SENSITIVITY AND COORDINATION

All living things are sensitive to their environment and changes within that environment. These changes are what we
refer to as stimuli and organisms respond to stimuli in many various ways that help them to adapt and survive. The
ability to respond to stimuli is called irritability. Remember that term from the characteristics of life?
GRIMNER C

How do animals respond to these stimuli?

For simpler multi-cellular invertebrates like ants, millipedes, woodlice and insect larvae, the response is to simply
move towards or away from the stimuli. In small unicellular organisms, like Amoeba, there are no specialized systems
to receive and send information from the stimuli; the whole organism moves. However, for larger, more complex
organisms the response and its process it much more complicated. They have systems for carrying these sensations or
stimuli messages from one part of the body to another. This system is known as the nervous system.

There are simple and complex nervous systems. Animals likes jellyfish have a simple system known as a nerve net. It’s
comprised of sense cells that receive stimuli and pass them through special conductor cells known as neurones. These
neurones link with each other to from a nerve net that eventually transmits the stimuli signal to the muscle cells which
contract in response. The cells that receive the signals are receptors and those that respond are effectors. The
transmitting or conducting cells, neurones, have thin fibres extending out from their cell bodies, along which the
sensations travel.

More active animals, with more complex behaviours, have the more complex or elaborate nervous systems.
Mammalian neurons have the same basic parts as any other animal cell (a nucleus, cytoplasm, and a cell membrane),
but their cell structure is specifically adapted to quickly conducting these neural messages. They have long thin fibres
of cytoplasm stretching out form the cell body. Nerve fibres that carry impulses into the body are called dendrons or
dendrites. (they’re the same thing)

While neurons may differ according to role (sensory, relay or motor), most share three basic components:

 Dendrites – Short-branched fibres that convert chemical information from other neurons or
receptor cells into electrical signals
 Axon – An elongated fibre that transmits electrical signals to terminal regions for communication
with other neurons or effectors
 Soma – A cell body containing the nucleus and organelles, where essential metabolic processes occur
to maintain cell survival

In some neurons, the axon may be surrounded by an insulating layer known as a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath
improves the conduction speed of electrical impulses along the axon but require additional space and energy.

In humans, these fibres do not run through the body on their own; they are usually grouped in bundles of several 100,
called a nerve.

Structure of a Typical Nerve Cell (Motor Neuron)

Adapted from ASU Ask A Biologist. © Arizona Board of Regents

The main difference between the simple and more complex nervous systems, especially with humans, is the presence
of a brain and spinal cord. These make up the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS is of course made up of
neurones, but its job is to coordinate the messages travelling through the entire nervous system.

The basic pathway for a nerve impulse is described by the stimulus response model also called a reflex arc:

 A stimulus is a change in the environment (either external or internal) that is detected by a receptor
 Receptors transform environmental stimuli into electrical nerve impulses
 These impulses are then transmitted via neurons to the central nervous system where decision-
making occurs
 When a response is selected (consciously or unconsciously), the signal is transmitted via neurons to
effectors
 Effectors are organs (either muscles or glands) that produce a response to a stimulus
 A response is a change in the organism resulting from the detection of a stimulus

Overview of the Stimulus-Response Pathway (Reflex arc)

Three types of neurons are required to transmit information via the stimulus-response pathway:

 Sensory neurons transmit information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS)
 Relay neurons (interneurons) transmit information within the CNS as part of the decision-making
process
  Motor neurons transmit information from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands), in order to
initiate a response

While these three types of neurons share common features, their basic structure may differ slightly according to their
function

 This includes their length, cell body (soma) position and the comparative distribution of dendrites
and axon terminals

Types of Nerve Cells

Animals need fast and efficient communication systems between their receptors and effectors mostly because they
need to move (to feed or flee danger etc). The way in which your receptors pick up stimuli and pass the message to
the effectors is called coordination. To be as effective as possible, most animals have 2 methods of sending these
messages, the first and faster method is the nervous system and the second but slower method is the use of chemicals
called hormones which make up the endocrine system.

