Section 1

Introduction
1.1 Scope and purpose

This Code of Practice sets out the requirements for the design, specification, installation,
commissioning,operation and maintenance of grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) systems
installed in the UK.

The scope and purpose of this Code of Practice covers:

● All parts of a grid-connected solar PV system up to and including, the connection to the
alternating current (AC) mains;
● LV and HV connections and components
● All scales of application, from small domestic systems to large-scale PV farms;
● Building-mounted, building-integrated and ground-mounted systems,
● Grid-connected systems with battery storage
● Systems with a nominal open circuit voltage U in the range 30 V DC≤ Uoc, ≤ 1,500 V
DC.
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Section 2
Overview of solar PV system, components and architecture

2.1 Solar PV modules

2.1.1 General
A solar PV module is usually defined as the smallest, complete, environmentally-protected
assembly of connected PV cells.

2.1.2 PV roof tiles

A PV roof tile is designed to replace conventional roofing materials. PV roof tiles vary in their
size and framing details.
The frame of a PV roof tile is designed to allow units to interlock and provide a weather-tight
seal A variety of materials are used for PV tile frames, including plastics and aluminum.

2.1.4 Bespoke building integrated PV (BBIPV)

BBIPV is a generic term that describes any module that is used to replace a standard part of a
building envelope, such as a façade or an area of glazing.
The standard module include:
● A glass rear sheet this allows the module to be transparent,
● The lack of frame many BBIPV modules are supplied as an unframed laminate
● Bespoke sizes, BBIPV modules can be much larger (and smaller) than a standard
modules.
● Bespoke shapes: while most modules are rectangular, BBIPV shapes can vary,
● Cable details for example, cables may exit from module edges;
 ● Additional layers: for example, BBIPV may be built into double glazed units.

2.1.4 Solar PV cells

A solar PV cell is a device that exhibits the photovoltaic effect, capturing solar radiation
(photons) from the Sun and converting it into electricity.
● A number of solar PV cells are connected in series to achieve the desired output voltage
of the PV module.
● To achieve the desired output current, a number of these series-connected strings of
cells may also be wired in parallel.

2.1.5 Solar PV module standards

Various IEC standards are in place to provide safety and performance tests for solar PV
modules.
Three classes are defined:
● Class A module: commonly available 'standard' modules. Modules are considered to
meet the requirements for safety class II.
● Class B module considered to meet the requirements for safety class 0.
● Class C module: considered to meet the requirements for safety class III.

Note: The use of Class B modules is not permitted.

2.2 Inverters

General
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC).
As the output of a PV module is DC and the UK electricity network is AC, an inverter forms a
key component of a grid-connected PV system.

2.3 Array architectures

There are different typical arrangements of Array architecture.
● Single stings- singel inverter
● Multiple strings-single inverter
● Multiple strings-single inverter with multiple MPPT
● Multiple strings-single inverter with combiner box
● Central inverter System with sub-arrays
● Single string -single inverter with DC power optimizers
● AC module system
Note: MPPT means Multiple Maximum-Power point Tracking.
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Section 3
Solar PV array and module operating characteristics and behavior
3.1 General
The DC side requires an understanding of three key characteristics of a PV module/array:

1. Traditionally, PV arrays have not had a fixed voltage, some newer technologies do work on a
fixed voltage. Both technologies do not have a fixed current.

2. A PV module is a current-limiting device.

Unlike most conventional circuits, the short-circuit current of a PV array is not much greater than
its operating current.
3. PV modules cannot be switched off.

3.2 Solar module ratings

The name-plate marking requirements of BS EN IEC 61215-

● Nominal power at maximum-power point (Pmpp)

● Voltage at maximum-power point Vmpp(Umpp)
● Current at maximum-power point (Impp)
● Open-circuit voltage Voc(Uoc)
● Short-circuit current (Isc)
● Maximum system voltage Vsys(Usys)
● PV module maximum overcurrent protection rating (Imod_max_ocpr)

3.3 The IV curve

A plot of a module's current-voltage characteristic or IV curve shows the relationships between
the module current and the module voltage.

