SUBJECT CODE: MATH117

SUBJECT NAME: Differential Calculus

EDITOR/S: Deomary Angelo B. Franco
EDIT DATE: June 23, 2019

Differential Calculus

Introduction:
Differential Calculus is a branch of Calculus where it mainly involves different types of
functions, concept of limits, derivatives, and their applications. It is the direct opposite of Integral
Calculus. Learning Differential Calculus is essential if you want to be able to master Integral
Calculus, Differential Equations, other branches of Mathematics, Physics, Basic Engineering
Sciences, and other Professional Aeronautical Engineering Sciences. Also, to understand DiffCal,
kindly review ALL Mathematics you have taken such as Algebra, Trigonometry, Pre-Calculus (it’s
called that way for a reason), and Geometry as they will be VERY, VERY important! Don’t say I
didn’t warn you.
P.S. Differential Calculus is so much easier than Integral Calculus. I swear.

Tips:
1. Download any book about Calculus. Or buy if you have the budget. The best book I know
is The Calculus 7 (TC7). But again, any calculus book would suffice.
2. DO NOT MEMORIZE FORMULAS. I REPEAT, DO NOT. It will just make you tired and bored.
Personal tip, Calculus is fun if you know where it is used and why the need for it to be
invented. And NO, I am not a nerd. Try to learn some derivations and the concepts and
abstractness involved. Google for derivations or usually, it can be found in books. Don’t
be lazy, researching will always be part of learning. HEHEHE
3. PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE. Yes, it’s tiresome but if you want to pass, then you really
need to. You may realize that after 1st year, you will eventually forget everything you have
learned and deem it useless but it’s the concept that matters. Calculus is an indispensable
tool that makes you understand engineering so much easier. Believe me. ;). Also if you
understand the concept and forget the formulas, it makes reviewing it easy (useful for the
board exam hehe).
4. Don’t think of calculus as a hindrance to your dream of being an engineer. Once you
master calculus (I’m referring to the concepts and application, not the one where you can
 recall every formula but do not know where to use it), other subjects can be understood
easier.
5. Do not rush; take your time. Try to solve 10-20 problems a day. It’s like going to the gym.
The first 2 weeks is hard. But once you see the results, everything will come naturally.
6. NEVER USE THIS AS YOUR MAIN REVIEWER. LISTEN TO YOUR INSTRUCTOR AND/OR READ
A CALCULUS BOOK. THIS MODULE IS INTENDED ONLY AS A GUIDE AND AN EXTRA
REFERENCE. YOU WILL NOT LEARN IF YOU JUST STICK WITH THIS MODULE. If you have a
hard time catching up, I understand. Calculus is not easy but it won’t make itself easier if
you are just being lazy. Try to attend P2P (contact AERO for more details) or watch
Youtube. Michael Van Biezen offers good videos and lectures. Promise!

Functions:
A kind of relation where there is only one dependent variable for every independent
variable. You can think of functions as mathematical description of a phenomena. An example is
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 where Area of circle (A) is a function of the circle’s radius (r).
It is like a formula but what makes it different from formulas and relations is that functions
need to have only 1 value of dependent variable for every independent variable. If you graph a
function where dependent variables are on the y axis and independent variables on the x axis,
draw vertical lines anywhere and if the vertical lines only meet the curve once, then it is a
function. There are many kinds of functions. The most elementary of the functions are:
1. Polynomial Functions: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑧 = 3𝑡 2 − 4𝑡, 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥
2. Trigonometric Functions: 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 cos 2 2𝑥, 𝑧 = 4 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
3. Exponential Functions: 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 41𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑒 here is a constant called Euler’s
Number which has value and is the most important constant in calculus)
4. Inverse Trigonometric Functions: 𝑦 = arcsin 2𝑥, 𝑓(𝑡) = 3 arccos 𝑡, 𝑦(𝑥) = arctan 4𝑥
5. Logarithmic Functions: 𝑦 = log 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3 ln 𝑥, 𝑦 = 4 log 2 𝑥
6. There are many kinds of functions, like step functions, absolute functions, etc but those
5 are the most important of them all. Also, the general term for items 2-5 are
Transcendental Functions.

