CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY – is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think
about information
 Dialect – is a developmental process where ideas evolved over time through a
pattern of transformation:
1. A thesis is proposed – a thesis is a statement of belief
2. An antithesis emerges – an antithesis is a stamen that counters a previous
statement of belief
3. A synthesis integrates the viewpoints – a synthesis integrates the most
credible features of each two or more views

 PHILOSOPHICAL ANTECEDENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY:

RATIONALISM VS. EMPIRICISM

 Philosophy – seeks to understand the general nature of many aspects of the world,
in part through introspection

The examination of inner ideas and experiences

 Physiology – seeks scientific study of life-sustaining functions in living matter,
primarily through empirical
o Observation-based method
 Rationalist (Plato) – believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical
analysis
 Empiricist (Aristotle) – believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence—that
is, we obtain evidence through experience and observation

 PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

 Structuralism – seeks to understand the structure (configuration of elements) of the
mind and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent
components (affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc.).
 Functionalism – seeks to understand what people do and why they do it. This
principal question about processes was in contrast to that of the structuralists, who
had asked what the elementary contents (structures) of the human mind are.
 Associationism – like functionalism, was more of an influential way of thinking than
a rigid school of psychology. Association is examines how elements of the mind like
events or ideas, can become associated with one another in the mind to result in a
form of learning. For example, associations may result from:
1. Contiguity - (associating things that tend to occur together at about the
same time);
2. Similarity - (associating things with similar features or properties); or
3. Contrast - (associating things that show polarities, such as hot/cold,
light/dark, day/night
 Behaviorism - focuses only on the relation between observable behaviour and
environmental events or stimuli. The idea was to make physical whatever others
might have called “mental”
 JOHN B. WATSONS – The “father” of radical behaviourism
 Gestalt psychology - states that we best understand psychological phenomena
when we view them as organized, structured wholes
 EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
 Cognitivism – is the belief that much of human behaviour can be understood in
terms of how people think.

 COGNITION AND INTELLIGENCE

 Intelligence – is the capacity to learn from experience, using meta-cognitive
processes to enhance learning, and the ability to adapt to the surrounding
environment

THREE COGNITIVE MODELS OF INTELLIGENCE

1. Carroll: Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence – According to the three-stratum

model of intelligence, intelligence comprises a hierarchy of cognitive abilities
comprising three strata (Carroll, 1993)
 Stratum I includes many narrow, specific abilities (e.g., spelling ability,
speed of reasoning).
 Stratum II includes various broad abilities (e.g., fluid intelligence,
crystallized intelligence, short-term memory, long-term storage and
retrieval, information-processing speed).
 Stratum III is just a single general intelligence (sometimes called g).
2. Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences – Howard Gardner has proposed a
theory of multiple intelligences, in which intelligence comprises multiple
independent constructs, no tjust a single, unitary construct
 Linguistic intelligence - Used in reading a book; writing a paper, a novel,
or a poem; and understanding spoken words
 Logical-mathematical intelligence - Used in solving math problems, in
balancing a check-book, in solving a mathematical proof, and in logical
reasoning
 Spatial intelligence - Used in getting from one place to another, in
reading a map, and in packing suitcases in the trunk of a car so that they
all fit into a compact space
 Musical intelligence - Used in singing a song, composing a sonata,
playing a trumpet, or even appreciating the structure of a piece of music
 Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence - Used in dancing, playing basketball,
running a mile, or throwing a javelin
 Interpersonal intelligence - Used in relating to other people, such as
when we try to understand another person’s behavior, motives, or
emotion
 Intrapersonal intelligence - Used in understanding ourselves—the basis
for under-standing who we are, what makes us tick, and how we can
change ourselves, given our existing constraints on our abilities and our
interests
 Naturalist intelligence - Used in understanding patterns in nature
3. Sternberg: The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Whereas Gardner emphasizes
the separateness of the various aspects of intelligence, Robert Sternberg tends
to emphasize the extent to which they work together in histriarchic theory of
human intelligence
 3 aspects:
1. Creative abilities - are used to generate novel ideas.
2. Analytical abilities - as certain whether your ideas (and
those of others) are good ones.
3. Practical abilities - are used to implement the ideas and
persuade others of their value.

