membrane, forms ATP.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
40. Assertion : Protoplasmic continuity is maintained in perforated septum. (AIIMS 2008)

Reason: Usually a small pore remains in the centre of the septum.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
41. Assertion : Nucleus is the controlling centre of a cell. (AIIMS 2009)

Reason : Pores in the nuclear envelop regulate the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
42. Assertion : Shrinkage of the protoplast of a cell occurs under the influence of hypertonic solution.
Reason : Hypertonic solution causes plasmolysis. (AIIMS 2010)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
43. Assertion : Interphase is resting stage. (AIIMS 2012)

Reason : The interphase cell is metabolically inactive.
(1) (2) (3) (4)

PART- 1
1. Telomeres (AIPMT - 2000)

(1) Initiate RNA synthesis
(2) Help chromoatids to move towards poles
(3) Seal end of chromosomes
(4) Identify correct members of homologous pairs of chromosomes.
2. At which stage chromosmes come to lie over equatorial plate (AIPMT - 2003)
(1) Metaphase (2) Anaphase (3) Telophase (4) Prophase.
3. Procaryotic and eukaryotic flagella differ in (AIPMT - 2004)
(1) Type of movement and placement (2) Location and mode of functioning
(3) microtubular structure and function (4) Microtubular organisation and type of movement.
4. Chlorophyll occurs in chloroplast (AIPMT - 2004)
(1) Inner membrane (2) Thylakoid membrane
(3) Outer membrane (4) Stroma.
5. What is correct (AIPMT - 2004)
(1) DNA content becomesdouble during G1- phase
(2) Duration of interphase is short as compared to M-phase
(3) G2-phase follows mitotic phase
(4) DNA-replication occurs in S-phase.
6. What precedes reformation of nuclear envelope in M-phase (AIPMT - 2004)
(1) Decondensation of chromosomes and appearance of nuclear lamina
(2) Transcription of chromosomes and resassembly of phargmoplast
(3) Formation of phragmoplast and contraction ring
(4) Formation of contraction ring and transcription from chromosome.
7. In choroplasts the chlorophyll is located in (AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Stroma (2) Grana (3) Pyrenoid (4) Both 1 and 2.
8. As per fluid mosaic model, lipids and integral proteins can diffuse randomly. The model has been modified
in several aspects. Which of the following statements is incorrect (AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Protein of cell membrane can travel within lipid bilayer
(2) Protein of cell membrane can undergo flip-flop movement in lipid bilayer
(3) Protein can remain confined within certain domains of the membrane
(4) Many proteins remain completely embedded within lipid blilayer.
9. Organelle involved in modification and routing of newly synthesised proteins to their destination is
(AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Chloroplast (2) Lysosome (3) Mitochondrion (4) Endoplasmic reticulum.

10. Which of the following statements about cilia is not correct (AIPMT - 2006)
2+
(1) Organised beating of cilia is controlled by fluxes of Ca across the membrane
(2) Cilia are hair like cellular appandages
(3) Cilia contain an outer ring of nine doublet microtubules surrounding two singlet microtubules
(4) Microtubules of cilia are composed of tubulin.
11. Which of the following statement regarding mitochondrial membrane is not correct (AIPMT - 2006)
(1) Outer membrane resembles a sieve
(2) Outer membrane is permeable to all kinds of molecules
(3) Enzymes of electron transport chain are embedded in outer membrane
(4) Inner membrane is highly convoluted forming a series of infoldings.
12. Which is not constituent of cell membrane (AIPMT - 2007)
(1) Glycolipids (2) Phospholipids (3) Cholesterol (4) Proline.
13. Which is wrong (AIPMT - 2007)
(1) Both chloroplast and mitochondrion have an internal compartment or thylakoid space bounded by thyla-
koid membrane
(2) Both contain DNA
(3) Chloroplast is generally larger
(4) Both are covered by double membrane.
14. The two subunits of ribosomes remain united at a critical ion level of (AIPMT - 2008)
(1) Magnesium (2) Calcium (3) Copper (4) Manganese.
15. Polysome is formed by (AIPMT - 2008)
(1) A ribosome with several subunits
(2) Ribosomes attached to each other in a linear arrangement
(3) Several ribosomes attached to a single mRNA
(4) Many ribosomes attached to strand of endoplasmic reticulum
16. Vacuole in a plant cell (AIPMT - 2008)
(1) lacks membrane and contains air
(2) Lacks membrane and contains water and excretory substances
(3) Is membrane bound and contains storage proteins and lipids
(4) Is membrane bound and contains water and excretory substances.
17. In germinating seeds fatty acids are degraded exclusively in the (AIPMT - 2008)
(1) Peroxisomes (2) Glyoxysomes (3) Mitochondria (4) Proplastids
18. Keeping in view the fluid mosaic model for the structure of cell membrane, which one of the following
statement is correct with respect to movements of lipids and proteins from one lipid monolayer tothe other
(described as flip flop movement) ? (AIPMT - 2008)
(1) While proteins can flip-flop, lipids cannot (2) Neither lipids nor proteins can flip-flop
(3) Both lipids and proteins can flip-flop (4) While lipids can rarely flip-flop, proteins cannot.
19. Which one of the following pairs of nitrogeneous bases of nucleic acids is wrongly matched with category
mentioned against it (AIPMT - 2008)
(1) Guanine, adenine – Purines (2) Adenine, thymine – Purines
(3) Thymine, uracil – Pyrimidine (4) Uracil, cytosine – Pyrimidine.

