Upps al a U niversity log oty pe

21 007

Degree project 30 credits

June 2021

Astro Tourism - A Possible Path

to Sustainable Development
through Narratives and Stories

Darina Gerasimova Master’s Pr ogramme in Sustainable D esti nation D ev elopment

Master’s Programme in Sustainable Destination

Development
 Upps al a U niversity log oty pe

Astro Tourism - A Possible Path to Sustainable Development

through Narratives and Stories
Darina Gerasimova

Abstract
This thesis focuses on the use of narratives and how they connect Astro tourism to
sustainability. This research is done from the viewpoint of the narrators and uncovers what
narratives they have chosen to present to the visitors, their reasons to include those narratives,
what messages they want to convey and how that relates to sustainability. This research was
conducted in order to explore how narratives can be used together with Astro tourism to
sustainably develop peripheral regions.
This thesis uses a qualitative approach with in-depth interviews and inquests. The informants
are people who conduct narrated Astro tourism tours in different parts of the world.
The findings of this thesis are that in Astro tourism narratives can be used to educate, inspire,
shape perceptions, raise awareness and develop environmental consciousness in people. The
narratives can take part in the place, value and identity creation processes, can provide a
sustainable competitive advantage, can link together the visual aspects and reconnect the
visitors to nature and the past.
These findings can be used in the broader field of science about narratives and storytelling in
the experience-based industry. On a more practical side it is recommended to include narratives
that communicate ideas about sustainability that the narrators personally feel passionate about,
and they should consider what kind of message they want to convey through them and how that
will affect the customer’s experience. Fac ulty of Sci enc e and Technol ogy, U ppsal a U niv ersity. Place of publication Visby . Supervisor: Carina Johanss on, Subj ect r eader: C amilla As plund Ingemark , Exami ner : Ulrika Persson-Fisc hier

Faculty of Science and Technology

Uppsala University, Place of publication Visby

Supervisor: Carina Johansson Subject reader: Camilla Asplund Ingemark

Examiner: Ulrika Persson-Fischier
Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Research Question ................................................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Theoretical Approach .......................................................................................................................... 10
1.6 Former Research.................................................................................................................................. 18
2. Findings and Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 30
2.1 Culture, society and education ............................................................................................................ 30
2.2 Light pollution ...................................................................................................................................... 38
2.3 Customer’s experience and importance of narratives ........................................................................ 44
2.4 Economic sustainability ....................................................................................................................... 49
3. Discussion............................................................................................................................................... 51
3.1 Results and answer to the research question ...................................................................................... 51
3.2 Contributions........................................................................................................................................ 54
3.3 For future research .............................................................................................................................. 55
4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 56
References .................................................................................................................................................. 57
Appendix 1: Semi-structured questions for interviews ......................................................................... 65
Appendix 2: Questions for inquest through email ................................................................................. 66
Appendix 3: Interviews............................................................................................................................. 66
Appendix 4: Inquests ................................................................................................................................ 68
Appendix 5: More information from interviews and inquests.............................................................. 69
1. Introduction

1.1 Background

To explain my own interest in starting to research this topic about Astro tourism, narratives
and sustainability of destinations, I need to share a short story about my last experience with the
dark sky and a project I was part of before the start of the thesis.

On my way back from a day-long excursion with my father and my boyfriend in the
peripheral parts of Bulgaria, I was gazing through the window of the car at the tall trees, the
mountains, the sunset. It was beautiful and peaceful. However, as the night came and we passed
through some villages, everything was soaked in darkness. There were only a few flickering lights,
probably from candles, that came for very few of the houses. Sadness fell onto me that probably
there is no power in those villages, or there are only a few old people living there, unable to afford
to have electricity, but then I saw a light. It wasn’t coming from the villages, no, it was the sky. It
was mesmerizing, it was incredible, so many stars, everywhere in the night sky. By living in the
city for so many years I had forgotten that this is how the night sky actually looks like. Then I
thought that even when there is so much darkness in these poor villages, hidden among the
mountains, this breathtaking beauty of the dark sky, this brightness of the stars shows that there is
hope.

The second inspiration to write this thesis came from a project on Astro tourism that I was
doing together with my classmates as part of one of my courses. Although this project was about
the development of Astro tourism in a specific area, I surprisingly learned that in some places there
are narratives as part of the tour and that raised the questions in me: “Why are they included?” and
“How does that add to the entire dark sky experience?”

1.2 Statement of Purpose

In my research I will focus in particular on the use of narratives in Astro tourism, and I will
try to link the findings to how that makes Astro tourism more tightly connected to sustainability.

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For my research I will analyze only the viewpoint of the narrators and I will try to uncover: what
narratives they have chosen to present to the visitors, their reasons and motivations to include those
narratives, what messages they want to send out through the narratives and how that relates to
sustainability.

I want to do this research, because I believe that narratives are a sustainable way of creating
an experience and that they can be used together with Astro tourism, which already is considered
a sustainable practice, to develop peripheral regions. This topic is important and in lines with the
current times, first because there are many regions, which are left undeveloped and the small towns
and villages are disappearing in favor of the spread of the Metropolises; and second because with
the rise of the current threats to the environment and the societies, achieving environmental, social
and economic sustainability is becoming more and more important and every step, that helps
humanity go into that path, is worth researching.

1.3 Research Question

The purpose of this research is to find and explore the different connections between
narratives, sustainable development, and Astro tourism. To achieve this purpose, I will attempt to
answer the research question: “How can narratives be used in Astro tourism in order to achieve
sustainability?”

1.4 Methodology

Qualitative research, advantages and disadvantages

For the purpose of my thesis, I have decided to use a qualitative and inductive approach
with semi-structured interviews. In order to answer my research question, it is important for me to
uncover the opinions of people who are connected to stargazing tours about the use of narratives
in Astro tourism and to get an understanding of their reasons for including their chosen narratives,

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and what messages they want to convey to the visiting people. For this purpose, the advantages of
the qualitative research over quantitative research are the following: it usually focuses on words
rather than numbers, it emphasizes the point of view of the participants, the theoretical elaboration
emerges out of the rich data collection, and it is concerned with small-space aspects of the social
reality (Bryman, 2012, p.380, p.408).

However, it is good to mention the disadvantages of the qualitative approach, which can
pose limitations for my research. There are critics who believe that qualitative research is too
impressionistic and subjective, and it is difficult to replicate, because it is believed to be
unstructured and relies on the researcher’s ingenuity, and the responses of the interviewees are
thought to be affected by the characteristics of the researcher (Bryman, 2012, p.405). However, I
believe that I have laid out a clear structure of my thesis through the use of the concept of the three
dimensions of sustainability and the theory about the narratives, storytelling and customer’s
experience as guidelines throughout my research. I also don’t think that my personal characteristics
have affected the answers I have received from the interviews and the inquests in a way that would
be detrimental for the final results.

There are also expressed worries about the problem with generalization, since a few
interviewed individuals can’t be representative of a population; however, the findings of the
qualitative research generalize the theory, not the populations (Bryman, 2012, p.406). Compared
to quantitative research the process of data analysis in qualitative research is unclear because it
isn’t confined by strict guidelines (Bryman, 2012, p.406-407). I also think that, because of the
careful selection of interviewees, asking proper follow-up questions, which require additional
knowledge of the topic, and the transcription of the interviews, the data gathering part in qualitative
research can be a time and labor-intensive process.

Methods for gathering qualitative data and sampling

The qualitative data collection phase for my thesis lasted from around the beginning of
March 2021 until the middle of April. In this period, I have collected 6 in-depth interviews, which
lasted around 1 hour, and 2 inquests. In my case the inquests were composed of short and open
questions, which were sent through an email for the participants to answer. The method of sending

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out the inquests was used in order to receive more data from people who wanted to help with the
data collection for my thesis but didn’t have enough time for an interview or had language
difficulties.

The interviews were conducted with one person at a time, in English and through the online
platform for communication - Zoom, which proved to be very helpful in times of pandemic when
traveling was restricted. I found interviewing through Zoom also helpful, because it allowed me
to record the interviews directly on my computer. However, I recognized that through online
interviews it is hard to read the body language of the interviewees and therefore the focus was
more on the words they said.

In order to find the needed data for my research, I decided to use purposive sampling, where
the selected people are closely related to the researched topic (Bryman, 2012, p.416, p.418). My
main criteria for the purposive sampling were people who conduct Astro tourism activities and
have narratives during their stargazing tours. There are many places that don’t include narratives
as part of their Astro tourism programs, however, the people in the sampling were selected because
they would have knowledge about the use of narratives in stargazing tours and how that connects
Astro tourism to different aspects of sustainability. I chose to exclude from my sampling the people
who don’t include narratives, because my research question is about how narratives can connect
Astro tourism to sustainability and it is beyond the scope of my study to find the differences
between the experience in the stargazing tours with narratives and without narratives. My aim is
not to compare the narrated and the non-narrated tours, but to focus and gather as much information
as possible about the use of narratives in Astro tourism.

I also wanted to include in my data collection process participants who perform stargazing
tours in different parts of the world in order to have a broader and diverse perspective on the use
of narratives and stories in Astro tourism and to give my thesis a more international character. I
sent emails to many countries that have astronomical tourism activities and the people who agreed
and participated in my research are from: New Zealand, Namibia, Spain (Catalonia), USA
(Nebraska), Sweden, USA (Wyoming), USA (Hawaii), Japan (see the Appendix 3 and Appendix
4 for more information on the participants in the interviews and inquests). Although I have 2
interviews and 1 inquest with people from the USA, they were located in different states and since

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the USA is a large and multicultural country, those interviews and inquests also contribute to
enriching the international character of the sampling.

In the beginning I had some difficulties finding people to interview since I was aiming to
interview participants who conduct narrated stargazing tours in different countries, and therefore
I didn’t send too many emails to people in the same country. The process of finding participants
suitable for the purposive sampling, who also conduct stargazing tours in different countries, was
time-consuming, because it required careful research in various websites. Once I identified people
who fitted with the criteria for the sampling, I sent them an email presenting myself and my
research topic and asking them if they are willing to participate in an interview. If they were willing
to participate in my research but had no time for an interview or had other difficulties, I offered to
send an inquest instead. I chose to send emails to the participants who fitted the sampling instead
of conducting phone calls, so that it is most convenient for them, because in that way they can
have more time to decide whether they have the time and the interest to be part of my research. I
also found emails more suitable, because if I happen to send the email to the wrong person, they
can forward it and connect me to the person that is most fitting to participate in my research.

One of the uncertainties in qualitative research is that it is difficult to establish at the

beginning how many people should be interviewed before a theoretical saturation has been
achieved; however, the size of the purposive sample should balance between having enough data
for theoretical saturation and not being so large that it would cause difficulties for the analysis
(Bryman, 2012, p.425). Thanks to the 6 rich and in-depth interviews, and the detailed answers
from the 2 inquests, I believe that I managed to achieve that balance and gather enough information
to reach the needed level of saturation, because I have larger than initially expected rich data,
where there is enough saturation of similar codes and themes to be able to create core themes and
subthemes.

Even though I started with a long list of guideline questions for the interviews, after the
first interview, I decided to take a more open approach and tried to focus more on open questions
and follow up questions so that the interviewee can speak their minds freely (see Appendix 1 for
semi-structured interview questions). Therefore, on many occasions some of the structure and
content of the questionnaire was changed in order to better fit the topic discussed by the
interviewee and to avoid forcing them to repeat information, which was already said. In the

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interviews I started with icebreaker questions, such as about the background of the interviewees
and about their companies / the companies they work for. After that I asked about the stargazing
tours and the narratives and stories that were used in the tours and through follow up questions I
tried to determine how those narratives and stories connect to different aspects of sustainability. I
found it very useful for my research that the questions in qualitative interviews should not be fixed
and can change depending on the discussed topic. This allowed me to gather more insight on the
topic that is most important for the interviewees and to learn about things which were originally
not taken into consideration while composing the initial interview guideline.

The questions in the inquests were less as number and more open compared to those during
the interviews so that the people who are responding to them can have more freedom in what to
say and to give me a better understanding of what they consider significant in terms of the
connection between Astro tourism, sustainability, and narratives (see Appendix 2 for more
information about the inquest questions).

Ethical considerations in the research process

During the data collection phase of my thesis, I took into consideration the research ethics.
Although my research doesn’t use personal sensitive data and doesn’t affect the subjects physically
and psychologically, and doesn’t entail an obvious risk of harming the subjects, it has been
conducted while taking into account the ethical aspects of providing information about the research
to the participants, obtaining their consent and not revealing their identities in the paper as
discussed in “Good research practice” issued by The Swedish Research Council in 2017 (p.13,
p.15).

In the emails to the selected potential participants, I included a short introduction of myself
and described my research area so that the interviewees can be familiar with my topic and know
what questions to expect during the interviews before they give their consent for an interview. The
interviews were scheduled in comfortable time for the interviewees. In the emails I also stated the
average time frame for the interviews: between 30 minutes to 1 hour / less than 1 hour, so that the
interviewees can decide whether they can afford to spend that time and if they would prefer to be
sent out an inquest instead.

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 In the beginning of each interview and in the inquests, I stated that all of the information
will be used only for the purpose of the thesis and that their identities will be kept anonymous, and
I asked for their consent to record the interview for transcripts and data analysis. In order to keep
their identities anonymous in the thesis paper I replaced their real names with other names, which
are only connected to the country where they conduct Astro tourism activities at the time of the
data collection. I chose to use different names instead of numbers to avoid the risk of
depersonalizing them. I also decided to keep the names of the exact locations and the names of
their companies / the companies they work in confidential in the thesis paper.

During the interviews I tried to keep a comfortable atmosphere and to be neutral. The fact
that the interviews were conducted through Zoom meant that the interviewees could choose their
own setting for the interview. If I wasn’t certain whether I understood something correctly, I asked
the interviewee for their confirmation so that I can reduce the risk of misinterpretation or
decontextualizing during the data analysis phase. During the interviews I didn’t notice any
problems or disturbances.

The inquests were sent out and received through email, which allowed the participants to
choose when and how much to write on the questions. They were also given the option to write
outside of the posed questions if they wanted to share something important, which wasn’t included
in the questions. Although respondents to the inquests didn’t write on topics outside of the
questions, I believe that it is important to include such an option.

Reliability and validity

Important aspects of a research are reliability and validity. In terms of external reliability,
since my research is qualitative and is based on semi-structured interviews as a data gathering
method, it is difficult to replicate. During different stargazing tours, each tour guide has a level of
freedom to choose which narratives and stories to tell and can have various reasons to do so, and
also the local context as part of the stories shouldn’t be dismissed. Sustainability is also a complex
concept, which can change in the course of time and many researchers have contrasting views on
it. However, I believe that it is possible if another similar study is conducted, that some of the

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themes found in this study could appear again. In terms of internal reliability, since I am the only
member of the research team, this part is not related to my research.