CHAPTER 2: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

 Cognitive neuroscience - is the field of study linking the brain and other aspects of the nervous
system to cognitive processing and, ultimately, to behavior.
 The brain - is the organ in our bodies that most directly controls our thoughts, emotions, and
motivations
 Localization of function - refers to the specific areas of the brain that control specific skills or
behaviors.

COGNITION IN THE BRAIN: THE ANATOMY AND MECHANISMS OF THE BRAIN

 NERVOUS SYSTEM - is the basis for our ability to perceive, adapt to, and interact with the world
around us
1. THE FOREBRAIN - is the region of the brain located toward the top and front of the brain. It
plays a vital role in our thinking and other mental processes.
a. The basal ganglia - are collections of neurons crucial to motor function.
b. Limbic system - is important to emotion, motivation, memory, and learning.
c. Septum - is involved in anger and fear.
d. Amygdala - plays an important role in emotion as well, especially in anger and
aggression
e. Hippocampus - plays an essential role in memory formation
 Korsakoff’s syndrome - A disease that produces loss of memory function
f. Thalamus - relays incoming sensory information through groups of neurons that
project to the appropriate region in the cortex.
g. Hypothalamus - regulates behavior related to species survival: fighting, feeding,
fleeing, and mating.
2. THE MIDBRAIN - helps to control eye movement and coordination. The midbrain is more
important in nonmammals where it is the main source of control for visual and auditory
information
a. Reticular activating system - a network of neurons essential to the regulation of
consciousness
b. Brainstem - connects the forebrain to the spinal cord. It comprises the
hypothalamus, the thalamus, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.
3. THE HINDBRAIN- comprises the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum.
a. Medulla oblongata controls heart activity and largely controls breathing,
swallowing, and digestion
b. Pons serves as a kind of relay station because it contains neural fibers that pass
signals from one part of the brain to another.
c. Cerebellum (from Latin,“little brain”) controls bodily coordination, balance, and
muscle tone, as well as some aspects of memory involving procedure-related
movements
 CEREBRAL CORTEX - plays an extremely important role in human cognition
comprise three elements
1. Sulci - (singular, sulcus) are small grooves.
2. Fissures - are large grooves.
 3. Gyri - (singular, gyrus) are bulges between adjacent sulci or
fissures
Corpus callosum - is a dense aggregate of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral
hemispheres
LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
1. Frontal lobe - toward the front of the brain, is associated with motor processing
and higher thought processes, such as abstract reasoning, problem solving,
planning, and judgment
2. Parietal lobe - at the upper back portion of the brain, is associated with
somatosensory processing.
3. temporal lobe - directly under your temples, is associated with auditory
processing (Murray, 2003) and comprehending language
4. Occipital lobe - is associated with visual processing. The occipital lobe contains
numerous visual areas, each specialized to analyze specific aspects of a scene,
including color, motion, location, and form

 NEURONAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

1. Neurons - transmit electrical signals from one location to another in the nervous
system
2. Soma - which contains the nucleus of the cell (the center portion that performs
metabolic and reproductive functions for the cell), is responsible for the life of the
neuron and connects the dendrites to the axon.
3. Dendrites - are branchlike structures that receive information from other neurons,
and the soma integrates the information.
4. Axon - is a long, thin tube that extends (and sometimes splits) from the soma and
responds to the information, when appropriate, by transmitting an electrochemical
signal, which travels to the terminus (end), where the signal can be transmitted to
other neurons.
5. Myelin - is a white, fatty substance that surrounds some of the axons of the nervous
system, which accounts for some of the whiteness of the white matter of the brain.
6. Nodes of Ranvier - are small gaps in the myelin coating along the axon, which serve to
increase conduction speed even more by helping to create electrical signals, (also
called action potentials), which are then conducted down the axon.
7. Terminal buttons - are small knobs found at the ends of the branches of an axon that
do not directly touch the dendrites of the next neuron
8. Synapse - serves as a juncture between the terminal buttons of one or more neurons
and the dendrites (or sometimes the soma) of one or more other neurons
NEUROTRANSMITTERS - are chemical messengers for transmission of information across the synaptic
gap to the receiving dendrites of the next neuron
 monoamine neurotransmitters - are synthesized by the nervous system through enzymatic
actions on one of the amino acids
 amino-acid neurotransmitters - are obtained directly from the amino acids in our diet
without further synthesis
 neuropeptides - are peptide chains (molecules made from the parts of two or more amino
acids).
COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS FOR STUDYING BRAIN FUNCTIONING
a. Single-cell - recording Very thin electrode is inserted next to a single neuron. Changes in
electrical activity occurring in the cell are then recorded.
b. Electroencephalograms (EEGs) - Changes in electrical potentials are recorded via
electrodes attached to scalp
 c. Event-Related Potential (ERP) - Changes in electrical potentials are recorded via electrodes
attached to scalp
d. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - Participants ingest a mildly radioactive form of
oxygen that emits positrons as it is metabolized. Changes in concentration of positrons in
targeted areas of the brain are then measured.
e. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - Creates magnetic field that induces
changes in the particles of oxygen atoms. More active areas draw more oxygenated blood
than do less active areas in the brain. The differences in the amounts of oxygen consumed
form the basis for fMRI measurements.
f. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) - Involves placing a coil on a person’s head and
then allowing an electrical current to pass through it. The current generates a magnetic
field. This field disrupts the small area (usually no more than a cubic centimeter) beneath
it. The researcher can then look at cognitive functioning when the particular area is
disrupted
g. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) - Involves measuring brain activity through detection of
magnetic fields by placing a device over the head.

 Brain Disorders
a. Stroke - Vascular disorder is a brain disorder caused by a stroke. Strokes occur when the
flow of blood to the brain undergoes a sudden disruption.
2 types:
1. Ischemic stroke - usually occurs when a buildup of fatty tissue occurs
in blood vessels over a period of years, and a piece of this tissue
breaks off and gets lodged in arteries of the brain.
2. Hemorrhagic stroke - occurs when a blood vessel in the brain
suddenly breaks.
b. Brain tumors - also called (neoplasms), can affect cognitive functioning in very serious
ways
2 types:
1. Primary brain tumors - start in the brain. Most childhood brain
tumors are of this type.
2. Secondary brain tumors - start as tumors somewhere else in the
body, such as in the lungs.
c. Head injuries - result from many causes, such as a car accident, contact with a hard
object, or a bullet wound.
CHAPTER 3: VISUAL PERCEPTION
 PERCEPTION - is the set of processes by which we recognize, organize, and make sense of the
sensations we receive from environmental stimuli
 Distal (far) - object is the object in the external world (e.g., a falling tree).
 Informational medium - could be sound waves, as in the sound of the falling tree. might
also be reflected light, chemical molecules, or tactile information coming from the
environment.
 Proximal (near) stimulation - occurs (i.e., the cells in your retina absorb the light waves).
 Perceptual object - (i.e., what you see) is created in you that reflect the properties of the
external world.
PERCEPT—that is, a mental representation of a stimulus that is perceived.

 THE COMPOSITION OF THE HUMAN EYE

1. Cornea - is a clear dome that protects the eye.
2. Pupil – The light then passes through
3. Iris - the opening in the center
4. The vitreous humor - is a gel-like substance that comprises the majority of the eye.
5. Fovea - which is a small, thin region of the retina, the size of the head of a pin
 6. Retina - where electromagnetic light energy is transduced—that is, converted—into
neural electrochemical impulses
The retina is made up of:
1. Ganglion cells - the first layer of neuronal tissue—closest to the front,
outward-facing surface of the eye
2. Amacrine cells and horizontal cells - make single lateral (i.e., horizontal)
connections among adjacent areas of the retina in the middle layer of
cells.
3. Bipolar cells - make dual connections forward and outward to the
ganglion cells, as well as backward and inward to the third layer of retinal
cells.
4. Photoreceptors - which convert light energy into electrochemical energy
that is transmitted by neurons to the brain. There are two kinds of
photoreceptors—rods and cones.
a) Rods - are long and thin photoreceptors
b) Cones - are short and thick photoreceptors and allow for the
perception of color.
Within the rods and cones are PHOTOPIGMENTS - chemical substances that react to light
and transform physical electromagnetic energy into an electrochemical neural impulse
that can be understood by the brain

