IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, VOL. 16, NO.
6, DECEMBER 2023
A Framework for Constructing a Technology
-Enhanced Education Metaverse: Learner
Engagement With Human–Machine
Collaboration
Zhongmei Han, Yaxin Tu, and Changqin Huang , Member, IEEE
Abstract—The education metaverse (Edu-Metaverse), as a
simulated extension of the real world, is an infinite virtual space
where learners can build their relationships with others and create
interactive content. However, preparing learners to engage fully
with Edu-Metaverse remains challenging. As technologies on
Edu-Metaverse are new to learners, there is a lack of studies on
how to enhance learner engagement with human–machine col-
laboration. Therefore, this study proposes a technology-enhanced
Edu-Metaverse framework for facilitating learner engagement
with human–machine interactions. The framework consists of two
major components: technology enhancement of Edu-Metaverse
and interactions among learners and avatars in Edu-Metaverse
contexts. In the proposed framework, Edu-Metaverse reshapes the
relationships between humans and machines. With the support
of human–machine collaboration, learner engagement could be
concluded in the following three patterns: training engagement
guided by Edu-Metaverse, collaboration engagement supported
by Edu-Metaverse, and creative engagement empowered by
Edu-Metaverse. In addition, a case analysis is conducted to validate
the Edu-Metaverse theoretical framework and engagement
patterns. The proposed framework can provide a more holistic
understanding of the Edu-Metaverse implications as well as
learning designs that are aimed at enhancing learner engagement
with the support of human–machine collaboration.
Index Terms—Education metaverse (Edu-Metaverse), human–
machine collaboration, learning engagement.
I. INTRODUCTION
ECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED education has played a piv-
T otal role in promoting high-quality learning [1]. Advanced
technologies are accompanying the metaverse to grow with the
proliferation of virtual reality, Big Data, and many other artificial
intelligence (AI)-empowered applications of all sorts [2], [3].
What emerges in the metaverse is a mirror image of the real
Manuscript received 2 January 2023; revised 2 March 2023; accepted 3
March 2023. Date of publication 15 March 2023; date of current version 14
December 2023. This work was supported in part by the National Key R&D
Program of China under Grant 2022ZD0117101, in part by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China under Grants 62107037 and 62037001, and in part
by the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant
LQ22F020023. (Corresponding author: Changqin Huang.)
The authors are with the Key Laboratory of Intelligent Education Tech-
nology and Application of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Normal University,
Jinhua 321004, China (e-mail: zm.han@zjnu.edu.cn; tuyx1996@zjnu.edu.cn;
cqhuang@zju.edu.cn).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TLT.2023.3257511
1939-1382 © 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
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1179
world, a real-time update of the virtual and real worlds [4], which
makes the metaverse a real-world-based and perceivable place
to perform. The metaverse has been poised as another emerging
education application tool, which is a highly experiential learn-
ing network formed through the interconnection of learners and
machines (e.g., AI agents and augmented reality (AR)/virtual
reality (VR) equipment) [5], [6]. As indicated by embodied
cognition theory [7], embodiment or body-based interaction
can make learners feel a sense of high-effect learning. Drawing
on the theory of embodied cognition, the education metaverse
(Edu-Metaverse) offers learners a virtual space that mirrors the
real world for embodied and immersive experiences and learning
content generation and creation [8]. It is a multirelational rep-
resentation of different learners’ characteristics to enhance the
social aspect among all objects of the real and virtual worlds.
These unique features necessitate alterations to the interaction
process and learning content generation to prepare learners and
promote engagement. Although Edu-Metaverse has evolved to
become a key education goal worldwide due to the associated
significant educational benefits, there is yet to be a definitive
conclusion on what impact the emergence of an educational
metaverse will have.
