ON GRID & OFF GRID

SOLAR SYSTEM

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Photovoltaic System Types

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Grid Connected PV System
Utility Interactive PV System
PV Module 1
Inverter DC to AC
AC Main Distribution Panel (MDP)
Utility Meter
Utility Grid

Bimodal PV System
PV Module
Charge Controller
Battery and Inverter DC to AC
AC Main Distribution Panel (MDP)
Critical Load Panel and
Utility Meter
Utility Grid

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Grid-connected system sizing
Grid connected systems, or utility
interactive system design, is very
straight forward.

PV annual energy production varies

according to the location of the
system that is provided by the solar
radiation resources of each specific
location.

These systems are usually designed

to either meet 100% of the annual
energy demand of the load or only
to offset a percentage of the energy
usage that the client desires.

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Sizing Considerations
1. Module Selection

• Modules can form strings. In this case and after we size the system, it is important to
find the required number of modules as follows:
Array Watts / Module = Number of modules

• Some array size may be slightly different from the calculated system size due to the
availability of modules sizes:

• Example:
• 5200/200W(per module)=26 modules. We can split them in TWO strings of 13 each
• 5200/240W(per module)=21.7. We need to round it up to 22 modules. We can split them in
TWO strings of 11 each

• Designers should consider the derate factors of the module when sizing a PV array,
such as: modules’ power tolerance, power degradation with time, temperature
coefficients that lower the power of the module, and array wiring mismatch.

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Sizing Considerations
2. Inverter Selection

• Inverters vary by voltage ranges and efficiency. Designers should consider inverter
efficiency and MPPT efficiency when sizing PV systems.

2. Site

• Designers should account for any environmental factors that may contribute to
losses in the PV array when sizing the system, such as soil, snow factors, or shading
losses.

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PV-Grid connection
• Interconnections in solar systems and their connection to the public grid are
regulated by National Electrical Code®(NEC).
• The NEC is a nationally recognized standard for safe electrical installation and is
routinely applied all over the U.S.
• It is intended for use by trained personnel and is applied to integration of all
wiring, overcurrent protection, disconnects, grounding, and equipment
regulations.
• Article 690 of NEC is specifically dedicated to solar photovoltaic systems, and
• article 490 is applied to large utility-scale systems (over 600 V).
• Importantly, the NEC addresses the circuit requirements for solar systems, such
as maximum current and voltage.

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PV-Grid connection
1. Maximum Voltage Rating
• The first condition for determining the maximum DC voltage is that it should be lower than the voltage
limits defined for any component on the DC side of the system.
• The maximum DC voltage output (Vmax) from a PV system can be estimated using the following formula:

• where Voc is the open circuit voltage of a module at 25 degC, nser is the number of modules connected in
series, and CT is the temperature correction factor. The CT factors account for the voltage increase with
decreasing temperature and can be found in Table 690 (NEC).

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PV-Grid connection
2. Maximum Current Rating
• Per NEC code Article 690.8, which deals with circuit sizing and rating, there are two
different PV circuits distinguished:
a) PV source circuits - conductors between PV modules and to the common point
of connection, i.e., junction box
b) PV output circuits - conductors between the junction box and the inverter or
DC loads

Blue lines show connections in

the source circuit; red lines
show connections in the output
circuit.

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PV-Grid connection
• The maximum DC current rating for PV source circuits is considered at 125% of the sum of all short-circuit currents
rating of all modules.
• This assumption is based on the fact that under enhanced irradiance conditions, modules can occasionally generate
currents higher than nominal Isc values.
• The maximum source current is determined for each single string.

• The maximum DC current rating for PV output circuit needs to take into account all parallel strings, and in this case the
source maximum current needs to be multiplied by the number of strings (npar) involved in the system.

• In summary, the cables within each string should be able to withstand currents of 6 A, but the cables on the inverter side
should be ready for 18 A.

The estimates of the system maximum voltage and currents are key factors for choosing the
inverters, determining wiring, conductor size, and required overcurrent protection.

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Stand Alone PV System
1. Direct Coupled System
(Without Battery)
Drawbacks in this type are:
• It can only be used in
the day to supply load
as there is no
battery for storing
energy.
• It can not be used with
AC load.
• The lack of storage unit,
so it will not supply load
at night.