 DIFFERENT VIEWS ON HOW WE PERCEIVE THE WORLD

1. Bottom-up theories - describe approaches where perception starts with the stimuli whose
appearance you take in through your eye.
4 theories:
Direct Perception – the information in our sensory receptors, including the sensory
context, is all we need to perceive anything.
1) Template theories - suggest that we have stored in our minds myriad sets of
templates.
Templates - are highly detailed models for patterns we potentially might
recognize. We recognize a pattern by comparing it with our set of templates
2) Feature-Matching Theories - we attempt to match features of a pattern to
features stored in memory, rather than to match a whole pattern to a template
or a prototype
3) The Pandemonium Model - One such feature-matching model has been called
Pandemonium (“pandemonium” refers to a very noisy, chaotic place and hell).
In it, metaphorical “demons” with specific duties receive and analyze the
features of a stimulus
four kinds of demons:
1. Image demons - receive a retinal image and pass it on to feature
demons.
2. Feature demons - calls out when there are matches between the
stimulus and the given feature.
3. Cognitive demons - in turn shout out possible patterns stored in
memory that conform to one or more of the features noticed by
the feature demons
4. Decision demon - listens to the pandemonium of the cognitive
demons. It decides on what has been seen, based on which
cognitive demon is shouting the most frequently
4) Recognition-by-components (RBC) theory – explains our ability to perceive 3-
D objects with the help of simple geometric shapes.

2. Top-down theories - according to which perception is driven by high-level cognitive

processes, existing knowledge, and the prior expectations that influence perception

 VIEWER-CENTERED VS. OBJECT-CENTERED PERCEPTION

  Viewer-centered representation - is that the individual stores the way the object looks to
him or her. Thus, what matters is the appearance of the object to the viewer not the
actual structure of the object
 Object-centered representation - is that the individual stores a representation of the
object, independent of its appearance to the viewer. In this case, the shape of the object
will stay stable across different orientations

 THE PERCEPTION OF GROUPS—GESTALT LAWS

Law of Prägnanz - overarching law, We tend to perceive any given visual array in a way
that most simply organizes the different elements into a stable and coherent form

 PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Perceptual constancy - occurs when our perception of an object remains the same even
when our proximal sensation of the distal object change

 DEPTH PERCEPTION
 Depth - is the distance from a surface, usually using your own body as a
reference surface when speaking in terms of depth perception.
 Depth Cues - depth cues are either:
a. Monocular depth - cues can be represented in just two
dimensions and observed with just one eye
b. Binocular depth cues - based on the receipt of sensory
information in three dimensions from both eyes
two kinds of information to your brain
i. Binocular disparity - your two eyes send
increasingly disparate (differing) images to your
brain as objects approach you.
ii. Binocular convergence - your two eyes
increasingly turn inward as objects approach
you.

CHAPTER 4: ATTENTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS

 The Nature of Attention and Consciousness
 Attention - is the means by which we actively process a limited amount of
information from the enormous amount of information available through our senses,
our stored memories, and our other cognitive processes
  Consciousness - includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of
awareness, some of which may be under the focus of attention
 Attention
Here are the four main functions of attention:
1. Signal detection and vigilance: We try to detect the appearance of a particular stimulus.
2. Search: We try to find a signal amidst distracters, for example, when we are looking for
our lost cell phone on an autumn leaf-filled hiking path.
3. Selective attention: We choose to attend to some stimuli and ignore others, as when we
are involved in a conversation at a party.
4. Divided attention: We prudently allocate our available attentional resources to
coordinate our performance of more than one task at a time, as when we are cooking
and engaged in a phone conversation at the same time.