Internal validity is considered to be one of the strengths of qualitative research where the
observations of the researcher match with the theoretical ideas that they develop (Bryman, 2012,
p.390). Since my chosen method for data collection was qualitative in-depth interviews, this
allowed me to develop a good understanding of the participants’ views regarding the use of
narratives and stories and the connection of Astro tourism to sustainability.

The external validity is a problematic area in qualitative research, since the sampling size
is small, and that limits the degree to which the findings can be generalized across social settings
(Bryman, 2012, p.390). However, since there is relatively small amount of research on the relation
between narratives, customers’ experience and sustainable development, I believe that even though
the findings of my research can be difficult to generalize across a large social setting, they can
prove useful for further research on creating a connection to sustainability through the usage of
narratives and stories in experience-based activities. That can be achieved through using my
findings about narratives in Astro tourism and parallel them to the use of narratives in other natural
and cultural experiences and how the messages about sustainability and the overall enhancement
of the customer’s experience compare.

Research limitations

The main limitations of my research are connected to the qualitative character of the
research, which were listed in the Qualitative research, advantages and disadvantages part of this
chapter and in connection to the reliability and validity. However, a delimitation which I have
imposed on my research is that language in the interviews, the inquests, the sent emails and in
searching for articles was English. I chose this delimitation because this is the language in which
I feel most comfortable conducting research. I realize that I have missed information in articles
which could have been in a different language, and I have missed the opportunity to interview
people or sent out an inquest because I have sent the emails written in English and I have searched
for potential participants in websites that are either written in English or have an English version

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option. The only exception to this is that I searched for participants to interview in Bulgarian
websites; however, I couldn’t acquire any interviews or inquests from there.

A possible delimitation is that I chose to interview people who conduct stargazing tours in
different countries and therefore I purposefully didn’t send out too many emails to the same
country and instead sent a few emails to each country where I identified people who fitted the
criteria for the purposive sampling. This delimitation extended the period for the data collection
and I couldn’t use snowball sampling.

Another delimitation, which I decided on because of the limited time given to complete the
thesis, and the current travel and activity restrictions due to the pandemic, was to focus entirely on
the ideas and views of those telling the narratives and stories – the people connected to the
stargazing tours, rather than on those who hear the narratives and the stories – the tourists / visitors.

Through my research I can generate theories about the narratives and stories that were
used during the Astronomical tours by the tour guides; however, I cannot generate theories about
the viewpoints of the tourists / visitors who have been on narrated stargazing tours and how the
narratives affected their experiences and whether they were inspired or motivated towards
sustainability in some way. For a better understanding of the tourist’s view and experiences, I
would have needed to conduct a participant observation in a stargazing tour, which was almost
impossible to conduct during the time of the writing of the thesis, due to the travel restrictions and
financial requirements, and/or conduct in-depth interviews with such tourists, which would require
much more time.

Data analysis

In the data analysis part, I decided to do a thematic analysis, which is one of the most
common approaches to qualitative research and involves reading and rereading transcripts to
define core themes and subthemes (Bryman, 2012, p.578, 579). I did the analysis by carefully
reading and rereading the transcripts from the interviews and the received inquests and through
the process of coding each interview and inquest, different themes were identified. The most
prevalent themes, which connected to the subject of my research, were listed in the findings. The
gathered data from the thematic analysis was reported in the language of the informants, which

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was taken from the transcripts after the interviews and the inquests and was modified only through
the removal of filler words and multiple repetitions so that it fits better a written text and to avoid
distractions during the data analysis. Reporting the identified themes through the usage of
quotations from the interviews and inquests was done in order to keep the context and the meaning
as close as possible to the original and to reduce the risk of fragmentation. The process of
transcribing was done first through Microsoft Word online and after that manually. The thematic
analysis of the interviews and inquests was also done manually.

1.5 Theoretical Approach

The theoretical approach aims to present the important theoretical concepts for the study
and it will be further used as a prism for analysing the data and constructing the findings. The
theoretical approach is separated in two main parts. First, I will present the theories, which form
my perception of sustainability, sustainable tourism and the three dimensions model, and are useful
for answering the research question. Second, I will list the important for this thesis theories and
concepts about narrative and storytelling in tourism, and their connection to sustainability.

Sustainable development and sustainable tourism as concepts

Since the subject of the thesis revolves around a tourism practice such as Astro tourism
and the search for connections with sustainability, it is important to present theory about both
sustainability and sustainable tourism. In order to add a critical view on this subject, I will also
include criticism on concepts by different researchers.

In the 1960’s tourism was viewed in mostly positive light due to the economic benefits
which it provided. However, significant social and environmental problems, which can be linked
to different tourism activities, became more and more apparent, such as climate change,
biodiversity loss, cultural commoditization and others. (Rutty et al., 2015, p.36) With the evidence
of the negative impacts and the continuous growth of the tourism industry arose the need to connect
tourism to sustainability.
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 The concepts of sustainable development and sustainable tourism have appeared in various
materials since the 1980’s and have gained increasing popularity not only in academia, but also in
the public and private sector. With the large number of papers written on those concepts and their
relatively subjective nature it is normal that there are many different interpretations, which
eventually can lead to conflicts. One of the sources which I found suitable to refer to for my
theoretical approach is The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and Sustainability by C. Michael Hall,
Stefan Gossling and Daniel Scott from 2015.

In the introduction to the book, Hall, Gossling and Scott start with the main concept of
sustainable development – “Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on
Environment and Development [WCED] 1987: 49, cited in Hall et al., 2015, p.1); however, the
authors acknowledge that World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) weren’t
the first to start the concepts of sustainable development or sustainable tourism and the tourism
aspect wasn’t emphasized in the report. Sustainable development and sustainable tourism are
topics that are explored by many researchers, who analyse it using various approaches and methods.
This idea is also supported by Hoppwod, Mellor and O'Brien in their article “Sustainable
Development: mapping different approaches” from 2005, where they state that although all
advocates for sustainable development agree that there is a need for a change in the society, there
are various perspectives, which are usually mixed with different political and philosophical views.
Transformative changes in society also depend on the cultural adaptability of the involved actors;
however, academia can assist in that process through education (Budeanu et al., 2016).

Sustainability deals with wicked problems, which are not easy to recognize, and they are
entangled with multiple other complex problems and challenges; therefore, solving one part of the
wicked problem can lead to many others. (Hall et al., 2015, p.1, p.6) The authors also reflect on
the concept of sustainability, which is defined as a contested concept that is employed in the search
for balance between the use of the resources, the economic development, and the natural
environment.

In the chapter “Tourism and sustainability: An introduction” in their 2015 book, Hall,
Gossling and Scott express that sustainable tourism is a part of sustainable development, where
the focus is on qualitative development rather than on the quantitative rise of the capital. Budeanu

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et al. (2016) state that tourism has a long tradition of sustainable initiatives and is one of the first
sectors to establish definitions, principles, strategies and plans for ‘sustainable tourism’. Budeanu
et al. (2016) also state that while there is a growing evidence for the market transition, the
transformation falls behind the rising amount of academic texts on sustainable tourism.

Criticisms about the evolution of the concepts of sustainable development and sustainable
tourism are expressed in the articles “Sustainable Tourism as an Adaptive Paradigm” (1997) by
Hunter and “Critical Sustainability: Setting the Limits to Growth and Responsibility in Tourism”
(2014) by Saarinen. Hunter (1997) explains that the concept of sustainable tourism evolved
separately from the general concept of sustainable development and this has led to
oversimplification of the concept, inflexible methods and lack of clarity and details. Saarinen
(2014) identifies that due to the multifaceted and vague nature of the sustainable tourism concept,
appear different frustrations, questions about responsibility, lack of clarity in the meaning of the
concept and lack of applicability.

Another criticism of the conceptualization and representation of sustainable development

comes from Higgins-Desbiolles (2018) who finds ambiguity in the concept of sustainable
development and identifies it as very anthropocentric, because it emphasises the use of natural
resources for human needs alone, ignoring the needs of other species. Higgins-Desbiolles (2018)
also investigates the shift of the meaning of sustainable development into “sustainable growth”,
which eventually becomes “sustained growth”, which is defined as the essence of unsustainability.

Another misunderstanding is that when sustainable development is referred to, it is

regarded to be about the development of tourism, without taking into account the society and the
environment (Hunter, 1997). Hunter (1997) suggests that usually the tourism researchers are
following the weak stance on sustainability and are searching for the balance between destination
area tourism and environmental tourism. The author expresses that there is a need to connect
sustainable tourism to the sustainable development framework and to improve the tourism-centric
model. According to Hunter (1997) sustainable tourism should be perceived as an overarching
paradigm, instead of trying to balance demand, supply, host community needs and desires, and
consideration of impacts on environmental resources. Saarinen (2014) argues that the concept of
sustainable tourism should be re-shaped into a less tourism-centric industry, which should function
on the local-global scale, and it should be reframed how the limits of growth are set in the policies

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and practises. Higgins-Desbiolles (2018) also implies that tourism needs to be understood and
managed in wider systems and adds that it should be clear that tourism plays a significant role in
the unsustainability of the growth model and the cultural ideology of consumerism behind it.
Budeanu et al. (2016) recognises that the doubts about the viability of the sustainable concept in
tourism are common, however, a better understanding of the limitations of the concept has led to
the agreement that social transitions to sustainability is a multifaceted process.

The three dimensions of sustainability

In the chapter “The evolution of sustainable development and sustainable tourism”, Hall,
Gossling and Scott present the concept of the three dimensions, also called ‘pillars’ of
sustainability: economic, social and environmental. Economic sustainability focuses on generating
prosperity for the society, and on the viability of economic enterprises to be maintained for a long
period of time. Social sustainability represents the respecting of human rights, equal opportunities,
equitable distribution of benefits in the society and recognition and strengthening of different
cultures. The environmental sustainability reflects on the conservation and maintenance of natural
resources and the protection of biological diversity and natural heritage (Hall et al., 2015, p.27).

The traditional model where the three dimensions are represented as separate, but
connected rings has the implication that each sector is partially independent. According to
Hoppwod et al. (2005) this view is often used by defenders of the status quo to search for the lack
of sustainability in the inappropriate management in a specific part, rather than analysing the
fundamental whole. This allows for the perspective that there could be trade-offs between
environmental and social issues and that further continues the conceptual divide between
environment and humanity. However, humanity is dependent on the environment and the society
lives within it just like the economy exists within the society (Hoppwod et al. 2005).

Thanks to the theories in the theoretical approach my main take on sustainability is that
sustainability is a complex and multidimensional topic and sustainable tourism as a concept should
be regarded as an inseparable part of it. What makes the theory of sustainable development and
sustainable tourism even more complex is the vast number of written materials on them, which

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usually contain different political and social perspectives mixed within them. In this part of the
theoretical approach, I included the theories about sustainable development and sustainable
tourism that represent best my viewpoint on the concepts, and which would be most useful for
analysing the main theme of the thesis: sustainability in Astro tourism through narratives.

I believe that the concept of sustainable tourism should be an ‘overarching paradigm’ as

Hunter (1997) suggests, and that the three dimensions of sustainable development and the ‘wicked
problems’ that arise need to be seen as inseparable, interconnected and interdependent. The
economy dimension operates within the society for its prosperity and is limited by the environment.
Although trade-offs are seen by some as part of searching for the balance between each dimension,
the occurring environmental and social problems imply that there is a need for a more
transformative approach that doesn’t pose a risk for the three dimensions. Since my thesis is based
on the searching for sustainability in Astro tourism, I have to focus on the three dimensions and
their connections during my research process. Reflecting on the article from Budeanu et al. from
2016, I believe that education through academic texts can help society transition to a more
sustainable future and hopefully my thesis can be one small step in the vast staircase towards that
change.

Narratives, tourism and sustainability

Narratives are an important part of any type of tourism, including Astro tourism. They can
be used in multiple ways and can have an impact on the sustainable development in different
destinations. Similar to sustainability, the theory and the perceptions about the usage of narratives
in tourism is very rich, therefore, for the subject of my topic I have decided to focus in my
theoretical approach on the place-creation, place-identity, the meaning-making elements of
narratives and the achievement of sustainability through them.

In the article from Birkeland from 2015 “The Potential Space for Cultural Sustainability:
Place Narratives and Place-Heritage in Rjukan (Norway)” examines the changing cultural attitudes
of people living in in the previously industrial town of Rjukan and the effect of place narratives on
the overall perception of the town. One of the narratives contains a sustainable vision for the future
of the town, while the other focuses only on the de-industrialization problem. Since narratives can

14
uphold a grand global narrative and can influence the opinion of the people living in that town,
they carry a great weight in place-creation, place identity, legitimizing different purposes and
shaping the sense of belonging (Birkeland, 2015). The article uncovers the link between the
concept of cultural sustainability and narratives through the narrative approach to culture, where
culture is a medium for the creation of meanings and visions for sustainability. Birkeland stresses
that cultural sustainability can be achieved as a social process through narratives that connect the
past and the future and the local with the global. By managing and transforming those different
aspects place narratives help in the process of place-creation (Birkeland, 2015, p.5).

Another article that examines the role of narratives in place-creation and in making the
qualities of an area visible is from Roura from 2009 – “The Polar Cultural Heritage as a Tourism
Attraction: a Case Study of the Airship Mooring Mast at Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard.” Roura analyses
the use of narratives in the creation of tourism attractions through building a story around a site or
an object and creating a connection between the present and the past. Roura emphasizes the
significance-making aspect of narratives and that places with narratives are seen in tourism terms
as important and worth visiting, while places without narratives have less appreciation from
tourists. If we make a comparison between the article of Roura (2009) and that from Birkeland
(2015), it becomes evident that narratives play an important role in the place-creation and identity-
creation and influence the perceptions and opinions of both the people living there and the visiting
tourists.

Narratives impact the social construction of tourism sites also through myths and fantasy
play. They can be used to organize tourist’s expectations and observations – the tourist’s gaze, and
the institutions, policies, communities and places that are being gazed at by the tourists (Amoamo,
2016, p.13). Narratives can also be used in natural and cultural heritage conservation through the
interaction of mythology and community narratives (Hayombe et al., 2014).

Storytelling and the creation of tourist’s experience

Apart from creating the place, the identity and affecting the tourist’s gaze, narratives also
participate in the shaping of the tourist’s experience through storytelling. Since storytelling has an

15
important role in shaping Astro tourism tours, in this part of the theoretical approach I will present
theory about the usage of storytelling in tourism and the way it can create customer’s experience.