With the development of Edu-Metaverse technologies,
human–machine interactions have made a distinctive contri-
bution to fostering learners’ active engagement and helping to
build a high-quality learning context [9]. Machines are defined
as learning equipment (e.g., mobile phones, robots, and VR
glasses) and AI agents (e.g., learning path planning and peer
recommendation systems). The advantage of machines is that
they can analyze/make decisions based on computing power
and perform repetitive operations quickly. Human–machine in-
teractions are posited to take on increasing support of learner
engagement and are becoming increasingly pressing, especially
in the Edu-Metaverse [10]. Edu-Metaverse can enable learners
to continuously engage with high-immersion digital content
[11]. Learning engagement has always been highly valued in
content acquisition and creation, promoting learners’ academic
success [12]. Although machines designed to interact with hu-
mans are proliferating, our understanding of the engagement
underpinning human–machine collaboration remains limited in
the Edu-Metaverse. At this juncture, the Edu-Metaverse is crying
1180 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, VOL. 16, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2023

out for an effective theoretical framework for promoting deeper impact of the experience of VR making and metaverse linking
engagement with human–machine collaboration. on the improvement of teachers’ technological literacy [26]. As
As progress toward the metaverse taking on increasingly deep learning technology has advanced, how to apply it in the
sophisticated learning roles continues apace, a framework for field of education has attracted increasing attention from schol-
constructing the Edu-Metaverse needs to clarify solutions to ars. Supported by deep learning technology, intelligent agents
the inner rules of learner engagement with human–machine now enable higher-order tasks than ever before [27]. Hence,
collaboration in a high integration of virtual and physical space. these technologies have shown the new possibilities of the future
In addition, the learner engagement patterns or rules with metaverse. Despite the growing popularity of the metaverse, the
human–machine interactions remain largely unknown in the human–machine partnership aimed at the willingness of humans
Edu-Metaverse. Thus, inspired by the work of Wang et al. [13], to accept the participation of machines remains unclear. An
we deconstruct the educational metaverse from the perspective important question that arises and needs to be answered is how to
of collaborative engagement with human–machine interactions. balance responsibility for learner engagement between humans
This study proposes a framework for seeking to account for and machines in the Edu-Metaverse.
the learner engagement presented by the interaction between
humans and machines in Edu-Metaverse contexts. By and large, B. Human–Machine Interaction
the framework offers a scarcity of studies exploring learner
Increasingly, there are studies exploring the use of low-cost
engagement with human–machine collaboration that respects
machines, such as chatbots and intelligent agents, for learning in
human experiences, the diversity of machines, and the structure
recent years [28], [29], [8]. Machines have played an important
and function of manifold patterns. This framework aims to help
role in digital learning contexts, and they enable humans to inter-
clarify the construction structure of the Edu-Metaverse.
act with the outside world [30]. Modern educational technology
helps learners gain more information through human–computer
II. LITERATURE REVIEW interaction [31], which can create rich correlations to current
A. Metaverse in Education events [32]. As a result, the learning content offered by the use
of machines is more engaging and intuitive.
The epidemic has confronted the global education sector with
In the metaverse, intelligent agents provide users with a
unprecedented challenges, resulting in online education being
special communication opportunity to ask for and offer learning
particularly controversial [14]. Online and virtual learning is
assistance. There have been studies on human–machine collab-
beneficial for providing learning content and reducing the risk
orative writing by intelligent evaluation platforms. The machine
of engagement with no time or place restrictions [15]. Recently,
(e.g., recommendation systems) can undertake massive data
the metaverse, as digital intellectualization survives in a posthu-
analysis tasks and embody the advantages of high-performance
man society and can consolidate its position as a large-scale
computing [33]. Interaction support among diverse objects is one
learner, has attracted a number of studies [16]. Wang et al. [13]
of the key functions [34]. Studies conducted for virtual world
constructed an Edu-metaverse ecosystem for guiding applica-
contexts also demonstrate the role of machines in facilitating
tions of metaverse in education. Some scholars might deem the
supportive interactions. Fundamentally, the main advantage of
metaverse a new form of AR/VR. Nevertheless, the metaverse
computer-mediated communication is the ability to commu-
is far from AR or VR [17]. Although there is no clear definition
nicate with a range of people. Using an avatar to commu-
of the metaverse, Smart et al. [18] assumed four ways from the
nicate in a virtual environment has the following advantages
surface to a deep collaboration with the real world in which
over other forms. First, avatar-mediated communication in the
the metaverse benefits learners, including virtual worlds, mirror
metaverse is more diversified than text-based communication,
worlds, augmented reality, and lifelogging. In general, the view
mainly through nonverbal cues, including gestures, behaviors,
of extensive studies on the metaverse in education is that it is
and facial expressions that mimic face-to-face communication,
a shared social place for an immersive experience and creating
expressing concern and support for each other [35]. With a larger
new content [19], [20].
social network, humans and machines have more opportunities
Based on the definition of a metaverse, the embryonic form
to interact favorably with other users [36].
of a metaverse has already existed, such as Second Life (role
Despite the learning benefits associated with human–machine
placement) [21], Sims software, and Minecraft game (interaction
interactions, there is a notable lack of knowledge about how
orientation) [22]. To improve learning performance, Mystakidis
learners interact with machines in the Edu-Metaverse. Without
[23] designed a metaverse course to sustain learners’ interest
such knowledge, the mechanism of metaverse-supported learn-
and engagement in online learning. His results indicate that
ing remains a black box; that is, it is still unclear if and when
metaverse content might evoke learners’ interests. In addition to
learners are willing to cooperate with machines. As a result,
the benefit, the metaverse can support social interactions among
little knowledge can be gained to enhance human–machine
learners’ avatars in the metaverse and their real-world peers [24].
collaboration as well as the engagement of metaverse-supported
Therefore, it can be inferred that the number of studies on the
learning.
integration of the metaverse and education will show a surging
trend in the near future.
