Unit 3: Grid Connected PV System

Lecture 3.1: PV systems in buildings

Dr. R. Ramaprabha
Associate Professor, Department of EEE
SSN College of Engineering, Chennai

III Year/ 5th Sem : UEE2521 – Solar Energy Systems

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Learning Objective of the module

To understand the components of grid

connected PV systems.

To understand how PV systems are

implemented in buildings.
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Lecture Outline

• Introduction

• PV Systems in Buildings

• Module mounting approaches

• Inverter

• On-site Storage

• Size & Economics

• Other Issues

• Utility Applications
 3

Introduction
• Photovoltaics can be used in grid-connected mode in two
ways:
– Arrays installed at the end use site, such as on
rooftops
– Utility-scale generating stations
• This unit deals with the related technical, economic and
other issues to be considered, and examines various
government and utility programs worldwide.
• A technical guide for the connection of photovoltaic and
other renewable energy generators to local electricity
networks in Australia has been produced by the
Australian Business Council for Sustainable Energy
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Introduction
• Grid-connected PV overtook stand-alone systems as the largest
global market sector in 2000 as indicated in Fig. for International
Energy Agency member countries, although off-grid applications
continue to dominate in Australia.

website www.iea-pvps.org
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Introduction
• Globally, there are some extremely large grid-connected systems,
including 4 MWp and 5 MWp installations near Hemau, Bavaria and
near Espenhain, Saxony, respectively.
• A huge 64 MWp system is under discussion for Moura, Portugal.
Currently, the largest in Australia is at Singleton in NSW. It is a
ground-mounted 400 kWp PV ‘farm’ that produces 550 MWh per year,
and was commissioned in 1998.
• The largest Australian rooftop array is on the roof of the Queen
Victoria Markets in Melbourne. This was commissioned in 2003, uses
1328 PV laminates, each 1.59 × 0.79 m2, and incorporates a public
viewing board that displays the output (City of Melbourne, 2004).
• The system is rated at 200 kWp and is expected to generate 252
MWh/year.
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PV Systems in Buildings
• PV systems can provide power for a number of functions
in a building:
– Architectural - for both electricity generation and
roofing, walls, windows, skylights or shading devices.
– Demand-side management - for offsetting daytime peak
loads.
– Controls - for direct driving of fans, pumps, ‘smart’
windows etc.
– Hybrid energy systems - supplementing other sources
for lighting, heat pumps, air conditioners, emergency
power supplies etc.
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PV Systems in Buildings
• Fig. shows an integral photovoltaic system in a grid-connected
home.
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PV Systems in Buildings
• Development of appropriate products to meet such functions is
opening up a large market, since buildings consume a major portion
of generated electricity.
• A wide range of specific building-integrated PV (BIPV) products are
now on the market especially for roofs, façades and as architectural
elements in atria etc.
• To date, however, normal modules are most commonly placed on
roofs to supplement grid power.
• For a household system, the essential components are:
– PV modules,
– Grid-interactive inverter, so that the electricity is utility-compatible
– Metering equipment to feed and measure the power exchange
between the house and the grid.
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Module Mounting Approaches

• For household systems, modules can be mounted on array frames next to the
house, in a position where no shading from buildings or trees would occur.
However, in many cases, rooftop mounting offers the best aspect and the
safest and most economical option.
• Various approaches to rooftop mounted PV arrays are illustrated in Fig.
• Typically, the integral mount shown would be used with new construction,
replacing the conventional roofing material.
• The use of frameless laminates can reduce costs while solar tiles provide
easy installation and a standard roof profile.
• The standoff or rack mounts would be used for retrofitting and, although their
costs are likely to be higher than for integral systems, allow more air flow
around the modules and offer the opportunity for optimal tilting.
• Direct mounts are secured onto the roofing material but are likely to suffer
from overheating owing to limited air flow behind the modules.
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PV Facade-saw tooth design