An important aspect of stories is that they not only convey information but are also charged
emotionally and symbolically, and storytelling aims to enrich the information and build a story
around a concept (Mei et al., 2018, p.2). Storytelling is a social activity with the function to attract
people’s attention and to lead them away from negative thoughts and towards a positive mindset
and helps with the creation of meaningful experiences (Mei et al., 2018, p.2). Stories speak to the
human needs, carry over values and principles from generation to generation and stimulate
people’s imagination and emotions (Mossberg, 2008, p.3)

Currently there is a global trend in the experience industry, of which tourism is part, that
focuses on building a business, an attraction, a service, or a destination around a story. The story
can build a holistic view of a concept, can influence the image of an organization, and can create
an experience for the customers (Mossberg, 2008, p.2-3). The tourism industry is more than just
the exchange of services and using stories in experience-based activities has become increasingly
important, because tourists don’t want to purchase just a product or a service, they want memorable
and unique experiences (Mei et al., 2018, p.1-2; Moscardo, 2015, p.296). In this way the inclusion
of storytelling as part of the tourism activities becomes a sustainable competitive advantage for
tourism companies and businesses (Mei et al., 2018, p.3,4,9; Kim & Youn, 2017, p.1,4). The
adoption of dramaturgical approaches in storytelling can also increase the tourist’s attention to the
stories (Moscardo, 2015, p.298).

Storytelling can be also further affected by the experiencescape through the physical, social
and cultural context (Mei et al., 2018, p.9). Experiencescape is an experimental space filled with
emotion, mindfulness, engagement and personal meaning (Chen, 2021, p.5) It is a blend of both
physical and social elements that affect the customer’s experience and can be defined as a canvas
for the consumption experience, which is highly personal, subjectively perceived and intangible
(Baker and Kim, 2020, p.151).

An experiencescape with clear boundaries can enhance the intensity of the experience and
can facilitate immersion among the visitors (Blumenthal and Jensen, 2019, p.2). Experiencescapes
can also function as part of the phenomenon of global interlinkage, where they can be located in
different cultural geographies but are also part of a larger global economy and the larger

16
transitional flow of culture is not easily bound to one place, region or nation (O'Dell, T., 2005,
p.17).

Another important aspect in staging believable and immersive stories, that can affect the
tourist, is authenticity. If tourists perceive a story as authentic, then they will be likely more
affected by that story. However, even though authenticity refers to original or historical facts and
is described as a form of reality, it is also socially and individually constructed and the negotiated
perception of reality is relative and dependent on a context (Kim & Youn, 2017, p.2). Mei et al.
(2018, p.10) propose that since people have different perceptions of authenticity, the focus should
be on making a unique story, based on the available resources. According to Mossberg (2008, p.14)
a unique story has a concept that is difficult to be copied.

What makes experiences different from services is that they are personal, interactive, and
focused on emotions and feelings, which requires the active participation and immersion from the
customers (Mei et al., 2018, p.3). In order to be immersed in a story the tourists need to step out
of the ordinary world into a state where they can observe, participate and play roles outside of the
norms before returning back to the ordinary (Mossberg, 2008, p.8).

The complex phenomenon of customer experience can’t be made by the tourism operator
for the tourists. The tourism operator can only stage the context for the tourist to achieve the
experience as a mental response to the stimulus in the environment (Mei et al., 2018, p.3). The
tourism operator or the tour guide can help with providing the prerequisites for a meaningful
experience; however, there also needs to be room for the tourist to participate in the creative
process. Through co-creation, the tourist becomes more immersed in and captivated by the story
(Mossberg, 2008, p.9).

I believe that in Astro tourism an important part of the customer’s experience is the visual
side of the tours. Visuality is about how the vision is constructed and how people see, how they
are able, allowed or made to see or see the unseeing (by Foster quoted in Rose, 2016 p.2-3).
According to Rose (2016, p.3) what is seen and how it is seen are both culturally constructed.

From this part of the theoretical approach, it became evident that both narratives and
storytelling have an important impact on tourism and sustainability. Narratives can be employed

17
for achieving sustainability through place-creation, place identity, natural and cultural
conservation. While storytelling, apart from conveying valuable and authentic information about
the site/activity, can be used for the creation of positive and memorable experiences for the tourists
and can be used as a sustainable competitive advantage for the destination/company. The theories
about storytelling and customer’s experience will be useful for analyzing the stories that the
different Astro tourism operators include as part of their tours and understand in what way they
connect to the concepts about sustainable development and sustainable tourism presented in the
first part of the theoretical approach.

1.6 Former Research

Since this thesis focuses on the connection between Astro tourism and sustainability, the
purpose of the former research is to familiarize the reader with previous studies on this topic.
Although Astro tourism is a very vast field, for the purpose of my thesis I have chosen to present
articles which give the reader an overall perspective of how previous authors analyzed the effects
of Astro tourism on different aspects of the environment, society and economy, and connect to the
theme of my thesis. In order to add a broader and international perspective to my former research
part, I have decided to include relatively recent articles from researchers that are from various
countries and analyze different locations in their articles. Such an international perspective is
important, because it not only falls in terms with my decision to have participants in my qualitative
data collection that come from different parts of the world, but it would also help me understand
how Astro tourism is perceived in different countries.

I have decided to structure the former research part into four sub-parts. First, I will provide
information about the background of Astro tourism and how it is conceptualized in the field of
tourism. After that I will refer to previous studies about the effects of Astro tourism on destination
development. Then I will present the connection between Astro tourism, ecotourism, education
and light pollution. Last, I will identify a possible research gap.

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The conceptualization of Astro tourism

Ever since ancient times people have been attracted to the cosmic phenomena and to the
universe. The night sky and the cosmic bodies have played an important role in the development
of human civilization through orientation, navigation, agriculture, calendars, celebrations,
storytelling, telling the time for harvest and seasons, etc. (Fayos-Solà et al., 2016, p.56, Soleimani
et. al., 2019, p.4, Kunjaya et al., 2019, p.7). The evidence for their observations, discoveries and
interpretations can be seen in many countries in the form of cave paintings, myths, narratives,
sacred sites, archeoastronomical milestones, etc. (Paskova et al., 2021, p.1, p.6, Fayos-Solà et al.,
2016, p.56). The legacy of the ancient civilizations about the universe is marked as tangible and
intangible heritage and is protected by UNESCO through astronomical heritage programs
(Paskova et al., 2021, p.2, Rodrigues et al., 2014, p.3-4).

Nowadays people continue to wonder about the universe, and this is reflected in the
creation of Astro tourism. Astro tourism combines elements from science such as observatories
and scientific data, elements from culture such as heritage sites and practices connected to Astro
tourism, and the natural resource of the dark sky and the nightscape (Fayos-Solà et al., 2016, p.56).
Over the years Astro tourism has expanded its definition from a type of tourism where customers
pay to travel into space into a type of tourism that uses the natural resource of the unaffected by
light pollution night skies and conducts cultural, natural and astronomical activities (Fayos-Solà
et al., 2016, p.56).

An important element in the conceptualisation of Astro tourism is the function of the

unpolluted night sky as a natural resource in Astro tourism as seen in Fayos-Solà et al. (2016).
Although stargazing doesn’t deplete this resource in any way, Fayos-Solà et al. (2016) argue that
the dark night sky is becoming a scarce resource with the increase of the night lighting and the
atmospheric pollution. Fayos-Solà et al. (2016) define Astro tourism as a bridge between science
and tourism, which opens new opportunities for locations with unpolluted dark skies and specific
product offerings, and motivates the formation of alliances for starry nights, science, culture and
nature. Such alliances and associations, for example the International Dark Sky Association, play
an important role for the protection of the dark sky sites for the future generations.

Astro tourism, which is a short form of astronomical tourism, is also called celestial tourism
and dark sky tourism. I chose to use the name Astro tourism in my paper, because I was inspired

19
by the research Soleimani et al. (2019) conducted regarding the conceptualization of Astro tourism.
The majority of the people interviewed in the research thought that the name Astro tourism
captures best the elements of the sky observation tours, because it is clear, understandable and
defines the whole aspect of astronomy (Soleimani et al., 2019, p.11). According to Soleimani et
al. (2019, p.12) the names and definitions that were proposed in their research are credible to be
used in future studies. I agree with the suggestions made by Soleimani et al. (2019), because the
name Astro tourism is easy to remember and envelops the entire aspect of the main activities that
it includes, which is the observation of astronomical objects.

In my thesis I will focus only on the terrestrial side of Astro tourism, which includes
activities related to observing various astronomical phenomena from Earth. Such phenomena are
solar and lunar eclipses, meteor showers, planets, auroras, starry nights and even sunsets in
picturesque and natural settings (Paskova et al., 2021, p.5). Other terrestrial Astro tourism
activities include night tours and visitation of planetariums, locations with impact craters and
places, related to ancient cosmic observations and rituals (Paskova et al., 2021, p.14).

Although the activities are connected to observing the celestial bodies, Astro tourism
depends also on the physical attributes of the destination, where the landscape is as important as
the skyscape (Soleimani et al., 2019, p.6-7,). In naked eye observation the tourists gaze at the
complete scene and what can be seen within a particular area in the sky (Tadić, 2016, p.1, p.4).
Looking back at the theoretical approach and the creation of the customer’s experience through
storytelling, appears another connection between Astro tourism and narratives and that is the usage
of the complete scene to create an experience for the tourists.

Another connection between the theory about the customer’s experience and Astro tourism
can be seen in Paskova et al., (2021, p.13) where they state that Astro tourism allows people to
experience and understand the surrounding universe while bringing a perception of one’s position
in space and a transcendence of oneself as a terrestrial being. Astro tourism can bring a sense of
calm, joy and freedom in the practitioners while also providing the possibility for them to learn
more about astronomy and astrophotography (Paskova et al., 2021, p.13).

The definition of Astro tourism, which includes both space tourism practices and terrestrial
tourism practices with astronomical elements, can cause some confusions with the use of names
in the conceptualization. For example, it is normal for recreational visitors that pay to travel in

20
space to be called astrotourists (Carter, 2010, p.1-2), however, tourists who engage in stargazing
and observing activities from Earth also share the same name (Soleimani et al., 2019, p.12).
According to Carter (2010, p.2), the name Astro tourism within the accepted terminology used by
aeronautics can be selected for a practice that “escapes the confines of this world”, while space
tourism is left for the broad tourism industry sector. However, in Duval & Hall (2015) space
tourism as a name is particularly used to refer to tourism involving a travel in space. According to
Paskova et al. (2021, p.3) space tourism consists of five components: stratospheric flights,
suborbital flights, low-orbit space flights, virtual flights and observation of spacecraft launches on
spaceports. Although both terrestrial and orbital tourism practices often fall in the category of
Astro tourism, the differences between them are significant. For example, in terms of sustainability:
unlike terrestrial Astro tourism, which in some cases is considered closer to ecotourism (Paskova
et al., 2021, p.3, p.20), tourism in space can cause significant environmental problems arising from
the orbital detritus from the launch vehicles, the decommissioned or non-functioning orbital
vehicles and the effects of the emissions released in the Earth’s atmosphere (Duval & Hall, 2015,
p.450).

Astro tourism is conceptualized as a growing special-interest tourism that takes place in a

nature-based setting (Jacobs et al., 2020, Soleimani et al., 2019, Ingle 2010). According to
Soleimani et al. (2019), special-interest tourism sites offer distinguishing and niche products for
specific audiences, which help Astro tourism sites to compete with other destinations. Paskova et
al. (2021) acknowledges that, based on many research results, Astro tourism is in the category of
special-interest tourism; however, they also suggest that it shouldn’t be perceived only in that
category. Some Astro tourism activities, such as observing the night sky with a naked eye, can
take the form of professional mass tourism (Paskova et al., 2021, p.1,13, 18).

As a concept, Astro tourism combines two types of tourism activities – terrestrial tourism,
which focuses on stargazing, and space tourism, which has stratospherical and orbital flights. Both
types of Astro tourism are united under the human’s interest in astronomy, the desire to learn more
about the universe and to experience something unique. This fascination for the night sky and
astronomical phenomena has existed since ancient times and has affected the development of

21
human civilization. In order to narrow down the scope of my research I decided to research only
about the terrestrial Astro tourism experiences.

Astro tourism in destination development

Although Astro tourism is a relatively new topic in the academic fields, there are many
different articles analyzing various aspects of the subject in the development of tourism
destinations. For the purpose of my thesis I have decided to look into articles examining the
specifics for starting Astro tourism in a destination, the impacts on the place-creation through
astronomy and the economic and social benefits. I will refer to the environmental benefits as part
of the preservation of the dark sky in the third part of the former research.

Astro tourism destinations can be created in various types of areas: mountainous, rural and
islands (Paskova, 2021, p. 20) and it is a location-specific type of tourism (Jacobs et al., 2020, p.3).
It is regarded as a sustainable form of tourism (Kunjaya et al., 2019) that can develop peripheral
areas (Jacobs et al., 2020). Rural areas usually have low population, low economic activity, are
often surrounded by open areas and require high transaction costs due to poor infrastructure and
being located far from urban areas; however, due to the hit on the international tourism because of
the pandemic, the importance of rural tourism is rising (Kanianska et al., 2020, p.2). Since Astro
tourism is a more community oriented and protective form of tourism that doesn’t need
maintenance and is completely unique, it is perfect for improving the economic status of rural
tourism destinations (Jacobs et al., 2020, p.3). If there is a good ecosystem support and a
cooperation between the observatory management, the Astro tourism activists and the surrounding
community, Astro tourism can have a big economic potential, can support the existing tourism
industry and the community, and can protect the dark sky for astronomical research (Kunjaya et
al., 2019, p.2, p.8).

Reflecting further on the geographical area used for Astro tourism, destinations, which are
considered too rough and remote for traditional tourism, can have the potential for Astro tourism
practices. Such is the semi-desert arid and desolate region of Karoo in South Africa, where the
vast ‘nothingness’ in the area is what makes it suitable for astronomical activities. Ingle (2010)
looks into how the ideas of ‘nothingness’ and ‘space’ through the prism of the romantic gaze, the

22
‘sublime’ and astronomy can change the perception of the area from being “one of the most
forsaken and depressing spots on this earth” (Ingle, 2010, p.4) into an Astro tourism area that has
potential socio-economic benefits for the local inhabitants. The reshaping of the image of an area
through astronomy and Astro tourism can be further related to the place-making function of
narratives, which was presented in the theoretical approach. This creates an interesting connotation
about the deeper connection between Astro tourism and narratives.