REFLEX ACTIONS
A reflex is a rapid and involuntary response to a stimulus, resulting from a simple signalling pathway called a reflex arc
 Reflex actions do not involve the brain – instead sensory information is directly relay to motor
neurons within the spine
 This results in a faster response, but one that does not involve conscious thought or deliberation

Reflex actions are particularly beneficial in survival situations, when quick reactions are necessary to avoid permanent
damage
 A common example of a reflex action is the patellar reflex (‘knee jerk’ response) that occurs when
the patellar tendon is tapped
 The patellar reflex is a common test employed by doctors to determine the presence of spinal
lesions
Some reflex actions are learned!
Sometimes our response in a reflex action is changed by previous experiences. We may not be aware of these changes,
but they mean that some “learning” has taken place. In some case, practicing a movement, like riding a bike, playing
an instrument or martial arts movements become reflex actions, this type of reflex action is termed a conditioned
reflex.

SYNAPSES
If you look at the reflex arc diagram, you’ll notice that the neurones do not actually touch each other. There is a small
gap between them, called a synapse. Inside the sensory neurone’s axon there are hundreds of tiny vacuoles or vesicles
that each contain a chemical called transmitter substance.

Nerves transmit electrical impulses by changing the ionic distribution across the neuronal membrane (membrane
potential)
 Therefore, electrical signals are not able to be conducted when a semi-permeable membrane is
absent
Synapses are the physical gaps that separate neurons from other cells (other neurons and receptor or effector cells)
 Neurons transmit information across synapses by converting the electrical signal into a chemical
signal in one direction only.
Chemical Transfer Across Synapses

 When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the opening of voltage-gated calcium
channels
 Calcium ions (Ca2+) diffuse into the cell and promote the fusion of vesicles (containing
neurotransmitter) with the cell membrane
 The neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal by exocytosis and cross the synaptic cleft
 Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic membrane and open ligand-gated
ion channels
 The opening of ion channels generates an electrical impulse in the post-synaptic neuron, propagating
the pre-synaptic signal
 The neurotransmitters released into the synapse are either recycled (by reuptake pumps) or
degraded (by enzymatic activity)

Process of Synaptic Signal Transmission

The CNS

We’ve learnt this far that the CNS is made up or neurones, the brain and spinal cord.

A more complex CNS allows for more complex behaviour. But why couldn’t we just have
sensory neurones run directly to the muscles without passing through the CNS, would that
be faster? Yes, it would, but it may not be as acute. What does that mean? Well, the CNS
functions to interpret the signals from the receptors to create a more “intelligent”
response to the stimuli. So, for example, if you were to pick up a hot cup, you wouldn’t just
drop it and let it break, your CNS could interpret the signals and send a message to the
effectors (the muscles in your arms and hands) to put it down gently. Of course if the
stimuli is too much, meaning if the cup is too hot, the CNS will transmit a message to not
touch the cup or to drop immediately if you picked it up.

THE BRAIN
The human brain acts as an integration and coordination system for the control of body systems. It processes sensory
information received from the body and relays motor responses to effector organs.
The human brain is organised into clearly identifiable sections that have specific roles
 The major external structures include the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and brainstem
 Internal structures include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and corpus callosum

External Structures

Cerebral Cortex
 The cerebral cortex is an outer layer of tissue organised into two cerebral hemispheres and
composed of four distinct lobes
 The frontal lobe controls motor activity and tasks associated with the dopamine system (memory,
attention, etc.)
 The parietal lobe is responsible for touch sensation (tactility) as well as spatial navigation
(proprioception)
 The temporal lobe is involved in auditory processing and language comprehension
 The occipital lobe is the visual processing centre of the brain and is responsible for sight perception

Cerebellum
 The cerebellum appears as a separate structure at the base of the brain, underneath the cerebral
hemispheres
 It is responsible for coordinating unconscious motor functions – such as balance and movement
coordination

Brainstem
 The brainstem is the posterior part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord (which relays signals
to and from the body)
 The brainstem includes the pons, medulla oblongata (often referred to as the medulla) and the
midbrain
 The brainstem (via the medulla) controls automatic and involuntary activities (breathing, swallowing,
heart rate, etc.)