C. Learner Engagement
Many research studies have focused on how metaverse prac-
tices are incorporated into digital technologies in a larger sense. Learner engagement is characterized by the condition of
Lee and Hwang [25] created VR content and investigated the strong concentration on enjoyable and fascinating tasks [37]. A
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HAN et al.: FRAMEWORK FOR CONSTRUCTING A TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED EDU-METAVERSE
Fig. 1. New framework for technology-enhanced Edu-Metaverse with human–machine collaboration.
frequent way to define engagement is to describe it as the quality
of the learner experience on the following four constructs: af-
fective states (interest and enjoyment), behavioral states (visible
task engagement), cognitive engagement (concentration), and
agentic states (future actions) [38].
The best way to demonstrate the complexities of student en-
gagement is to analyze and provide an example case. The dialog
from an assignment reflects the affective aspect of engagement
[39]. Although the traditional internet requires real subjects to
interact with each other through meeting platforms and chat
software, which enables instant communication, it also brings
great limitations to actual engagement. To make interactions
between humans and machines more conducive to knowledge
production, some scholars have argued that there needs to be
a certain level of virtual proximity, and others have offered
thoughts on the engagement of new knowledge generation for
human–machine interactions. It is equally critical to understand
learner engagement patterns with human–machine collabora-
tion. The Edu-Metaverse has also become a potential solution to
complex engagement processes, reshaping the logical relation-
ship between individuals, groups, and technology through the
fusion of reality and imagination.
All things considered, empirical evidence suggests that
human–machine collaboration should enhance engagement.
However, few studies have directly investigated the interaction
between human learners and machines in the educational metau-
niverse, and the complex psychological development mech-
anism in the interaction process also needs to be clarified.
Here, we endeavor to put forward the initial version of an
Edu-Metaverse framework with human–machine collaboration
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1181
(as shown in Fig. 1), which provides a clearer view and more
comprehensive understanding of the various metaverse worlds
to increase global awareness of the metaverse’s social and
educational influence. We believe that the new Edu-Metaverse
framework is revolutionary and may support the rapidly expand-
ing research and development efforts in this field.
III. RELEVANT THEORY FOR THE EDU-METAVERSE
FRAMEWORK
Despite the growing importance of Edu-Metaverse, attempts
toward a framework for constructing Edu-Metaverse are still
rarely seen in promoting learners’ engagements with human–
machine collaboration. However, a few researchers have pro-
posed related theories that may help inform these issues. There-
fore, we aim to draw on theories for building an innovative
framework for constructing Edu-Metaverse, including embod-
ied cognition and humanism theories.
A. Embodied Cognition
Embodied cognition is the capacity of learners to acquire
knowledge from the interplay among bodies, behaviors, and
environments [40]. Unlike pedagogical approaches that empha-
size direct guidance of learner attention, embodiment attaches
importance to the interplay between body and learning contexts.
Embodied cognition takes the interplay as the learning core to
promote learning engagement. Multiple empirical studies sup-
port embodiment for enhancing cognitive processes. Sinnamon
and Miller [41] evidenced how body actions play a critical role in
cognition. Likewise, embodiment is deemed a critical factor for
1182
knowledge construction in Poulsen and Thøgersen [42] study.
Overall, embodiment stimulates interactions and engagement in
learning environments. More importantly, embodied learning
tends to have a long-term impact on those experiencing the
interactions.
With the advancement of immersive AR/VR/AI technolo-
gies, learners can have an immersive experience in terms of
their bodies, mental state, and cognition. From the perspective
of embodied cognition, the Edu-Metaverse establishes rela-
tions between humans and machines in terms of presence and
embodiment. Hence, regarding high-immersion engagement,
technology-enhanced embodied cognition has major implica-
tions for our Edu-Metaverse framework.
B. Humanism
Humanistic theory emphasizes the self-realization of human
beings [43]. The purpose of the education field is to awaken
learners’ potential abilities based on their characteristics. In this
process, learners are the leaders of learning activities, and others
(e.g., teachers, peers, and intelligent agents) only play a sup-
portive role. Facilitated by advanced technologies, humanism
manifests itself as an active learning pursuit of enhancements
and augmentations in accordance with their aptitude.