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Stand Alone PV System
2. Stand Alone AC PV Systems
(With Battery) 2
• PV Module
• Charge Controller
• Battery and Inverter DC to
AC
• AC Main Distribution
Panel (MDP)
3. Hybrid PV System
• PV Module or wind
• PV Inverter DC to AC and wind
Inverter DC to AC
• AC Main Distribution Panel
(MDP)

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Stand Alone PV System
With Battery
DC System (DC-Coupling)

AC System (AC-Coupling)

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Stand-alone system sizing
1. Critical design analysis
• A PV system cannot generate constant energy for the entire year, but a stand-alone PV system should be
able to supply loads during any month of the year, and
• since solar energy generation varies by month, a PV designer should take into account the critical design
value for the PV system

a) Critical design month

• When the PV system needs to meet different load requirements throughout the year, the month with the highest
design ratio is referred to as the critical design month
• It is taken into account the worst-case scenarios associated with the lowest insolation and highest load demand
• We can analyze this design ratio at three tilt angles: Lattitude, Lattitude +15, and at Lattitude -15 degrees
• As we said the highest ratio value will be the critical ratio and the month associated with it is the critical design
month.
b) Considerations
• Since array orientation has a significant impact on generated energy, the orientation should be chosen to match
the critical design month.
• For example, if a 15° tile produces more energy during the critical design month when compared to a 25° tile, a
designer should consider the 15° to optimize the system design as long as it doesn’t affect other design months'
values.
• The cost associated with the lower tilt is another factor to take into account when selecting the racking materials.
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Stand-alone system sizing
2. System design voltage
• PV system DC voltage link is determined by the battery bank in stand-alone systems.
• Battery voltage can be 12V, 24V, or 48V. The voltage level changes depending on
system size.
• As a rule of thumb, small PV systems are usually 12V systems, and larger systems
are preferred to be 48V to handle more current. Some very large systems can be
120V, but that is considered a special case.

3. System Availability
• Since the solar irradiance is not always available, stand-alone systems need to be
sized to meet load demand for the entire year, and that is expressed by system
availability
• which is the percentage of time that a stand-alone system can meet the load
demand within the period of a year.
• It is determined by isolation and autonomy. Autonomy is the amount of time the
load will be supplied from the battery bank by itself and is expressed in days.
• For example, 95% availability (3 days of autonomy assuming PSH is around 5.0 for
that location) means that the system cannot meet the load demand for 5% of the
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Stand-alone system sizing
4. Battery Sizing

a) Battery bank required output capacity

• Considering the daily energy demand during critical design month and desired
days of autonomy, the batteries should be able to provide energy to the load for
all of the autonomy days.

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Stand-alone system sizing
b) Battery bank rated capacity
• No battery can be completely discharged, and that is referred to as allowable DOD that a battery cannot exceed.
• It ranges from 20%-80% depending on battery type. Also, the operating temperature affects the available capacity
the battery can deliver.
• Low temperature with high DOD can reduce the available battery capacity.
• Finally, the discharge rate is a main factor that determines the available battery capacity at certain temperature.
This is expressed as a derating factor to the available capacity.

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Stand-alone system sizing
5. Array Sizing
• A PV array should be sized to supply enough energy the meet the load demand at the critical design
month while accounting for the system losses.
• This will ensure that system availability is high and the battery bank is charged.

a) Rated array output

• Array size can be determined using the peak sun hours of the location.
• However, since we have different DC system voltage depending on the system, it is more desirable to calculate the
array current.
• Furthermore, off-grid systems include batteries.
• These batteries are not 100% efficient, so this should be taken into account.

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Interconnection types
Considering the classification based on the mode of operation, inverters can be
classified into three broad categories:

1. Stand-alone inverters
• The stand-alone mode does not involve grid connection, but rather uses the battery storage
to collect the power from PV and convert it to AC for specific applications. If the battery
storage is depleted, the system becomes stressed.
2. Interactive inverters
• The interactive mode does not use any energy storage, and the inverter serves as the
interface between the PV and the utility grid. In this case, power can flow in both directions. If
the on-site power demand is higher than the amount supplied from the PV, the system can
draw power from the grid. If the produced power is greater than the on-site power demand,
the excess power is fed to the grid.
3. Bimodal inverters.
• The bimodal connection combines both stand-alone and interactive options. Here, the energy
storage provides backup for critical loads, while the excess power is fed to the grid, like in the
interactive mode. If for any reason the grid loses power, this bimodal system uses a separate
dedicated distribution panel to support the critical loads (such as computers, lighting, water
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Inverters based on PV system type
1
1. Stand-alone inverters (supplies
stable voltage and frequency to
load)
2. Grid-connected inverters (the
most commonly used option)
3. Bimodal inverters (usually more
expensive and are used less often)

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Types of Grid-connected Inverters
1. Central inverters
which are usually around several kW
to 100 MW range.