Astro tourism can be developed in both large and small countries as long as there are the
needed requirements for astronomical-related activities. However, Tadić (2016) proposes that
small countries, like the Balkan countries, can compete against larger Astro tourism destinations
through naked eye astronomy. This is the more ‘discreet’ form of Astro tourism, as defined by the
author, in comparison with the more elite form that includes spacecrafts, planetariums, and
observatories.

Astro tourism is also becoming an increasing practice in national parks. In the article of
Mitchell and Gallaway from 2019 it is stated that the dark sky is a factor that attracts the interest
of more and more tourists in national parks. According to the authors, having more visitors for
astronomical purposes can lead to a more efficient use of the tourism resources throughout the year
in the national parks. Mitchell and Gallaway (2019, p.1, p.9) write that dark sky ecotourism is a
multi-billion-dollar industry for the national parks on the Colorado Plateau in the USA and the
overnight stays can lead to large economic benefits for the local communities, especially during
the off season. Apart from the substantial economic potential for national parks, Astro tourism can
also provide a means for maintaining the quickly disappearing ecological and recreational amenity
that is the dark sky (Mitchell & Gallaway, 2019, p.1-2).

Another article about the emergence of Astro tourism in national parks is from Collison
and Poe (2013), which, similar to Mitchell and Gallaway (2019), discusses the economic impact
of Astro tourism. What both articles uncover is that the economic benefits from Astro tourism rely
on the overnight stays. During the evening components of the astronomy programs, tourists out of
necessity stay in the park or in near vicinity and pay for lodging, food and other products (Collison
& Poe, 2013, p.12). Collison and Poe (2013) also reflect on the dark sky protection and recovery
and the impact of the International Dark Sky Association and the United States National Park
Service in those processes.

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 From this part of the former research, it becomes evident that Astro tourism can be
developed in various locations in countries in different parts of the world as long as it has suitable
tourism resources and a dark night sky. In terms of sustainable tourism development, Astro tourism
is considered to be a more community-oriented and protective form of tourism that can re-shape
the perspective of the location into a more positive and attractive outlook and, if conducted
properly, can bring economic benefits for the local communities. Astro tourism initiatives also
play an important role in the protection of the dark sky and an increasing number of tourists are
becoming interested in them.

Astro tourism, ecotourism, education and light pollution

In this part of the former research, I want to present the perspective of previous researchers
on Astro tourism, education and light pollution.

First, when discussing how Astro tourism connects to sustainability it is good to make a
comparison between Astro tourism and the – generally considered unsustainable – part of tourism
that is mass tourism. In the previous parts of the former research, Astro tourism has been defined
as a special interest tourism and it can also be added that Astro tourism is a new form of tourism
that stands out from mass tourism, since it is intended for individuals or small groups (Belij &
Tadic, 2016).

As mentioned in the conceptualization part, a different opinion is shown in the article from
Paskova et al. (2021, p.2, p.10) where they state that some forms of Astro tourism resemble mass
tourism, where the organized tours with complete timetable security, etc., cause devaluation of the
experience. There is also the fear that the promotion of Astro tourism destinations can cause
progressive harm (Paskova et al., 2021, p.13). However, Astro tourism activities, which allow the
practitioners to appreciate and value the uniqueness of the astronomical phenomena and enable the
spread of knowledge and awareness about the protection of the environment are considered to be
sustainable and have a characteristic closer to ecotourism (Paskova et al., 2021, p.3, p.20).

24
 Weaver (2011) further elaborates on the idea that Astro tourism or, as it is called in the
article, celestial tourism, can be defined as a type of ecotourism through activities which are
focused on observation and appreciation of celestial phenomena. Kanianska et al. (2020, p.1-2)
agree with this idea and add that since its greatest assets don’t need maintenance and development
and are always available and unique, it is one of the most sustainable forms of tourism. Weaver
(2011, p.6) reminds us that like other forms of ecotourism the act of observation can have a
significant impact on the area, for example the observatories and other facilities have a substantial
footprint and consume energy and other resources. However, C-Sánchez et al. (2019, p.2) point at
the aspect that ecotourism is about learning and the maximization of positive ecological and socio-
cultural impacts.

Blundell et al. (2020), Soleimani et. al (2019) further elaborate on the idea about spreading
knowledge through Astro tourism. According to them, tourists can be stimulated to learn more
about astronomy. Furthermore, influenced by the educational aspect of Astro tourism programs,
when tourists return to their homes, they can consider how to reduce the impact of the artificial
lighting on the night sky from their homes and workplaces (Collison, & Poe, 2013, p.12). Blundell
et al. (2020, p.5) also stress that sustainability, ethics and education are crucial for achieving
sustainable Astro tourism. Weaver (2011, p.7) analyses that through celestial ecotourism the
observers can be educated and encouraged to preserve the dark skies and restore the areas in which
the dark skies have been lost due to light pollution and other anthropogenic activities. Collison and
Poe (2013, p.8) also accept that night sky viewing sessions can be used to present to people the
need to reduce the artificial lighting at night. In this way celestial ecotourism has the potential to
emphasize the improvement of the existing environmental conditions instead of following the idea
of ‘status quo sustainability’, which focuses on ‘leaving no trace’ (Weaver, 2011, p.7).

An important part of the narrative concerning Astro tourism is about light pollution. Light
pollution, also called ALAN (artificial light at night), is increasing globally and due to the change
in the natural environment from the excessive night brightness various fields of research have
recently become involved in assessing its effects (Lima et al.,2016, p.2). As explained on the
website of the International Dark Sky Association (https://www.darksky.org/light-pollution/),
light pollution is the excessive use of artificial lighting and it is separated into: glare, the brightness
which causes visual discomfort; skyglow, which is the brightness of the night sky; light trespass,

25
which is the presence of light in an area where it is not intended or needed; and clutter, which is
the bright and excessive grouping of light sources. It is a side effect of the industrial civilization,
and it is produced by “building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, commercial properties,
offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues” (https://www.darksky.org/light-
pollution/). According to the International Dark Sky Association much of the artificial lighting is
inefficient, unnecessary, overly bright and wasting electricity by “spilling into the sky rather than
focusing it on to the actual objects and areas that people want illuminated”
(https://www.darksky.org/light-pollution/). Wasting light is wasting energy and the indirect effects
of light pollution include additional consumption of natural resources and consequent increase in
air pollution (Lima et al., 2016, p.4). This waste of resources shows that light pollution is
economically and environmentally unsustainable.

Light pollution hinders not only astronomical observations, but it also causes serious
problems for the different forms of life in the biosphere (Paskova et al., 2021, Priyatikanto et al.,
2019, p.1) and is increasingly recognized as a serious environmental problem that interferes with
the normal behavior of animals, especially the nocturnal, and some types of flora and it can have
devastating impacts on both ecology and aesthetics (Mitchell & Gallaway, 2019, p.2). It disrupts
the natural cycle of terrestrial and aquatic species that rely on ambient light and it is noted as a
public health hazard by the American Medical Association (Rodrigues et al., 2014, p.4-5). The
light quality influences the growth and development of plants and in vertebrates it impacts the
production of melatonin, which affects the circadian regulation (sleep-awake cycle) (Kanianska et
al.,2020, p.3) and light at night disrupts the sleep, hormone regulation, and metabolism (Lima et
al.,2016, p.4).

Light pollution has negative effects also on the socio-cultural aspect, an example of that is
from Paskova et al., (2021, p.5) where it can have negative effects on the indigenous cosmological
knowledge and navigation skills. The International Dark Sky Association also discusses the
cultural side of the dark sky as part of their section on light pollution. According to them the natural
night sky has inspired many people in history that were from the fields of science, religion,
philosophy, art and literature, and is part of the universal heritage, which is becoming unknown to
the future generations (https://www.darksky.org/light-pollution/night-sky-heritage/). According to

26
Priyatikanto et al. (2019, p.1) the enjoyment from the beauty of the night sky can be regarded as
passive pleasure that is fundamental to human welfare and recreation.

As mentioned before in the part about the conceptualization of Astro tourism through
Paskova et al. (2021) and Rodrigues et al. (2014), UNESCO recognizes the sky as a universal
heritage and the interpretation of the sky as a theme in the World Heritage by taking into
consideration the relationship between humankind and the environment
(https://whc.unesco.org/en/astronomy). According to UNESCO this is necessary for the
recognition and safeguarding of the cultural and natural properties and landscapes that represent
that relationship. Portal to the Heritage of Astronomy has been created in partnership with the
World Heritage Centre (https://whc.unesco.org/en/astronomy) and “exists to raise awareness of
the importance of astronomical heritage worldwide and to facilitate efforts to identify, protect and
preserve such heritage for the benefit of humankind, both now and in the future”
(https://www3.astronomicalheritage.net/).

Although the skyglow effects are instantaneous, reversible and can be ‘shut off’, the society
is becoming increasingly dependent on electrical energy (Lima et al., 2016, p.4). Silver and Hickey
(2020, p.3) suggest that the barrier to reducing light pollution is more socio-political than technical.
Since public lighting is necessary for the public, some of the solutions to decrease the effects of
light pollution are: to reduce the light emissions, to use cut-off fixtures, to use full shielding on the
luminaries, to limit the area of lighting, to reduce the luminous flux, to shut off lights when not in
use, and to limit the growth of installed lights (Lima et al., 2016, p.2, p.4). However, the major
challenge of limiting light pollution is the trade-offs between economic costs and perceived social
costs with implementing the different strategies for managing the light pollution (Lima et al., 2016,
p.4-5).

Priyatikanto et al. (2019, p.1, p.8) believe that the preservation of the dark sky is an
important step in the context of the unstoppable modern development of human civilization within
the complex ecosystem, and that it is possible through sky brightness mapping and if the society
is aware of the negative effects from light pollution and take action on it. Going back to the ideas
about connecting Astro tourism to education and awareness from Blundell et al. (2020), Collison,
& Poe (2013), Soleimani et. al (2019), Weaver (2011) in the beginning of this part, Priyatikanto et

27
al. (2019, p.1) also believe that social awareness about the protection of the dark skies can be raised
through education and promotion, which can be conveyed through Astro tourism.

Another possible solution to combat light pollution is through dark sky parks, reserves and
areas. According to Lima et al. (2016, p.2, p.5) such places can enhance the public awareness about
the spread of light pollution and can preserve the dark sky of that area. An important role in the
protection, maintenance and restoration of the dark sky is played by the International Dark Sky
Association, which uses the International Dark Sky Place program to encourage communities to
protect the night skies and the ecosystem that depends on it through responsible lighting policies
and public education (Blundell et al., 2020, p.3). Concerning dark sky areas, Silver and Hickey
(2020) have conducted a study on the regulation of light in Muskoka, Canada, through ‘dark sky
activism’. Their regulatory model for reducing light pollution by conquering the socio-political
barriers overall turned out successful and the main motivations of the people there were because
of environmental and aesthetic concerns. However, the appeals for economic benefits through
night sky tourism also played a role in the effectiveness of the model (Silver and Hickey, 2020,
p.16-17). Kanianska et al. (2020, p.2) believes that in order to protect sites with significant
ecosystems it is important to have light pollution reduction in the top priority for national parks,
protected areas, astronomical observatories and in public policy as well. However, at EU level,
special legislation for light pollution is missing and the effects of artificial lighting on species and
landscapes without special protection status are often not addressed by the existing regulations
(Kanianska et al., 2020, p.3).

Through the former research part, I have presented important information about the
conceptualization of Astro tourism, what has inspired its creation and what activities it includes. I
have also stated that in the thesis I will focus only on the terrestrial side of Astro tourism. In the
Astro tourism in destination development section, I have included articles looking into the location
specifics of Astro tourism, the place shaping value, and the social and economic benefits. In the
Astro tourism, ecotourism, education and light pollution part I have taken a look at the connection
of Astro tourism to mass tourism and ecotourism and the educational and awareness opportunities
it can provide. I have included information about the negative effects of light pollution on the

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environment and the culture, and how Astro tourism can be used to protect the dark skies in
different areas.

The former research part aims not only at informing the reader about the various topics
analyzed by previous researchers, but it also provides me with a stable basis for my thesis and
helps me identify a possible research gap. The examined articles have been chosen to represent the
broad scope of Astro tourism research and to connect to the concept of sustainability, analyzed in
the theory part.

Possible research gap

Although many articles have mentioned that Astro tourism can be used to educate people
about astronomy and spread awareness about the negative effects of light pollution, I want to
further uncover whether the narratives and stories during the tours create another connection to
sustainability, which is not analyzed in-depth.

Also as mentioned by Mossberg (2008), Mei et al. (2018), the research on the connection
between servicescapes and storytelling in tourism, and experience-related studies are scarce.
Therefore, I want to further examine the importance of including narratives and stories as part of
the customer’s experience in the Astro tourism tours.

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2. Findings and Analysis

In the Findings and Analysis chapter I have described and analyzed the data, which I have
found through conducting a thematic analysis on the 6 semi-structured qualitative interviews and
the 2 inquests. To present the data I have used both paraphrasing and quotations in the language
of the participants. The reader can find more information about some of the topics discussed by
the informants in Appendix 5 under the given in this paper name of informant (this is not the real
name). All of the found data is categorized in core themes and subthemes.

The chosen core themes are created by combining the most frequent themes found
throughout the research and are separated into 4 parts. The categorization of the themes is based
on the theories listed in the theoretical approach: the concept about the three dimensions of
sustainability - economic, social and environmental, and the theories about narratives, storytelling
and customer’s experience. The identified core themes are: 1. Culture, society and education,
which examines the social aspect of sustainability, 2. Light pollution, which is for the
environmental sustainability connection in Astro tourism, 3. Customer’s experience and
importance of narratives, which is dedicated to the specific focus of this research and explains why
the participants in the interviews and in the inquests have decided to use narratives as part of their
tours and how that connects to the customer’s experience, and 4. Economic sustainability, this core
theme discusses the connections between Astro tourism and economic sustainability.

2.1 Culture, society and education

Education and astronomy subtheme

In all of the narratives during the stargazing tours from the interviewed people and the
participants in the inquests, there is a strong emphasis on educational narratives and on the
educational side about astronomy, such as the planets, the stars, the vast distances, the formation
and evolution of stars and other such processes. According to Maria, one of the rules of being a
dark sky reserve is to include dark sky education; however, it is important to note that even though

30
not all of the participants in the interviews and the inquests are part of a certified dark sky location,
everyone tries to educate the visiting tourists and that is done through the use of narratives.