External Structures of the Brain

Cerebral Hemisphere

Medulla oblongata

Internal Structures

Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus is the region of the brain that functions as the interface with the pituitary gland
  As such, the hypothalamus functions to maintain homeostasis via the coordination of the nervous
and endocrine systems
 The hypothalamus also produces some hormones directly, which are secreted via the posterior
pituitary (neurohypophysis)

Pituitary Gland
 The pituitary gland is considered the ‘master’ gland – it produces hormones that regulate other
glands and target organs
 The anterior lobe is called the adenohypophysis and secretes hormones such as FSH, LH, growth
hormone and prolactin
 The posterior lobe is called the neurohypophysis and secretes hormones such as ADH and oxytocin

Corpus Callosum
 The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibres that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
 It is the largest white matter structure in the brain, consisting of roughly 250 million axon projections
 Damage to the corpus callosum can prevent information exchange between left and right
hemispheres (split brain disorders)

Internal Structures of the Brain

Corpus Callosum

Autonomic nervous system

There are internal organs that we cannot consciously control, like the heart or alimentary canal. These organs have
their own motor neurones that are known as the autonomic nervous system. This system is made up of 2 sets of
nerves. Organs like the heart, lungs, pupil of the eyes and alimentary canal are supplied by both of them. One set for
stressful conditions- that speed up the heart rate, open the bronchi for increased gaseous exchange, slow digestion
and dilate (open) the pupils and the other set for general, less stressful conditions that have the opposed effect on
these organs resulting in a more relaxed state.

THE RECEPTORS
These are often part of a sense organ that detect stimuli and are usually cells or nerve endings. Your eye, for example,
is a sense organ; the rod and cone cells in the retina are its receptors that respond to light as its stimulus.

The skin and tongue

The skin is another organ that contains receptive nerve endings. Beside temperature control, your skin functions to
detect changes and take in information from your environment. The receptors in your skin are particularly responsive
to cold, heat, pressure and pain. Some receptors better adapted to respond to chemical stimuli, like those in your nose
and tongue. They are sensitive to the chemicals in the air or in food. On the tongue, they are arranged in small groups
called taste buds. However, they don’t all respond to the same type of chemical.
 TASTE MAP OF THE TONGUE
*As a side note, this is
what is taught in our
syllabus and how you
should answer questions
on taste bud distribution
in the tongue. However,
for your general
knowledge, this has
since been updated, the
tongue has no “taste
map” the taste buds are
spread throughout the
tongue.

THE EYE
Each eye is set into a bony socket in the skull called the orbit. From here only the very front of the eye can be seen and
isn’t protected by bone. Having two eyes is an advantage! The images sent from either eye to the brain is slightly
different, but the brain is able to interpret the differences so we can appreciate the size, shape and distance of the
object. Making our vision three-dimensional and although the field of vision overlaps between the eyes; two eyes
allow for a wider range of vision.
The eye is made up of many different parts, but they aren’t all receptors or sensitive to light. The receptor cells are in
the retina, the rest of the eye functions to either protect the retina or to help better focus light on it. The front of the
eye is covered by a protective, thin, transparent layer of membrane called the conjunctiva. It’s always kept moist by
fluid produced by the tear glands. This fluid contains lysozyme, which is a bacteria killing enzyme and is washed across
your eyes by your eyelids each time you blink. Collectively your eyelids, eyebrows and eyelashes help to prevent dirt
from landing on the surface of your eyes (conjunctiva). And although the part of the eye inside the orbit is mostly
protected by bone, there is still a tough coating surrounding it called the sclera.

How does the eye work?

Located at the back of the eye, it contains two types of receptor cells. Rods which respond to dim light, and only allow
for black and white vision, and cones, which give coloured vision and respond better to bright light.
When light reaches the receptor cells, they send a message via the optic nerve to the brain. The brain then sorts and
interprets these messages to form an image. That’s basically how you see. You’re doing it right now!

fovea

Aqueous humour with

salts to nourish the lens

(Blind spot)

The closer together the receptors, the clearer the image the brain can build. There is a part of the retina where the
receptor cells are most densely packed, it’s called the fovea, all the receptor cells here are cones. Here is where light
is focused when you look directly at an object. The rods are scattered further throughout the retina.