• This is a PV array that consists of

three strings, where each string has
three series connected modules.
• Before these strings are connected
to the utility grid, a power
conditioning unit is required as an
interface between the array and the
grid.
• Designers can use one central
inverter as illustrated in Figure,
where all strings are connected to
the DC side of the inverter and the
single AC output is connected to the
utility grid.

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Types of Grid-connected Inverters
2. String inverters
typically rated around a few
hundred Watts to a few kW.

• Assuming the same PV array that

consists of three strings, another
way to connect it to the grid is using
three string inverter
• In this case, each PV string is
connected to a single string inverter
at the DC side
• All AC outputs of inverters are
combined and connected to the
utility grid.
• As the name indicates, each string of
PV modules has its own inverter. In
this case, we are moving closer to
the PV modules level.
3. Multi-string inverters
typically rated around 1 kW to 10
kW range.

• It utilizes string DC-DC converter

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Types of Grid-connected Inverters
4. Module Inverters or Micro
Inverters
typically rated around 50 to 500 W

• These are also referred to as

module inverters.
• In this case, each module has one
dedicated inverter connected on the
back of the module.
• The module DC terminals are
connected to the DC side of the
inverter and then all AC wires of all
terminals are combined and then
connected to the utility
interconnection point
• Each module has a dedicated
inverter with an MPP tracker.

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Interconnection Technical issues
The following are some known concerns arising from interconnection of different scale PV
systems to the utility grid:

1. Islanding
• Islanding is the condition when the solar power facility keeps supplying power to the grid during grid
outage.
• This is a serious safety hazard, since utility workers who repair the grid may be exposed to unexpected
voltage present in the utility line.
• To prevent damage to personnel and equipment, all grid-bound inverters must be able to detect outages
and block power transfer to meet UL 1741 equipment testing standard.
• Inverters with such capability are referred to as anti-islanding inverters.
• Bimodal inverters may remain in stand-alone mode of operation while being disconnected from the utility
grid line during outages.

1. Power quality
• Power quality is reflected in the several electrical performance parameters, such as voltage, frequency,
harmonic distortion, noise, etc.
• Many loads and equipment connected to the grid are designed to operate at certain prescribed
conditions and may not be able to withstand voltage fluctuations and other disturbances.
• Low-quality inverters can cause poor power quality, which can cause damage to the sensitive equipment,
or create hotspots in transformers.

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Interconnection Technical issues
3. Unbalanced phases
• Phase disbalance can occur if single-phase inverters are connected to three-phase
power systems.
• Solution to the mismatch may be connection of three small inverters, each to a
different phase or employing a single three-phase inverter.

3. Neutral Loading
• A particular over current problem arises when one stand-alone inverter with a 120 V
output supplies a 120/240 V distribution panel.
• A similar problem can occur with interactive systems of single-phase 3-wire or 3-
phase, 4-wire wye configuration when loads are concentrated on one phase more
than the other.
• The single grounded (neutral) conductor can become dangerously overloaded.
• Therefore, the grounded conductor may carry twice its rated circuit current, and this
is a serious concern discussed on NEC 705.95 that requires the sum of the
maximum load between the neutral and ungrounded conductor and the inverter’s
output rating not to exceed the ampacity of the neutral conductor.

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Interconnection Methods
• The point of connection is the location at which the DG source including a PV system can
be interconnected with the electric utility grid.
• Since adding power at that point is beyond the initial intended design of the existing
electric system at the point of connection, all service equipment, such as main power
distribution panel disconnects and conductors, must be sized and rated to allow this
addition according to NEC 690.64.
• NEC 690.64 permits the output of the inverter to be connected to either load side
(customer side) or supply side (utility side) service points depending on the size of the PV
system and marginal power available at that point.
• In large a PV system, the available service might not have enough capacity to handle the
added power and, in this case, a separate service may need to be installed.
• A backfeed circuit breaker is a circuit breaker that allows current flow in either direction.
The backfeed circuit breaker provides overcurrent protection of the branch circuits from
the inverter, and the panel’s main service circuit breaker provides protection of the
entire PV and load system from the utility.
• Regardless of the interconnection type, NEC 705 requires that a permanent directory be
placed at each service location showing all power sources for a building.

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Interconnection Technical issues
1. Load-side interconnection
• Common in small PV systems, the main service disconnect at the customer facility
has enough margin to handle the extra capacity added by the PV system, and that
allowed an interconnection at the load side.
• NEC permits that type of interconnection providing the following conditions (we will
only mention the technical-related issues):
a) In case multiple power sources are to be interconnected, each added power source
(inverter in PV case) must have a dedicated circuit breaker or fused disconnect unless
their outputs are first combined at a sub-panel.
b) In the 2011 National Electrical Code (NEC), the language in 705.12(D)(2) is straightforward.
Fulfillment of the 120% rule that states that the sum of the rating of the OCPD in all
circuits supplying power to a busbar or conductor must not exceed 120% of the rating of
the busbar or conductor to prevent overloading conditions. This only applies to breakers
that supply the load center with power including the main utility fed circuit breakers and
any back-fed circuit breakers from PV sources (load circuit breakers are not considered)
c) Interconnection point to be on the supply side of all ground fault protection equipment.
d) A back-fed circuit breakers in the panelboard shall be positioned at the opposite end
from the main circuit breaker and marked with a warning label at the back-fed breaker
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Interconnection Technical issues
2. Supply-Side Interconnection
• For larger installation or in case the load-side strategy doesn’t provide the required
capacity, a supply-side interconnection is the second resort for PV systems.
• NEC article 230(link is external) requires any additional new service to have
disconnect and OCPD.
• That said, the supply-side interconnection must include another service in parallel to
the existing one with an additional OCPD and disconnect.
• The equipment and conductors must be rated to accommodate for that additional
power coming from the PV system.
• The interconnection requires tapping the service entrance conductors, and that is
done between the existing service panel and utility meter.
• A new meter might be needed when the service type cannot establish the tapping
strategy.
• The added disconnect must meet local utility standards in terms of accessibility,
interrupting rating, and visibility.
• The service conductor must be sized for at least 125% of the continuous load
current as stated in NEC article 230.

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Metering
• Metering is required by the utility to measure how much electricity is used by the
customers, and it is referred to as revenue meter.
• These meters are usually installed at service entrances of properties.
• Since the addition of DG sources will introduce another energy source, it is required
to accommodate for that addition by measuring the added electricity based on the
facility and DG system size and interconnection policies at the location of
installation.
• This can be accomplished using one of the following methods:
• Net metering
Using one meter that can operate in both directions (spins forwards and backwards) to measure
the exported energy and subtract it from the imported energy. Some existing meters are capable
of operating in both directions without any modifications while other old meters need to be
upgraded by the utility company. Designers and customers should consult with their state rules
for the eligibility of the net metering.
• Dual metering
In this case and as the name entails, two-meters (unidirectional meters) are required to be
present at the facility. This is usually common for larger PV systems. In this case and due to what is
referred to as “net purchase and sale” in most places, excess energy produced at the customer
location from any DG source can be purchased by the utility at a different rate from the customer
rate when the customer buys the electricity. The rate is agreed upon when signing the contract.

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Impact of PV into the Utility Grid
1. Electricity Demand
• The demand for electricity varies
throughout the day and year, and so
does solar irradiance.
• For example, the residential
electricity demand rises in the
morning to peak just before
noontime, and then it levels out up
until the evening peak, when
everyone gets home from work and
starts using electricity.
• And that pattern repeats itself over
and over with some variations
between summer and winter
seasons, as seen in the left curves • Utilities became experts at predicting these values to
on Figure. better trade their electricity
• We can also see that this curve is • To plan the operating schedule for the power plants.
location dependent.
• There are key characteristics to this • This planning helps optimally and economically
daily demand profile, such as the operate their power plants to meet the base loads
two daily peaks and then a base load (usually coal or nuclear) and the additional capacity to
demand.
meet the peak demands (such as Natural gas).