Human–machine collaboration is the core and breakthrough
of humanism in a technology-enhanced society. Machine intelli-
gence is made by human beings. As the core position emphasized
by humanistic learning, we must take “caring for learners”
as the purpose of creating human–computer learning contexts
and processes [44]. In human–machine collaboration learning,
optimal development of learners pays attention to the learning
objectives and interests for making learners themselves control
their own learning information, enjoying the sense of empow-
erment brought by technology, and achieving a high-quality
learning effect. To cope with this demand, Edu-Metaverse must
be a learner-centered learning context in which learners can
obtain maximum and personalized development with the help
of machines. This theory offers a better understanding of how
to improve learner engagement assisted by machines.
To summarize, although previous studies offer constructive
theoretical insights for us to conceptualize the Edu-Metaverse,
there is still no robust framework that covers learner engagement
with human–machine collaboration. In the following section, we
will therefore propose and introduce a new framework for the
Edu-Metaverse.
IV. TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED EDU-METAVERSE FRAMEWORK
Derived from the aforementioned theories, a new framework
for constructing the Edu-Metaverse is proposed with the inte-
gration of underlying technologies, such as artificial intelligence
and augmented reality. As illustrated in Fig. 1, learners can
enter the virtual world in the form of avatars. These learner
avatars, including digital persons, AI agents, and virtual per-
sons, collaborate to implement learning tasks and generate new
learning content. Through the exit, learners finally return to
the real world and work together with avatars to absorb the
learning content from multiple Edu-Metaverse. By and large,
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, VOL. 16, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2023
the innovative framework consists of two major components to
delineate the logical structure of learner engagement, including
the technology enhancement of Edu-Metaverse and learning
engagement with human–machine collaboration. Overall, the
framework offers a theoretical paradigm to study learners’
engagement that takes advantage of humans and machines in
Edu-Metaverse environments.
A. Technology Enhancement of Edu-Metaverse
As a new form of education, Edu-Metaverse relies on ad-
vanced technologies, breaking through the boundaries of learn-
ers, learning content, and learning activities in terms of space–
time relationships. They are mainly composed of network
and computing technology, interactive technology, AI, and
blockchain.
The four types of technologies serve the Edu-Metaverse as a
learning context, a highly social network formed through the
interaction among learners and avatars, and a deep learning
engagement with human–machine collaboration.
1) Network and Computing Technology: As technology ad-
vances in education, the Internet of Things, network and comput-
ing infrastructure provide a solid hardware environment foun-
dation for future learners to enjoy high-bandwidth, low-latency,
multiconnected ubiquitous learning scenarios. Edu-Metaverse
is being strengthened by various factors, from mobile-based,
always-on access to connectivity with reality using virtual cur-
rency. This connected learning environment for everything will
surely inspire learners to create new worlds with their hands
and provide strong support for future multiple Edu-Metaverses
(e.g., multidisciplinary Edu-Metaverses and multifunction Edu-
Metaverses).
2) Interactive Technology: To facilitate learner exploration
in the educational metaverse, interactive technologies can pro-
vide highly realistic and immersive contexts. Extended, aug-
mented, and virtual reality technologies have the potential to
extend the interactive virtual environments that have been con-
sidered antecedents of the Edu-Metaverse. Learning environ-
ments supported by human–computer interaction technologies,
such as computer vision and even brain–computer interfaces,
bring unlimited imagination to the educational metaverse so that
learners are no longer limited to the visual and auditory channels.
These interactive technologies bring together integrated sensory
experiences, such as vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.
3) Artificial Intelligence: AI technology helps Edu-
Metaverse better process learning-related data. These underly-
ing supporting technologies (e.g., affective computing, cognitive
analysis, and group intelligence) in the Edu-Metaverse will be
more widely developed and applied in the Edu-Metaverse for
learner engagement analysis and personalized recommendation.
Therefore, AI technologies can provide a solid, powerful
foundation for the development and implementation of the
Edu-Metaverse and paint a highly imaginative blueprint for the
future of education.
4) Blockchain: In the Edu-Metaverse, high-quality engage-
ment attaches great importance to learning content generation
and tracing. Blockchain, with its decentralized, distributed,
HAN et al.: FRAMEWORK FOR CONSTRUCTING A TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED EDU-METAVERSE
traceability, high trust, and other technical features, ensures
the integrity and security of data information generated in
the process of education management and teaching. It can
provide a guarantee of knowledge sharing and authentication,
which is based on rules and algorithms operating in the future
Edu-Metaverse for the authentication of learning outcomes,
the construction of credit banks, digital resource management
and distribution, the ecological construction of open education
resources, and the self-organized operation of digital campus
communities.
Characterized by their comprehensive perception, the above-
mentioned technologies provide new possibilities for learning
something that requires long-term involvement and practice.
With the support of the technology boom, Edu-Metaverse can
highly simulate learners’ spontaneous learning contexts (e.g.,
learning activities, emotions) and trace learning paths in both
the real and virtual worlds.
B. Interactions Among Learners and Avatars in
Edu-Metaverse Contexts
In the Edu-Metaverse, learners acquire virtual identities by
means of digital mapping, which digitally configures the phys-
ical, cultural, psychological, and spiritual existence of the real
subject, thus forming a mirror incarnation in the educational
metaverse. In Edu-Metaverse contexts, learners can create one or
many digital avatars according to their preferred characteristics.
Avatars allow learners to seamlessly interact within real and
simulated environments. Learners can perform skills in the
virtual platform, including flying, walking, purchasing different
objects, and personalizing their wardrobe and appearance to
interact with virtual world objects [45]. Digital avatars combine
objects, stakeholders, and places for learning engagement that
are basically indistinguishable from the real world [46].
Compared to traditional internet interaction, the Edu-
Metaverse offers a more dimensional way of interaction, which
will not only enrich the interaction between real subjects but may
also produce two new types of mapping relationships between
real subjects and avatars and avatars and avatars.
It cannot be overlooked that there is also interaction between
the avatars (i.e., mirror subjects) in the educational metaverse.
The social nature of the educational metaverse is reflected not
only in the parallel relationship with the real society but also in
the ability of the avatars to learn by themselves and to sponta-
neously build social relationships in the educational metaverse,
creating new knowledge content and learning forms. On the one
hand, simple collaborative tasks can be completed by machines.
On the other hand, virtual subjects may form breakthrough
knowledge based on the exchange, fitting, and simulation of
virtual data. These two aspects will significantly reshape the
architecture of collaborative and self-directed learning, enrich-
ing learning and making relatively static educational scenarios
more dynamic [47]. Some scholars argue that the value of the
metaverse is primarily in enduring creativity that “continues to
exist and develop internally even when no one is interacting with
it” [16].
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1183
V. LEARNER ENGAGEMENT WITH HUMAN–MACHINE
COLLABORATION IN EDU-METAVERSE
Deploying an Edu-Metaverse begins with a focus on learners.
As indicated by the framework (see Fig. 1), the Edu-Metaverse
highlights unique features that make learners collaboratively
engage in learning with human–machine interactions.
A. Human–Machine Collaboration for Exploring Two-Way
Facilitation
Humans can build relationships through machines (e.g.,
agents), with each avatar used to communicate the learner’s
role in the world. “Human” is the learner; “Machine” is an
intelligent system or application that supports learning, includ-
ing intelligent educational software and intelligent robots with
certain reasoning thinking, action, and interaction capabilities.
As depicted in Fig. 1, humans in the real world involve learners,
instructors, peers, etc. In the virtual world, the machine could
refer to all objects in Edu-Metaverse, including the equipment
(e.g., brain–computer interface, mobile phone, and VR glass)
and AI agents (e.g., avatar and emotion recognition system).
However, in the Edu-Metaverse, collaboration is not fixed and
can be modeled and modified by some or all of the learners
who inhabit it, thus facilitating engagement between learners
and learning content and learning environments. To explore the
two-way facilitation, the process of human–machine collabora-
tion is indicated in Fig. 2. The human–machine collaboration
in the educational metaverse injects new inspiration into these
varied forms of educational activity.
First, the learning state of learners in the real world is
transmitted to the input through multimodal language (ex-
pression, voice, behavior, etc.), while Edu-Metaverse needs to
transform it into machine language that can be understood by
Edu-Metaverse. The Edu-Metaverse perceives and evaluates the
translated learner state, generates action sequences, and then
expresses the states and presents them to the output. Similarly,
the learning state expressed by Edu-Metaverse needs to be
translated into states that can be understood in the real world
and then perceived by learners.
A human–machine collaboration model is designed to help
understand what happens in the learning engagement between
the real world and Edu-Metaverse and to locate the root causes
of problems in the collaboration process. The Edu-Metaverse
can be understood as a machine system. The generation of the
virtual world cannot be separated from the machine. The whole
metauniverse system should be perceived, operable, and under-
standable. The key to this model is to note that the emotional
states observed by users are different from those displayed in
the metauniverse, focusing on how both parties express their
feelings and interpret each other’s emotions and behaviors. The
emotional states in the real world need to be processed before
the machine or system can understand them. Similarly, the
emotional states received by the system from the user will also go
through a series of processing steps before they can be perceived
by the user.