There are no receptor cells where the optic nerve leaves the retina, thus no messages can be received or sent, this
spot is called the blind spot.

Between the sclera and retina there is a black layer of tissue called the choroid. It functions to absorb all the light after
its been through the retina, so as to not allow the light to be scattered around the inside of the eye (vitreous body)
and it contains a vast supply of blood vessels that nourish the eye.

In front of the lens there is a circular tissue called the iris, which contains pigments that absorb light and prevent it
from passing through the retina. The middle of the iris has a gap called the pupil; its size can be adjusted to allow more
or less light to enter the eye and reach the retina. In dim light the pupil is opened wide to allow more light to enter and
in bright light it is closed, making it smaller so less light can enter. It’s necessary as too much light intensity can damage
the retina.

The iris achieves this movement through circular muscles that lie in circles around the pupil. Contraction causes the
pupil to constrict or get smaller. There are also radial muscles that run outwards from the edge of the pupil. When
these contract they cause the pupil to dilate or get larger.
Layers in the retina showing rods and cones

How the eye focuses light

The brain can’t build a clear image unless that image is focused properly on the retina. For this to happen, light rays
must be bent, a term known as refraction, to focus exactly onto the retina. The vitreous humour inside the eye is clear
and allows light to easily pass through it. The cornea is mostly responsible for refracting the light and the lens makes
finer adjustments.

When the image is focused on the

retina, it is upside down, your brain
then interprets and flips the image so
you see it right side up.

The lens

Light rays coming from different objects, based on their distance, travel differently. Not all rays of light need to be bent
the same amount. For instance, the rays coming from a nearby object are being scattered away from each other and so
need to be bent inward a lot to focus them on the retina. But the rays coming from an object that’s far away, are
traveling at almost parallel to each other and don’t need to be bent as much to be focused on the retina. The lens in
the eye is responsible for this adjustment of focus. The fatter the lens, the more it will bend light. The thinner the
lens, the less it will bend light. This adjustment in the shape of the lens is called accommodation. But the lens doesn’t
move on its own, it’s held in place by a ring of suspensory ligaments which has its tension and thus the shape of the
lens adjusted by ciliary muscles. When these muscles contract the suspensory ligaments become loose, making the
lens fatter for focusing close objects. When these muscles relax the suspensory ligaments become tight and the lens
gets thinner for focusing distant objects.
EYE TROUBLE!
For some individuals, the mechanism that focuses the eye may not function properly.

Long sightedness (Hyperopia): some people have shorter eyeballs from back to front than usual, and in others the
lens might be too flat. In this case, light coming from a distant object can be focused but light from a nearby object is
difficult to focus because the lens just can’t get fat enough to bend the light. The light gets focused behind the retina.
To alleviate this issue, people wear convex or converging lenses that help bend the light.

Long sighted
Short sightedness (Myopia): sometimes the eyeballs can be too deep from the cornea to the retina, or the lens is too
curved and so light rays from distant object are bent more than required. This focuses the image in front of the retina,
in the vitreous humour and blurred by the time it reaches the retina. To fix this, persons must wear concave or
diverging lenses to see clearly.

Short sighted

Astigmatism: this is a defect where the surface of the lens and or the cornea is irregularly curved, resulting in light
rays being focused in one plane but not the others. It can be corrected by wearing cylindrical lenses which work only
along one axis. If, in addition to having an astigmatism, the person is long or short sighted, the spectacles the
individual must wear will need to be a combination of cylindrical and spherical surfaces.

Age
Getting old affects the eyes. Ask your parents!
With the increase in age, the lenses loose a bit of their elasticity and the ciliary muscles become weaker.
Accommodation becomes much more difficult to achieve. Eye glasses become necessary.

Sometimes the lens becomes opaque (not as clear), a condition known as cataract. This doesn’t allow light to pass
through unhindered to the retina and so the person is unable to see. The condition can be fixed by surgery. During the
surgery, the lens is removed from the eye and an artificial one is used in its place, either through the use of contact
lenses, spectacles or actually inserting a lens into the eye.

