Professional Documents
Culture Documents
8
leadership
7.11 Leading multicultural teams
7.12 Conclusion
Chapter 8 Motivation and Exchange in a Cross-Cultural
Context
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Universal needs?
8.3 Self-actualisers?
8.4 Is the content approach to motivation
culture-bound?
8.5 Positive psychology and engagement
8.6 Job characteristics: a universal link to
motivation?
8.7 Total quality management
8.8 Needs and job characteristics models in
different cultures – some evidence
8.9 How are people motivated? Orientations to
work across cultures
8.10 Other ‘process’ models of motivation
8.11 Globalised motivational strategies
8.12 Conclusion
PART 4: MANAGING ACROSS OR WITHIN
CULTURES
Chapter 9 Intercultural Competencies, Training and
Ethics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Overcoming culture shock – the core
intercultural competency?
9.3 The search for effective interventions
9.4 Intercultural competencies at home
9
9.5 Is cultural awareness sufficient?
9.6 Cultural intelligence
9.7 Cultural competencies – review
9.8 Cross-cultural training – other
considerations
9.9 The effectiveness of cross-cultural training
9.10 Repatriation
9.11 The ethical dimension
9.12 Ethics and the cross-cultural manager
9.13 Gender issues and ethics
9.14 Dealing with ethical dilemmas
9.15 Non-negotiable moral issues
9.16 Conclusion
Chapter 10 Culture and Human Resource Management
10.1 Introduction
10.2 IHRM in context
10.3 Varieties of capitalism
10.4 Culture and HRM
10.5 Culture and the functional areas of HRM
10.6 The effect of culture – a mixed picture?
PART 5: LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
Chapter 11 Conclusions
11.1 Comparing cultures – enduring evidence
11.2 Cultural values – some further
considerations
11.3 Macro-social manifestations of culture
11.4 New approaches to understanding culture
11.5 Cross-cultural management in ‘new’ forms
of organisation
10
Diversity and synergy – the future of cross-
11.6 cultural management
11.7 Non-managerial approaches
11.8 Universalism or relativism?
11.9 Continuous change
References
Index
11
List of figures and tables
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Society-wide factors contributing to a multifaceted
model of culture
Figure 2.2 Major cultural layers
Figure 2.3 Culture as a three-level layer-cake
CHAPTER 3
Table 3.1 Societal clusters by country
Table 3.2 Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture in respect of
selected countries
Figure 3.1 Countries located on Sagiv and Schwartz’s three
cross- cultural dimensions
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.1 Trompenaars’ organisational cultures ascribed to
countries
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.1 Tones of voice characteristic of specific cultures
CHAPTER 7
Table 7.1 Societal clusters by country
12
Acknowledgements and
credits
Acknowledgements
First edition:
I would like to thank Colin Knapp for his important role in the
development of this book project and for his insightful comments on
selected chapters, which in all cases enhanced the content. I have also
benefited from particularly positive and constructive feedback from
anonymous reviewers of the draft book. At the University of Portsmouth I
am grateful to Birgit Schyns and Penny Dossor for their comments on
parts of the manuscript, and thanks are also due to Derek Adam-Smith for
his support as Head of Department of Human Resource and Marketing
Management. I am grateful to Ruth Lake at CIPD Publishing who first
encouraged the book proposal and then deftly managed its progress.
On a more personal level, I am grateful for the love and support of my
wife Caroline French, and this book is dedicated to her.
Second edition:
I have been delighted to receive so many positive comments on the first
edition of the book and hope that taking on some of the suggestions made
will help make this edition not only bigger but better. For the second time I
have benefited from particularly constructive feedback from the reviewers
of this book, so thanks are due to them.
There have been significant developments in business over the past three
years, including the financial crisis which has affected so much of the
world. This shows again the importance of recognising the potential for
rapid change in all business subject areas, and this certainly applies to
cross-cultural management, which is developing at pace both for
academics and those involved in managing diverse workforces. I hope that
this edition of the book accurately reflects recent changes while remaining
focused on core principles and enduring scholarship.