3.4 Short-circuited modules

The IV curve above clearly shows how the short-circuit current (Isc) is only a little greater than
the operating current (um) In other words, even with a dead short across the output terminals of
the PV module, the current will only rise above the operating value by a small amount.

3.5 Irradiance and temperature effects

The values of Uoc and Isc provided by the manufacturer on the module datasheet are those at
standard test conditions-irradiance of 1,000 W/m², AM 1.5 and cell temperature of 25 °C.

3.6 Typical module behavior when shaded

The current that is generated by a PV cell is proportional to the light that falls on it; hence
shading a cell reduces the output of the cell. Where cells are connected together in a series
string, shading any cell in the string results in the output current of the entire string falling to the
level of the shaded cell in these circumstances.
Note: The current from the unshaded cells is driven into the shaded cell - which, if the curre is
great enough, becomes reverse biased and starts to dissipate the power flowing from the other
calls This has the effect of heating up the cell causing a 'hot spot.
Solution :
To limit this effect of shade and hot spot heating, bypass diodes are connected in parallel
across a group of cells within a module. In reverse bias diode does not conduct.

3.7 Module reverse currents

Faults in PV arrays with multiple, parallel connected strings can result in a reverse current
flowing in some of the PV modules. While modules can withstand a small reverse current, where
this current exceeds the modules' maximum reverse current rating, there is the potential for
significant damage to the modules and a risk of fire.

3.8 Potential induced degradation

Potential induced degradation (PID) reduces the power output of a cell. It occurs when the
voltage between the cell and the ground drives ions from the module glass (and other parts of
the PV laminate) into the semiconductor material of the solar cell. These ions establish shunt
circuits in the semiconductor and reduce its effectiveness. The process is amplified by increased
humidity, temperature and system voltage.
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Section 4
System performance
4.1 Pitch and orientation

In the UK, maximizing the annual output from a grid-connected PV array will generally be
achieved by orientating the array due south and at a pitch related to the site latitude and
predominant weather conditions.

● A site that consistently has cloud at one end of the day may favour an orientation
towards the sunnier part of the day,
● A site with hills, buildings or other obstacles that obscure the Sun at one end of the day
may favour an orientation away from the obstacles;
● Roof construction may dictate the array pitch and orientation (though some arrays
frames will allow arrays to face in a different orientation/pitch to the roof).

4.2 Geographical location

In the UK geographically the coastal sites are also generally better than those further inland.
Coastal sites tend to be sunnier due to lower cloud levels.

4.3 System losses

The conversion of sunlight into electricity in a grid-connected PV system is affected by a number
of losses throughout the conversion process which are following.

● Dirt/ soiling
● Far shading
● Near shading
● Cell temperature losses
● Module quality losses
● Mismatch losses
● DC wiring ohmic losses
● AC wiring ohmic losses
● AC connection losses
● Equipment failures losses

4.4 Photovoltaic performance estimation

A number of different software tools and procedures are available for estimating the
performance to be expected from a grid-connected PV system in calculating the result,
including:
a) Module and inverter-manufacturer and model.
b) nominal array power used in calculations;
c) May orientation and pitch used in calculations,
d) Site location assumed in calculations;
e) Details on the irradiance files used (including the source of the data and the geographic
location the irradiance data is based on)
f) A description of the shade situation on the array to include both near and far shade.
g) Where an estimate includes payback or other financial calculations, the financial
assumptions used in compiling the report.

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Section 5

DC system electrical design

5.1 General
DC system-general requirements

Module class (BS EN IEC 61730)

● Open circuit voltage between 30 V and 1,500 V DC
● Casa A Modules thall be used

DC cables
 ● Cable shall be double insulated, or have equivalent performance according to BS 767

Access to PV array and associated wiring and protection

● In systems with Uoc_stc>1000Vdc access to the entire PV atay and associated wiring
and protection shall be restricted to a on defined in BS IEC 62548

DC connectors
● Shall be class or equivalent construction and selected in accordance with RS EN 62852

5.2
DC system voltage and current ratings

5.2.1
General

In the design of a PV system to determine two values.