Another condition can develop as you get older, it’s called glaucoma. This is when too much fluid gathers in front of
the lens, increasing pressure within the eye and damaging the optic nerve; leading to poor vision. It’s more common
with patients suffering from diabetes, cataract and glaucoma may present themselves earlier than in non-diabetics.
 HORMONE (ENDOCRINE) SYSTEM
Earlier on we learned that there were two systems to transmit messages around the body, so far we’ve been studying
the nervous system, but now we’re going to look at the second system. It’s a bit slower and uses chemicals, instead of
electrical impulses. It’s called the endocrine system and it transmits hormonal signals around the body. The hormones
are made in special glands called endocrine glands.

The endocrine system is comprised of ductless glands that release chemicals into the blood to regulate body functions

 A hormone is a chemical messenger that is transported indiscriminately via the bloodstream to act on
distant target cells
 Hormones are specific and will only activate cells or tissues that possess the appropriate target
receptor
 The endocrine system is slower to initiate, but has a more prolonged response when compared to the
nervous system

Endocrine Signaling

Endocrine Glands

Endocrine glands secrete their product (hormones) directly into the bloodstream, rather than through a duct (e.g.
exocrine gland)

 Major endocrine glands include the pancreas, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pineal gland and the gonads
(ovaries and testes)
 The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine glands and function to link the nervous and
endocrine systems
 Some organs may also secrete hormones despite not being endocrine glands (e.g. adipose tissue
secretes leptin)

Examples of Endocrine Glands

 Pineal gland

Pituitary gland

Thyroid

Adrenal glands Thymus

Pancreas

Testes Ovaries

To be able to send these hormonal signals around the body the endocrine glands have a good supply of blood vessels
and capillaries running through them.

We’ll look at some of the hormones and their functions.

Adrenaline

Known as the fight or flight hormone, they are secreted by two adrenal glands located above each kidney. When you’re
in a situation that makes you scared, excited or stressed, the brain sends signals along the nerves to your adrenal glands,
which secrete adrenaline into the blood. The adrenaline has several effects on many organs within the body; for
example, it can cause your heart to beat faster, supplying more blood and oxygen to your muscles and brain which can
then generate more energy or function faster to either fight or run away (flight). It causes the blood vessels in your skin
and digestive system to constrict so they carry less blood. It leaves you with a pale looking appearance and causes that
“butterflies in your stomach” feeling. Why does it do this? The brain and muscles are more useful in these tense
situations than the digestive system or skin, so blood flow is directed there. This is a useful trait if your fending off
enemies or competing in an athletic challenge, but it becomes more of a nuisance if you’re going to the doctor or
watching a scary movie; but your body can’t tell the difference. Like most hormones, adrenaline breaks down quickly
after release and so it’s effects do not last long. If you remain in the situation however, your brain will keep sending
signals to the adrenal glands to keep secreting adrenaline.

Thyroxine

This hormone is secreted almost constantly by the thyroid gland (in small amounts), located at the base of the neck, and
is responsible for controlling the metabolic rate of reactions. It does this mostly be regulating the rate at which
mitochondria break down glucose through respiration. This is particularly important for children, as if they do not have
enough thyroxine being produced, they do not grow properly and their brains do not develop as well. It’s a condition
known as Cretinism, and can be cured with injections of thyroxine. In adults with thyroxine deficiency, a notable
sluggish and overweight condition is seen. On the opposite side of things, too much thyroxine makes a person energetic,
edgy and very thin. Thyroxine contains the chemical iodine. Lacking iodine in the diet leads to the thyroid gland not
being able to produce thyroxine and overcompensates by getting larger, forming a swelling or goitre.

Insulin

Produced by the islets of Langerhans, which are groups of cells scattered throughout the pancreas, these cells don’t
make pancreatic juice but rather they make two hormones called insulin and glucagon. As a fact, the pancreas is made
up of two glands in one. Most of it is an ordinary gland with a duct that produces pancreatic juices and the other is the
aforementioned islets of Langerhans. The hormones insulin and glucagon help to regulate the blood sugar levels. Insulin
is used when the blood sugar is high and glucagon when the blood sugar is low.