13
This second edition has of course built closely on the first, so the
acknowledgements made three years ago hold true. However, I would like
to thank the new team at CIPD Publishing for all their help, particularly
Ruth Anderson and Kirsty Smy.
Once again Caroline has exhibited considerable patience throughout the
writing of the book and has cheerfully foregone much of the free time
anticipated when she married an academic. This second edition is again
dedicated to her.
Third edition:
It is now approaching ten years since the idea for this book was first
conceived. Its progression to a third edition reflects the topical and
relevant nature of cross-cultural management, which develops at pace,
both for academics and those involved in managing diverse workforces. It
is certainly never difficult to come up with new examples to illustrate
concepts and models! I hope that this new edition of the book once more
accurately reflects recent changes while remaining focused on core
principles and enduring scholarship.
I have been delighted to receive so many positive comments on the first
two editions and hope that taking on some of the suggestions made will
further enhance content, style and learning features. It has been
particularly gratifying to get enthusiastic feedback from students in
different countries and to be invited to link to their social media sites. This
in itself reflects how much more inter-connected we have all become. I
have benefited from particularly constructive feedback from some
reviewers of this book, so thanks are also due to the people concerned.
At the University of Portsmouth I am grateful to Charlotte Rayner and
Gary Rees for their support as Heads of our Subject Group across the
period when I worked on this latest edition.
The working relationship with the team at CIPD Publishing has once again
been exemplary and I would like to express particular thanks to Alex
Krause for his encouragement and to Pauline Allsop for her work in the
production phase.
On a personal level thanks are again due to Caroline French for all her love
and support. For the third time this book is dedicated to her.
Credits
14
The author and the publishers would like to acknowledge and thank the
following for their permissions to reproduce text extracts, tables and
figures in this book.
Pearson Education Ltd, publishers of International management: a cross-
cultural approach, edited by TAYEB, M. (2003) FT: Prentice Hall (Figure
2.2 Major cultural layers)
Elsevier, publishers of the Journal of World Business, Vol 37 No 1, in
respect of the table of cultural clusters in the article by GUPTA, V.,
HANGES, P. J., and DORFMAN, P. (2002) on pp11–15 [as reproduced by
permission] (Table 3.1 and Table 7.1)
Sage Publications, Inc., publishers of Handbook of organizational culture
and climate edited by ASKENASY, N., PETERSON, M. and
WILDEROM, C., which included the chart by SAGIV, L. and
SCHWARTZ, S. H. (2002) [reproduced by permission of Sage
Publications, Inc.] (Figure 3.1)
The publishers of People Management, in respect of the article ‘Phillips
pushes the equality agenda’, 27 July 2006 (quoted in Group Activity 4.1)
Nicholas Brealey Publishing, publishers of TROMPENAARS, F. and
HAMPDEN-TURNER, C. (1997) Riding the waves of culture. 2nd ed. in
respect of the figures in that edition numbered 6.3 and 11.5 (Figure 5.1 and
Figure 6.1)
The publishers of People Management, in respect of the article ‘Image-
conscious’ by Karen Higginbottom, 6 February 2003 (quoted at length in
Case Study 6.2); grateful acknowledgement is also made to AXA
Insurance for the sample pictograms (‘AXAgrams’) within that article
Elsevier, publishers of Organizational Dynamics, Vol 29 No.4 (2001) in
respect of the statement quoted from the article ‘Cultural acumen for the
global manager: lessons learned from Project GLOBE’ by HOUSE, R. J.
and JAVIDAN, M. on p297 [as reproduced by permission] (Chapter 7
quotation)
The publishers of People Management, in respect of the article ‘Pay-for-
performance advances in Asia and Latin America’, 11 January 2006, taken
largely from a Towers Perrin press release, for which grateful
acknowledgement is also made to Towers Perrin (quoted at length in Case
Study 8.2)
15
Walkthrough of textbook
features and online resources
16
17
ONLINE RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS
• A document containing self-assessment quizzes, a glossary and links
to online journals and other articles is available for each chapter.
18
PART 1
SETTING THE
SCENE
19
20
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
21
2013).