Limits:
It is a concept used to examine what would happen to function as we get closer and closer
to a value. The concept of limits is the fundamental part in what is happening in calculus.
For example, lim(5𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→5
 Normally, we would just substitute 5 to the polynomial given to get 26. But the concept
of limits is what would happen if we slowly start from any number then climb with small
increments until x is 5. It still is 26, right?
But what if we have
𝑥 2 − 25
lim
𝑥→5 𝑥 − 5

As we can see, the result is indefinite because when we substitute 5 to the denominator,
we get 0 and dividing with zero is not proper, right? But if we factor the numerator which
becomes (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 5) (Remember your algebra, it is important. A good foundation in math is
the key), then the 𝑥 − 5 cancels which leaves you with 𝑥 + 5 then substitute 5 to get 10. The
concept of limits applies there. What if we substituted x with a value near 5 like 4.9. We would
get 9.9, right? What about substituting x with 4.99, we get 9.99. If we get closer and closer to 5
but without being exactly 5, we would get a result closer to 10 without violating the rule of
arithmetic. The closer we are to 5, the closer the answer is to 10. That is the concept of limits.

Derivative:
Do you remember slope? The rise over run? Derivative is similar. Actually, slope is just a
special kind of derivative. As you can see, linear equations in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 has a slope
of m. Linear equations have slopes that determine the steepness of their graph.
Do graphs such as parabolas or other curvy graphs also have slopes? Yes, but the slope is
different at any point of the graph. And the derivative is what defines the slope at any point on
the graph of any function.
The derivative is also a function which is derived (hence, derivative) from a main function.
This is the main focus of Differential Calculus – finding the derivative of a given function.
𝑑𝑦
The derivatives are usually designated by 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑦 ′ , 𝑦̇ , 𝐷𝑥 , and etc. The most used are
the 1st three notations.
It is defined as:
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥
Also, the process of finding the derivative is called “DIFFERENTATION”, (e.g. differentiate
the function), NOT “DERIVATION” else I WILL JUDGE YOU.
There are 2 methods to solve for derivatives. One way is to use its definition or also called
the long method because obviously it is very lengthy. The other is through the use of
differentiation rules or techniques.
Differentiation Rules:
These are some of the most common techniques you will need for the study of Differential
Calculus. AGAIN, TRY TO DERIVE MOST OF IT OR JUST FAMILIARIZE. Try P2P tutorials for
explanation of these techniques.

𝑢 and 𝑣 here are functions of 𝑥 and has derivatives of 𝑢′ and 𝑣′ respectively.

Tips in applying the differentiation techniques are first to identify the function. Is it a
combination of functions or it is similar to the one above? Most of the time, the function to be
differentiated needs a combination of 2 or more of the techniques shown. Also, being able to
simplify algebraically is a prerequisite.
Knowing where these formulas came from makes it easier for you to be familiarized.
During quizzes if you forgot (which in my case always tends to happen) what rule/s should be
used, being able to derive them on the spot will save you from a sure failing score.
Implicit Differentiation:
𝑑𝑦
Most of the time, you are asked for the derivative 𝑑𝑥 of, say 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥. But what if the given
𝑑𝑦
function is like this, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑥 + 9 = 0 and you are asked for 𝑑𝑥 ? Techniques for implicit
differentiation are required here.
Steps here are:
 1. Differentiate each term. Remember that terms with y (dependent variable) will always
𝑑𝑦
have a 𝑑𝑥 partnered to it.
𝑑𝑦
2. Isolate all terms with 𝑑𝑥 in the left side and all terms with just y in the right side. Make
sure of the signs as these are very tricky.
𝑑𝑦
3. Factor out 𝑑𝑥 from the left side then divide both sides with the terms from the left side so
𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 2
that you will have the form 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑥

Higher-Order Derivatives
Remember that we are given a function and most of the time we are asked to find for its
derivative? There are times that we are asked to find the derivative of THAT derivative. It’s like a
derivative within a derivative! A derivative inception or DECEPTION (Yes we are deceived
hehehe)!
So the first derivative we are asked is called the 1st order derivative. The derivative of that
derivative is the 2nd order, the derivative of the 2nd order is called 3rd order and so on.
𝑑𝑦
All you have to know in this topic is that the 1st order has a notation of 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑦′. The 2nd
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑4 𝑦
order has notations of 𝑑𝑥 2 or 𝑦 ′′ . For 3rd order, it has 𝑑𝑥 3 or 𝑦′′′. 4th has 𝑑𝑥 4 or 𝑦 (4) .

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Also, incase it isn’t obvious, the derivative of 𝑑𝑥 is 𝑑𝑥 2 and so on. Just to be clear.

Most of the time, problems in Higher-Order Derivatives are paired with Implicit
Differentiation. Make sure you understood the previous lesson before jumping here or else it will
just confuse you.

Applications:
1. Rate of Change:
One of the most important applications of differentiation is the Rate of Change. Most of
the time, functions involved here are differentiated with respect to time. You need to be
familiar with relations you know from geometry and algebra as most of the problems asked
here require those relations. For example, the volume of a sphere is defined by the function
4
𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 and is followed by solving for the derivatives in terms of time which would yield
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
= 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑡 then the next step depends on the what the problem requires. As you can see,
𝑑𝑡
not knowing the relation of the volume of a sphere will result to no answer. Hence, a review
is advised.
 2. Maxima and Minima (Optimization Problems):
This one is the most useful as it can be used in our real life. I used it once, very helpful
indeed. Here, you are given with a condition and then asked to find for the best parameters
to get the most out of a result. For example, you are given a finite number of fence and you
are asked to maximize that fence to have the biggest area of land. Well, obviously it would
be a square but not all problems are these easy.
The concept here is that if we are given a condition, we find a function relating what is
needed to be optimized and some independent variables. Then we find the derivative of that
function then equate the derivative to zero and then solve for the unknown. Sounds
complicated but if a problem will be presented (No problem found here, maybe in a tutorial.
Ask the AERO org or P2P hehe) it will be easier for you to gasp.
But the question is why zero? Because a derivative of zero means that the slope of the
curve of the function means it won’t increase (or decrease) anymore, hence it states that it is
the maximum value (or minimum). More explanation for these in tutorials.
3. Differentials:
𝑑𝑦
Differentials are what dy and dx called. Do not be confused. is the derivative. 𝑑𝑦 alone
𝑑𝑥
or 𝑑𝑥 alone are called differentials.
I may ask you, what is the difference between 𝑑𝑥 and Δ𝑥? Actually, both are very similar.
They both represent a difference of the forms of 𝑥. But what is their difference exactly? Δ𝑥
represents a finite difference. It could be a large or very large number. While 𝑑𝑥 is a very
small number. Infinitely small or properly called an infinitesimal. It could be very small that
no number can define it. It is the opposite of infinite which is idealized as the biggest number
possible. Ideally, 𝑑𝑥 is not zero. It is just so small that it is almost zero, but not zero and not
definable by a number. But you can approximate 𝑑𝑥 as a small decimal number if we are
talking about numbers that are around hundreds.
Picture this, Δ𝑥 can be imagined as 100 – 20 = 80. But then, 𝑑𝑥 would be 100 – 99.99 =
0.01. The closer Δ𝑥 is to zero, the closer it is to becoming 𝑑𝑥.
This concept is applied to problems regarding error and tolerances in measurements. The
differential of the dependent variable y is defined as:
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Sources:

• Calculus Early Transcendental Functions 5th Edition by Larson & Edwards