Eating a meal high in glucose, the blood glucose level spikes and the islets of Langerhans detect it. They then secrete
insulin into the blood that travels to the liver; causing the liver to absorb some of the glucose. Some of the glucose is
used in respiration and the rest is stored in the liver as glycogen. If the blood sugar drops too low, the pancreas secretes
glucagon, which goes to the liver, causing it to break down some of the glycogen it has stored and secretes it into the
blood to return its levels to normal.

Remember when we spoke about homeostasis? Blood glucose level maintenance is an important part of it.

Male sex hormone (Androgens)

The most popular and important of these androgens is testosterone. Made in the testes, it regulates the development
of the male reproductive organs and the secondary sexual characteristics. (eg pubic hair)

Female sex hormones (Oestrogens)

These regulate the development of the female reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics (eg breast
development). Differing from male mammals, who make sperm all the time, females only produce eggs at a certain time.
In humans, ovulation happens once per month; it’s part of the menstrual cycle which is controlled by the oestrogens.

During the menstrual cycle, the first thing that happens is that a follicle develops inside an ovary. The developing follicle
secretes oestrogen, which thickens the uterus lining, making it ready for implantation. When the follicle is fully
developed, ovulation takes place and it no longer secretes oestrogen. Now it becomes a corpus luteum, which secretes
another hormone called progesterone. The progesterone keeps the uterus thick and spongy and well supplied with
blood, in the event that the egg is fertilized. If no fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum gradually disappears and
progesterone stops being secreted, resulting in the breakdown of the uterus lining. This is the point where menstruation
happens and a new follicle starts to develop in the ovary. The cycle beings again!

But if the egg is fertilized, the corpus luteum doesn’t disappear as quickly and it keeps secreting progesterone until the
embryo sinks into the wall of the uterus and a placenta develops. The placenta then secretes progesterone and
continues to throughout the pregnancy. Because progesterone maintains the lining of the uterus, no menstruation
occurs in this time.
The pituitary gland (the master gland)

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is the section of the brain that links the nervous and endocrine systems in order to maintain
homeostasis

 It receives information from nerves throughout the body and other parts of the brain and initiates
endocrine responses
 It secretes neurochemicals (called releasing factors) into a portal system which target the anterior lobe
of the pituitary gland
 It also secretes hormones directly into the blood via neurosecretory cells that extend into
the posterior pituitary lobe

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland lies adjacent to the hypothalamus and is in direct contact due to a portal blood system
 The pituitary gland receives instructions from the hypothalamus and consists of two lobes (anterior and
posterior lobe)

The pituitary gland is often referred to as the ‘master gland’, as it controls the
secretion of a number of other endocrine glands
 Pituitary hormones will often target endocrine glands in other
organs (e.g. gonads, pancreas, thyroid, mammary gland)

Pituitary hormones hence control many vital body processes, including:

 Metabolism (e.g. TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) activates

thyroxin)
  Adult Development (e.g. LH (luteinizing hormone) / FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) trigger puberty)

 Reproduction (e.g. LH / FSH control menstruation)

 Growth (e.g. growth hormone(GH) promotes growth)

 Equilibrium / Homeostasis (e.g. ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) and water balance)

MARGE
Get it?!

Comparison of the nervous and endocrine systems in mammals

NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Made of neurones Made of secretory cells

Messages sent in electrical impulses Messages sent as chemicals called

hormones
Messages transmitted along nerve fibres Messages transmitted through blood

Messages travel quickly Messages travel slower

Effects of message is short Effects of message is longer

RESPONSE AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS

Plants have responses too; however, they are much slower than in animals. Most plant responses result in some form of
growth of that plant. They may grow towards (positive response) or away from (negative response) to a particular
stimulus. The most important stimuli for plants are light and gravity; shoots tend to grow towards light and against
gravity, while roots grow away from light and with the force of gravity.