Globalisation comprises a number of different strands, not all of which
are, at first sight, compatible within a single concept. It is associated with
the fragmentation of pre-existing boundaries, including those as
fundamental as time, space and nation states. The term also encompasses
complex processes such as global flows of finance, knowledge and people.
The facet of globalisation which is most relevant for our purposes in this
book is its sense of accelerating interconnectedness between nations and
people, leading to an increased prevalence and intensity of cross-cultural
interactions. Cross-cultural encounters might, for example, occur when
companies decide to outsource work to new countries, or when
organisations enter into new forms of networked relationships with
overseas partners or, finally, as a result of increased migration of labour.
As a result, organisational decision-makers and students of business and
management have increasingly sought to comprehend the ways in which
culture intervenes at workplace level (Patel 2014).
A concern with the effective management of people from different
cultural groups is not new. Brewster et al (2011), for example, cite
research in the field of international human resource management dating
from the 1990s. However, these authors record a significant expansion –
‘almost exponentially’ (p3) – in new trends, events and research
publications in the twenty-first century. What is noticeable in the period
since the mid-1990s is the way in which cross-cultural management has
affected the working lives of more and more people. It is no longer the
case that it is mainly expatriate managers who need to be aware of cultural
differences; for example, in people’s attitudes towards authority and
independent working. Many managers find that cultural differences affect
them even if they work in their home country.
In a report on UK migration in the period between 1991 and 2012,
Rowthorn (2014) identified significant churn in the UK population, with 7
million people leaving the country and 10.1 million incomers. The net
migration figure of 3.1 million involved a changed balance in the
population, with a net increase of 4.6 million in the foreign-born group
(the number of UK-born people leaving the UK was double that of
returnees). In the capital city, a report published by the Greater London
Authority in 2008 concluded that one of the main components of London’s
population growth in recent years had been high levels of international
migration. In 2006 the report recorded 170,000 incoming migrants to
22
London, equivalent to 2.25% of its total population, or the population of
just one borough, Hammersmith and Fulham. As these were officially
recorded statistics, the informal invisible economy was, by definition,
invisible and unrecorded, so it is very likely that the true figures were far
higher. These labour flows were in part explained by London’s status as a
major global centre for international business and finance in the years
leading up to the ‘credit crunch’ of 2008, which has accelerated in the
recovery years of 2013 and 2014. It can be argued that London became a
‘magnet for talent’ in that period. However, what Clegg et al (2011)
termed ‘grunge jobs’ – involving both workers in the lower parts of the
supply chain (who are easily substitutable) and workers in illegal sectors –
were also a factor in explaining London’s increasingly diverse workforce.1
The multicultural nature of London’s workforce, and population more
generally, was brought home to many by the city’s hosting of the 2012
Olympic Games. In reflecting on the widely perceived success of the
Games, ex-Prime Minister Tony Blair claimed that they ‘portrayed a
modern multicultural Britain proud of both its heritage and traditions and
its diverse culture’.2 Blair was plausibly entitled to stress the multicultural
dimension as he had emphasised London’s diversity when bidding for the
Games in Singapore in 2005. The China Daily was among many
commentators who concluded that London’s multicultural make-up was a
major reason for it getting the Games, stressing both Blair’s address and an
uplifting multicultural video at the Singapore event. The same source
speculated that ex-French President Jacques Chirac’s comments about
British food around the same time (he reportedly claimed it was the
second-worst in the world; Finland’s was, he said, the worst), displayed a
more parochial approach and may have anatagonised the Finnish IOC
delgation ahead of the crucial vote, in which London narrowly defeated
Paris.3
To reasssure readers who may be concerned that this book will take a
UK-, or even London-centric approach, the existence of culturally diverse
workforces is by no means limited to the UK or, more specifically, to its
capital city. For many of us it is now an everyday event to deal with
employees from many different cultural backgrounds in a single
workplace, and it is no longer necessary to leave one’s country of origin –
or to be employed in an explicitly international role – to be touched by
cross-cultural (or intercultural) concerns. However, we should also
recognise that social trends are, by their very nature, fluctuating. It is quite
23
possible that the current trend for global flows of workers may decrease in
importance, or even be reversed in future. Throughout this book we will
attempt to identify the deep-rooted and long-term changes which affect
cross-cultural management, as opposed to those which are surface level
and transitory. We should therefore take a measured view of global labour
flows. Cohen (2009) found that in England, the majority of the population
lived approximately five miles from where they were born, and that there
was a strong attachment among the population to locality, with a deeply
held community ethos underpinning national values. Notwithstanding this
important caveat, there is evidence that workforces in many countries are
indeed becoming culturally more diverse. As we will see, the management
of diverse workforces throws up particular challenges.