20. Genes present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells are found in (AIIMS - 2008)
(1) Lysosomes and peroxisomes
(2) Mitochondria and inherited via egg cytoplasm
(3) Golgi bodies and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(4) Plastids and inherited via male gamete.
21. Plasmodesmata are (AIPMT - 2009)
(1) Connection between adjacent cell (2) Lignified cemented layers bewteen cells
(3) Locomotary stuctures (4) Membranes connecting the nucleus with plasmalemma
22. Stroma in the chloroplasts of higher plant contains (AIPMT - 2009)
(1) ChlorophyII (2) Light-independent reaction enzymes
(3) Light-dependent reaction enzymes (4) Ribosomes
23. Middle lamella is composed mainly of (AIPMT - 2009)
(1) Phosphoglycerides (2) Hemicellulose (3) Muramic acid (4) Calcium pectate
24. The plasma membrane consists mainly of (AIPMT - 2010)
(1) Proteins embedded in a phospholipid bilayer
(2) Proteins embedded in a polymer of glucose molecules
(3) Proteins embedded in a carbohydrate bilayer
(4) Phospholipids embedded in a protein bilayer
25. Which one of the following structures between two adjacent cells is an effective transport pathway
(AIPMT - 2010)
(1) Plastoquinones (2) Endoplasmic reticulum
(3) Plasmalemma (4) Plasmodesmata
26. Important site for formatition of glycoproteins and Glycolipids in (AIPMT - 2011)
(1) Vacuole (2) Golgi apparatus (3) Plastid (4) Lysosome
27. Peptide synthesis inside a cell takes place in : (AIPMT - 2011)
(1) Chloroplast (2) Mitochondria (3) Chromoplast (4) Ribosomes
28. Which one of the following organisms is not an example of eukaryotic cells ? (AIPMT - 2011)
(1) Paramecium caudatum (2) Escherichia coli
(3) Euglena viridis (4) Amoeba proteus
29. In eubacteria, a cellular component that resembles eukaryotic cells is : (AIPMT - 2011)
(1) Plasma membrane (2) Nucleus (3) Ribosomes (4) Cell wall
30. Ribosomal RNA is actively synthesized in (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Lysosomes (2) Nucleolus (3) Nucleoplasm (4) Ribosomes
31. What is true about ribosomes (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) The prokaryotic ribosomes are 80S, where "S" stands for sedimentation coefficient
(2) These are composed of ribonucleic acid and proteins
(3) These are found only in eukaryotic cells
(4) These are self -splicing introns of some RNAs.
32. Select the correct statement from the following regarding cell membrane. (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Na+ and K+ ions move across cell membrane by passive transport
(2) Proteins make up 60 to 70% of the cell membrane.
(3) Lipids are arranged in a bilayer with polar heads towards the inner part.
(4) Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane was proposed by Singer and Nicolson

33. During mitosis ER and nucleolus begin to disappear at (AIPMT - 2010)
(1) Early metaphase (2) late metaphase (3) Early prophase (4) Late prophase
34. Select the correct option with respect to mitosis. (AIPMT - 2011)
(1) Chromatid separate but remain in the centre of the cell in anaphase.
(2) Chromatids tart moving towards opposite poles in telophase.
(3) Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulurn are still visible at the end of prophase.
(4) Chromosome move to the spindle equator and get aligned along equatorial plate in metaphase
35. What would be the number of chromosome of the aleurone cells of a plant with 42 chromosomes in its
root tip cells ? (AIPMT - 2011)
(1) 42 (2) 63 (3) 84 (4) 21
36. During gamete formation, the enzyme recombinase participates during (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Metaphase - I (2) Anaphase - II (3) Prophase - I (4) Prophase - II
37. Given below is the representation of a certain event at a particular stage of a type of cell division. Which is
this stage ? (AIPMT Pre. 2012)
(1) Prophase I during meiosis (2) Prophase II during meiosis

(3) Prophase of Mitosis (4) Both prophase and metaphase of mitosis
38. Which one of the following structures is an organelle within an organelle ? (AIPMT Mains 2012)
(1) Ribosome (2) Peroxisome (3) ER (4) Mesosome
39. Which one of the following cellular parts is correctly described ? (AIPMT Mains 2012)
(1) Thylakoids - flattened membranous sacs forming the grana of chloroplasts
(2) Centrioles - sites for active RNA synthesis
(3) Ribosomes - those on chloroplasts are larger (80s) while those in the cytoplasm are smaller (70s)
(4) Lysosomes - optimally active at a pH of about 8.5
40. Identify the meiotic stage in which the homologous chromosomes separate while the sister chromatids
remain associated at their centromeres : (AIPMT Mains 2012)
(1) Metaphase I (2) Metaphase II (3) Anaphase I (4) Anaphase II
41. Peroxisomes are rich in (BHU - 1999)