1184
Fig. 2. Human–machine collaboration model in Edu-Metaverse contexts.
B. Learner Engagement With Human–Machine Collaboration
in Edu-Metaverse
In the learning process of applying the educational metaverse,
it is important not to put the cart before the horse and put the
technology at the center, but to make it clear that engagement
design and activities are the top priority, so attention should be
given to the design of the corresponding learning engagement.
In terms of the selection of learning content, real cases (e.g.,
online, classroom) tend to provide scaffolding for learners. In
addition, this content from real learning environments should
not be forcibly copied wholesale into the educational metaverse
environment. With the potential to deliver enhanced realism and
presence, the Edu-Metaverse can be another promising venue
that fulfills learners’ engagement. Learner engagement might
change their presence from weak to strong.
In Edu-Metaverse contexts, learners’ activities involve multi-
ple metaverse scenarios at different times, and the metaverse can
help reflect learners’ knowledge, abilities, literacy, and person-
alities from multiple aspects. The Edu-Metaverse also has the
potential to truly evaluate the whole cycle of the learner, which
is an important tool that can truly deepen learner engagement.
Learner engagement patterns with human–machine collabora-
tion lie in how to control the balance of autonomy between
humans and machines, as shown in Fig. 3.
In human–computer interaction, “autonomy” is a key con-
cept that refers to the degree of freedom, independence, and
decision power possessed by learners [48]. Learners not only
hope that an intelligent teaching system can support effective
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, VOL. 16, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2023
learning but also hope that it can flexibly adjust their learning.
That is, human–machine collaborative learning should highlight
the degree of autonomy of learners. According to the degree
of autonomy, learner engagement with humans and machines
includes Edu-Metaverse-led, division of labor, and human-led
engagement [49]. The dominant patterns of engagement indi-
cate that the degree of autonomy of machines is higher than
that of humans. The human-led model has a high degree of
autonomy and can realize the control of cooperative activ-
ities. To achieve the goal or consensus, the division of la-
bor and cooperation between the two is a relatively balanced
degree of autonomy, the establishment of an equal coopera-
tion relationship. Therefore, from the perspective of learners,
this study deconstructs human–machine collaborative learn-
ing into three patterns (see Fig. 3), namely, Edu-Metaverse-
guided training engagement, Edu-Metaverse-supported collab-
oration engagement, and Edu-Metaverse-empowered creation
engagement.
1) Training Engagement Guided by Edu-Metaverse: The
machine guides the learning process through the procedural
learning content and provides immediate learning feedback.
The machine in this pattern has a high degree of autonomy.
It provides learning support for learners through prespecified
knowledge sequences and event logic. The flexibility of learners
is relatively low, and they can only learn according to the learn-
ing content and planned path given by the intelligent system.
Although some intelligent systems claim that they can collect
the information and characteristics of learners for personalized
learning diagnosis, they are carried out in accordance with
HAN et al.: FRAMEWORK FOR CONSTRUCTING A TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED EDU-METAVERSE
Fig. 3. Learner engagement patterns with human–machine collaboration.
the prescribed learning content, procedures, and objectives.
Therefore, in Edu-Metaverse-guided training engagement, the
machine realizes control of the learning process, and learners can
only execute the learning activities set by the system when they
cooperate with the machine, with a weak degree of autonomy.
Undeniably, Edu-Metaverse-guided learning training patterns
can help learners solve learning difficulties, promote knowledge
learning and cognitive processing of learners, and enable them
to quickly master learning content in a reasonable learning path.
2) Collaboration Engagement Supported by Edu-Metaverse:
From the knowledge integration and path planning of learning, it
gradually turns to the interaction and cooperation of learners and
establishes a pattern in which the Edu-Metaverse and learners
jointly control the learning process, that is, the autonomy of
the “machine” is equal to that of humans. Compared with
the training engagement guided by the Edu-Metaverse, the in-
teraction, cooperation, and joint control between learners and
the Edu-Metaverse emphasize the important role of learners’
self-regulation. The Edu-Metaverse environment based on dia-
log and negotiation realizes the interaction between machines
and learners. On the one hand, the Edu-Metaverse accurately
understands the learning state of learners by collecting and
analyzing the multimodal data of learners and accurately rep-
resents their knowledge and skills in the system. On the other
hand, learners can communicate with the Edu-Metaverse, un-
derstand the decision-making process, and make better choices
[50]. Studies show that the Edu-Metaverse can play the roles
of assistant, guide, supervisor, and companion in collaboration
engagement and cooperate flexibly with learners. Therefore, as
human physical or mental labor is shared by the Edu-Metaverse,
the human–machine collaboration form will be more concrete.