● Maximum voltage (Udc_max)
● Current (ldc_max)
Note 1:
To account for the peaks in module voltage and current that occur due to variations in
environmental conditions (temperature etc.)
Note 2:
A multiplier is applied to the STC module parameters.
Note 3:
For systems fitted with DC power optimizers, the voltage or current output from the optimizer
may be greater than the module STC value.

5.2.2
Voltage and current rating: crystalline silicon modules

Formula
The values of (Udc_max) and (ldc_max)can be calculated as follows

● (Udc_max) x1.2
● (ldc_max)×1.25

5.2.3
Voltage and current rating: other module types

Due to their differing characteristics, it is not possible to provide a simple pair of multipliers to
apply to modules that are not constructed using crystalline silicon cells. For such modules
installed in the UK individual calculations need to be performed as follows
Systems with other module types:

Using manufacturer's data, the values of (Udc_max) and (ldc_max) shall be calculated
assuming a minimum temperature of 15'C and a maximum irradiance of 1.250 W/m².

5.2.4
Voltage and current rating: Modules fitted with DC power

Where DC power optimizers are fitted to the modules:

● Current did shall be taken as either the output of the DC power optimizer or (ldc_max)
calculated in Section 5.2.2 whichever is the greater.
● Voltage (Udc_max) shall be taken as either the output of the DC power optimizer or the
value of Upon es calculated in Section 5.2.2 whichever is the greater.
● For other systems (strings with M optimizers connected in series) the circuit shall be
rated (MxUopt_max).

5.3
DC system: voltage considerations

The DC voltage encountered in a PV array is set by the maximum voltage of the (Udc_max)
and the number of modules connected in series. All parts of the DC array circuit shall be rated
to the maximum system voltage. It can be calculated by formula.

Voltage rating: Mx (Udc_max)

where M is the number of modules connected in series.

5.4
DC system: current considerations

The DC current encountered in a PV array is set by the current of the modules and the number
of PV strings connected in parallel.

In the subsequent calculations, the following symbols are used:

● Isc_mod: the module short-circuit current at STC
● Isc_sub_array: the sub-array short-circuit current at STC,
● Isc_areay: the array short-circuit current at STC,
● N: total number of strings connected in parallel in an array (or sub-array);
● In_string: the current rating of the string overcurrent protection device; and
● In_sub_array: the current rating of the sub-array overcurrent protection device.

For a system using standard crystalline modules where no power optimizers are fitted all parts
of the circuit (to include cables, isolators, switchgear and connectors) shall be rated to the
current values described in following formula.
 ● Array formed of single PV string

System part: All parts of DC circuit

Minimum current rating required:

Isc_mod x 1.25

● Multiple PV strings connected to inverter

System part: All parts of PV array circuit

Minimum current rating required:

(String)
Isc_mod x 1.25 x (N-1)
(Array)
Isc_mod x 1.25 x N

5.5
Overcurrent protection

5.5.1
General

This Section relates to a system where the PV array provides the only source of fault.

In the subsequent calculations, the following symbols are used

● Isc_mod: the module short-circuit current at STC
● N: total number of strings connected in parallel in an array (or sub-array)
● Imod_max_ocpr: the module maximum overcurrent protection rating.

Where string overcurrent protection devices are fitted:

● For systems with one of the active conductors functionally earthed: the overcurrent
protective devices shall be installed in all unearthed conductors
● For systems without any functional earth connection: the overcurrent protective devices
are only required in one of the active conductors.