The use of the educational narratives as Liam explains is: “to educate and inspire through
the objects in the night sky.” (See Appendix 5, Education and astronomy subtheme, under ‘Liam’
for additional information). Although the educational narratives during Astro tourism activities
can inform people about the different celestial objects and astronomical processes, they are also
focused on inspiring the visitors to want to learn more and as Eric says: “we expect that people
just discover, just have a first touch with science and if somebody is more interested, probably
with our explanation, can learn something.” Even if there are people with different levels of
understanding about astronomy, there is something for everyone to experience and to be inspired.

A good method to enhance the influence of the sustainability-focused narratives even

further, is to show how they are being practiced by the narrators or in the location through a hands-
on approach, as presented by Maria, and to use the surrounding environment (including flora and
fauna) to further contribute to the strength of the narrative (See Appendix 5, Education and
astronomy subtheme, under ‘Maria’ for additional information). The in-person astronomy and
educational narratives during the stargazing tours are different from the classroom-based narratives;
however, they can be used to combine what people have already learned about astronomy and to
practice it and to experience in their own environment. According to Maria that leads to: “taking
the first steps towards an environmental consciousness.”

Another aspect of educational narratives is that they can be used not only for the visiting
tourists, but also as an educational tool, as Charlotte suggests, for the community (See Appendix
5. Education and astronomy subtheme, under ‘Charlotte’ for additional information). This can be
further linked to the second core theme, which is about light pollution and its negative effects on
the environment and human health. Although it is important to share this information with the
visiting tourists, it is also just as important to share it with the local community in order to prevent
any potential dangers from the excessive lighting at night and to preserve the dark sky, which is
essential for conducting Astro tourism activities. Here I will remind of the idea of Budeanu et al.
(2016), which was first included in the theoretical approach and explains that transformative
changes in society also depend on the cultural adaptability of the involved actors; however,
academia can assist in that process through education. Having educational narratives, which

31
communicate ideas to both tourists and local people, can be helpful in order to achieve positive
transformative changes, such as reduction of the light pollution. And going back to the idea of
achieving environmental consciousness, I believe that is one of the first steps towards a
transformative change that is needed for combating some of the wicked problems of sustainability,
such as light pollution.

An interesting point is that the knowledge about astronomy can be applied in narratives
about different challenging processes which are visible on Earth; such an example gives Oliver
about the comparison between global warming on Venus and on Earth. (See Appendix 5,
Education and astronomy subtheme, under ‘Oliver’ for additional information). Therefore, the
educational narratives during the Astro tourism tours can communicate to the visiting tourists and
the local community important information about the different environmental challenges on Earth
by using examples from astronomical objects and processes. Since sustainability deals with wicked
problems, and within them are usually found relations to many different issues, the educational
narratives in Astro tourism can inform people and raise awareness not only about light pollution,
but also about other dangers to our planet. As Henry believes, the underlying goal of the
International Dark Sky Association is to educate and encourage people to preserve nature in
general.

In summary: The educational aspect is a very important part in Astro tourism narratives.
The narratives are not only used to educate people more about astronomy but also to inspire them
to learn more and to build an environmental consciousness. Apart from only the visiting tourists,
the educational narratives can be used among the local community and can function as a
community education tool. Educational narratives during the stargazing tours can expand beyond
just the topic of astronomy and can relate to serious problems on Earth such as light pollution and
global warming. There is a close relation between education, preservation of nature and
transformative changes in society and the educational narratives can be used to assist in solving
different sustainability challenges.

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Mythology and local stories subtheme

Most of the participants have decided to include narratives and stories about mythology
and / or local stories. Although the narratives and stories about mythology and the local culture
are not as common or as heavily emphasized as the educational narratives during the stargazing
tours, I believe that they are just as important because they connect Astro tourism to the more
cultural side of sustainability. Often the mythology aspect is included in order to explain the names
of the astronomical objects for the visitors. The different interviewees had different reasons for
choosing to include the mythology aspect.

Among the educational narratives Eric decided to include mythology to explain the names
of the constellations, and also from a historical perspective to show the tradition of that part of the
world. Charlotte believes that: “It’s easier for our brains to remember if we have patterns… it's
also to explain to people that every civilization has its own dimensions.” From these reasons
appears the first connection between the use of mythology-based narratives in Astro tourism and
cultural sustainability – such narratives inform the tourists about the traditions of that part of the
world and show that every civilization has its own cultural specifics.

Narratives and stories about mythology and the night sky also share important information
about the evolution of human society and can reconnect the modern person to the past. Mythology
is also a useful tool to look back into the past and see how the people in the ancient times used the
night sky. Charlotte explains that our ancestors “could read the sky like a book” and by using the
night sky as an educational tool and for navigation they could travel and exchange with other
people in an economic and social way, which created civilizations. An interesting comment that
Charlotte makes, which shows a more practical side, is that: “…it's always good to be able to read
a different book than just our computers just in case you get lost in the wild.”

On the topic of human evolution and the night sky: Liam believes that: “humans evolved
watching the night sky”, however, recently as Liam says:

we've lost touch with the night sky almost completely, I would say mostly because
of light pollution. And just the direction our society is headed, … we haven't been
paying attention to the night sky like humans did for hundreds of thousands of
years. And so, there's a part of who we are as a people that is being lost because of

33
 that. And I think reconnecting people to the night sky is the very beginning of
reestablishing that full connection to a huge part of what it means to be human.

Through the ideas of Charlotte, it becomes visible that the narratives and stories about
mythology during the Astro tourism tours can play a much more important role than just explaining
the names of different constellations. They can share with the tourists more about how the people
in ancient times used to look at the night sky and utilized it to evolve societies and create
civilizations. Liam raises a very interesting point about the human aspect of being in touch with
the night sky and the recent disconnect caused by light pollution and modernization.

Concerning the human side of the cultural narratives, Oliver also thinks that: “It
(mythology) brings in a human aspect to astronomy that people can sort of relate to stories and
everybody likes to listen to a good story, so it just makes it a little bit more fun under the stars to
make it not so scientific you know?” (See Appendix 5, Mythology and Local stories subtheme,
under ‘Oliver’ for additional information).

In this case the human aspect links more with the innate human interest in listening to
stories and the ability of people to relate more easily to cultural-based stories compared to more
scientific-focused ones. Oliver also adds that: “It gives them (the tourists) a smile and some loosen
up a little bit and relax a little bit.” Through this appears a connection to the contribution of the
cultural narratives to the customer’s experience; unlike the educational narratives that focus on the
scientific side of astronomy, the cultural narratives and the mythology helps people relax, which I
believe creates a beneficial change of pace between concentration and relaxation.

I think that to achieve social sustainability, it is important to reconnect the modern person
to the night sky and the knowledge passed down from the past. A step towards that could be the
preservation and the spread of narratives and stories related to the history and the mythology of
ancient civilizations about the importance of the night sky and the astronomical objects. Taking a
look back at the theory about narratives, Birkeland (2015, p.5) expresses an idea that can be tightly
connected to the current subject about mythology and human evolution; the idea is that cultural
sustainability can be achieved as a social process through narratives that connect the past and the
future and the local with the global. The connection of the past and future through historical and
mythology-based narratives is, as Charlotte elaborates that “without previous knowledge there is

34
no future knowledge, we always build upon those who came before us and the knowledge they
built during that time…it's something that makes us part of a group…”

The local to global aspect suggested by Birkeland (2015) is also present because both
mythology-based narratives and local stories form groups, societies, represent traditions, but also
establish connections between different groups.

Birkeland (2015) also discusses that by transforming the aspects of past and future, local
and global, place narratives help in the process of place-creation. An example of such place
creation is seen in the answers of Sakura, who tells old local stories about how the night sky played
an important role in the life of the islanders there that “and the names they gave to the stars are
still used by the local people.” Telling local stories about the use of the night sky in the past and
creating a link to the present, contributes not only by increasing the interest of the tourists, but also
has a place-creation role and place identity, which is important for social sustainability. Here it is
useful to reflect back on the theory of Amoamo, (2016, p.13), which was first referred to in end of
the Narratives, tourism and sustainability part of the theoretical approach. In that theory narratives,
that include myths and fantasy play, also impact the social construction of tourism sites and
organize tourist’s expectations and observations. This theory in turn can be related to the ideas
about experiencescape and how it blends both physical and social elements that affect the
customer’s experience (Baker and Kim, 2020, p.151). I believe that by using culturally charged
narratives and stories to achieve place-creation and place identity, this also shapes the social
elements of the experiencescape and affects the gaze of the tourists, their expectations,
observations, and their experience of the stargazing tour.

The local stories and the cultural knowledge, that they carry, can affect not only the
perception of the tourists, but also that of the local people: as Maria explains: “…by actually
including cultural knowledge into our program and emphasizing how important it is, it gives a
message back to the children that their culture and their language is important and has value. So,
they would then have reason to continue to tell others, so they will then continue to tell the story.”
(See Appendix 5, Mythology and Local stories subtheme, under ‘Maria’ for additional
information).

This example from Maria represents well the value-creation ability of narratives and stories.
They can shape the identity of a society and add importance to it, which also translates into

35
preservation of those cultural narratives and spread the cultural knowledge to more people. Eric
also wants to include local stories because: “…we think that we have to do things that are different
from other places so we can explain local things in our visits. Our local traditions are linked to the
tradition of the sky…we have a very clear feeling that if we don't do this, some of this information
will be lost.” (See Appendix 5, Mythology and Local stories subtheme, under ‘Eric’ for additional
information).

This raises two important points. First, having local narratives and stories during the tours
can lead to a sustainable competitive advantage (Mei et al., 2018, p.3,4,9; Kim & Youn, 2017,
p.1,4, first referred to in this paper as part of the theoretical approach) because an authentic and
unique story can be made with the available resources (Mossberg, 2008, p.14, Mei et al.,2018,
p.10, first referred to in this paper as part of the theoretical approach). Second, the inclusion of
such local stories as part of the stargazing tours can contribute to their preservation. On the same
point Charlotte explains:

...as long as you talk about something, that something doesn't die… So, by talking
about this instance, cultures and cultural aspects and cultural knowledge you keep
them alive and that's what narratives do, right... it’s to share knowledge and to
learn… you talk about stuff and maybe people will think about the stuff you talk
about and develop something new that you never thought of before, so you might
be also an inspiration.

Just the action of talking about something such as local narratives and stories, ancient
knowledge, helps with their preservation and can also lead to inspiring the visitors.

An important element of cultural preservation is also seen in the inclusion of stories from
indigenous people in the area. Oliver mentions the mythology of the Maori people, the original
inhabitants of New Zealand, and Henry explains how their local culture in Nebraska is heavily
influenced by the Native Americans and how almost every year he invites a Native American to
speak about the native astronomy culture as part of the tours. Henry does that because: “…we do
try to promote the Native American culture and then of course as everybody says, the United States
is just a huge melting pot of many cultures… we try to promote and appreciate and respect those
various cultures that came to this country and also keep the Native American culture alive for sure.”

36
The proper inclusion of an indigenous culture can promote and express appreciation and respect
towards that culture and can help with its preservation.

In summary: There are different reasons why the informants in my research have decided
to include narratives and stories about mythology and the local culture as part of their stargazing
tours. It can be for explaining the names of the constellations, for expressing the local / regional
tradition, to show how the human brain uses patterns, to present the dimensions of different
cultures, to reconnect back to the past and the evolution of humans, to bring some human aspect
among the scientific-based narratives, and to just give the visitors a smile and help them relax.
Culturally based narratives in the stargazing tours can be part of the place-creation and identity
and value creation process and through that they can shape the perception of both the visiting
tourists and the local people about the location. They can provide a sustainable competitive
advantage and can also help with the preservation of knowledge and in showing appreciation and
respect towards the indigenous cultures.

I believe that each area where stargazing tours are conducted has interesting and
informative culturally based stories and narratives, however, it depends on the tour guide’s / the
organization’s opinion on what kind of narratives are suitable to be included and what kind of
messages about social sustainability they want to link to them. Through my current observation
about informants and their backgrounds, I think there is a relation more to the different Astro
tourism settings that they operate in (whether it is a certified dark sky place or just an area with a
dark sky) than to the different local contexts that influenced their decision on what kind of
narratives they should include (only scientific-based and educational about astronomy or also
cultural ones). However, my data is not enough to properly analyze such a hypothesis.

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2.2 Light pollution

Light pollution, the environment and human health subtheme

One of the most common elements that is included in almost all of the narratives and stories
of the respondents is about light pollution and its effects on the environment and human health. In
the beginning of the subtheme, I have also examined how the respondents perceive the
environmental sustainability in relation to Astro tourism.

On the topic of how sustainable Astro tourism is for the environment Oliver thinks that
there are no negative impacts on environment. Charlotte believes that there is no need to construct
anything additional if there already is an available infrastructure, which can be used for Astro
tourism, an activity which in their case usually happens outside of the main season.

Maria further links environmental sustainability to the narratives that they use during the
program in order to create a holistic viewpoint: “…our main themes for the program: energy, water,
waste and biodiversity,… you can also apply all of those themes to the dark sky…” (See Appendix
5, Light pollution, the environment and human health subtheme, under ‘Maria’ for additional
information).

There is a strong emphasis on the dangers of light pollution in the narratives of every
informant in the data collection. Eric explains why it is important to communicate the problems of
light pollution and about the dark sky protection with the tourists: “So we are, let's say, a little bit
aggressive with our explanations about the preservation of the night sky because it's very important
for us… If there is no dark sky here, there is no chance for an astronomical park.” Astro tourism
areas heavily depend on the presence of a dark sky, if there is too much light pollution in the area
that will hinder the observations. However, as Eric adds:

sometimes I say, astronomy is the less important, because if we switch off the light
in some moment, we will recover the sky automatically…but the species that have
disappeared, which have been displaced because of this effect of the light, or people
that have some issues due to the light, that is not possible to recover. So, the
important thing is to prevent the actions of the lights on people and nature because
we cannot go back.

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 As Eric points out the main dangers of light pollution are connected to the irreversible
problems that it causes to the living organisms, while the sky can recover fast if there is no light
pollution.

Another problem that Liam recognizes is that there is a disconnect in the perception of
people that the sky above the National Park is also part of the National park and needs to be
protected as such. Liam also sees another disconnect, which is between the environmentalist
movement and the dark sky protection. According to Liam this disconnect was caused by the fact
that in the beginning of the environmentalist movement in the United States there was no light
pollution, however, today there still isn’t a strong enough connection between environmental
protection and dark sky protection.

