Energy demand of buildings

Numerical Design of Thermal System

M. Masoero

Dipartimento Energia

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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End use energy consumption in Italy 2000-2009 (mtep)

(Source: ENEA based on MSE data)

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero
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 Share of buildings in the overall energy consumption

Transportation
27.1% Residential
33.9%

Agriculture
1.1%

Tertiary
Industry 10.1%
27.7%

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Residential Energy Balance (Provincia di Torino)

COOKING
SHW
4%
8%
ELECTRICAL
14%

1
2
3
4

HEATING 74%

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Residential Energy Balance (Provincia di Torino)

ktep kWh/m2
Total 1580 229
Electrical 212 31
Thermal 1368 198
Cooking 66 10
DHW 129 15
Heating 1173 174

Expense:1.2 G€/yr – Inhabitants: 2.2 M - Per capita expense 545 €/yr

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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National electric energy balance 2009 (Source: GSE)

High impact of
electrical uses in
tertiary buildings

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Electric energy consumption in tertiary buildings in EU-27 countries
(TWh) (%)

Office appliances (stand-by) 9,4 1,2

Computers 26 3,4
Copiers 7 0,9
Indoor lighting 164 21,6
Outdoor lighting 36 4,7
Cooling equipment 21,6 2,8
Space heating and DHW 150 19,7 HVAC systems are
the main energy
Commercial refrigeration 65,8 8,7
users (47,8%)
Cooking appliances 40 5,3
Ventilation 96 12,6
Lifts and escalators 52 6,8
Water pumping 45 5,9
Other 47,6 6,3
Total 760,4 100,0

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Climatisation (Heating & Cooling)

Goal of climatisation is to guarantee:

• Comfort conditions
• Acceptable indoor air quality in living spaces
Different approaches are needed for:
• Winter heating
• Summer cooling (air conditioning)

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Space heating

• Space heating is typically required when the outdoor

temperature falls below 12-15°C (mid October to mid
April in Northern Italy at low altitude):
• The comfort temperature in winter is typically 20°C
• The optimal air relative humidity is 50%, but values in the
30% - 70% are normally acceptable

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Thermal comfort zones and indices

Ta = dry-bulb air temperature To = (hc Ta + hr Tmr) / (hc + hr)

Tmr = mean radiant temperature hc = convective heat transfer coefficient
To = operative temperature hr = radiative heat transfer coefficient
ET* = effective temperature
Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero
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 Design heating load

• The maximum thermal power delivered by the heating

system is given by the design heating load (HL) of the
building
• The HL is calculated assuming steady-state conditions (e.g.
Tin = 20°C and Tout = -8°C in Torino) and neglecting all
positive heat gains due to solar radiation and indoor
sources (people, appliances,a nd lighting)
• The HL consists of two terms, i.e.
– the envelope heat losses
– the ventilation heat losses

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Envelope losses

Heat flux lost by transmission across a wall:

Φwall = U A (Tin – Tout) (W)
where
U = overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
A = wall area (m2)

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Typical U-values of building envelope elements (W/m2K)

• Uninsulated walls / roofs: 1

• Normally insulated walls / roofs: 0.5
• Highly insulated walls / roofs: 0.1
• Single-glazed window: 6
• Double-glazed window: 3
• High performance window: 1.5

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Ventilation losses

Ventilation losses may be calculated as

Φvent = 0.34 n V (Tin – Tout) (W)
where
n = number of airchanges per hour (h-1)
V = volume of the ventilated space (m3)
The required airchanges mainly depend on building
occupancy (≈ 25-40 m3/h-person)

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Heating load vs. heating energy demand

• The heating load (design thermal power) is used for system sizing
purposes only
• In real operation, the building requires a variable amount of thermal
energy which is normally lower than the design value
• An ideal heating system would be able to deliver to the building an
amount of thermal energy equal to the actual demand
• Real system performance is affected by energy losses
• The magnitude of the energy losses determine depend on the
efficiency of the heating system

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Heating energy demand

QH,nd = QH,ht – ηH,gn Qgn = (QH,tr + QH,ve)- ηH,gn (Qint+Qsol)

QH,nd = heating energy net demand
ηH,gn = heat gain utilization factor
Subscripts
H = heating
nd = net demand
ht = heat transfer
gn = heat gains
tr = heat transmission
ve = ventilation
int = internal (occupants, lights, appliances)
sol = solar