As indicated by its title, the focus of this book is on aspects of cross-
cultural management within work organisations. Although its content may
be of particular interest to existing or future expatriate managers, it is now
possible to present a strong case that all managers must possess cross-
cultural awareness and sensitivity at the level of managing people at work.
Even if it is felt that incomers should wholly adapt to the ways of the host
culture, meaningful differences will continue to exist if we believe that an
individual’s core values are formed at an early age, are deeply held and
portable. Many organisations are in any case concerned to secure and
foster diversity within their workforce, in order to enhance employee
performance and secure competitive advantage, so managers have little
choice but to understand culturally based values and behaviour in order to
carry out their own roles effectively.
What is very clear is that cross-cultural management is not an abstract
body of knowledge; rather, its practical impact can increasingly be seen
close to home – wherever that may be.
24
whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Multicultural groups offer a
particularly fertile setting for synergy, given the very different attitudes
and competencies embodied in its members. The bigger and more diverse
a group is, the more potential ideas it can generate. One can argue that the
economic success of areas such as Silicon Valley in the USA can be partly
explained by the talented employees who have been attracted there from
different parts of the world.
Diverse groups of people, if they experience success, are more likely to
further coalesce into networks which share knowledge, thereby reinforcing
high performance. Interconnected networks communicate freely and
optimise the complementary abilities of their members. There is a flip side
of networks; namely the people who are left out. In our terms, a
monocultural group, which does not enjoy the benefits of diversity, is
likely to become increasingly isolated and inward-looking. An isolated
group of this sort can ultimately develop a mindset in which members no
longer want to innovate and where isolation is valued for its own sake.
Surowiecki (2004) popularised the notion of group diversity in his term
‘the wisdom of crowds’. An aggregate of people would for him typically
outperform the same individuals acting alone. If one wanted to guess the
weight of a cat, the average of the crowd’s guesses would give the best
estimate. The more diverse the crowd, the more accurate it would be.
Diversity is linked to success. However, Surowiecki recognised that
crowds could also be dysfunctional. Members are less likely to query their
peer group if, on the basis of prior success, they believe they are
invincible. An unreal sense of euphoria may take over the group. If we
come full circle with our London example, it is possible to view the
economic collapse of 2008 as an example of the inverted wisdom of
crowds. Issuing mortgages to people who are highly likely to default may
now appear an obvious mistake. But many employees in the financial
services sector, buoyed by a long run of success, came to feel that their
talented group was incapable of making errors. The double-edged nature
of cohesive groups (in a case such as the City of London, this cohesiveness
was deepened by member diversity) is a classical social-psychological
construct and is reminiscent of the term ‘groupthink’. Groupthink has been
defined as the tendency of a group to be propelled towards bad decisions
due to in-group pressures (Mullins 2013). It is an important concept within
the area of people management.
In conclusion, cross-cultural groups or teams offer great potential for
25
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
abençerrajes, por donde les
leuantaron que ellos con otros
diez caualleros de su linaje se
auian conjurado de matar al Rey y
diuidir el reyno entre si, por
uengarse de la injuria alli reçibida.
Esta conjuraçion, ora fuesse
uerdadera, o que ya fuesse falsa,
fue descubierta antes que se
pusiesse en execuçion, y fueron
presos y cortadas las cabeças a
todos, antes que uiniesse a
notiçia del pueblo, el qual sin
duda se alçara, no consintiendo
en esta justiçia. Lleuandolos pues
a iustiçiar, era cosa estrañissima
uer los llantos de los unos, las
endechas de los otros, que de
conpassion de estos caualleros
por toda la çiudad se hazian.