In summary: Environmental protection and environmental preservation are an important

part of sustainability in destinations and light pollution is disturbing not only the astronomical
observations, but also has negative effects on the living organisms that are susceptible to it.
However, the darkness of the night sky can be easily restored if there are no light pollution sources,
while the damage on the animals and the humans can be irreversible. Astro tourism is considered
an environmentally sustainable practice that can use previous suitable infrastructure, so that can
negate the need to use resources to build something new, and in the discussions and narratives with
the tourists many different themes, which can be connected to both Astro tourism and sustainability,
such as energy, water, waste and biodiversity, can be used. Currently there exists a disconnect
between the perception of people about the protection of the sky in National parks and the
relationship between environmentalists and the dark sky protection.

Awareness and inspiration subtheme

The main reason why the informants have chosen to include narratives about light pollution
in their stargazing tours is to raise awareness and inspire people to make a change that would lead
to the reduction of light pollution. This can be connected back to the educational aspect of
narratives in Astro tourism. However, the narratives that raise awareness don’t have to be limited
only to light pollution but can include more global topics about environmental protection. Aria

39
wants to leave a message that: “The earth is our only place. All other planets that could sustain
humanity are too far away and we just cannot get there so we must preserve our home planet for
as long as we can. We must not take more fish than can reproduce itself. We must move away
from agricultural practices that strip the soils and add to the greenhouse gases. We must move
away from oil into solar and wind.” (See Appendix 5, Awareness and inspiration subtheme, under
‘Aria’ for additional information).

The narrative of Aria can be connected also to the use of astronomical objects and process
to inspire people, in this case it is the immense distance in space between our planet and other
planets that could potentially sustain human life, which strengthens the message that this is our
only place to survive, and we need to take care of it. The message also has a holistic view and
includes multiple elements of environmental protection.

Most of the informants that include narrative about raising awareness about environmental
problems in their tours believe that they can encourage and inspire the visitors through them. Oliver
believes that the best way is to approach young people who will then pass on that knowledge to
their children. A useful method that Oliver suggests for inspiring people is: “when you start talking
about things that relate to people, and they go: “Oh, that could affect me.” That's when you've got
them, this when they change things because it affects them.”

Liam also thinks that people care about environmental protection and that it matters the
way they are approached on the subject (See Appendix 5, Awareness and inspiration subtheme,
under ‘Liam’ for additional information). Liam believes that with the global increase in the dark
sky programs the night skies can be saved.

For Charlotte the reason why to include such narratives is: “because I started researching
for me and then I discovered things I would have never thought about.”

Henry creates a connection back to educational narratives and expresses his strong
emotions towards the subject: “I just do this, there's no monetary incentive for me to do this. It's
just my passion, my obsession to try to educate and promote this and for people, a broadener
education experience and just their overall knowledge and a realization what is to be here.”

An important point that Maria raises is about the transition of awareness to action in society,
because the narratives set in people a foundation of “knowledge and understanding and interest

40
even in the environment and wanting to even protect it”, however, there is the need of other
partners and organizations that can help people to make a change.

In summary: The informants chose to include narratives about environmental protection

and raise awareness about light pollution and other threats to the environmental sustainability
because they themselves feel engaged and emotional about this topic and they believe that through
those narratives they can encourage the visiting tourists to become more environmentally
conscious.

I believe that informing as many people as possible about the dangers of light pollution and
other threats to the environment and inspiring them is the first and one of the most important steps
to make a change. I share the same opinion as Liam that people do care about the environment and
I accept the point of Maria that setting the foundation of knowledge is not enough, there needs to
be actors and organizations that can help people turn the motivating words from the narratives into
actions.

Light pollution and modernization, safety, and responsibility subtheme

Frequent themes that appear in connection to light pollution are about safety at night and
the responsibility for reducing the light pollution.

The first topic that appears in connection to responsibility is about legislation in cities. As
Maria explains legislation can be used to prevent the spread of lighted billboards, which would
improve the quality of life for the people living in cities. Maria also creates a relation between light
pollution and safety:

Here in Namibia, they are building more and more street lights that are higher up
and they're not shielded. And so actually the light pollution is becoming worse. But
they install these lights here to prevent crime, it's so that you have less incidences
of house breaking and also violence against women and children. So, people are
not interested in reducing light because they see it as a way to protect themselves.

41
 However, on the topic of safety and light pollution Charlotte brings out that: “…people
think that more lights mean more safety. That’s completely wrong. It's what kind of light you use
that you know makes your home or your city safer.”

Liam also agrees that electric lights at night don’t necessarily make people safer: “It's just
not true. But it's an idea that is believed very, very strongly with law enforcement. It's believed
very, very strongly with city planners. Very, very strongly with city administrators and so trying
to break that relationship is one of the hardest struggles.”

On the topic of light pollution and safety I agree that more light doesn’t always make people
safer, however, the problem is, as Maria pointed it out, the lights that are installed are not shielded
and Charlotte acknowledges that it depends on the type of lights.

An interesting perspective that Liam adds on this topic is that: “…there is also something
innately human about that of being afraid of the dark, because we don't see very well at night.”

This suggests that part of the problem with the relation between safety and lights at night
is something human and socially constructed, which implies that educating people about the proper
lights that they can use and the number of lights they can use outside can help reduce excessive
amounts of lights spreading in the sky.

Returning back to the topic of the disconnect between the environmentalist movement and
dark sky protection, Liam implies that:

It's easy to point the finger at big industry and say that they're the ones who are
causing the real problem, and as long as I recycle my glass and my cardboard and
everything else, I'm doing my part and it's really their problem... you can't do that
with light pollution. It really is about every individual separately… I think maybe
that's one of the reasons that the environmentalist movement hasn't taken up charge
of light pollution because it requires a much larger change at the individual level
than anyone has been asked to do…

As Liam recognizes, it is more difficult to come to terms with light pollution since it places
the responsibility on everyone, not just on a big industry. However, with the spread of information
about the dangers of light pollution and as stated by Liam and Oliver in the Awareness and

42
inspiration subtheme, it is important to approach people in the right way, so then they accept to
take responsibility and try to reduce the light pollution that they do. Legislation also plays an
important role, because the type of streetlights, whether they are shielded or not shielded, doesn’t
depend so much on the separate individuals.

On the topic of dark sky protection and responsibility Henry believes that the dark sky is
just as important to be preserved as other environments and unlike other preservation programs,
which require significant efforts such as “replanting a whole new forest, or…redo a large area of
ground with natural native grasses and wildlife”, Henry thinks that: “To stop light pollution, all
you have to do is shut the switch off.” However, Henry adds that: “Now that's an oversimplification,
because you get all these: “Oh my goodness, we won't be safe. We got to have light to see at night
to drive… I think the biggest issue is just education. And of course, what we did really to try to
wake up different organizations in the state and say the park area where we want to establish this.”

Charlotte also recognizes that in order to reverse the problem with light pollution, action
has to be taken and: “action comes with knowledge when the public and the politicians know about
the problem. But also, the public, not just the politicians and so they pressure the politicians.”
Sakura supports the idea that local people and governments have to take action together and Aria
further emphasizes that: “Everything that happens in one part of the planet affects other parts so
we must do our part to protect our areas and work with all nations to do the same.”

I also support the idea that knowledge should come before action and as discussed in the
Awareness and inspiration subtheme, education can set a foundation of knowledge and
understanding. By raising awareness about a problem related to sustainability through the
narratives, and approaching the visitors in the right way, people can be motivated to take
responsibility and not only try to reduce their own contribution to the problem, but also
communicate those ideas with the people who are part of the legislation and take action together.

In summary: Often among people exists the misconception that having more lights at night
makes people safer, however, that depends on the type of lights, and is also strongly connected to
the innate human feeling of fear of the dark. It is important to educate people about what kind of
lights they can use, and that dark sky protection and preservation is just as important as protecting

43
other environments, because it causes negative effects on different species of flora and fauna. It is
easier to reverse the light pollution in the night sky compared to other environmental
reestablishment efforts. However, the topic of responsibility is more difficult to communicate,
because unlike with other types of pollution, the responsibility cannot be pointed at a big industry,
but belongs to every individual. There is a visible connection between education and awareness to
responsibility, because when people know more about an environmental problem such as light
pollution, they can take action and motivate the governments to also take action.

2.3 Customer’s experience and importance of narratives

The dark night sky experience subtheme

Since Astro tourism offers experience-based activities, such as the stargazing tours it is
important to learn more about the night sky experience and to understand better the perception of
the people offering stargazing activities on the importance of having such an experience. Part of
the reason why the night sky experience is considered special is because as Sakura explains: “Many
people can't see the stars in their living place anymore because of light pollution.” Therefore, in
order to see the beauty of the night sky, as Henry points out: “…people are willing to travel great
distances and pay considerable money to come out and enjoy that particular environment where
it's really dark skies and out in the open away from the crowded cities and the light pollution and
other pollutants that affect large Metropolitan areas.”

The dark sky experience in Charlotte’s view is a way to connect with nature and to
experience things sensorially. When placing into consideration the current situation in the world,
as Charlotte suggests: “…that is still pandemic time, people need something else, and they are
desperate for activities” and because many people are “usually confined to the four walls of our
houses” there is the need to engage all senses.

In a natural-cultural experience like Astro tourism people use not only their sight but
perceive the environment with all of their senses. In the theoretical approach I included theory
about Visuality, on how people see, how they can or are made to see and see the unseen (by Foster

44
quoted in Rose, 2016 p.2-3), and even though an important part of the activity of stargazing is
observing different planets and constellations, Astro tourism also engages the other senses and I
believe that enhances even more the entire experience. An important element of the customer’s
experience is that the tour guide sets the context, but the tourist is the one that achieves that
experience as a result of the mental stimulus in the environment (Mei et al., 2018, p.3, first referred
to in the theoretical approach). I think that by allowing the tourists to engage all their senses to the
stimuli in the environment, which represent the physical elements of the experiencescape, they
become more immersed and through their senses they can participate in the co-creation process of
the experience.

In connection to the strong effect of the dark sky experience on the visitors, Maria believes
that: “it affects them very strongly because they realize that they've had a childhood without
something.” Henry further elaborates that the development of the huge urban areas is causing more
people to missing the connection to nature, and that Astro tourism is a good way to both reconnect
people to the various aspects of the world and to nature. Oliver agrees that Astro tourism can bring
people back to their roots and can educate them about how important it is to preserve nature and
to pass down this belief to the next generation.

As a contrast to the visitors who are coming from the cities and are mesmerized by the dark
sky, both Maria and Henry have noticed that people who have grown up and lived in a place with
a dark sky take it for granted. Henry says that those people usually think that everyone can see that
and therefore it isn’t special, and Maria believes that the reason for this is that: “it's always one of
those things until you don't have it, you don't appreciate it.” This raises another link to the
importance of using the narratives as an educational tool for the community so that they can
understand how unique their area is and that they need to protect it.

Henry gives a good description of the dark sky experience: “No matter where your spiritual
life is, it is truly a spiritual feeling. A connection with nature and the universe, to be out under a
very dark sky and to see the stars… and I don't know how else to explain it other than: come
experience it or go somewhere where you can experience that feeling.”

Although the purpose of this subtheme is to throw more light onto the topic of the dark sky
experience and why it is perceived as important and fascinating by both the people who conduct
stargazing tours and the visitors, as Henry points out, I have to acknowledge that the dark sky

45
experience is truly something that has to be experienced individually. Going back to the theory
about the customer’s experience, experiences are different from services, because they are personal,
interactive, and focused on emotions and feelings and require the active participation and
immersion from the customers (Mei et al., 2018, p.3). As Baker and Kim (2020, p.151, first
referenced in the theoretical approach) recognize, the experiencescape is highly personal,
subjectively perceived and intangible. The tour guide can set the prerequisites: the settings, the
narratives and stories, the tools for observation if there are any, but it depends on the tourist’s
individuality how they will experience the dark sky.

In summary: One of the main reasons why the dark sky experience is considered special
and impressive is because many people live in an environment where, because of light pollution,
they cannot see the night sky in its true form. There is also the element that people are feeling
disconnected from nature and they seek to reconnect through Astro tourism. There is also the
current factor with the pandemic and many people search for activities, which can stimulate their
senses. I think that by engaging all of the senses, the visitors can be better immersed and participate
more actively in the co-creation process of the dark sky experience. However, while visiting people
from urban environments are impressed by the dark sky, there are people who have grown up
seeing it and they take it for granted and consider it as something common. Therefore, it is good
to use Astro tourism also as a community educational tool so that it can help people understand
how truly unique the dark sky is and how important it is to be protected. Astro tourism can also
help people from urban environments to reconnect to nature, to appreciate it, to protect it and pass
down that environmentally focused knowledge to the next generation. At the end of this subtheme
it has to be acknowledged that the dark sky experience is highly personal and has to be experienced
individually in order to be fully understood.

The use of narratives and the stories subtheme

This subtheme analyses the view of the participants in relation to the use of narratives and
stories as part of their tours and why they think it is important to include narratives and stories as
part of stargazing and how that affects the customer’s experience.

46
 For Oliver the narratives help people relate to others and it brings out the human nature.
Henry explains that for as long as mankind has walked the earth there has been an interest in the
stars and in developing stories about the patterns in the skies that form constellations. Henry also
adds that in particular people who are new to Astro tourism always enjoy narratives and stories,
and that it is also connected to the welcoming attitude towards the visitors and teaching them about
the legends of the skies and promoting the history of that part of the world.

Since in essence stories not only transfer information, but also carry an emotional charge
and storytelling is a social activity that builds a story around a concept and helps in the creation of
meaningful and positive experience for tourists (Mei et al., 2018, p.2), I believe that it is very
useful to include stories in the tours with people who are new to Astro tourism. The stories will
attract their attention and will convey information in an entertaining way. In addition, by including
stories that promote the local area, this can help the tourists to perceive the story as authentic and
immersive.

When asked about how the narratives contribute to the customer’s experience, Charlotte
responds that it is the most important part of the tour, because: “…the experience is having
someone taking you into this journey of learning about the night, about the culture… it brings us
back to the way our ancestors used to come to share knowledge”. This can be related back to the
point made in the Mythology and local stories subtheme about the reconnecting back to the past
and the way the ancestors used to perceive the night sky. Charlotte believes that: “that's the reason
why people are interested in that kind of stuff because they miss this way of learning. Someone
with knowledge talking to you about a subject… I think people are hungry like wolves for this
kind of stuff… To learn something new in a way, through the narration of another human and not
just by reading it in Google or watching a video.” (See Appendix 5. The use of narratives and the
stories subtheme, under ‘Charlotte’ for additional information).