5.5.2
String overcurrent protection

String Overcurrent protection shall be fitted to all PV arrays (and sub-arrays) where:
 1.35 x Imod_max_ocpr < (Ns-1) x Isc_max

Note:
This calculation applies to an array with parallel connected strings.

i. Device selection

The string overcurrent protective device shall be selected with a rated current (In) such that
following conditions are met

(a) To meet the requirements of BS ITC-62548

● In > 1.5 x Isc_mod
● In < 2.4 x Isc_mod
● In <= Imod_max_ocpr
and
(b) To meet the requirements of BS 7671
● 1.1 x Isc_max of the string <=In <=Imod_max_ocpr

ii. Device location

String overcurrent protective devices shall be located at the end of the PV string cables at the
where the strings are paralleled and overcurrent protective devices shall be readily
accessible-for example, at the string combiner box or inverter.

5.5.3
Sub-array overcurrent protection

Sub-ray overcurrent protection shall be provided if more than two sub-arrays are single inverter

i. Device selection

The sub-array overcurrent protective device shall be selected with a rated curent (such the
following conditions are met:
● In > 1.25 x Isc_sub_array
● In <= 2.4 x Isc_sub_array

ii. Device location.

Sub-array overcurrent protection devices shall be located at the end of the sub-array cabl point
where the sub-arrays are paralleled andovercurrent protective devices shall be readily
accessible-for example, at the sub-array combiner box or inverter.

5.5.4
Array overcurrent protection
Array overcurrent protection is required where the array is connected to a battery (DC coupled).

Section 5 - DC system electrical design

i. Device selection

The array overcurrent protective device shall be selected with a rated current (I.) such that both
of the following conditions are met:
● In > 1.25 x Isc_sub_array
● In <= 2.4 x Isc_sub_array

ii. Device location

Array overcurrent protection devices shall be located where the array connects to the source of
the fault current-le, at the battery connection in battery systems.Array overcurrent protective
devices shall be readily accessible.

5.6
Overcurrent protection of grouped strings

Where the overcurrent protection rating of a PV module is much larger than its normal operating
current, it may be possible to group a number of PV stings under the protection of a single
overcurrent protective device.

This is a special case and is not possible for most typical modules.
Grouping of strings can generally only be performed where
Imod_max_ocpr > 4 x Isc_mod

Condition

Np x 1.1 x Isc_max <= In<= Imod_max_ocpr - (Np-1) x Isc_max

where:

● Isc_max: is the module short circuit current at STC.

● Np: is the number of strings in the group protected by the overcurrent protective device.
● Imod_max_ocpr: is the module maximum overcurrent protection rating.
● lg: is the current rating of the grouped string overcurrent protection device.
5.7
Isolation and switching

5.7.1 General

The PV array shall be equipped with devices for isolation and switching according to following
conditions.

i. PV string
● For small systems isolation is achieved by suitably located plug and socket connectors.
● For large systems isolation is typically achieved using removable strings fuses in the
array combiner box

ii. Sub-array
● For small systems N/A
● For large systems isolation is typically achieved using a removable sub-array fuse or
switch disconnector.
iii. Array
● For small systems isolation is typically achieved using a switch disconnector or circuit
breaker.
● For large systems isolation is typically achieved using a switch disconnector or rated
suitably circuit breaker.

5.8
Combiner boxes

String or sub-array combiner boxes need to be selected and erected to maintain the insulation
class afforded by the rest of the circuit. The design of the box also needs to take into
consideration segregation between positive and negative parts, so as to permit safe installation
and maintenance and to minimize the risks of arcs. The combiner box shall be rated for the
voltage and current maxima calculated for the circuit (see Section 5.2, 5.3 and

5.9
PV array plug and socket connections

Correctly selected and erected plug and socket connections provide a quick safe and durable
Interconnecting PV string circuits. The majority of PV modules come with a plug and socket
connection Many inverters also come with plug and socket connections as standard. The plug
and socket shall be rated for the voltage and current maxima calculated for the circuit
(see Section 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4).
5.10
DC cables

5.10.1
Cable ratings

Within the DC circuits of a PV array shall comply with the following basic requirements;

i. Voltage rating
PV array cables shall be rated for the DC voltage maxime calculated for the circuit (Section 5.3)

li. Current rating

● PV amay cables shall have a DC current-carrying capacity of greater than the current
maxime calculated for the circuit (see Sections 5.2 and 5.4, and as required by BS 7671.
● Appendix 4 of BS 7671 contains further guidance to determine the current carrying
capacity Izc(dc) of cables under the event conditions.

iii. Environment rating

● Cables shall be selected to ensure that they are rated for the environment in which they
will be installed (temperature, UV, water resistance etc).
● Cables routed behind a PV array shall have a temperature rating of at least 70°C.