(1) reductive enzymes (2) lytic enzymes
(3) riboxidative enzymes (4) catalase enzymes
42. Oxidative phosphorylation means formation of (BHU - 1999)
(1) ATP in photosynthesis (2) ATP in respiration
(3) use of O2 in photosynthesis (4) Excretion of O2 in respiration

43. lampbrush chromosomes found in oocytes occur in (AFMC - 1999)
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene (3) Pachytene (4) Diplotene.
44. Chromosomes appearing rod shaped during anaphase are (MPPMT - 1999)
(1) Acrocentric (2) Metacentric (3) Submetacentric (4) Telocentric.
45. The function of peroxisomes is (DPMT - 2000)
(1) H2O2 destruction (2) conversion of fats to carbohydrates
(3) detoxification of heavy metals (4) oxidative phosphorylation
46. Sister chromatids are joined at (BHU 2001)
(1) Chromocentre (2) Metacentre (3) Centromere (4) Telomere
47. Kinetochore is (Bih. PMT - 2001)
(1) Granule within centromere (2) Surface of centromere
(3) Constriction near chromosome end (4) End of chromosome.
48. Which of the following lack cell wall (BHU - 2001)
(1) Gametes (2) Amoeba (3) Mycoplasma (4) All of these
49. The organelle concerned with photorespiration is (BHU - 2001)
(1) ribosome (2) Peroxisome (3) glyoxysomes (4) Lysosome
50. A chromosome carrying centromere at one end is (MPPMT - 2002)
(1) Acrocentric (2) Telocentric (3) Metacentric (4) Submetacentric.
51. Organelle connected with lipid synthesis is (RPMT - 2002)
(1) Ribosome (2) SER (3) Golgi apparatus (4) All the above.
52. Major function of contractile vacuole is (RPMT - 2002)
(1) Excretion (2) Storage (3) Osmoregulation (4) Circulation.
53. Which is present nearest to plasma membrane in plant cell (AFMC - 2002)
(1) Secondary wall (2) Primary wall (3) Middle lamella (4) Tonoplast.
54. The term chromosome was coined by (CET. Chd. - 2003)
(1) Hofmeister (2) Strasburger (3) Waldeyer (4) Laemili.
55. Welded areas between two adjacent animal cells are (CET. Chd. - 2003)
(1) Interdigitations (2) Desmosomes (3) Gap junctions (4) Intercellular bridges.
56. Orange-yellow colours of flowers and fruits are due to (AFMC - 2003)
(1) Chloroplasts (2) Leucoplasts (3) Aleuroplasts (4) Chromoplasts
57. Which is not bounded by a membrane (AMU - 2003)
(1) Plastid (2) Mitochondrion (3) Nucleus (4) Centriole.
58. Mitochondria are sites of (Orissa - 2003)
(1) Calvin cycle (2) Krebs cycle (3) Hill reaction (4) Glycolysis.
59. Cell shape is mainly determined by (AIEEE - 2003)
(1) Vacuole (2) Endoplasmic reticulum
(3) Microtubules (4) Cell membrane
60. Who coined the term endoplasmic reticulum (B.V. - 2003)
(1) Palade (2) Porter (3) De Duve (4) Robinson.
61. F0 –F1 particles are also called (B.V. - 2003)
(1) Quantasomes (2) Glyoxysomes (3) Palade particles (4) Fernades-Moran particles.
62. The thylakoid in chloroplast are arranged as (BHU - 2003)
(1) interconnected disc (2) interconnected sacs (3) stacked discs (4) none of these

63. Ribosomes that occur exclusively in mitochondria are (DPMT - 2004)
(1) 70S (2) 55S (3) 30S (4) 50S
64. Single membrane bound organelles are (DPMT - 2004)
(1) lysosome (2) sphaerosome (3) glyoxysome (4) all of these
65. Match the columns (Kerala - 2004)
Column I Colum n II
(a) Metac entric (i) A t the top
(b) S ubmetacentric (ii) Almost near the tip
(c) A croc entric (iii) At the middle
(d) Telocentric (iv) Slightly away from middle.
(1) a – i, b – iv, c– ii, d – iii (2) a – ii, b – iv, c– i, d – iii

(3) a – iii, b – iv, c– ii, d – i (4) a – iv, b – iii, c– i, d – ii.
66. Racker’s particles are found in (Manipal - 2005)
(1) Golgi bodies (2) Plant cell walls (3) Mitochondria (4) Nucleus
67. Pectin occurs in (Manipal - 2005)
(1) Blood proteins (2) Plant cell walls
(3) Milk protein (4) Liver cell
68. The one located inside a vacuole is (Manipal - 2005)
(1) Tonoplast (2) Matrix (3) Ergastic substances (4) Cell sap
69. Peroxisomes occur in (Orissa - 2005)
(1) Bundle sheath (2) Vascular bundles (3) Mesophyll cells (4) Endosperm
70. Plant cells store fat in (Kerala - 2005)
(1) Peroxisome (2) Lysosome (3) Sphaerosome (4) Microsome
71. Phagosomes and pinosomes are collectively called (DPMT - 2005)
(1) Residual bodies (2) Autophagic bodies (3) Digestive vacuoles (4) Endosomes.
72. Fluidity of cell membranes in cold weather is maintained by (Pb. PMT - 2005)
(1) Increasing number of phsopholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails.
(2) Increasing the proportion of integral proteins
(3) Increasing concentration of cholesterol in membrane
(4) None of the above.
73. Arrangement of ciliary microtubules is (RPMT - 2006)
(1) 9 + 2 (2) 9 + 4 (3) 9 + 3 (4) 9 + 9.
74. Which cell organelle connect nuclear envelope with cells membrane (RPMT - 2006)
(1) Lysosome (2) Golgi body
(3) Endoplasmic reticulum (4) Mitochondria.
75. A clear zone around Golgi apparatus is (CET. Cha - 2006)
(1) Zone of separation (2) Zone of transition (3) Zone of inclusion (4) Zone of exclusion
76. Nucleosome contains (MH - 2007)
(1) H2A, H2B, H3 H4 (2) H3, H4 (3) H2A, H2B,H3 (4) H1, H2A,H2B,H3.
77. Enzyme catalysing ATP inside flagella is (DPMT - 2007)
(1) Axonal dynein (2) Cytoplasmic dynein (3) Myosin (4) Kinesin.

78. Number of protofilaments present in a microtubule is (DPMT - 2007)
(1) 15 (2) 13 (3) 10 (4) 5.
79. Fat storing plastids are (DPMT - 2007)
(1) Amyloplasts (2) Aleuroplasts (3) Elaioplasts (4) All the above.
80. Lysosomes are formed from (BHU - 2007)
(1) E.R. (2) Golgi bodies (3) Mitochondria (4) Both 1 and 2.
81. ATP is required for (BHU - 2007)
(1) Active process (2) Passive process
(3) All types of processes (4) None of the above
82. Lysosomes are the reservoirs of (AFMC - 2007)
(1) Hydrolytic enzymes (2) RNA and protein
(3) Secretory glycoproteins (4) Fats
83. Movement of ions or molecules against electrochemical gradient is called (AFMC - 2007)
(1) Pinocytosis (2) Diffusion (3) Active transport (4) Brownian movement.
84. Anticodon is present on (AFMC - 2007)
(1) rRNA (2) mtRNA (3) tRNA (4) mRNA.
85. Which is not correct according to chargaff’s rule. (DPMT - 2008)
A G
(1) A + T = C + G (2) A + G = C + T (3) 1 (4) None of these.
C T
86. Match the following with correct combination (KPMT - 2008)

Column I Column II
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum 1. stack of cisternae
(b) Spherosomes 2. Store oils or fats
(c) Dictyosomes 3. Synthesis and storage of lipids
(d) Peroxisomes 4. Photorespiration
(e) Elaioplasts 5. Detoxification of drugs
(1) a -5, b-3, c-1, d-4, e-2 (2) a -5, b-3, c-2, d-4, e-1
(3) a -2, b-3, c-1, d-4, e-5 (4) a -3, b-4, c-1, d-5, e-2
87. In which cell organelles, lipoprotein covering is absent (BCECE - 2008)
(1) Ribosomes (2) Lysosomes (3) Mitochondria (4) Peroxisomes
88. Nuclear membrane is continuous with (CPMT- 2009)
(1) rough endoplasmic reticulum
(2) smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(3) Cell membrane
(4) Golgi bodies
89. Quantasomes are present in (BHU- 2009)
(1) chloroplast (2) mitochondria (3) Golgi body (4) lysosome
90. The thickness of unit membrane is (BHU- 2009)
(1) 20 Å (2) 35Å (3) 55Å (4) 75Å
91. Which of the following cell organelles stores hydrolytic enzymes (BHU- 2009)
(1) Centriole (2) Lysosome (3) Chromoplast (4) Chloroplast

92. Tonsoplast is a membrane, which surrounds (BHU- 2009)
(1) ribosome (2) mitochondria (3) vacuole (4) cytoplasm
93. Cell theory is not appliable for (WB - JEE 2010)
(1) bacteria (2) fungus (3) algae (4) virus
94. Endomitosis is (RPMT - 1998)
(1) Mitosis without nucleus (2) Mitosis within nucleus
(3) Frequent mitosis (4) Mitosis in uterine wall.
95. In telophase of mitosis (RPMT - 1998)
(1) Chromosomes get arranged in middle of cell
(2) Chromosome fibres become clear
(3) Chromosomes aggregate at opposite poles to form daughter nuclei
(4) Nuclear envelope disappears.
96. Which one ensures maintenance of chromosome number from generation to generation (BHU - 1999)
(1) Mitosis (2) Meiosis (3) Splicing (4) Metamorphosis
97. Cell division is initiated by (AFMC - 2000)
(1) Cytokinin (2) Auxin (3) Gibberellin (4) ABA.
98. Which is not a component of mitosis (AIPMT - 2000)
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene (3) Pachytene (4) All the above
99. Spindle fibres are attached to chromosome in the region of (AIPMT - 2000)
(1) Centrosome (2) Chromomere (3) Chromonema (4) Kinetochore.
100. Cyclin is associated with (RPMT - 2000)
(1) Cyclosis (2) Mitosis (3) Glycolysis (4) Haemolysis
101. During meiosis, replication of chromosomes occurs in (RPMT - 2000)
(1) S-phase (2) S-phase and zygotene
(3) S-phase and leptotene (4) All the above.
102. During cell cycle, two molecules of DNA are present in chromsome during (AIIMS - 2001)
(1) G1 phase (2) Beginning of S-phase
(3) G2 phase (4) End of M-phase.
103. Kinetochore is (Bih. PMT - 2001)
(1) Granule within centromere (2) Surface of centromere
(3) Constriction near chromosome end (4) End of chromosome.
104. What is true for mitosis (Manipal - 2002)
(1) It has two divisions (2) It maintains number of chromosomes
(3) It occurs in somatic cells only (4) It occurs in somatic cells as well as gonads
105. Meiosis occurs in (CMC - 2002)
(1) Embryo sac (2) Megaspore
(3) Megaspore mother cell (4) Nucellus.
106. Number of DNA strands present in chromosomes during G2 phase is (RPMT - 2002)
(1) One (2) Two (3) Four (4) Eight.
107. In metaphase-I chromsomes are in (RPMT - 2002)
(1) Tetrad stage (2) Dyad stage (3) Diploid nature (4) Attract each other.
108. Longest phase of meiosis is (Bihar PMT - 2002)
(1) Prophase-I (2) Prophase-II (3) Anaphase-I (4) Metaphase-II

109. Chemical for arresting cell division is extracted from (Bihar PMT - 2002)
(1) Crocus (2) Colchicum (3) Chrysanthemum (4) Dalbergia.
110. Mitotic spindle is composed of (AIPMT - 2002)
(1) Actin (2) Actinomyosin (3) Myoglobin (4) None of the above.
111. Stage connecting meiosis-I and meiosis-II is (AIPMT - 2002)
(1) Interphase-I (2) Interphase-II (3) Interkinesis (4) Anaphase-I.
112. In pachytene stage of meiosis, the individual chromosomes appear (BHU - 2002)
(1) Single stranded (2) Double straneded (3) Three stranded (4) Four stranded.
113. Phase of cell cycle when DNA polymerase is active. (Karnataka - 2002)
(1) G1 (2) S (3) G2 (4) M.
114. In meiosis, chromosomes replicate during (AFMC - 2003)
(1) Prophase-I (2) Prophase-II (3) Telophase-I (4) Interphase.
115. Brachymeiosis involves (AMU - 2003)
(1) Two reduction divisions and one equational division
(2) One reduction division and one equational division
(3) One reduction division and two equational division
(4) Two reduction divisions and two equational divisions.
116. Pairing of homologous chromosomes in zygotene is called (AMU - 2003)
(1) Synapse (2) Synapsis (3) Crossing over (4) Terminalisation.
117. G0 state of cell denotes (AIEEE - 2003)
(1) Exit of cell from cell cycle (2) Check point before entering next phase
(3) Death of cell (4) Temporary pause.
118. Exchange of segments between nonsister chromatids of homolgous chromosomes is (CET. Chd. - 2003)
(1) Crossing over (2) Translocation (3) Linkage (4) Inversion.
119. Chiasmata are most appropriately observed in meiosis during (CPMT -2004)
(1) diakinesis (2) diplotene (3) metaphase II (4) pachytene
120. Synapsis occurs in...... phase of meiosis. (BCECE- 2004)
(1) Zygotene (2) Diplotene (3) pachytene (4) leptotene
121. Cyclin is required for cell cycle. Which other molecule is essential for completion of cell cycle
(Wardha - 2005)
(1) CCK (2) CKC (3) CDK (4) CKD.
122. In G2-phase, DNA content is (Wardha - 2005)
(1) 2n (2) n (3) 3n (4) 4n.
123. Which type of coiling occurs in chromosomes (RPMT - 2005)
(1) Plectonemic (2) Paranemic (3) Orthostichous (4) Anorthospiral.
124. Chromosomes are least condensed during (RPMT - 2005)
(1) Telophase (2) Interphase (3) Metaphase (4) Anaphase.
125. At what stage does the number of chromosomes become half (RPMT - 2005)
(1) Prophase I (2) Metaphase I (3) Anaphase I (4) Telophase I
126. Arrange the following events of meiosis in correct sequence (APMEE - 2005)
1. Terminalisation 2. Crossing over 3. Synapsis 4. Disjunction
(1) 4, 3, 2, 1 (2) 3, 2, 1, 4 (3) 2, 1, 4, 3 (4) 1, 4, 3, 2

127. Centromere is required for (AIPMT - 2005)
(1) Crossing over (2) Transcription
(3) Cytoplasmic cleavage (4) Movement of chromosomes towards poles
128. When synapsis is complete all along the chromosomes, the cell is said to have entered a stage called
(AIIMS - 2005)
(1) Diakinesis (2) Diplotene (3) Pachytene (4) Zygotene.
129. During meiosis (BHU - 2005)
(1) Linkage is disturbed (2) Homologous chromosomes are separated
(3) Homologous chromosomes do not segregate (4) All the above.
130. A plant cell has 12 chromosomes at the end of mitosis. How many chromosomes would it have in the G 2
phase of its next cell cycle (Pb. PMT - 2005)
(1) 6 (2) 8 (3) 12 (4) 24.
131. Astral rays arise from (AMU - 2005)
(1) Centriole (2) Cytoplasm (3) Chromatid (4) Centromere.
132. In which stage of meiosis the structures, number and shape of chromosomes can be observed
(RPMT - 2006)
(1) Prophase I (2) Metaphase I (3) Anaphase I (4) Telophase I.
133. In which stage synaptinemal complex dissolves, chromatids become clear and bivalents are called tetrads
(CET. CHd. - 2006)
(1) Zygotene (2) Pachytene (3) Diplotene (4) Diakinesis.
134. Meiosis can be observed in (BCECE - 2006)
(1) tapetal cells (2) megaspores (3) micropores (4) spore mother cells
135. Crossing over is found in (MPPMT - 2007)
(1) Leptotene (2) Zygotene (3) Pachytene (4) Diplotene.
136. Spindle fibre is made up of (CPMT- 2008)
(1) tubulin (2) humulin (3) intermediate filament (4) flagellin
137. A cell plante is laid during (CPMT- 2007)
(1) cytokinesis (2) karyokinesis (3) interphase (4) None of these
138. In cell cycle, during which phase chromosomes are arranged at equatorial plate (CPMT- 2008, BCECE 2010)
(1) Metaphase (2) Anaphase (3) Telophase (4) Prophase
139. Replication of centriole occurs during (BHU- 2008)
(1) interphase (2) prophase (3) late prophase (4) late telophase
140. RNA and proteins are formed in (BHU- 2008)
(1) G1 - phase (2) G2- phase (3) S-phase (4) G0 -phase
141. During cell cycle, RNA and non-histone proteins are synthesised in (CPMT- 2009)
(1) S-phase (2) G0-phase (3) G2 - phase (4) M-phase
142. Crossing over occurs (CPMT- 2009)
(1) single strand stage (2) two strand stage (3) four strand stage (4) eight strand stage
143. The largest phase of meiosis-I is (BHU- 2009)
(1) prophase-I (2) metaphase-I (3) anaphase-I (4) telophase-I
144. Balbiani rings are the centre for (BCECE - 2011)
(1) DNA synthesis (2) RNA synthesis
(3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of the above

BOARD LEVEL EXERCISE : HINT & SOLUTIONS
1. Exchange of materials between adjacent plant cells.

2. If it is brust it will digest all the cell organelles and cell components & cell will die.
3. Endocytosis : The inward transport of material by means of carrier vesicles is called endocytosis. it
includes two types.
(a) Pinocytosis or Potocytosis (Cell Drinking) : Intake of fluid substances by plasmalemma in the form
of vesicles (Pinosome) is called pinocytosis.
(b) Phagocytosis (Cell eating) : Intake of solid food substances by plasmalemma in the form of vesicles
(Phagosome) is called phagocytosis.
4. Rudolf Virchow
5. Ribosome & Centriole
6. Chromatin undergoes dehydration to form long thin & coiled chromosomes that are called spiralization
and their ends are indistinct they look like a boll of wool this stage is called spireme stage.
7. Because chromoseome number become half in anaphase-I.
8. Arrested G1 – phase
9. S – phase
10. In pachytene phase of prophase I
11. Follow page no. 22
12. Most of the ATP are produced by mitochondria during respiration. These ATP are required for performing
various metabolic activities. Thus mitochondria is called power house of cell.
14. On the basis of position of the centromere, chromosomes are of following types.
(i) Metacentric : Centromere is found in middle and at anaphase chromosome is V-shaped.
(ii) Sub-metacentric : The position of the centromere is subcentral. Anaphasic stage L-shaped.
(iii) Acrocentric : The position of the centromere is subterminal. Anaphasic stage J-shaped.
(iv) Telocentric : Centromere terminal, anaphasic stage is I- shaped.
16. Significance of meiosis :
(a) Variations :
(i) Independent assortment of chromosomes
(ii) Crossing over (iii) Irregular disjunction
(iv) Gene mutation during replication & nicking for crossing over.
(b) Polyploidy : Failure of chromosomes to separate during anaphase-I leads to polyploidy.
(c) Maintenance of chromosome number
(d) Sexual reproduction
17. (i) Late Anaphase
(ii) Anaphase
(iii) Zygotene
(iv) Pachytene
18. Follow page no. 8 of module.
20. Chloroplast is considered as semi autonomous cell organelle due to presence of DNA , RNA, 70s
ribosomes and proteins synthesis systems.

21.
22. (i) peroxisomes are the site of photorespiration.

(ii) The major function of sphaerosomes is synthesis and storage of fat.
(iii) These are the sites of -oxidation of fat and Glyoxylate cycle they are highly specialized peroxisomes.
24. (B) Cytokinesis (Whitemen) :

It is a division of cytoplasm. It starts in late anaphase & Completed at the end of telophase.
Cytokinesis comprises two types.
(i) Cell furrow or cell cleavage method :
A viscous fibrous dense Mid body is formed in the centre. Constriction of peripheral microfilaments takes
place toward centre (Centripetal) and finally both sides meet and two daughter cells are formed
Ex: Animal cell.
(ii) Cell plate method :
In case of plant cell, some spindle fibres exist that form phragmoplast.
Golgi vesicles and some ER vesicles deposite in the central part of phragmoplast and their deposition
proceeds towards peripheral part (centrifugal) and finally a cell plate is formed followed by the formation
of middle lamella.
Now Primary wall deposites at each side of middle lamella and ultimately both cells get seperated to form
two daugther plant cells.

or
Follow page no. 13-14
26. Follow page no. 23-24
or
27. (i) Follow page no. 19-20
(ii) Follow page no. 14
(iii) Follow page no. 22
28. Follow page no. 33-34
or

EXERCISE - 1
1. (4) 2. (4) 3. (4) 4. (2) 5. (3) 6. (2) 7. (4)
8. (4) 9. (4) 10. (3) 11. (1) 12. (4) 13. (3) 14. (4)
15. (3) 16. (3) 17. (1) 18. (2) 19. (3) 20. (1) 21. (4)
22. (1) 23. (3) 24. (4) 25. (3) 26. (2) 27. (2) 28. (4)
29. (2) 30. (4) 31. (1) 32. (1) 33. (4) 34. (4) 35. (3)
36. (2) 37. (2) 38. (3) 39. (3) 40. (1) 41. (1) 42. (2)
43. (4) 44. (4) 45. (2) 46. (3) 47. (3) 48. (2) 49. (4)
50. (3) 51. (3) 52. (4) 53. (3) 54. (4) 55. (1) 56. (3)
57. (4) 58. (2) 59. (3) 60. (3) 61. (2) 62. (3) 63. (4)
64. (3) 65. (1) 66. (3) 67. (3) 68. (3) 69. (4) 70. (4)
71. (4) 72. (4) 73. (3) 74. (3) 75. (3) 76. (4) 77. (2)
78. (4) 79. (4) 80. (2) 81. (1) 82. (3) 83. (1) 84. (2)
85. (3) 86. (1) 87. (2) 88. (1) 89. (2) 90. (4) 91. (1)
92. (4) 93. (3) 94. (3) 95. (4) 96. (3) 97. (1) 98. (1)
99. (2) 100. (3) 101. (2) 102. (3) 103. (3) 104. (1) 105. (3)
106. (3) 107. (1) 108. (2) 109. (4) 110. (4) 111. (4) 112. (3)
113. (2) 114. (2) 115. (1) 116. (4) 117. (4) 118. (2) 119. (3)
120. (4) 121. (3) 122. (2) 123. (3) 124. (3) 125. (4) 126. (3)
127. (3) 128. (1) 129. (4) 130. (2) 131. (1) 132. (3) 133. (4)
134. (4) 135. (3) 136. (2) 137. (4) 138. (3) 139. (3) 140. (4)
141. (2) 142. (1) 143. (2) 144. (2) 145. (4) 146. (3) 147. (4)
148. (4) 149. (2) 150. (2) 151. (3) 152. (2) 153. (4) 154. (4)
155. (3) 156. (4) 157. (4) 158. (4) 159. (2) 160. (3) 161. (2)
162. (1) 163. (1) 164. (4) 165. (2) 166. (4) 167. (3) 168. (2)
169. (1) 170. (3) 171. (1) 172. (1) 173. (1) 174. (2) 175. (1)
176. (1) 177. (1) 178. (1) 179. (4) 180. (3) 181. (2) 182. (1)
183. (1) 184. (3) 185. (2) 186. (4) 187. (4) 188. (3) 189. (1)
190. (1) 191. (4) 192. (2) 193. (3) 194. (3) 195. (3) 196. (4)
197. (2) 198. (3) 199. (1) 200. (4) 201. (1) 202. (4) 203. (3)
204. (1) 206. (2) 207. (3) 208. (1) 209. (1) 210. (3) 211. (2)
212. (2) 213. (1) 214. (4) 215. (3) 216. (3)
EXERCISE - 2
1. (2) 2. (4) 3. (1) 4. (1) 5. (1) 6. (2) 7. (3)
8. (4) 9. (1) 10. (2) 11. (1) 12. (4) 13. (2) 14. (2)
15. (4) 16. (3) 17. (4) 18. (4) 19. (1) 20. (2) 21. (2)
22. (4) 23. (2) 24. (3) 25. (1) 26. (3) 27. (3) 28. (1)
29. (4) 30. (1) 31. (4) 32. (4) 33. (2) 34. (4) 35. (3)
36. (1) 37. (1) 38. (3) 39. (4) 40. (3) 41. (4) 42. (2)
43. (4) 44. (3) 45. (1) 46. (3) 47. (2) 48. (3) 49. (1)
50. (3) 51. (2) 52. (1)
EXERCISE - 3
1. (4) 2. (4) 3. (2) 4. (1) 5. (1) 6. (4) 7. (4)
8. (1) 9. (4) 10. (3) 11. (4) 12. (1) 13. (3) 14. (3)
15. (4) 16. (4) 17. (2) 18. (1) 19. (3) 20. (1) 21. (2)
22. (2) 23. (2) 24. (1) 25. (3) 26. (4) 27. (2) 28. (3)
29. (2) 30. (1) 31. (1) 32. (4) 33. (2) 34. (4) 35. (2)
36. (3) 37. (2) 38. (3) 39. (3) 40. (1) 41. (2) 42. (1)
43. (3)
EXERCISE - 4
1. (3) 2. (1) 3. (4) 4. (2) 5. (4) 6. (1) 7. (2)
8. (2) 9. (4) 10. (1) 11. (3) 12. (4) 13. (1) 14. (1)
15. (3) 16. (4) 17. (2) 18. (4) 19. (2) 20. (2) 21. (1)
22. (2) 23. (4) 24. (1) 25. (4) 26. (2) 27. (4) 28. (2)
29. (1) 30. (2) 31. (2) 32. (4) 33. (4) 34. (4) 35. (2)
36. (3) 37. (1) 38. (1) 39. (1) 40. (3) 41. (4) 42. (2)
43. (4) 44. (4) 45. (1) 46. (3) 47. (1) 48. (4) 49. (2)
50. (2) 51. (2) 52. (3) 53. (1) 54. (3) 55. (2) 56. (4)
57. (4) 58. (2) 59. (3) 60. (2) 61. (4) 62. (3) 63. (2)
64. (4) 65. (3) 66. (3) 67. (2) 68. (4) 69. (3) 70. (3)
71. (4) 72. (1) 73. (1) 74. (3) 75. (4) 76. (1) 77. (1)
78. (2) 79. (3) 80. (4) 81. (1) 82. (1) 83. (3) 84. (3)
85. (1) 86. (1) 87. (1) 88. (1) 89. (1) 90. (4) 91. (2)
92. (3) 93. (4) 94. (3) 95. (3) 96. (2) 97. (1) 98. (4)
99. (4) 100. (2) 101. (2) 102. (3) 103. (1) 104. (4) 105. (3)
106. (2) 107. (1) 108. (1) 109. (2) 110. (4) 111. (3) 112. (4)
113. (2) 114. (4) 115. (1) 116. (2) 117. (1) 118. (1) 119. (2)
120. (1) 121. (3) 122. (4) 123. (1) 124. (2) 125. (3) 126. (2)
127. (4) 128. (3) 129. (2) 130. (3) 131. (1) 132. (2) 133. (3)
134. (4) 135. (3) 136. (1) 137. (1) 138. (1) 139. (1) 140. (1)
141. (3) 142. (3) 143. (1) 144. (2)

CELL-THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

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CELL-THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

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CELL–THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Modern cell theory :

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -1

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -2

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -3

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -4

Structure of the cell wall :

Chemical Compostion of cell wall :

(i) Middle Lamella :

(ii) Primary wall :

(iii) Secondary wall :

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -5

Differences Betw een Primary and Secondary W alls

Thickenings of cell wall :

(a) Simple pits : It bears uniform width of the pit chamber.

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -6

Model of cell membrane :

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -7

(b) Integral or intrinsic proteins :

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -8

Modification of cell membrane

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -9

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -10

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -11

(ii) Stroma (Matrix) :

(iii) Lamellar system :

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -12

Shape & size :

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -13

(1) All mitochondria of a cell are called chondriome.

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -14

The membrane of endoplasmic reticulum is 50–60 Aº thick.

E.R. is found in three forms

Types of Endoplasmic reticulum :

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -15

Structure of Golgi complex :

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -16

Fig : Golgi apparatus

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -17

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -18

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -19

8. Cilia and Flagella :

(a) Basal body :

(c) Basal plate :

Two central singlet fibrils originate from basal plate.

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -20

Cilia or flagella shows 9 + 2 arrangement of tubules (According to Fawcett & porter).

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -21

(i) Sphaerosomes (Oleosomes) :

(ii) Peroxisomes (uricosomes) :

10. Cytoskeletal structures :

(i) Microtubules (ii) Microfilaments (iii) Intermediate filaments

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -22

These are absent in prokaryotes, some

Diameter of microtubules is 25nm. With 15nm

They help in movement of cilia / flagella, poleward

It was discovered by Robert brown (1831) in orchid’s root cell.

J. Hammerling performed grafting experiments involving exchange of nucleus in Acetabularia (Unicellu-

NEET_ Cell Biology Page -23

Nucleus consists of following parts :

(2) Nucleoplasm (Karyolymph–Strasburger) :

(3) Chromatin network :