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Inverter
• As for stand-alone PV systems, an inverter, or power
conditioning unit, is needed, since photovoltaic arrays
generate DC power at low voltage.
• Two main types of inverters can be used to achieve AC
power at the voltage used in the main grid.
• These are:
– Line-commutated - where the grid signal is used to
synchronize the inverter with the grid.
– Self-commutated - where the inverter’s intrinsic
electronics lock the inverter signal with that of the grid.
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Inverter – cont..
• An alternative division of the available products is by application:
– Central inverters are designed to convert the output of all the
parallel strings of modules in large arrays, with total power in the
range 20 - 400 kW. Self-commutated designs based on insulated
gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) or field effect transistors (FETs)
are now dominant.
– String inverters accept power only from a single string, with total
power in the range 1 - 3 kW.
– Multi-string inverters include various independent DC - DC
converters, which feed their outputs to a common inverter. These
allow the acceptance of power from module strings with different
configurations or orientations, each able to operate at its own
maximum power point.
– AC module inverters sit behind individual modules, resulting in an
integrated AC module.
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Inverter – cont..
• An Australian (Standards Australia) and various international
standards (Appendix E) apply to grid-connected inverters. Issues to
be considered when selecting an inverter include:
– Efficiency - An improvement of 1 % can result in 10 % more power
output over a year. Some designs pay particular attention to
partial-load efficiency. Inverters with line-frequency transformers
can achieve a power conversion efficiency of 92 %, whereas those
with a high-frequency transformer can yield 94 %, although in
general higher efficiency is possible if the transformer can be
avoided. In addition to operating efficiency, standby power losses
during periods of negligible load need to be assessed.
– Safety (particularly via disconnect modes) - Run-on or ‘islanding’,
for instance, can result in the grid being energized, even when
disconnected. Isolation transformers are therefore commonly
used. Similarly, protection is required against over-currents,
surges, under- or over-frequency, under- or over-voltages for DC
input and AC output.
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Inverter – cont..
– Power Quality - The harmonic content must be low, with the Australian
standard specifying total harmonic distortion (THD) limits of 5 % for current
2 % for voltage, to protect both loads and utility equipment.
• The harmonic spectra are usually monitored up to about 50 harmonics,
but inverters using high frequency commutation can produce distortion
outside that range.
• The waveform and power factor must be acceptable to the utility.
• DC injection, which is inherently prevented by inverters with line-
frequency transformers but not by transformer-less or high-frequency
transformer designs, would saturate the utility transformers and cause
outages. Hence, Standards Australia specifies that for a single phase
inverter, the DC output current of the inverter must not exceed the
greater of 0.5 % of its rated output current or 5 mA.
• The waveform must be close to sinusoidal at 50 Hz (or 60 Hz in the USA),
the frequency must be within about 0.5 Hz of 50 Hz, while the acceptable
power factor range is typically 0.95 leading to 0.95 lagging. In Australia,
the power factor must be within the range 0.8 leading to 0.95 lagging.
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Inverter – cont..
– Compatibility with the array - The array’s maximum power voltage at
standard operating conditions must be compatible with the inverter
nominal DC input voltage.
• The maximum array open circuit voltage should also be well within the
inverter’s tolerable voltage range.
• Maximum power point trackers are commonly included with grid-
connected inverters to control the operating voltage of the array.
Several different tracking algorithms are in use, including ‘constant
voltage’, ‘perturbation and observation’, and ‘incremental
conductance’, each with its particular advantages and disadvantages
– Electromagnetic Interference - This must be low enough to comply
with relevant local requirements.
– Lightning and voltage impulse protection - These must comply with
local rules.
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Inverter – cont..
– Presentation - Items to check include compliance with relevant
electrical codes, size, weight, construction and materials, protection
against local weather conditions, terminals, and instrumentation.

Inverter costs vary considerably and have been falling in recent years, but
tend towards 20% of the overall cost of systems smaller than 5 kWp or 10%
for larger systems.
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On site Storage
• On-site storage is not essential for grid-connected systems, since it is
possible to sell excess power to the grid during daylight and buy
power at night.
• However, the addition of storage to PV systems can greatly increase
their value.
• Storage can be provided on site, typically via batteries or, for larger
systems, via pumped hydro, providing storage for peak period use.
• In the longer term, such technologies as flywheels, fuel cells,
underground caverns, superconducting magnets, compressed air, ice
or hydrogen may offer economical storage options.
• A household size D battery and flywheel storage system are
illustrated in Fig.
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On site Storage – cont..

Energy storage concepts for residential systems

Flywheel storage

Possible battery configuration

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On site Storage – cont..