3) Creative Engagement Empowered by Edu-Metaverse:
When learners are in a dominant position, the Edu-
Metaverse helps learners increase their intelligence mainly by
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1185
increasing transparency, accuracy, and effectiveness, which de-
pend on human-centered intelligence. Human-centered artificial
intelligence emphasizes human control over the Edu-Metaverse.
Creation between human control and AI automation can enhance
human productivity with a high level of reliability, security,
and trust [51]. In terms of education, learners need to learn to
use the Edu-Metaverse to enhance their cognition and abilities,
realize the creative interaction between the Edu-Metaverse and
human intelligence, and realize self-adaptive and personalized
learning. Especially in creative problem solving, the human-
led human–machine cooperative partnership is more advanta-
geous [52]. This kind of learning pattern to enhance learn-
ers’ intelligence is the creative engagement pattern enabled
by artificial intelligence. In other words, the Edu-Metaverse
provides learning support for learners, builds cognitive scaf-
folding, assists learners’ cognitive exploration of the world and
self, reduces learners’ cognitive load, and promotes learners’
creative learning. Creation-based learning emphasizes auton-
omy and control and requires the control of learning to be
given to learners; that is, learners can independently explore
and construct knowledge with the help of external guidance
and support. For example, the Edu-Metaverse uses artificial
intelligence to identify learners at risk and help them construct
knowledge in a personalized and self-paced way, including
by providing precise information to learners, clarifying how
to promote learning, and outlining what learners must do to
achieve learning goals. In short, Edu-Metaverse-enabled cre-
ative learning analyzes and discusses learners’ behaviors, cog-
nition, and emotions through intelligent diagnosis, prediction,
intervention, and prevention, helping learners flexibly choose
the analysis results provided by the Edu-Metaverse, indepen-
dently construct and design the learning process, and explore
effective learning methods that meet their own characteristics
and needs.
1186
Fig. 4. Examples of zoo Edu-Metaverse by Cospaces Edu.
Fig. 5. Study procedure.
VI. APPLICATION OF THE EDU-METAVERSE FRAMEWORK FOR
LEARNER ENGAGEMENT
A. Case Analysis of Learner Engagement in the
Metaverse-Linking Process
Our proposed Edu-Metaverse framework holds promise for
enhancing high engagement in a technology-enhanced virtual
metaverse. Many researchers [26] employ Cospaces Edu (a
computer software program) to construct Edu-Metaverse envi-
ronments where learners can build their own VR and AR con-
tents based on group interactions and human–machine collabo-
ration. In this application case of the Edu-Metaverse framework,
Cospaces Edu is employed to design a learning activity (group
task: creating a zoo Edu-metaverse) for learners (see Fig. 4).
The design and operation of the Cospace Edu APP align with
the theories of embodied cognition [8] and humanism [43]. The
study procedure is shown in Fig. 5.
A total of 95 Chinese undergraduate students participated in
this study. The participants’ ages ranged from 17 to 19, with
an average of 17.37. With respect to their background, they
all majored in educational technology. They had gained rich,
technology-supported experiences. All of them were requested
to complete the learning task equipped with diverse machines,
such as tablets, VR helmets, and multiple display screens (see
Fig. 6). As shown in Figs. 4 and 5, the learning task was to create
an animal zoo in educational metaverse contexts. Learners who
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, VOL. 16, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2023
own one or many avatars are requested to complete learning
tasks with the support of machines. In the “create animal zoo”
metaverse, learners inhabited avatars to generate and experi-
ence VR/AR learning content using a 3-D creation and coding
program. Learners could experience 3-D content via mobile
devices, tablet PCs, desktop computers, and/or VR glasses.
More importantly, a high level of human–machine collaboration
based on togetherness and presence became possible because
learners were in the same space while maintaining a meaningful
conversation and interaction.
In the case of the framework application, we analyze the
metaverse-linking process from the perspective of learner en-
gagement.
B. Learner Engagement as a Receiver (Human in Bypass)
In the beginning, learners simply create 3-D content associ-
ated with the zoo. At this time, learners prefer building knowl-
edge with the guidance of machines and tend to be training
engagement patterns. In the training engagement guided by
Edu-Metaverse, the role of the machine in Edu-Metaverse is
to provide learners with preset learning objectives and paths
and guide them to knowledge construction. This engagement is
suitable for “novice” learners who lack professional knowledge
background and method guidance because they do not know
what is best for learning [53]. Therefore, humans bypass this
to improve themselves. To some extent, when learners “input”
personal learning feature information into the Edu-Metaverse,
they are also checking the autonomy of the “machine,” so that
they will not be restrained by the Edu-Metaverse.