5.10.2
PV string cables

The cables used to interconnect PV modules (PV string cables) shall comply with BS-EN-50618
Electric cables for photovoltaic systems.

5.10.3
Cable installation

Cables Installed within buildings may need to meet additional requirements, such as use of low
smoke and fume (LSF) cable types.

Note:
1. Solar PV DC cables (cables to BS EN 50618) shall not be directly buried in walls or
otherwise encased in the fabric of the building. Where burial in walls cannot be avoided.
2. Conductors shall be suitably protected from mechanical damage; and a plan showing
cable locations shall be provided in the system Operation and Maintenance (O & M)
manual.
Procedure for buried Solar PV DC cablels

● BurIed in the ground at a suitable depth considering the use of the area under which the
buried ( see Section E2).

NOTE 1: Standard PV cables are not suitable for direct burial as mechanical damage would be
very difficult to detect and could lead to a fire risk.

NOTE 2:Direct burial in walls or building fabric is taken to mean where cables are cast into part
of the building (for example,within plaster or concrete).

NOTE 3: Suitable methods of mechanical protection for cables concealed in walls or building
fabric may include the use of earthed metallic conduit or trunking. Cables within the metallic
containment are still required to meet the requirements for double or reinforced insulation.

NOTE 4: The requirement for double or reinforced insulation on the DC side and separation of
L+ and L- conductors (see Regulation 712.521.101 of BS 7671) precludes the use of certain
wiring systems.

5.10.4
Cable labelling

The DC cables in a PV array remain energized whenever the PV array is generating, particularly
during daylight, and much of the DC circuit will stay live even after DC isolators have been
operated. As a result DC cables need to be clearly identified.
"DC cables shall be balled PV array cable-live during daylight for equivalent)".

5.10.5
Cable sizing

To maximize the output of the solar PV system and losses in the PV array DC cables need to be
minimized.

Note: For systems of up to 50 kWp, DC cables shall be sized such that the voltage drop at the
rated power ( Vmmp, Impp) is less than 3%.

5.11 Protection against the effects of DC insulation faults

5.11.1
Insulation faults can be the result of a wide variety of causes, including:
 ● Water ingress into junction boxes or PV laminates.
● Rodent or abrasion damage to cables.
● Insulation damage due to thermal, UV or wind cycling of cables or other components.
● Impact or storm damage.

5.11.2
Earth insulation resistance

A PV array needs an insulation resistance to Earth that is sufficiently high to minimize the extent
of earth leakage currents. Earth leakage currents will naturally occur in all PV arrays, primarily
from the PV modules but also from other parts such as the wiring system.

NOTE: The extent of naturally occurring leakage currents is determined largely by the size of
the PV array the larger surface area the lower the insulation resistance) Earth insulation
resistance is determined, using the principle of Ohm's Law, by applying a voltage.

Table 5.3 Earth insulation fault thresholds

System size (kW) Minimum resistance

● ≤20. 30 ΚΩ

● > 20 to ≤ 30 20 kQ

● >30 to ≤ 50 15 kQ

● >50 to ≤ 100 10 ΚΩ

● >100 to ≤200 7 kQ

● > 200 to ≤ 400. 4 ΚΩ

● ≥ 400k to ≤ 500 3 ΚΩ

● > 500 1 kQ

5.11.3 Array residual current monitoring

A residual current monitoring device (RCM) monitors the current on the two cables that supply a
circuit In an ideal fault-free system, the sum of the two currents should be zero.
The RCM shall incorporate both continuous and step-change monitoring with fault thresholds
determined according to Table 5.4.