A. Attending to Signals over the Short and Long Terms

 Signal-detection theory (SDT) - is a framework to explain how people pick out the few
important stimuli when they are embedded in a wealth of irrelevant, distracting stimuli
1. Attention — paying enough attention to perceive objects that are there;
2. Perception — perceiving faint signals that may or may not be beyond your
perceptual range (such as a very high-pitched tone);
3. Memory — indicating whether you have/have not been exposed to a
stimulus before, such as whether the word “champagne” appeared on a list
that was to be memorized.
 Vigilance - refers to a person’s ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged
period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target
stimulus of interest.

B. Search: Actively Looking

 Search - refers to a scan of the environment for particular features—actively looking for
something when you are not sure where it will appear.
 Distracters – non-target stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus.
 Feature search - in which we simply scan the environment for that feature
 Conjunction search - we look for a particular combination (conjunction— joining
together) of features
THEORIES:
 Feature-integration theory - explains the relative ease of conducting feature
searches and the relative difficulty of conducting conjunction searches.
 Similarity Theory - data are a result of the fact that as the similarity between
target and distracter stimuli increases, so does the difficulty in detecting the
target stimuli
 Guided Search Theory - whether feature searches or conjunction searches,
involve two consecutive stages.

C. Selective Attention
 Cocktail party problem - the process of tracking one conversation in the face of the
distraction of other conversations.
 Dichotic presentation - each ear is presented a separate message.
Theories of Selective Attention
1. Broadbent’s Model - Multiple channels of sensory input reach an attentional filter. Those
channels can be distinguished by their characteristics like loudness, pitch, or accent.
2. Selective Filter Model – the reason for this effect is that messages that are of high
importance to a person may break through the filter of selective attention
3. Attenuation Model - participants shadowing coherent messages, and at some point
switched the remainder of the coherent message from the attended to the unattended
ear
4. Late-Filter Model - stimuli are filtered out only after they have been analyzed for both
their physical properties and their meaning
5. A Synthesis of Early-Filter and Late-Filter Models - proposed that there are two processes
governing attention:
  Preattentive processes - These automatic processes are rapid and occur in
parallel. They can be used to notice only physical sensory characteristics
of the unattended message. But they do not discern meaning or
relationships.
 Attentive, controlled processes - These processes occur later. They are
executed serially and consume time and attentional resources, such as
working memory. They also can be used to observe relationships among
features. They serve to synthesize fragments into a mental representation
of an object.

 Factors That Influence Our Ability to Pay Attention

1. Anxiety - Being anxious, either by nature (trait-based anxiety) or by situation (state-based
anxiety), places constraints on attention
2. Arousal - Your overall state of arousal affects attention as well. You may be tired, drowsy,
or drugged, which may limit attention. Being excited sometimes enhances attention
3. Task difficulty - If you are working on a task that is very difficult or novel for you, you’ll
need more attentional resources than when you work on an easy or highly familiar task.
4. Skills - The more practiced and skilled you are in performing a task, the more your
attention is enhanced

 Neuroscience and Attention: A Network Model

1. Alerting - is defined as being prepared to attend to some incoming event, and
maintaining this attention
2. Orienting - is defined as the selection of stimuli to attend to. This kind of attention is
needed when we perform a visual search.
3. Executive attention - includes processes for monitoring and resolving conflicts that arise
among internal processes.

 When Our Attention Fails Us

1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - have difficulties in focusing their
attention in ways that enable them to adapt in optimal ways to their environment
2. Change Blindness and Inattentional Blindness

which is a phenomenon in which people are not

able to see things that are actually there

an inability to detect changes in

objects or scenes that are being viewed
3. Spatial Neglect - attentional dysfunction in which participants ignore the half of their
visual field that is contralateral to (on the opposite side of) the hemisphere of the
brain that has a lesion.