• On-site storage can also be used as a demand-side management tool,
to reduce peak load power requirements, and hence costs, for the
building as well as providing high value peak load power to the grid.
• An emerging market is the provision of PV powered uninterruptible
power supplies (UPSs) for buildings or equipment, particularly where
grid supply is unreliable, but also as an option to diesel systems
currently used, particularly in commercial buildings.
• For these applications, some form of on-site storage is included, but
otherwise storage is currently not a typical option for grid systems.
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Size and Economics

• To make much impact on typical household electricity use, a photovoltaic
system of about 2 kWp, or 20 m2 , would be needed.
• A system rated at 3 - 4 kWp would supply most household needs.
• Depending on the house design, a limit of about 7 kWp, or 70 m2 , is often
imposed by the available roof area.
• The cost of photovoltaic modules suitable for household use in the USA in
2004 was about US$3.20 - 5.00/Wp.
• Total grid-connected PV system costs can be up to double this.
• For economic viability at current electricity prices, system costs need to be
further improved.
• The cost-effective price for an end user is still higher than for central power
supply.
• In 2004, delivered PV power cost around US$0.30/kWh, which was 2 - 5 times
average residential electricity tariffs. Note that prices vary from country to
country.
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Size and Economics – cont..

• Average Australian module prices in 2004 were about A$7/Wp and typical
turnkey grid-connected system prices ranged from A$12/Wp for small
systems down to A$6/Wp for large systems.
• Technology experience curves are used to monitors falling prices as industry
experience and cumulative production grows.
• These curves may be used to predict ‘break even’ years, although the results
are sensitive to the assumptions adopted.
• Based on PV learning curves over the past three decades, and expected
growth, PV based electricity prices are expected to be close to grid electricity
prices in Australia from about 2015.
• In countries like Japan, where electricity prices are higher, breakeven prices
may be reached sooner, although lower annual output compared with
Australia will impact on the timing.
• To keep costs down, more emphasis needs to be placed on simplification of
design, provision for maintenance, standardization, and in-built protection
and control systems.
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Size and Economics – cont..

• ‘Net’ metering, with a single, bidirectional meter, also minimizes system and
billing costs.
• Net metering is mandated in many US States and is common in Europe. It is
available from many Australian electricity retailers, but the use of separate
meters is likely to remain common until electronic metering becomes more
widely available.
• Net metering is not suitable for feed-in tariff or other differential tariff
regimes.
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Other Issues
• Other issues that need to be addressed for household photovoltaic systems
include
– Aesthetics - colour, size, shape, tilt, pattern, transparency
– Solar access - current and future shading, partial, complete or time of day,
from trees or buildings
– Building codes - roof structure, strength of mounting, zoning for
generation, light reflection
– Insurance issues - fire resistance, roof loading, safety, damage to grid or
other utility users
– Maintenance - routine and emergency, component replacement
– Impact on utility - overloading distribution transformers, power factor,
harmonics, isolation of PV (DC) current, disconnection mechanisms,
grounding, metering
– Contract with utility - buyback rates, equipment approvals, billing
arrangements.
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Utility Applications for Photovoltaic

• The potential for utility use of PV is wider than merely central generation.
• Utility familiarity with PV usage could be gained via some of the following,
smaller scale applications:
– Distribution feeder voltage and energy support - for relieving thermal
overload on transformers and conductors by reducing localized peak
daytime current flows.
• The use of PV could delay or eliminate more expensive line
reconditioning, substation transformer replacement or new circuit
construction to serve overloaded areas.
• At critical transmission and distribution points it could also reduce
electrical losses, provide kVAR support, increase reliability of supply
and increase the effective capacity value of the PV system.
• The use of PV in such situations can double the value of the PV
system, compared to the value attributed to energy and capacity
savings alone.
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Utility Applications for Photovoltaic – cont..

– Transmission tower beacons - for powering these beacons, which are
required on all towers more than 60 m high and close to airports.
– Transmission sectionalizing switches - for isolating portions of
distribution or transmission lines for maintenance or power flow
optimization. In the USA, for example, such remotely-operated switches
are used about every 30 km and many could be converted to PV.
– Street and security lighting - for meeting municipality and government
agency requirements.
– Rest area fans and lights - for parks, roadside convenience facilities and
boat launching sites in remote or environmentally-sensitive areas.
– Remote water pumping - for new systems as well as to replace wind
powered systems or power line replacements.
– Power supply to remote residences - for customers who would not
otherwise receive utility supply, particularly small users, such as
individual houses or vacation homes.
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Utility Applications for Photovoltaic – cont..