As part of the customer’s experience, narratives represent the “human exchange”, it is not
important only what kind of knowledge is shared during the stargazing tours, it is also important
the way it is shared – through human interaction, that is a natural way of learning for humans and
that also creates an experience in itself. Reflecting on the times of pandemic, having this human
interaction, seeing another person face to face, and learning new things through a story or a
narrative in a memorable setting, is becoming something more and more desired.

47
 Liam also emphasizes the importance of narratives and explains that:

I think it's the stories that actually captivate people. Showing them objects through
the telescope is one thing… but ultimately those are just images. And I think to
actually provide a memorable experience for people there needs to be some kind of
a narrative. You have to tie all those different images together into a cohesive whole
that makes sense to people. And so, I think the stories that we tell about all the
objects and how we connect all those stories together throughout the program is
really what makes the program memorable… And they're the stories that I was first
captivated by when I learned them.

The narratives are an important part of the customer’s experience because they add upon
the visual aspect. They make connections between the images seen in the night sky and give sense
to them and thus make the entire experience more memorable. An interesting point is the personal
aspect that Liam adds to the narratives by choosing to communicate with the tourists the narratives
that first captivated him.

In summary: Narratives and stories contribute greatly to the customer’s experience,

because they bring the human nature of relating to others and the preserved from ancient times
experience to learn information from another person – through a human exchange, they tie together
and make sense of the different images and make the experience more memorable. Using
narratives and stories is an effective tool to show a welcoming attitude and to immerse and create
a positive experience for the visitors that are new to Astro tourism activities and at the same time
convey important information to them about the sky and the local area. There is also the personal
element that the narrator can add to stories, and that is by including stories that they first were
captivated by and want to convey that impression to the tourists.

48
2.4 Economic sustainability

The core theme of Economic sustainability appears less often in answers from the
respondents; however, I decided to include it in order to have a more holistic view to the analysis
regarding the connection between Astro tourism and sustainability in destinations and to represent
each of the three dimensions of sustainability.

In connection to economic sustainability, Oliver explains about starting astronomical

activities in the Great Barrier Island where usually there is limited power, which in the past meant
that there is nothing to do; however, Astro tourism managed to bring new people to the island who
want to see the stars. That has brought economic benefits to that destination, because while the
tourists are there, they can also engage in other activities that would bring profits to the local people
(See Appendix 5. Economic sustainability core theme, under ‘Oliver’ for additional information).
Henry also agrees that Astro tourism provides an economic advantage for other tourism related
activities in the destination. On a similar note, Eric discusses that the area in which they conduct
Astro tourism activities is quite empty and the dark sky there is both a value and functions as an
economic engine for the area. A good point that Eric makes in connection to economic
sustainability is that they started the astronomical park there to “promote, to save in some way this
area, to prevent the loss of population and to generate new activities, new upper job opportunities
in this location.”

Astro tourism is most suitable to be started in a peripheral area where there is a dark sky
and in turn it can turn the value of having that dark sky into economic benefit for the local
community, because the visiting tourists can also engage in other tourism-related activities.
Bringing economic profits in a secluded peripheral area can help with preservation of that area and
can reduce the loss of the local population by providing new job opportunities. As Maria explains,
the local stories and narratives can also bring economic value, but only if they are preserved.

Henry creates an important parallel also between economic sustainability and

environmental preservation, that the first thing one needs to do to convince others in the area to
protect the dark sky is by explaining how that will provide economic benefits and “then maybe
start talking about the other more esoteric things like preserving nature, preserving the natural
resources and how important that is.” Unfortunately for some people, preserving nature just for

49
having environmental sustainability is not enough, so then it is useful to take a look at the economic
sustainability of the destination and how the preservation will lead to economic gains.

In summary: Astro tourism can be connected to economic sustainability through turning

the value of the dark sky into a method to attract tourists to peripheral areas where apart from
stargazing, they can also participate in other activities. In this way Astro tourism brings economic
benefits and job opportunities to such destinations and prevents the population loss there. In some
cases, protecting a dark sky area is connected to communicating the economic benefits that can
follow from such a process. If preserved, local stories can also add to the economic value.

50
3. Discussion
In the Discussion chapter, I will first explain what results I have acquired through my
research by making a short review of the findings and how every aspect connects together to
formulate the answer to the research question. After that I will look into the contributions from my
research, and how they can be situated in the scientific field and the larger scholarly context and
how they can be applied for a practical use. Last, I will reflect on the aspects, which I haven’t been
able to solve, and what new topics have appeared from my research, which can be suitable for
future research.

3.1 Results and answer to the research question

From the Findings and Analysis chapter, it becomes apparent that through narratives and
stories Astro tourism connects to the three dimensions of sustainability in multiple ways. Although
I have split the analysis into four parts – social sustainability, environmental sustainability, the use
of narratives as part of the customer’s experience, and economic sustainability, in each part there
is flow and relation to another part. I consider this normal because sustainability has to be seen as
the unity of each dimension and how each dimension relates and affects the other dimensions.
Therefore, in this part of the Discussion chapter I will try to give the summary of the findings a
more holistic perspective.

The first uncovered use of the narratives in Astro tourism is that they can educate people
in many different aspects such as: astronomy, the dangers of light pollution and other
environmental problems, how the ancestors used the night sky as a tool for developing their
civilizations, the role of the night sky in human evolution and the specifics of the local area, such
as traditions, mythology, local stories, etc.

However, the focus of the narratives is not only to teach people new things, but also to
inspire them, to create an environmental consciousness in them and to show them the value of the
local culture. The narratives can be used for both tourists and for the local community. Making
people aware of the negative effects of light pollution both for the environment and their health
and thus inspiring them to make a change to preserve nature can be tightly linked to the

51
environmental aspect of Astro tourism, which demonstrates the close relationship between
education, awareness, motivation, transformative changes in society and preservation of nature.
Currently there is still a disconnect between dark sky preservation and many environmentalists,
because the responsibility for causing and therefore reducing light pollution belongs to everyone
and not just a big industry. However, with the increase of the dark sky programs and spreading
awareness there is hope that the light pollution will be reduced. Educating people and raising
awareness is laying the foundation, but for there to be action, both the society and the governments
have to work together to solve the light pollution problem.

The narratives also play an important role in the place, identity and value creation process
of the destination and shape the perceptions of both the visiting people and the people who live
there, and this is tightly connected to social sustainability. They can also be used to help with the
preservation of indigenous culture and to show appreciation and respect. Using local stories and
mythology not only increases the value of the experience for new tourists, but also promotes the
culture of the area and helps with preserving those stories.

For tourists who come from urban areas, the dark night sky experience is unique,
fascinating, and highly personal, and helps them reconnect back to nature and to the way the people
in the past used to look at the stars and share knowledge. The dark sky experience is not only
visual, but it also engages all senses of the visitors and the narratives are an essential part that link
together and give deeper meaning to the images that the tourists see in the sky. The narratives
contribute greatly to the dark sky experience because they can help people feel welcome, make
them relax, help them relate to other people. The narratives can bring out the human aspect of the
experience and make it more immersive and memorable.

Economic sustainability in Astro tourism connects strongly to both cultural sustainability

and environmental sustainability. Local stories, which are part of the cultural aspect of Astro
tourism, can bring economic value and can be used as a sustainable competitive advantage. In
connection to environmental sustainability, Astro tourism can be conducted in an off season and
can use already built tourism infrastructure, which can negate the need to use additional resources
to build something new. Astro tourism can attract tourists to the peripheral areas, which can bring
economic benefits to those areas and can reduce the loss of population there. A useful find in my
research about economic sustainability is that it is good to bring the aspect of the potential

52
economic benefits for the local community into the discussions about dark sky protection and
environmental preservation in a selected destination.

Another interesting find is the strong personal engagement of the informants in educating
and inspiring the tourists through the use of narratives in the stargazing tours. The informants have
chosen to start conducting such activities, because they truly desire to lay a foundation for
knowledge about the dark sky and to inspire and motivate people to see the importance of
preserving nature and culture. They use narratives not only to create an interesting experience for
the visiting tourists, but also to communicate with them their goals and to share the narratives that
first affected and inspired them when they started doing stargazing. I believe that this personal
element, this passion and motivation that the narrators include in the discussions with the tourists
makes the entire experience more believable, more affecting and more inspiring, which are
essential elements in order to transmit those feelings to the visitors and help them develop a more
sustainable consciousness.

To answer to the research question, which is: “How can narratives be used in Astro tourism
in order to achieve sustainability?”, I believe that narratives can help connect Astro tourism to
sustainability in various ways:

1. The narratives can educate people about the scientific field of astronomy; they can
share information about the cultural and natural specifics of the local area and thus take
part in the place, value and identity creation process and shape the perceptions of both
the visitors and the local communities; they can promote and preserve the culture of
the area while providing a sustainable competitive advantage.
2. The narratives can spread awareness and inspire both the tourists and the local people
to take responsibility and make efforts to reduce light pollution and to develop an
environmental consciousness. The preservation of nature is tightly connected to
education, awareness and social transformation, and narratives can be used as a tool in
that process.
3. The narratives are a very important part of the dark sky experience, because they link
together all the visual aspects and help people reconnect back to nature, to the way the
people from the past used to look at and use the sky, and to the natural way of sharing

53
 knowledge through human exchange. The narratives can connect various themes and
topics together and can be used to help people to understand better complicated topics
related to sustainability while at the same time they create an enjoyable, memorable
and inspiring experience.

3.2 Contributions

Looking back to the former research, which shows articles demonstrating different aspects
of sustainability tied to Astro tourism: the cultural implications in Astro tourism about human
evolution, the development of the peripheral areas, the place-creation function of Astro tourism,
the economic benefits, Astro tourism and education, and about the dangers of light pollution; these
are all topic which I have analyzed in my findings. However, although those articles discuss all
these different aspects of sustainability, they don’t explicitly mention or focus on how narratives
are used in Astro tourism to communicate these ideas with the tourists and the local communities.

My contribution to the scientific field is that in my research I offer an in-depth look into
the use of narratives in Astro tourism, where the emphasis is on how the narratives can be used to
achieve sustainability in destinations. I have looked through the viewpoint of narrators, who come
from different parts of the world, and I have uncovered their reasons for why they have chosen to
include narratives and what message they want to send through them. I believe that my findings
and analysis can be used in the broader field of science about narratives and storytelling in the
experience-based industry on the way how narratives can be used to communicate ideas about
sustainability and how they further enhance the customer’s experience and tie together the visual
elements. My finding about the added personal aspect to the narratives in order to communicate
the beliefs and goals of the narrator to the tourists can also be used in future studies about creating
inspirational narratives.

On the more practical side, I recommend to the people who plan to start experience-based
activities such as stargazing or have already started such and are considering whether to add
narratives, that narratives can enhance the customer’s experience and make it more memorable
and will bring a sustainable competitive advantage to the tours. However, considering the personal

54
aspect, it is better to include narratives and stories that communicate ideas about sustainability that
the narrators personally feel passionate about. Whether they should focus more on narratives,
which are educational or spread awareness, or include local stories, which promote the area, or
just share the narrative that first inspired them, is entirely a personal choice. The important part to
take into account is what kind of message they want to convey to those that listen to the narratives
and how that will affect their experience and perceptions, because people do care, they just need
to be approached in the right way.

3.3 For future research

Due to the time limitations, the method I have chosen to conduct this research and the data
I received from the interviews and the inquests, there are still areas in connection to narratives and
sustainability in Astro tourism that have been left unexplored.

First, in order to have the full view on the topic of narratives and how they affect the
customer’s experience in Astro tourism, I think it is a good topic for future research to take a look
at how the listeners to the narrative, the tourists react, and what messages and feeling are left in
them after the end of the stargazing tour. In order to understand better how the tourists perceive
the stargazing tours, which for everyone is a highly personal experience, it is good to conduct a
participant observation; however, in the current times of pandemic, that wasn’t possible for me.

Although in my research I tried to connect the use of narratives to every dimension of

sustainability, my main findings are more related to social and environmental sustainability in
Astro tourism, and there is less information about how narratives connect to economic
sustainability. This is because there was not enough available information in my findings to make
the connection between narratives and economic sustainability as rich as in the other two
dimensions.

Two new and interesting topics for future research that emerge from my findings are about
the value of the sensorial experiences and about experiencing nature during the nighttime. In these
topics can be made some useful parallels to the uncovered core theme and subthemes in my thesis.

55
4. Conclusion
In conclusion I want to say that it has been a fascinating journey for me to learn more about
Astro tourism and the use of narratives in stargazing tours and how everything connects back to
sustainability. Although the majority of the time during which I was writing this thesis, I was
surrounded by the four walls of my home, through the narratives and the passion in the voice of
my informants, I managed to immerse myself into the topic. By the time I write this conclusion
my last experience with the dark sky was fairly long ago, almost 1 year ago, but it still stands out
in my memory.

The reason I started this research was to analyze how narratives together with Astro tourism
can be a sustainable practice that develops peripheral destinations; however, now when I look at
my findings, I believe that there is much more that Astro tourism together with the use of narratives
can accomplish. They can indeed help with the development and the preservation of nature and
culture in the peripheral areas, but they can also communicate important ideas about sustainability
to the visiting tourists and can help them to reconnect back to nature and the views of the ancient
people about the night sky, and to appreciate nature. To achieve a more sustainable future it is
good to take into account both the peripheral areas, where there are problems with lack of job
opportunities, loss of population, disappearance of culture and traditions, and the urban areas,
where people and the surrounding animals and plants suffer from the effects of light pollution and
people lose connection with nature and the past.

I hope that through my thesis I can help inspire and educate other people more about the
uniqueness of this experience and that through narratives this intangible and personal experience
can turn into something beneficial for the sustainable future of our planet. I believe that this planet
is our home and we all have a responsibility towards it.

56
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 APPENDIX

Appendix 1: Semi-structured questions for interviews

Note: there were additional follow-up questions asked, depending on context of the discussed topic,
which weren’t added in the initial version of the questions’ guideline.

(Background)

1. Can you tell me a bit about yourself and your company/ organization / the company you work in?

(Narratives and stories)

2. Could you tell me how do you conduct the guided tours?

3. What kind of narratives/stories do you use during the tours?
4. Why did you decide to include / not include stories? (scripted or you choose them for each tour
specifically?)
What do you want to communicate to your customers through the chosen stories?
5. How do the narratives impact the customer’s experience?

(Sustainability)

6. When you hear the word sustainability what comes to your mind?
7. How do you think Astro tourism affects the environment?
What benefits do you think Astro tourism can bring for the society/ local community/ local culture?
8. Do you think that the stories/narratives during the guided tours can help people understand those
topics better? (social and env. sustainability)
9. Is there anything else you would like to add?