Todos corrian al Rey,
comprauanle la misericordia con
grandes summas de oro y plata,
mas la seueridad fue tanta, que
no dio lugar a la clemençia. Y
como esto el pueblo uio, los
començo a llorar de nueuo;
llorauan los caualleros con quien
solian acompañarse, llorauan las
damas, a quien seruian; lloraua
toda la çiudad la honra y
autoridad que tales çiudadadanos
le dauan. Las bozes y alaridos
eran tantos que paresçian
hundirse. El Rey que a todas
estas lagrimas y sentimiento
çerraua los oydos, mandó que se
executasse la sentençia, y de
todo aquel linaje no quedó
hombre que no fuesse degollado
aquel dia, saluo mi padre y un tio
mio, los quales se halló que no
auian sido en esta conjuraçion.
Resultó más deste miserable
caso, derriballes las casas,
apregonallos el Rey por
traydores, confiscalles sus
heredades y tierras, y que ningun
abençerraje más pudiesse biuir
en Granada, saluo mi padre y mi
tio, con condiçion que si tuuiessen
hijos, a los uarones embiassen
luego en nasçiendo a criar fuera
de la çiudad, para que nunca
boluiessen a ella; y que si fuessen
henbras, que siendo de edad, las
casassen fuera del reyno.
Quando el Alcayde oyo el estraño
cuento de Abindarraez y las
palabras con que se quexaua de
su desdicha, no pudo tener sus
lagrimas, que con ellas no
mostrasse el sentimiento que de
tan desastrado caso deuia
sentirse. Y boluiendose al moro,
le dixo: Por çierto, Abindarraez, tú
tienes grandissima occasion de
sentir la gran cayda de tu linaje,
del qual yo no puedo creer que se
pusiesseen hazer tan grande
trayçion, y quando otra prueua no
tuuiesse, sino proçeder della un
honbre tan señalado como tú,
bastaria para yo creer que no
podria caber en ellos maldad.
Esta opinion que tienes de mí,
respondio el moro, Alá te la
pague, y él es testigo que la que
generalmente se tiene de la
bondad de mis passados, es essa
misma. Pues como yo nasçiesse
al mundo con la misma uentura
de los mios, me embiaron (por no
quebrar el edicto del Rey) a criar
a una fortaleza que fue de
christianos, llamada Cartama,
encomendandome al Alcayde
della, con quien mi padre tenía
antigua amistad, hombre de gran
calidad en el reyno, y de
grandissima uerdad y riqueza: y la
mayor que tenia era una hija, la
qual es el mayor bien que yo en
esta uida tengo. Y Alá me la quite
si yo en algun tiempo tuuiere sin
ella otra cosa que me dé
contento. Con esta me crié desde
niño, porque tambien ella lo era,
debaxo de un engaño, el qual era
pensar que eramos ambos
hermanos, porque como tales nos
tratauamos y por tales nos
teniamos, y su padre como a sus
hijos nos criaua. El amor que yo
tenia a la hermosa Xarifa (que
assi se llama esta señora que lo
es de mi libertad) no sería muy
grande si yo supiesse dezillo;
basta auerme traydo a tienpo que
mil uidas diera por gozar de su
uista solo vn momento. Yua
cresçiendo la edad, pero mucho
más cresçia el amor, y tanto que
ya paresçia de otro metal que no
de parentesco. Acuerdome que
un dia estando Xarifa en la huerta
de los jazmines conponiendo su
hermosa cabeça, mirela
espantado de su gran hermosura,
no sé cómo me peso de que
fuesse mi hermana. Y no
aguardando más, fueme a ella, y
con los braços abiertos, ansi
como me uio, me salió a reçebir, y
sentandome en la fuente iunto a
ella, me dixo: Hermano, ¿cómo
me dexaste tanto tienpo sola? Yo
le respondia: Señora mia, gran
rato ha que os busco: y nunca
hallé quien me dixesse do
estauades hasta que mi coraçon
me lo dixo: mas dezidme agora,
¿qué çertedad teneys uos de que
somos hermanos? Yo no otra
(dixo ella) más del grande amor
que os tengo, y uer que hermanos
nos llaman todos y que mi padre
nos trata a los dos como a hijos.