– Grid security – to provide reliable PV-battery power supply or backup for
critical supervisory control and data (SCADA) in electricity, gas and oil
supply systems.
• It can sometimes be more cost effective to install PV systems even
very close to high voltage power lines than to install transformers to
step down the voltage .
• Strategically located grid-connected PV in the north-east USA and
south-east Canada could have prevented the cascading blackouts in
that area on 14 August 2003 (Perez & Collins, 2004).
• This report shows how dispersed PV could have reduced the huge
regional power transfers that were needed to service air conditioning
in load centres such as Detroit, Cleveland, Toronto and New York City.
– Grid backup - PV-battery grid backup for important equipment in case of
poor grid reliability, particularly in developing countries, but also for
computer systems and emergency power generally in commercial
buildings.
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Utility Applications for Photovoltaic – cont..

• As environmental factors are increasingly included in the economic analyses
undertaken by utility planners, an increasing adoption of PV technologies is
likely.
• For instance, a recent study of air emissions from various generating
technologies concludes that photovoltaics can cost-effectively displace
existing fossil fuel generating plant, if offsets for emission reductions are
given.
• Despite the apparent opportunities and benefits of PV use, most electricity
utilities are faced with a number of perceived risks, which they have no
historical basis for quantifying, when assessing the feasibility of photovoltaic
systems.
• These include:
– technical risks - the possibility the system will not perform as specified
– construction risks - the possibility of cost overruns, or inability to meet
the construction schedule
 30

Utility Applications for Photovoltaic – cont..

– operating risks - the possibility of breakdown or unavailability of power
when needed.
– regulatory and tax risks - the possibility of changes that may disallow tax
credits, accelerated depreciation rates etc.
– financial limitations - high costs of finance, based on the above perceived
risks.
• Until a number of demonstration systems have been operated under utility
conditions in each jurisdiction, overcoming these perceived risks to the
satisfaction of most utility planners will be difficult.
• Nevertheless, the continuous increase in PV system databases is assisting
utility acceptance.
 31

Summary
• Photovoltaics can be used in grid-connected mode in two ways:
rooftop & Utility-scale generating stations
• This unit deals with the related technical, economic and other issues
to be considered, and examines various government and utility
programs worldwide.
• PV systems can provide power for a number of functions in a
building includes Architectural, Demand-side management , Controls
& Hybrid energy systems.
• A wide range of specific building-integrated PV (BIPV) products are
now on the market especially for roofs, façades and as architectural
elements in atria etc.
• For a household system, the essential components are PV modules,
Grid-interactive inverter, and Metering equipment.
• Various approaches to rooftop mounted PV arrays are available.
 32

Summary – cont..
• Two main types of inverters can be used to achieve AC power at the
voltage used in the main grid are Line-commutated & Self-
commutated.

• Inverters ma be connected as Central inverters, String inverters, Multi-

string inverters & AC module inverters.
• Australian (Standards Australia) and various international standards
apply to grid-connected inverters.
• On-site storage is not essential for grid-connected systems, since it is
possible to sell excess power to the grid during daylight and buy
power at night.
• ‘Net’ metering, with a single, bidirectional meter, also minimizes
system and billing costs.
• Other issues that need to be addressed for household photovoltaic
systems include Aesthetics, Solar access, Building codes, Insurance
issues, Maintenance, Impact on utility & Contract with utility, etc.
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Self check questions for students

1. What is the advantage of roof-top grid connected PV systems?

2. What is the difference between Grid-tied & Grid-interactive

inverters?

3. What are the standards available for grid connected PV systems?

4. What are the issues to be addressed while implementing roof-top

PV systems at home?

5. What is Net metering?

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Reference

Applied Photovoltaics

by

Stuard R Wenham, Martin A Green, Muriel E watt

and Richard Corkish
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Outcome of the module

The students are able to understand the issues

related to grid connected PV systems in
buildings.