 Habituation and Adaptation

 Habituation involves our becoming accustomed to a stimulus so that we gradually pay
less and less attention to it.
Dishabituation - a change in a familiar stimulus prompts us to start noticing the
stimulus again.
 Sensory adaptation - is a lessening of attention to a stimulus that is not subject to
conscious control. It occurs directly in the sense organ, not in the brain

 Automatic and Controlled Processes

 Automatic processes - like writing your name involve no conscious control
 Controlled processes - are accessible to conscious control and even require it.

CHAPTER 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods

 Memory - is the means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences to use that
information in the present
 Processes:
 Encoding - you transform sensory data into a form of mental representation
 Storage - you keep encoded information in memory
 Retrieval - you pull out or use information stored in memory

 Tasks Used for Measuring Memory

1. Recall versus Recognition Tasks
 Recall - you produce a fact, a word, or other item from memory.
 Recognition - you select or otherwise identify an item as being one that you have
been exposed to previously
2. Implicit versus Explicit Memory Tasks
 Explicit memory - in which participants engage in conscious recollection.
 Implicit memory - in which we use information from memory but are not
consciously aware that we are doing so
3. Intelligence and the Importance of Culture in Testing
 Culture-relevant tests - measure skills and knowledge that relate to the cultural
experiences of the test-takers.

 Models of Memory
1. The Traditional Model of Memory - proposed an alternative model that conceptualized
memory in terms of three memory stores:
 sensory store - capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for
very brief periods;
 short-term store - capable of storing information for somewhat longer periods
but of relatively limited capacity as well; and
 long-term store - of very large capacity, capable of storing information for very
long periods, perhaps even indefinitely
Hypothetical constructs—concepts that are not themselves directly measurable or observable but
that serve as mental models for understanding how a psychological phenomenon works
2. The Levels-of-Processing Model - which postulates that memory does not comprise three
or even any specific number of separate stores, but rather varies along a continuous
dimension in terms of depth of encoding
3. An Integrative Model: Working Memory- The working-memory model is probably the
most widely used and accepted model today.
memory comprises five elements:
1. Visuospatial sketchpad - briefly holds some visual images.
2. Phonological loop briefly - holds inner speech for verbal comprehension and for
acoustic rehearsal
3. Central executive - which both coordinates attentional activities and governs
responses.
4. Episodic buffer - is a limited-capacity system that is capable of binding
information from the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop as well as
from long-term memory into a unitary episodic representation.

 Multiple Memory Systems

working-memory model is consistent with the notion that multiple systems may be
involved in the storage and retrieval of information.
 Semantic memory – stores general world knowledge. It is our memory for facts
that are not unique to us and that are not recalled in any particular temporal
context.
 Episodic memory – stores personally experienced events or episodes.

 A Connectionist Perspective
 Prime - is a node that activates a connected node.
 Priming - effect is the resulting activation of the node.
 Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology
 Outstanding Memory: Mnemonists
  Mnemonist - someone who demonstrates extraordinarily keen memory ability,
usually based on using special techniques for memory enhancement
 Deficient Memory
 Amnesia - is severe loss of explicit memory
Retrograde amnesia - can occur fairly commonly when someone sustains
a concussion
 Alzheimer’s disease - is a disease of older adults that causes dementia as well as
progressive memory loss
Dementia - is a loss of intellectual function that is severe enough to
impair one’s everyday life.
CHAPTER 6: MEMORY PROCESS

 Encoding - refers to how you transform a physical, sensory input into a kind of
representation that can be placed into memory.
 Storage - refers to how you retain encoded information in memory.
 Retrieval - refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory.

 Forms of Encoding
1. Short-Term Storage - information stored temporarily in working memory is encoded
primarily in acoustic form
2. Long-Term Storage - it is encoded by the meanings of words primarily semantically
encoded

 TRANSFER OF INFORMATION FROM SHORT-TERM MEMORY TO LONG-TERM MEMORY

(2) two key problems:
1. Interference - When competing information interferes with our storing
information
2. Decay - When we forget facts just because time passes
CONSOLIDATION - process of integrating new information into stored information
METAMEMORY - strategies involve reflecting on our own memory processes with a
view to improving our memory

 REHEARSAL – repeated recitation of an item

 Overt - in which case it is usually aloud and obvious to anyone watching.
 Covert - in which case it is silent and hidden.