Y si no fueramos hermanos (dixe
yo) quisierades me tanto? ¿No
ueys (dixo ella) que a no lo ser, no
nos dexarian andar siempre
juntos y solos, como nos dexan?
Pues si este bien nos auian de
quitar (dixe yo) más uale el que
me tengo. Entonces encendiosele
el hermoso rostro, y me dixo:
¿Qué pierdes tu en que seamos
hermanos? Pierdo a mi y a uos
(dixe yo). No te entiendo (dixo
ella), mas a mí paresçeme que
ser hermanos nos obliga a
amarnos naturalmente. A mí (dixe
yo) sola uuestra hermosura me
obliga á quereros, que esta
hermandad antes me resfria
algunas uezes; y con esto
abaxando mis ojos de empacho
de lo que dixe, uila en las aguas
de la fuente tan al proprio como
ella era, de suerte que a do quiera
que boluia la cabeça, hallaua su
ymagen y trasunto, y la uia
uerdadera transladada en mis
entrañas. Dezia yo entonçes entre
mí: Si me ahogassen aora en esta
fuente a do ueo a mi señora,
quánto más desculpado moriria
yo que Narciso; y si ella me
amasse como yo la amo, qué
dichoso sería yo. Y si la fortuna
permitiesse biuir siempre juntos,
qué sabrosa uida sería la mia!
Estas palabras dezia yo a mi
mesmo, y pesárame que otro me
las oyera. Y diziendo esto
lebanteme, y boluiendo las manos
hazia vnos jazmines, de que
aquella fuente estaua rodeada,
mezclandolos con arrayanes hize
vna hermosa guirnalda, y
poniendomela sobre mi cabeça,
me bolui coronado y vençido;
entonçes ella puso los ojos en mí
más dulçemente al pareçer, y
quitandome la guirnalda la puso
sobre su cabeça, pareçiendo en
aquel punto más hermosa que
Venus, y boluiendo el rostro hazia
mí, me dixo: ¿Qué te pareçe de
mí, Abindarraez? Yo la dixe:
Pareçeme que acabays de vençer
a todo el mundo, y que os
coronan por reyna y señora dél.
Leuantandose me tomó de la
mano, diciendome: Si esso fuera,
hermano, no perdierades uos
nada. Yo sin la responder la segui
hasta que salimos de la huerta.
De ahi algunos dias, ya que al
crudo amor le pareçio que
tardaua mucho en acabar de
darme el desengaño de lo que
pensaua que auia de ser de mí, y
el tiempo queriendo descubrir la
çelada, venimos a saber que el
parentesco entre nosotros era
ninguno, y asi quedó la afiçion en
su verdadero punto. Todo mi
contentamiento estaua en ella: mi
alma tan cortada a medida de la
suya, que todo lo que en su rostro
no auia, me pareçia feo,
escusado y sin prouecho en el
mundo. Ya a este tiempo,
nuestros pasatiempos eran muy
diferentes de los pasados: ya la
mirava con reçelo de ser sentido:
ya tenia zelo del sol que la
tocaba, y aun mirandome con el
mismo contento que hasta alli me
auia mirado, a mí no me lo
pareçia, porque la desconfianza
propia es la cosa más çierta en vn
coraçon enamorado. Suçedio que
estando ella vn dia junto a la clara
fuente de los jazmines, yo llegué,
y comenzando a hablar con ella
no me pareçio que su habla y
contenencia se conformaua con lo
pasado. Rogome que cantasse,
porque era vna cosa que ella
muchas vezes holgaua de oyr: y
estaua yo aquella ora tan
desconfiado de mí que no creí
que me mandaua cantar porque
holgase de oyrme, sino por
entretenerme en aquello, de
manera que me faltase tiempo
para deçille mi mal. Yo que no
estudiaua en otra cosa, sino en
hazer lo que mi señora Xarifa
mandaua, comenze en lengua
arabiga a cantar esta cançion, en
la qual la di a entender toda la
crueldad que della sospechaua: