ESS-38-4

Industrial engine low emission combustion systems

Luca Fracassi
Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, United Kingdom, n.surname@cranfield.ac.uk

Abstract

The increase in greenhouse gas concentrations is the main reason for the global warming issue that is one of the most import-
ant aspects associated with the environment.
Nowadays, in addition, NOx emissions have to be smaller than 25ppmvd. For what concerns CO2, since its increased concen-
tration produces negative effects in the environment, from 2011 Kyoto Protocol stabilized that its emissions must be reduced
of at least 5%.
In the first part of this paper main pollutants emitted during the combustion reaction and the legislations they must undergo
are presented.
In the second part, the currently used technologies are set out. In the first section the methods to reduce emission in conven-
tional combustors are explained. Among these methods water injection, lean premixed combustion and selective catalytic
combustion will be mainly discussed.
In the last section, the main currently used technologies to limit both NOx and CO2 emissions are emphasized. Particular
attention will be given to the CCS technology, for its ability to limit both CO2 and NOx. Within the CCS family the Oxy-fuel
combustion will be mainly taken in consideration for the great interest it currently retains in the field of industrial low emis-
sion combustion system.

Keywords: Low Emission, Combustion, Dry-Low NOx combustion, Carbon Capture and Storage

1. Introduction greenhouse gases emission [3]. Since about the 80% of

Since 1970s global warming has become more and more
an important issue, therefore limitations have been im-
posed to emissions of gas turbine combustion systems.
The main undesired products of combustion are CO2,
NOx and other pollutant typical of the combustion. For
what concerns carbon dioxide, that is considered the
major greenhouse gas present in nature, it is mainly
produced by fossil fuels burning, and since renewable
energies are still not able to substitute efficiently the
burning of fossil fuels, the need of technologies able to
limit or even completely reduce to zero CO2 emissions is
of primary importance. The family of technologies devel-
oped in order to limit CO2 emissions is generally referred
to as Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) and they will be
discussed in the following sections.
The increase in greenhouse gases human emission is
considered to be the first cause of the phenomenon gen-
erally known as Global Warming. This phenomenon
consists in the rise of the average temperature of the
atmosphere since the late 19th century and its projected
continuation [4].
The issue of greenhouse gases, in particular, has become
in recent years of particular importance. The Kyoto Pro-
tocol, adopted in 1997 and signed by 191 nations, stated
to achieve between 2008 and 2050 a 50% reduction in
greenhouse gases and atmospheric pollutant are generated
by the energetic sector [1], the study of new technologies
regarding low emission gas turbines represents an im-
portant sector that is going to acquire more and more
importance in the following years. Another main issue
regarding combustion systems is NOx emission. In fact,
even if oxides of Nitrogen are not greenhouse gases, they
have a significant role in the production of tropospheric
ozone [4]. In addition oxides of nitrogen represents a
danger for human beings due to their toxic nature. In
order to prevent NOx production can be either modified
the combustion process, by acting on particular combus-
tion parameters, such as peak temperature, or post-
combustion treatments can be used. Consequently pos-
sible approaches to control NOx gases will be presented
in the following chapters.
Figure 1: Main Pollutants emitted by Gas Turbines

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L. Fracassi / Industrial Engine Low Emission Combustion System
2. Main Pollutants
The main intent of this chapter is to alert the reader to
potential consequences of the emission of various kinds
of pollutants during the combustion processes. These
pollutants have deleterious effects on the environment
and there is evidence that may have an impact on the
health of human and animals.
2.1. CO2 and CO
The dominant sources of CO2 are the combustion of
fossil fuels, industrial processes and cement production.
In particular power generation and industry sectors cur-
rently account for the 60% of the global production of
CO2 [4]. Even if CO2 can not strictly be defined a pollu-
tant, since it is one of the main natural components of
atmosphere, its concentration does influence the envi-
ronment and the mean temperature of the atmosphere
throughout the change in Earth’s radiative balance. Con-
sequently since, from the industrial revolution, the con-
centration of CO2 has been continuously rising, a direct
link between its rising concentration and the rise in
earth’s average temperature can be found.
Figure 2: CO2 raise in concentration since industrial revolution
For what concerns on the other hand carbon monoxide
(CO), it is actually considered a pollutant since it de-
creases the ability of the blood to carry oxygen, by com-
bining with hemoglobin in the blood, and consequently in
high concentration can lead to asphyxiation and even to
death [5]. This kind of pollutant is generally produced by
the incomplete combustion of a carbon-containing fuel
[6]. For this reason combustion systems are generally
operated fuel-lean (in excess of oxygen), in order to
prevent CO formation.
Figure 3: CO2 raise in concetration in recent years
2
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2.2. NOx and SOx
NOx and SOx respectively refers to oxides of nitrogen and
oxides of sulphur. Both of them are between the main
pollutant products of combustion in industrial gas tur-
bines. NOx in particular is the main cause of smog, as
discovered in 1940s in Los Angeles area, where the
combined action of sunlight on the NOx and subsequent
reaction with hydrocarbons, produced smog for the first
time [7].
The main product of oxides of nitrogen reacting in the
lowest part of the atmosphere with oxygen is the ozone as
shown in the following reaction:
NO2 + O2 → NO + O3
Although the presence of ozone in the stratosphere is
important, mainly to form the ozone layer, in the tropo-
sphere €(the lower part of atmosphere) its presence causes
damage to human beings and animals and consequently
should be avoided as much as possible [4]. Moreover,
without taking into account its influence on low-altitude
ozone production, oxides of nitrogen are toxic elements,
capable, on their own, to bring damage to human beings
and animals. For what concerns SOx its most predomi-
nant form and the main product of combustion process is
SO2, since it is preferably produced at high temperatures.
This kind of pollutant can be very corrosive in presence
of water and is generally considered a pollutant since it
causes a choking effect in the human respiratory system
[6]. Moreover sulphuric acid mist and other sulfate par-
ticulate matter are well established as important sources
of atmospheric contamination [7].
3. Legislation
Regulations regarding pollutant emissions tend to be
quite complex since are generally variable from one
country to another. In particular emission of UHC,
particulate matter and SOx are generally enough small to
be negligible. Consequently the most restricting
legislation for gas turbine emissions regards in general
NOx emissions [8]. In the United States the emission
standards depend-on-the-engine’s-input-energy and on
the-intended-use-(utility or industrial) (Federal Register
71 FR 38482 dated July 6, 2006 Standards 40 CFR Part
60) [9]:
 For electricity-producing turbine firing natural gas
there are limits of 42ppmv below 3 MW, 25 ppmv
between 3 and 110 MW, and 15 ppmv above 110
MW [5].
 For-electricity-producing-turbines burning other
fuels there are limits of 96 ppmv below 3 MW, 74
ppmv between 3 and 110-MW, and 42-ppmv above
110 MW [5].
European-and-Japanese legislations are broadly in line
with USA-standards [5]
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L. Fracassi / Industrial Engine Low Emission Combustion System
4. Causes of Pollutant Formation
The parameters that mainly influence the formation
of pollutants within the combustion process are many and
different depending on the pollutant and on the combus-
tor we are considering. In particular at low power settings
CO an UHC are generally formed, whereas at high power
settings the main issues regard NOx and smoke forma-
tion. Consequently is of main importance to identify
separately for each pollutant the main causes of forma-
tion.
4.1. CO and UHC
When a combustion process operates fuel-rich, large
amount of CO are formed owing to the lack of a
sufficient quantity of oxygen to create CO2. In addition,
since CO tends to be quite resistant to oxidation, once it
has been formed it becomes more difficult reduce it by
adding air downstream [5]. Two important aspects that
mainly influence CO formation during combustion are
the equivalent ratio and the inlet ambient conditions. As
shown in the following figure 4 in fact generally an in-
crease in combustion pressure tends to minimize CO
emissions.
Figure 4: Equivalence ratio vs CO concentration
At the same time also ambient temperature strongly
affects CO emissions, as shown by Hung and Agan [10],
and in particular rises in ambient temperature tend to
decrease the CO emitted, as described from the following
relationship, valid up to an ambient temperature:
COTamb /CO288K = 1− 0.0634(T − 288)
For what concerns Unburnt Hydro Carbons, their re-
action kinetics is generally more complex than the one
€ that characterises CO formation. Nevertheless is gener-
ally shown that those factors that influence CO formation
tend to influence UHC formation in the same way.
4.2. Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides of Nitrogen can generally be produced by
four diverse mechanisms: thermal NO, nitrous oxide
mechanism, prompt NO and fuel NO [4]. The most
relevant oxides of nitrogen are the ones produced by the
oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen in high-temperature
regions of the flame [5]. This process is strongly
influenced by the flame temperature, as shown in figure
3
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5, since it proceeds at a considerable rate just for
temperatures over 1850 K. Moreover, low values of
flame temperature, generally below 1670K, tends to
badly affect the emission of CO, and consequently it is
important to keep the combustion zone within the small
region of temperatures between 1670 and around 1900 K
[5]. Another important parameter to influence NOx for-
mation is the inlet air temperature. In fact, as these emis-
sions are strongly dependent on flame temperature, an
increase in inlet air temperature consequently causes an
increase in emissions. In conclusion the last parameter to
take into account is the residence time in the combustion
chamber. In fact, as shown by Anderson during his work
[11], an increase in the residence time causes directly an
increase in NOx formation.
Figure 5: Flame Temperature vs NOx
As for the formation of carbon monoxide, also for the
formation of oxides of nitrogen the pressure holds an
important role in their formation. This is mainly due to
the continual trend toward engines of higher pressure
ratio in order to reduce the fuel consumption. Nowadays,
anyway, the actual relationship between pressure ratio
and NOx formation is not well known varying, from
experiment to experiment, from no correlation to a rela-
n
tion of NOx ∝ P , where n has values from 0.5 to 0.8 [5].
€
Figure 6: Primary Temperature vs CO and NOx
5. Pollutant Reduction in conventional combustors
In the previous section attention was focused on the
various-mechanisms-and-processes involved in the for-
mation of pollutant emissions. Of-equal-importance-is the
application-of-this-knowledge to the problems of alleviat-
ing these emissions. Consequently in this chapter the
pollutant reduction methods in conventional combustor
will be treated. In this way it will be possible to under-
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L. Fracassi / Industrial Engine Low Emission Combustion System