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Appendix 2: Questions for inquest through email

1. Can you tell me a bit about yourself and your company?

2. During the starry sky tours what kind of stories or narratives do you tell the visitors?

3. What messages do you want to give to the tourists through those narratives or stories?

4. How do you think Dark Sky tourism connects to environmental protection and to local culture?

5. In your own personal view, how do you think that Dark Sky tourism can be used to create a
better and more sustainable future?

Appendix 3: Interviews

Note 1: these are not the real names of the interviewees, instead I have used random names,
connected only to the country where they conducted Astro tourism activities at the time of the
interview, in order to keep their identity in confidentiality.

Note 2: all of the interviews were conducted and transcribed by the author of the thesis.

Interviewee 1 – ‘Oliver’

Country where they conduct stargazing narrated tours: New Zealand.

Background: many years of experience in astronomy, owns a company for Astro tours, science
teacher, astrophotography

Date of interview: 13.03.2021

Length of interview: 57 minutes

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Interviewee 2 – ‘Maria’

Country where they conduct stargazing narrated tours: Namibia

Background: director of environmental education trust, non-profit organization, connection to a

Dark sky reserve, has stargazing part of the educational program for children

Date of interview: 19.03.2021

Length of interview: 26 minutes

Interviewee 3 – ‘Eric’

Country where they conduct stargazing narrated tours: Catalonia, Spain

Background: manager of astronomic park since 2008, which has Starlight certification, astronomer,
degree in Physics and PhD in light pollution research and study, lecturer in the University of
Barcelona

Date of interview: 23.03.2021

Length of interview: 53 minutes

Interviewee 4 – ‘Henry’

Country where they conduct stargazing narrated tours: Nebraska, USA

Background: director at Astro tourism organization in Nebraska, degree in mechanical engineering,

very active with local astronomy society

Date of interview: 25.03.2021

Length of interview: 1 hour and 8 minutes

Interviewee 5 – ‘Charlotte’

Country where they conduct stargazing narrated tours: Sweden

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Background: social anthropologist, specializes in heritage and tourism on islands, runs stargazing
tours

Date of interview: 30.03.2021

Length of interview: 56 minutes

Interviewee 6 – ‘Liam’

Country where they conduct stargazing narrated tours: Wyoming, USA

Background: Founder and Executive Director of non-profit organization in Wyoming with

stargazing tours, professional educator, master’s and PhD in education

Date of interview: 06.04.2021

Length of interview: 45 minutes

Appendix 4: Inquests

Note: these are not the real names of the participants in the inquest, instead I have used random
names, connected only to the country where they conducted Astro tourism activities at the time of
the interview, in order to keep their identity in confidentiality.

Participant in inquest 1 – ‘Aria’

Country where they conduct stargazing narrated tours: Hawaii, USA

Background: owner and founder of stargazing company, environmentalist for many years, was a
chair of a non-profit environmental organization and has administered several environmental
programs for students, started as an enthusiastic backyard astronomer

Date of receiving inquest: 05.04.2021 and 07.04.2021

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Participant in inquest 2 – ‘Sakura’

Country where they conduct stargazing narrated tours: Japan

Background: stargazing tour guide in Okinawa, Japan, runs an activity tour shop

Date of receiving inquest: 12.04.2021

Appendix 5: More information from interviews and inquests

From Culture, society and education core theme

Education and astronomy subtheme

Interviewee 6 – ‘Liam’

“Stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis right how all the heavy elements in the universe get created
and how our bodies are made up of stardust. And how you know it takes stars to make all of those
heavy elements? So, without the process of nucleosynthesis, we wouldn't exist.”

Interviewee 1 – ‘Oliver’

“The amount of education, the amount of prior knowledge that the people have, the clients have,
can range from adults hardly knowing the difference between a star and a planet through too the
people who know you know the basics of nuclear fusion.”

For my introduction to astronomy course, I do talk about global warming, briefly

talk about global warming and the negative affect growth with the change and see
rising sea levels and so on. And the planet that I used to illustrate global warming
is the planet Venus because you've got the sun, as you know sun, Mercury, then
Venus from the sun. Venus is hotter than Mercury, even though it's further away
from the sun. It's about 460 degrees Celsius. The cause of global warming, because

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 it's got an atmosphere of 95% carbon dioxide, which is trapping the heat from the
sun and building up the temperature to sweltering hot temperatures. I talk about
Venus and then say that the people if you don't believe in global warming, go to
Venus and that will prove that there is global warming because it's trapping the heat
under the cloud just like we are developing more cloud now with carbon dioxide,
methane and so on, and a thicker layer is trapping the heat from the sun. So yeah,
I'm always trying to link it back to, trying to look after planet Earth and not just
light pollution, but global warming and things like that.

Interviewee 5 – ‘Charlotte’

I mean the community can participate in the education. So, if you have Astro
tourism courses or introduction to stargazing or even very specific evenings where
you talk about light pollution, and you invite experts talking about the effects of
light pollution in nature. I don't have to do maybe someone else, that could benefit
from an educational point of view the community, because then they acquire
consciousness about the problem and maybe they choose, you know, different
lighting they choose, you know something different. So for different from an
educational point of view, I think yes economically outside of those in in, in the
tourist industry. I don't think it's going to make a huge difference, but it can be a
good educational tool for the Community, yeah. And maybe inspire something else
that we both can even think about right now. You never know.

Interviewee 2 – ‘Maria’

As part of the educational program in their organization Maria explains that they use:

“hands-on approach, so there's as little as possible of things that we are teaching about that we're
not doing ourselves. So, for example, we teach about renewable energies and how we can reduce
climate change impacts and we do that by teaching about the issues and then using solar cookers
and solar ovens.”

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Maria creates a link between education and the surrounding environment:

“And then the other part of it is linking it to nature. So being in the middle of the nature reserve in
a desert environment, there's many animals and plants that we can learn from. And if these
creatures have evolved and adapted over all these years, then it must be possible for us humans to
also evolve and adapt our ways.”

In combination to what the children, who are part of the educational programs, have learned in the
classrooms and what they learn from the stargazing tours, Maria believes that:

So, it's really linking what they learn in the classroom with realizing that this is
something that is part of their daily life and it's in their environment and that they
really can do something and experience it. So, it's taking the first steps towards an
environmental consciousness…

So, we spend one of the evenings. I mean obviously the children see it every day
when they're there, but we spend one of the evenings where we have an extensive
astronomy program where we are starting off. Actually, in the classroom explaining
about the basics in astronomy… And then we go outside and spend another hour or
so on a dune. Lying, looking at the stars and it's very helpful to combine these things
because now the children have actually already learned a lot of the different
constellations that they see, and they can start recognizing some of the things.

You know, and they've in the school textbook they learn about the planets. They
learn about the moon, but it's all very theoretical to them. You know they, it's not
that they now go out in the evening with their teachers and look at these things. So
very often when they come to the {…} they already know all the different planet
names, but they don't actually understand how far away they are from us or where
they are or that we can see them easily in the night sky. This is never occurred to
them, so a lot of the education this is now about the dark sky, but the same is true
about solar energy or about water saving. So, it's really linking what did they learn
in the classroom with realizing that this is something that is part of their daily life
and it's in their environment and that they really can do something and experience
it. So, it's taking the first steps towards an environmental consciousness.

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Mythology and local stories subtheme

Interviewee 1 – ‘Oliver’

I think in New Zealand for a while, the government back in the 1930s they bought
rules that you could not speak in your Maori tongue, they were trying to force it all
so kids could not speak Maori at school…Making it so the government was trying
to force people to forget their culture, to embrace the European culture. And
thankfully now that's changed and now we have schools where the whole school
just speaks Maori. They were losing their traditions, their myths and stories and so
on. But now with the resurgence in the language, the stories, the myths, and zones,
and the stars they're starting to make it come back. So thankfully we are not losing
their culture that you know the stories, thankfully.

Interviewee 2 – ‘Maria’

…so that would be one of the big things is that we also talk about the fact that these
constellations, for example, are culturally based and not scientifically based at all.
So, we distinguish between those things and how important the dark sky has been
to people’s culture and to the environment and that very often when we talk about
environmental problems, we forget about this. The sky. We always think about just
what's happening on the land. But in many places around the world, people have
lost their natural heritage because they can no longer see the sky or they can see so
few stars…

I think, and by giving it value, if you go to the Namibian school system, decided
that everything would be in English when they became independent 30 years ago,
and so by actually including cultural knowledge into our program and emphasizing
how important it is, it gives a message back to the children that their culture and
their language is important and has value. So, they would then have reason to
continue to tell others, so they will then continue to tell the story. And what's

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 interesting is I mean Namibia is a very multicultural country, so the stories from
the different cultures to also share those. And I mean one very good example is in
Orion. You know that the belt of Orion has so many different meanings and some
of the meanings are actually so similar, it's just a slight variation of the three stars
you know, and so even that makes people then laugh about how they think it's so
different, but actually it's so similar.

Interviewee 3 – ‘Eric’

Do you also have any local stories about the area or the sky?

Yeah, there is something that we're starting… Last October we had a meeting with
the other people of the village...one of the ideas was to create an interaction
group with our educators and these people, to know typical traditions linked to a
sky in our area because we don't have this information in any book, in any research
developed for the moment… And we have discovered a couple of interesting things
that we can explore for to explain, for example, one of them is that the people of
the village use some feature in the mountain to use as a clock…And this is
something that we discovered with this conversation and we have to, try to add to
our daytime visits when we talk about the movement of the sun or to our school
visits when we're doing a solar clock with the with the school… Also, there was a
one of our educators that is working with some names that these people give linked
to the names of stars.

From Light pollution core theme

Light pollution, the environment and human health subtheme

Interviewee 2 – ‘Maria’

We talk about the energy that we get from the sun, but we talk about light pollution
and the effect that has back on to the dark sky and onto the nocturnal animals and

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 the rhythms. We also talk about water because Namibia is such a dry country. It
means that we have such little water in the atmosphere which reduces the diffusion
of the light from the stars so we can see the stars even more clearly. So, this is again
a positive side of the fact that we're such a dry country… And then we also speak
about biodiversity and the fact that most of the star signs, if they're culturally
relevant or from Greek mythology, are animals and why is it that our forefathers
always put animals into the sky when they're also on the ground, so there's
obviously very strong importance to that. Yeah, and in terms of waste, we also talk
about the fact that humans have managed to already put lots of space junk into our
atmosphere…So this is how we look at it from a very holistic viewpoint.

Awareness and inspiration subtheme

Participant in inquest 1 – ‘Aria’

After sunset I give a small lecture that includes the distance to Proxima Centauri -
the closest star to our Sun. It’s 4.3 light years and since light travels 6 trillion miles
in a year, the closest star beyond the Sun is 26 Trillion miles away. If we traveled
there in our fastest spacecraft at 36,000 mph we’d reach that star in 80,000 years.
So even the closest possible planet that could sustain humans is impossible to reach.
Therefore, the Earth is our only chance for survival and we need to protect all of
the ecosystems on Earth.

Interviewee 6 – ‘Liam’

Absolutely, we already have. I'll give you an example. So, there are probably a half
a dozen people in {…} who are also very passionate about reducing light pollution,
and I'm in communication with them off and on. One of them complaints to me
about one of their neighbors keeping string lights on their trees outside all year long
as opposed to just around the Holidays. And I said, oh, who is it? And they gave
me the name of the person and it was someone who actually hired me to come do a

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 private star gazing program at their house. And so, I felt compelled to reach out to
this individual and say, “Hey, you know, I just want to let you know that you know
we're working on reducing light pollution in town and we're reaching out to all of
the people who we've done stargazing programs for just asking them to do their part
in reduce light pollution.” And not accusing him of anything, but just kind of trying
to raise his awareness, and he immediately wrote back. And it's like: “Hey, I'm a
culprit. I've been leaving my lights on, but I've got them turned off now. You don't
have to worry about me, and we'd love to have you come through another stargazing
program at our house.” So not only did he turn off his lights at my request, he
invited us back to do a second stargazing program and then he made a $2500
donation to the organization that helped us work towards reducing light
pollution. So people really do care. It's just about approaching them in the right way.

From Customer’s experience and importance of narratives core theme

The use of narratives and the stories subtheme

Interviewee 5 – ‘Charlotte’

So how do you think that narratives contribute for the customers experience for Astro tourism
tours?

I think the experience is having someone taking you into this, a journey of learning
about the night, about the culture and which is in in a way, I always say that it's a
very European, it's not just European, but because we are Europeans or Western
civilization, it brings us back to the way our ancestors used to share knowledge.
Yeah, Europe used to be a farming society and during the winter you as a farmer
you have less to do right, because you know that's the wintertime. And that's during
the wintertime that we in Europe, the farming Europe developed narratives by
sitting around the fire, by listening to the elders, by sharing information. The
wintertime is probably the most important part of the year for the farming society,
because that's when you sit together because you have less to do. You cannot plow

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 your field in January, not yet. And you construct your culture, you share, you create
narratives and you create culture in a way, so I think that's we are what we are doing
in a way. Sitting on the beach or in the restaurant it's in a way, it's the modern
version of what our ancestors did. Sharing knowledge and learning about something
through the narration of it. It's a modern version, but I think it's the same.

From Economic sustainability core theme

Interviewee 1 – ‘Oliver’

And do you think that Astro tourism can also have any beneficial effects or to inspire change for
the social sustainability, for the local communities or the culture?

Yes, one example is the Great Barrier Island which is to the East of Auckland and
it's been it was classified at Dark Sky Sanctuary, oh, probably about 3-4 years ago.
So we went over there with a couple of other friends and we ran some, can we call
them dark sky Ambassadors, Dark sky ambassadors programs? So being out there
about 3 times just getting the Dark Sky ambassadors, those people who will be
running tour. We've taught them how to use the telescope. The basics about
astronomy, given them PowerPoints, and a lot of resources now. For the Great
Barrier Island, for example, it's a beautiful island and it's got beautiful beaches and
good surf and fishing and so on. People go there. Tourists go there for fishing there,
surfing, sunbathing, walking through and everything during the day. But at night
when complaint was there's nothing to do at night. There's actually no power on the
island. It's all or solar panels on the island to get their power. So that they don't have
any. I think there's one pub on the island. No movie theaters, very little to do, so
having extra tourism startup in this probably about three or four groups
now. Companies who do tours on the island, it's opened up a whole new door for
tourists. For something to do at night, and it's apparently being proving pretty
popular. It does bring economic benefits. It's right and some people tune up to go
to the island just to look at the stars. This this number one reason they go is to look

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at the stars and then they might go for a fishing charter. Or they might you know,
go to the local restaurant or yeah, things like that. It is providing financial.

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