C. Learner Engagement as a Collaborator (Human in the
Loop)
As they progress with the task, learners need to set up actions
and words for objects in the zoo metaverse by using a coding
program. In this stage, learners must complete the learning task
with machine assistance. Learners prefer collaboration engage-
ments. Human–machine collaboration engagement advocates
value realization when humans and machines are jointly given
full play to their strengths. Over the learning process, to avoid
excessive control, human–machine interaction and negotiation
intend to improve learners’ self-regulation ability. Learners who
engage in learning collaboratively with machines can play a
good role as collaborators in two aspects. One is the machine in
Edu-Metaverse as a collaborative partner of learners. Such learn-
ers realize human–machine dialog through natural language
processing, semantic analysis, and other technologies. The other
is the machine in Edu-Metaverse as a collaboration medium to
promote the connection between learners. It can be concluded
that humans and machines develop jointly. Learners in the loop
of Edu-Metaverse participate in the adjustment of parameters
in the algorithm to achieve optimization to provide a machine
processing effect. Thus, in the interactive negotiation supported
by Edu-Metaverse, the learner is not only the peer collaborator
at the other end but also the collaborator of the Edu-Metaverse.
HAN et al.: FRAMEWORK FOR CONSTRUCTING A TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED EDU-METAVERSE
Fig. 6. Edu-Metaverse contexts with human–machine collaboration.
D. Learner Engagement as a Constructor (Human in Leading)
Finally, learners need to consider what zoo they want to
create. At present, machines cannot yet finish creative tasks, so
learners at this stage engage in learning with creative patterns.
Human-centered learner engagement highlights the importance
of developing a human-oriented Edu-Metaverse. Learners tend
to be in a self-learning paradigm. This is because only the
learner knows what their problems and needs are. In contrast,
much control from machines would reduce learning motivations.
Metaverse-empowered learning is appropriate for learners with
strong abilities seeking a sense of learning control (e.g., adults).
Learners take charge of tasks that require understanding and
thinking in a leading manner [54]. In general, human–machine
coconstruction learning has been characterized by self-design,
self-monitoring, self-regulation, and self-evaluation in the Edu-
Metaverse age.
Learner engagement indicates that effective learning might
range from low to high in terms of human autonomy, from
training to collaboration and to the creation of engagement
patterns. For learning adaptivity and sustainability, this frame-
work and learner engagement shed new light on the role of the
Edu-Metaverse in the context of transforming one-way interac-
tion between digital content knowledge and learners’ learning
multidimensional immersion and engagement between humans
and machines. Therefore, it can be seen from the deconstruction
of learner engagement in Edu-Metaverse that learners adjust
their behavior according to the autonomy degree of machines
to adapt their role in the collaborative relationships between
humans and machines.
VII. CONCLUSION
The new coronavirus epidemic, which began to sweep the
world in 2020, has led more educators to understand the
value of cross-platform, virtual-real integration in education.
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1187
Now, the core is to promote learner engagement and build
an Edu-Metaverse for promoting immersion and sustainabil-
ity. In the Edu-Metaverse context, the differences between
humans and machines are narrowing, and the tacit under-
standing of human–machine collaboration is continuing to im-
prove. Learner engagement in the Edu-Metaverse advocates
the realization of learner value. Learners use Edu-Metaverse
to achieve self-development. On the one hand, we have a sense
of technological well-being in the intelligent age, being able to
use technology to pursue a better future. On the other hand,
there is also a fear that education is slipping into techno-
logical acceleration, whereas full ethical and safety risks are
ignored.
Presenting an Edu-Metaverse framework for learner engage-
ment with human–machine collaboration, this study is a step
ahead of other empirical studies. On the one hand, the framework
proposed in this study is constructed from the perspective of
human–machine collaboration. Most importantly, the frame-
work emphasizes that learning in Edu-Metaverse contexts aims
to interact with different identities for collective effect. On
the other hand, taking humans as a basis, learner engagements
reveal human–machine relationships and create new value for
maximizing their advantages in terms of mutual reinforcement.
In addition, a case study is carried out to apply the framework
and identify learner engagement. The results show that three
engagements with human–machine collaboration are needed to
experience when learners’ cognitive level range from low to
high. More testing and fine-tuning to align with the practices
in the real world are needed to verify and enhance the frame-
work proposed in this study. With the technology-enhanced
Edu-Metaverse framework, we also propose three learner en-
gagement patterns according to the autonomy degree of humans
and machines. Therefore, this study serves as a starting point
for bringing pioneering insights into this exciting but unknown
metaverse era.
1188 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, VOL. 16, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2023
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