5.11.4 Earth fault alarm

The earth fault alarm can be triggered by either the insulation resistance or the residual current
monitors in systems in which the system is designed to continue to operate in the event of an
insulation or residual current fault.

5.12 DC current carrying conductors -

functional earthing

Where one of the DC current-carrying conductors is intentionally connected to earth for

purposes other than safety, this earth connection is termed a functional earth.

Table 5.5 Earth fault overcurrent protective device rating

PV array power Rated current

● 0 –- 25 KWp ≤ 1A

● > 25–50 KWp ≤ 2A

● >50–-100 KWp. ≤ 3A

● >100–-250 KWp ≤ 4A

● >250 KWp ≤ 5A

5.13 PV array frame: earthing and bonding arrangements

5.13.1 General

When designing the earthing and bonding arrangements of a PV array frame it is important to
understand various terms.

(a) Protective equipotential bonding is defined in BS 7671 as an electrical connection that

maintains various exposed and extraneous-conductive-parts at the same potential.

(b) Protective earthing is defined in BS 7671 as 'earthing of a point or points in a system or in

an installation or in equipment for the purposes of safety.
(c) Earthing for lightning protection is a connection to Earth as part of the lightning protection
system (LPS).

(d) Array frame functional earthing is the connection of the array frame to earth to enable a
part of the PV system to function correctly.

5.13.2 Determining array frame earthing and bonding arrangement requirements

It is necessary to determine if the array frame needs:

● protective equipotential bonding

● protective earthing
● functional earthing, and/or
● integration into a lightning protection system.

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Section 6
Protection against lighting and overvoltage

6.1 General
Action may be required to bring down the lighting effect by fitting an external Lighting Protection
System (LPS) and Surge protection Device (SPD) lighting current or surge arrestors or
combination of both. An external LPS consists of an air termination network, down conductors
and earthing system.

6.2 Lightning current and surge arresters

An SPD operates by diverting or limiting potentially harmful surge currents. Two types of SPD
generally need to be considered

● Type 1: Lightning current arrester designed to discharge very high levels of lightning
current.
● Type 2: Surge arrester intended to divert lightning induced surges Used to protect
particular components or parts of a system.
● Combined Type 1-Type 2 arrestors are available and are commonly used.

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Section 7
Inverter
7.1.1 General

Three important factors influence the sizing a grid-connected inverter:

1. The MPP voltage range of the inverter
2. The desired inverter-array power ratio, and
3. Addition of DC coupled battery to charge from
the additional oversizing

7.1.2 Inverter MPP voltage range

To ensure an effective system, an inverter needs to be selected so that the PV array stays within
the MPP voltage range of the inverter (this may be 80-200% oversizing with current systems)
under normal operating conditions.

7.1.3 Inverters array power ratio

The array-to-inverter ratio of a solar panel system is defined as "the DC rating of your solar
array divided by the maximum AC output of your inverter". For example, if your array is 6 kW
with a 6000 W inverter, the array-to-inverter ratio is 1. If you install the same sized array with a
5000 inverter, the ratio is 1.2. The majority of installations will have a ratio between 1.15 to 1.25.

Why oversize the PV array

● Inverter efficiency is generally lower when operating at lower levels. With a degree of PV
array oversizing, it is possible to take up the efficiency curve .

Why oversize the Inverter

● may Increase inverter life
● Small size of inverter will not able to deliver all the available power to the grid .
Oversizing the inverter prevent this happening

Inverter selection
● An Inverter shall be suitable for the voltage maxima calculated for the circuit to which it is
connected ( see Section 5.3)

Inverter location
inverters shall be installed in a location that is suitable to their design. The following factors will
typically need to be considered.
● Indoor or outdoor location
● Ventilation requirements
● Clearance distance
● Cabling requirements
● Acces requirements
● Orientation
● Fire detection
● Adjacent materials

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