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Impact of PV into the Utility Grid
1. Solar Duck Effect
• The effect that solar power has on
the daily profile is referred to as the
"Duck Curve" or "Duck Chart.“
• This change in the load shape of the
daily curve starts to look like a duck.
• If we look at solar from the grid point
of view, the additional solar looks like
a load reduction and that is in the
same time unpredictable and
uncontrollable. • The load demand can fall down to closer to very small demand value,
• The solar disturbs the operation of which means the massive base power plants need to shut down, and
the bulk power plants such as coal that is not an easy task since starting a traditional power plant requires
by lowering the base load demand hours, and the process is slow and might not meet the steep ramp
• There are key characteristics to this demand in the evening after the solar is gone.
daily demand profile, such as the
two daily peaks and then a base load • This can result in a serious stability issue and power outages.
demand.
• Usually loads don’t fall below a • For this reason, solar is sometimes viewed as a disruptive technology
certain value, as we see on the 2012 to the grid and utilities.
curve provided by the California
Independent System Operators (ISO) • A prediction of the duck effect on the daily demand curves can also be
seen on the 2020 prediction for the daily profile in Figure

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Proposed Solutions to Duck Effect
Solar arrays may produce more solar energy than the grid needs. When such oversupply
exists, there are two main scenarios to propose solutions from the grid point of view - the
grid operator side and the load side.
1. Grid Operator Side
• Utility operators can manually "curtail" solar production, cutting some solar capacity off
from the grid. As a result, this wastes the energy produced from the sun, but it saves the
grid. This is considered a short term solution.
• Another solution is interconnection with other electricity networks, such as the Texas and
western interconnection at the transmission level to expand the capacity of the grid so it
can handle more PV capacity. As it sounds, this is a long term solution and usually it takes
a long time to expand the grid.

1. Load Side or Demand Side Management (DSM)

• The first DSM strategy refers to Demand Response (DR) including storage systems. This
can shift the peak to other times during the day which is usually done either through
incentivizing the customers to use electricity when it is cheaper or by storing the
electricity for later use. However, this might require more capital investment at the
customer side due to the additional storage systems cost.
• The other type of DSM is the Energy Efficiency that lowers the total demand in general.
This strategy has great potential, as our peak demand keeps growing due to additional
appliances and devices connected to the grid.
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Advantage of On-Grid PV System
• A grid-connected photovoltaic power system will reduce the power bill as it
is possible to sell surplus electricity produced to the local electricity
supplier.
• Grid-connected PV systems are comparatively easier to install as they do
not require a battery system.
• Grid interconnection of PV power generation system had the advantage of
effective utilization of generated power because there are no storage
losses involved.
• A PV power system is carbon negative over its lifespam, as any energy
produced over and above that to build the panel initially offsets the need
for burning fossil fuels. Even though the sun doesn’t always shine, any
installation gives a reasonably predictable average reduction in carbon
consumption.

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Advantage of Off-Grid PV System
• Off-grid PV system with its flexible and reliable features meet the demand
of grasslands, deserts, islands and other areas home use electricity, and
achieved good results

• Small decentralized off-grid PV systems, especially building integrated

photovoltaic power generation systems, because of the advantage of small
investment, fast construction, small footprint, policy support, the off-grid PV
system gradually become the mainstream.

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Application of Off-Grid Solar System
• Living in remote areas without electricity, electricity lighting, television, washing
machines and other household electricity
• Photovoltaic pump without electricity, deep wells for drinking, irrigation
• Traffic lights in the field beacon lights, traffic/ rail lights, traffic warning/ marker
lights, streetlights
• And auto ancillary solar car/ electric car, battery charging equipment, car air
conditioners, ventilation fans, refrigerators, etc.
• Aerospace instrument satellites, spacecraft, space solar power station
• Communication/ tele communications field solar unattended microwave relay
stations, cable maintenance station, radio/ communication/ paging power system
• Petroleum, marine, meteorology oil pipelines and reservoirs gate cathodic
protection solar power system, oil rigs health
• Live and emergency power, marine testing equipment, meteorological/
hydrological observation equipment, etc.
• Other portable appliances, desalination equipment and power supply.

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Application of On-Grid Solar System
• Photovoltaic power plants: 10kW-50kW independent photovoltaic power
plants, scenery (diesel) hybrid power plant, various large parking with
charging stations.
• Solar building will combine solar power and building materials, making the
future of large-scale construction to achieve self-sufficiency in electricity is
a major future direction of development

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Grid Tied vs. Off Grid Systems
• Grid tied advantages:
• There is no need for a battery system to store the energy.
• Less expensive than off grid systems (less equipment and less time to install and
require very little maintenances).
• More efficient and environmentally friendly.