These growth movements aid in plant survival as they allow for the specific structures found on each part to function in
its role. Shoots need light so leaves can photosynthesise; flowers need to be in the open so insects and other pollinators
can access them; and roots need to grow deep so they can absorb water and nutrients from the soil and anchor the
plant.

Plants don’t have complex sensory organs, muscles or nervous systems, but they do have a means of communicating
signals from one part to another. The tips of the shoot acts as a receptor and secretes hormones, known as auxins, that
stimulate cell division and elongation.

Auxins are a group of hormones produced by the tip of a shoot or root (i.e. apical meristems) that regulate plant growth
 Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients within tissues – changing the distribution of
auxin within the plant
 These pumps can control the direction of plant growth by determining which regions of plant tissue
have high auxin levels
 Auxin efflux pumps can change position within the membrane (due to fluidity) and be activated by
various factors

Auxin has different mechanism of action in the roots of plants versus the shoots of plants:
 In the shoots, auxin stimulates cell elongation and thus high concentrations of auxin promote growth
(cells become larger)
  In the roots, auxin inhibits cell elongation and thus high concentrations of auxin limit growth (cells
become relatively smaller)

The Role of Auxin Efflux Pumps on Growth Patterns in Plant Shoots

Understanding:

• Auxin influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression

Auxin is a plant hormone and influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression with a plant’s cells
 Auxin’s mechanism of action is different in shoots and roots as different gene pathways are activated in
each tissue

In shoots, auxin increases the flexibility of the cell wall to promote plant growth via cell elongation

 Auxin activates a proton pump in the plasma membrane which causes the secretion of H + ions into the
cell wall
 The resultant decrease in pH causes cellulose fibres within the cell wall to loosen (by breaking the
bonds between them)
 Additionally, auxin upregulates expression of expansins, which similarly increases the elasticity of the
cell wall
 With the cell wall now more flexible, an influx of water (to be stored in the vacuole) causes the cell to
increase in size

Tropisms describe the growth or turning movement of a plant in response to a directional external stimulus
 Phototropism is a growth movement in response to a unidirectional light source
 Geotropism (or gravitropism) is a growth movement in response to gravitational forces
 Other tropisms include hydrotropism (responding to a water gradient) and thigmotropism (responding
to a tactile stimulus)

Both phototropism and geotropism are controlled by the distribution of auxin within the plant cells:
 In geotropism, auxin will accumulate on the lower side of the plant in response to the force of gravity
 In phototropism, light receptors (phototropins) trigger the redistribution of auxin to the dark side of
the plant

In shoots, high auxin concentrations promote cell elongation, meaning that:

 The dark side of the shoot elongates and shoots grow towards the light (positive phototropism)
 The lower side of the shoot elongates and roots grow away from the ground
In roots, high auxin concentrations inhibit cell elongation, meaning that:
 The dark side of the root becomes shorter and the roots grow away from the light (negative
phototropism)
 The lower side of the root becomes shorter and the roots turn downwards into the earth

Tropism in A Typical Plant

Light is the main stimulation that brings about the release of auxins, which in turn allows the plant to grow normally.
When the plant doesn’t have access to light or is in darkness, auxins are distributed evenly throughout the plant, which
still allows them to grow, however, the chloroplasts in the plant cells do not develop properly in darkness and so the
plants grow weak, thin and yellow, with smaller leaves further spread apart (to help catch light). These plants are said to
be etiolated. If these plants eventually reach light, the chlorophyll will develop and they will begin to grow normally, but
if they remain in the dark conditions, they will perish as they would not be able to photosynthesise.

How phototropism works

11 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
In this experiment we can see how auxins cause the plants, with the tips that are exposed to the light (1,4,5 & 6), to
grow towards the light source. In these plants, where there is a covering that is transparent, light still reaches the shoot
tip, or where it has been cut and replaced on top of a medium that can allow communication between the tip and the
stem, the hormones produced in the tip can be passed down.

However, in the plants (2,3 & 7) where the tip has been removed or blocked from getting sunlight or communicating
with the stem, the plant doesn’t grow as no hormones from the tip can be passed to the rest of the plant.

Remember this! CXC loves to send this as a question.