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Heating system performance

The efficiency of the heating system depends on the efficiency

of its subsystems:
• Production subsystem
• Distribution subsystem
• Emission subsystem
• Control subsystem

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Heating system performance

DESIGN COMFORT HEATED

PRIMARY ENERGY CONDITIONS SPACE
INPUT

DELIVERED
ENERGY

PRODUCTION DISTRIBUTION CONTROL EMISSION

PRODUCTION DISTRIBUTION CONTROL EMISSION

LOSSES LOSSES LOSSES LOSSES

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Emission efficiency
• The emission efficiency takes into account the effects of
– heat losses from heating terminal to unheated / outdoor spaces
– actual temperature distribution in the heated space (e.g. vertical air
temperature gradient in high spaces)

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Control efficiency
• The control efficiency measures the ability of the heating
system to maintain the indoor temperature as close as
possible to a uniform set-point value; it depends on:
– Heating terminal control strategy
– Heat delivery mechanisms (e.g. conduction vs convection vs
radiation)

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Distribution efficiency
• The distribution efficiency depends on the thermal losses
from the heat-carrier fluid to unheated / outdoor spaces. It
depends on:
– Piping layout
– Pipe thermal insulation

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Generation efficiency

• The generation efficiency refers to the transformation of a

primary energy input (chemical energy of a fuel, electrical
energy, etc.) to useful thermal energy transferred to the
heat carrier fluid
• The definitions varies according to the type of heat
generator, i.e.
– Boiler
– Heat pump
– Combined Heat and Power (CHP) system
– Solar system

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Boiler Energy Balance

CHIMNEY LOSSES
Qch
ENVELOPE LOSSES
Qenv USEFUL THERMAL POWER
(transfered to water)
BURNER ENERGY INPUT Qu = G cp (Tout – Tin)
Qb = Gb Hi G = water flow rate
Gb = fuel flow rate BOILER
cp = water specific heat
Hi = fuel lower heating value Tout = water supply temperature
Tin = water return temperature

BOILER EFFICIENCY η
DIRECT METHOD INDIRECT METHOD
η = Qu / Qb η = 1 – (Lenv + Lch)
Lenv = Qenv / Qb Lch = Qch / Qb

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Heating energy demand: the degree-day model

Tout,day Tout,day = outdoor daily

average temperature
The daily heating energy
demand is proportional to
HEATING
SEASON Tin – Tout,da
Tin = 20°C Therefore the yearly heating
energy demand QH,yr is
proportional to the degree-days
(DD) of a given location:
DD = Σ (Tin – Tout,da)

time

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Heating energy demand: the energy signature

QH,day
The slope of the
regression line
measures the
“lossiness” of the
building

TnH = «no heating» ΔT = Tin – Tout,da

temperature

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Reducing envelope losses / gains
• High insulation level of walls / roofs
• Thermal bridge control
• High performance windows
– multiple glazing with low-emittance coating and low-conductivity gas
filling
– low thermal conductance frames
• Summer overheating control
– wall heat capacity
– ventilated façades
– solar shading

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Mechanical ventilation system

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Vertical distribution system

Disadvantages:
Higher distribution
losses (vertical
pipes in external
walls)
Zone control and
heat metering
difficult

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Horizontal distribution system

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Examples of horizontal distribution systems

Radiators Floor radiant panels

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Constructive solutions for floor heating systems

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 RADIANT HEATING / COOLING IN A LARGE TERTIARY BUILDING

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Wall / Ceiling radiant panels

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Radiant false ceiling

False ceiling module

Steel panel
Aluminum fin

Flexible tube

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Radiant false ceiling

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Direct heat metering system (central plant)

TEMPERATURE
ELECTRONIC SENSORS
UNIT

Supply HEATING
FLOW METER
pipe TERMINAL

Return
BOILER pipe Delivered (useful) heat
calculation
Q = ∫t G c (Tsupply – Treturn) dt

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Direct heat metering system (individual dwelling)

The module is applicable to

centralized hot water heating
systems, allowing zone control
and direct heat metering at the
individual dwelling level.
It can be used with any type of
heating terminal (e.g.: radiators,
fan coils, radiant floors, radiant
ceilings, etc.)

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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 Indirect Heat Metering

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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Indirect heat metering system with wireless data transmission

Energy Demand of Buildings - Numerical Design of Thermal Systems – M. Masoero

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