1. Elaborative and Maintenance Rehearsal

 Elaborative rehearsal - the individual somehow elaborates the items to be
remembered
 Maintenance rehearsal - the individual simply repetitiously rehearses the
items to be repeated
2. The Spacing Effect
 Distributed practice - learning in which various sessions are spaced over
time
 Massed practice - learning in which sessions are crammed together in a
very short space of time
3. Sleep and Memory Consolidation
 Rapid Eye Movement (REM) - characterized by dreaming and increased
brainwave activity
4. Neuroscience and Memory Consolidation

 ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION
- Stored memories are organized
 Mnemonic devices - are specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words
Techniques:
a. Categorical clustering - organize a list of items into a set of categories
b. Interactive images - imagine (as vividly as possible) the objects represented by
words you have to remember as if the objects are interacting with each other
in some active way
 c. Pegword system - associate each word with a word on a previously memorized
list and form an interactive image between the two words
d. Meth d of loci - visualize walking around an area with distinctive, well-known
landmarks and link the various landmarks to specific items to be remembered.
e. Acronyms - devise a word or expression in which each of its letters stands for a
certain other word or concept
f. Acrostics - form a sentence, rather than a single word, to help one remember
new words.
g. keyword system - create an interactive image that links the sound and meaning
of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word.

 RETRIEVAL
 Retrieval from Short-Term Memory
- In one study on memory scanning

1. Parallel or Serial Processing?

 Parallel processing - refers to the simultaneous handling of multiple operations
 Serial processing - refers to operations being done one after another

2. Exhaustive or Self-Terminating Processing?

 Exhaustive serial processing - implies that the participant always checks the test
digit against all digits in the positive set, even if a match were found partway
through the list
 Self-terminating serial processing - implies that the participant would check the
test digit against only those digits needed to make a response.

 Retrieval from Long-Term Memory

- It is difficult to separate storage from retrieval phenomena

 PROCESSES OF FORGETTING AND MEMORY DISTORTION

1. Interference Theory
- refers to the view that forgetting occurs because recall of certain words interferes
with recall of other words
 Retroactive interference - (or retroactive inhibition) occurs when newly acquired
knowledge impedes the recall of older material
 Proactive interference - (or proactive inhibition) occurs when material that was
learned in the past impedes the learning of new material.
 Schemas - are mental frameworks that represent knowledge in a meaningful way
 Serial-position curve - represents the probability of recall of a given word, given
its serial position (order of presentation) in a list
 Recency effect - refers to superior recall of words at and near the end of a list.
 Primacy effect - refers to superior recall of words at and near the beginning of a
list

2. Decay Theory
- asserts that information is forgotten because of the gradual disappearance, rather
than displacement, of the memory trace.

 THE CONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF MEMORY

 Reconstructive - involving the use of various strategies for retrieving the original
memory traces of our experiences and then rebuilding the original experiences as a
basis for retrieval
 Constructive - in that prior experience affects how we recall things and what we
actually recall from memory

1. Autobiographical memory - refers to memory of an individual’s history. Autobiographical

memory is constructive.
  Flashbulb memory—a memory of an event so powerful that the person
remembers the event as vividly as if it were indelibly preserved on film
2. Memory Distortions - People have tendencies to distort their memories
Here are Schacter’s “seven sins”:
1) Transience - Memory fades quickly
2) Absent-mindedness - People sometimes brush their teeth after already having
brushed them or enter a room looking for something only to discover that they have
forgotten what they were seeking
3) Blocking - People sometimes have something that they know they should
remember, but they can’t. It’s as though the information is on the tip of their
tongue, but they cannot retrieve it
4) Misattribution - People often cannot remember where they heard what they heard
or read what they read. Sometimes people think they saw things they did not see or
heard things they did not hear.
5) Suggestibility - People are susceptible to suggestion, so if it is suggested to them that
they saw something, they may think they remember seeing it.
6) Bias - People often are biased in their recall
7) Persistence - People sometimes remember things as consequential that, in a broad
context, are inconsequential.