• Off grid advantages:

• When we have no grid, there may be no option other than to go with an off grid
system.
• Although it requires more care and maintenance, but it can give the homeowner a
strong sense of independence.
• Homeowner is no longer subject to the risk of a loss of power from the grid.

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Islanding

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Anti Islanding
• A system that is attached to the electricity supply grid can export power to
the grid if the local demand for power is exceeded by the power output of
the solar system.
• Regulations require that distributed generators such as solar that are
connected to the grid must shut down automatically if the grid itself loses
power, a feature called anti-islanding

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Why Do We Need Anti Islanding Protection

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Anti Islanding Grid Standards

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Anti Islanding Techniques

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Comparison Of Anti Islanding Techniques

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Passive Anti Islanding Techniques

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Grid Synchronization
There are 5 conditions that must be met before the synchronization process take place. The
five condition are following:
1. Line voltage
2. Frequency
3. Phase sequence
4. Phase angle
5. Waveforms

Waveforms and phase sequence are fixed by construction of the PV system and its
connection to the grid, but voltage, frequency and phase angle must be controlled each time
when PV system is to be connected with the grid.
The AC voltage generated by PV system must be synchronizing with the grid voltage. There
should be no difference in the live voltage of both PV system and grid.
We match the phase angles of PV system with the grid by phase locked loop generally
known as PLL.

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Grid Synchronization
There are two basic grid synchronization methods :
1. Frequency-domain detection methods
⮚Frequency-domain detection methods are based on some discrete implementation.
2. Time-domain detection methods
⮚The time domain detection methods are based on some kind of adaptive loop that
enables an internal oscillator to track the component of interest of the input signal.

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Grid Synchronization Using a PLL
Basic idea of synchronization based on a phase locked loop:
▪ A phase locked loop (PLL) is a closed loop system in which an internal
oscillator is controlled to keep the time of some external periodical signal
by using the feedback loop
▪ A grid connected power converter should phase lock its internal oscillator
to the grid voltage (or current), i.e., an amplitude and phase coherent
internal signal should be generated.

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Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
• PLL is an Electronic Module (Circuit) that locks the phase of the output to
the input.

Example of locked phase

Example of unlocked phase

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Basic PLL System
• PLL is a feedback system that detects the phase error ∆φ and then adjusts
the phase of the output.
• The Phase Detector (PD), detects ∆φ between the output and the input
through feedback system
• Voltage Control Oscillator (VCO) adjusts the phase difference

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Implementation of Phase Detector

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VCO

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Simple PLL

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Locked Condition

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Example: In the UNLOCKED State

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In the UNLOCKED State

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Dynamics of Simple PLL

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Transient Response to PLL

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Problem of Lock Acquisition

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Phase/Frequency Detector (PFD)

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Phase/Frequency Detector (PFD)

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PLL Tuning

Reference : PD/Mixer Output:

VCO Output :

VCO Angle : If Then

If Then

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Grid Following
• A grid-following VSC acts as a
current source which inject active and
reactive power to the grid according
to defined power, or current setpoint.
• Most of the converters used today
are of the grid following type.
• To inject power to the grid, the control
structure must first synchronize with
the grid using a PLL that measures
the angle of the grid voltage.
• The overall control structure usually
consists of an outer voltage control
loop that generates reference values
for the inner current control loop.
• The current loop therefore needs to
be fast in its control while the voltage
loop can be slower.

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Grid Forming
• In grid-forming control the converter is
controlled in order to behave as an AC
voltage source with a specified voltage
amplitude, phase and frequency.
• A VSC operating with grid-forming control
can therefore be seen as a controllable
AC-voltage source behind a coupling
reactance, similar to a synchronous
generator.
• What differentiates grid-forming from grid-
following is mainly the synchronization
method that provides the correct rotation in
the abc/dq-transformation.
• In grid-forming control this synchronization
is based on the concepts of active power
transfer and the swing equation.
• Partial grid-forming control is based on
grid-forming control but implements only a
voltage forming behavior.
• With a voltage forming control method the
voltage amplitude at the PCC is set with a
reference value and a phase locked loop is
used to synchronize to the grid.

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The End

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