stand how it is achievable a reduction of harmful emis-
sions in conventional combustors. Subsequently, the
following chapter will regard new kinds of combustion
that, with new technologies, allows introducing a signifi-
cantly lower amount of pollutants in the environment.
In this chapter will be again useful treat separately the
various kinds of pollutant emissions and the technologies
used to limit them.
5.1. Oxides of Nitrogen
In order to minimize the NOx emissions there are three
main goals to aim at [8]:
leads to incomplete combustion and consequent produc-
tion of CO and UHC.
5.1.2. Gas Recirculation
Gas Recirculation is a process that carries the products
of the combustion back into the flame (internal gas recir-
culation). Consequently since furnace and flue gases,
although being hot, are considerably cooler than the
flame itself, they act as diluent reducing the flame tem-
perature which leads to a reduction in NOx emissions as
well [6].

 Lower the reaction temperature

 Eliminate the presence of hot spots in the reaction
zone, in order to avoid local regions of high
temperature
 Reduce as much as possible the time available for
the formation of NOx.
Consequently several technologies have been
developed in order to achieve these objectives and to
Figure 8: Principle of exhaust gas recirculation
reduce NOx emissions.

5.1.1. Diluent Injection
Since the formation of NOx depends directly from
temperature, an obvious way to reduce it is to use diluent
injection into the combustion zone [8]. Usually heat sink,
as water or steam, is introduced in the combustion zone.
Obviously this kind of approach is inappropriate for aero
engines, whereas it can be a practical proposition for
stationary gas turbines [12].
In order to apply this method only very clean fuel are
required, in order to avoid issues regarding fouling and
contamination [5].
5.1.3. Selective Catalytic Reduction
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) involves the
injection of an NOx-reducing chemical, generally
ammonia (NH3), into an exhaust stream in presence of a
catalyst [8]. Ammonia, in particular, is injected in a
prescribed manner in order to achieve an intimate mixing.
NOx and NH3 subsequently react on the catalyst surface
to create N2 and H2O, as shown by the following
reactions [5]:

6NO + 4NH 3 → 5N 2 + 6H 2O
2NO + 4NH 3 + 2O2 → 3N 2 + 6H 2O

SCR is usually used after water or steam injection in

order to achieve a further reduction in NOx emissions,
Figure 7: Water Injection Nozzle €
generally below 10 ppmv. This kind of NOs reduction
method prefers natural gas fuel and it has as drawback the
By using this method several experiments have con-
fact that it requires a control system that feeds the
firmed a reduction in NOx emissions. Davis and Washam
[14], for example, have reported in their experiments a requisite amount of ammonia [5]. Nevertheless it remains
40% reduction in NOx, when using a water oil ratio of one of the most used methods of reducing NOx.
0.4. Usually diluent injection can either take place di-
6. New low emission combustion technologies
rectly into the flame or upstream of the combustor, us in
the airstream. According to Hung [15], the relationship
In this chapter the main technologies developed to
between NOx reduction and water/fuel mass ratio, X, is
limit both NOx, CO and CO2 emissions will be discussed.
expressed how:
2
+1.41X )
Particular relevance will be given in the first part to Dry
wetNOx / dryNOx = e−(0.2X Low-NOx emissions technologies, investigating in par-
ticular the Lean Premix Combustion. Subsequently new
The main effect of this method is to reduce thermal kind of technologies will be investigated, underlining in
NOx, even if it slightly decreases prompt NOx too. Con- particular the new technology of Carbon Capture and
sequently
€ water injection results particularly convenient Storage (CCS) and its different subcategories.
at high temperatures and pressures [5]. This method has,
anyway, some drawbacks linked to the additional fuel
that has to be burnt in order to heat the water to the com-
bustion temperature. In addition, diluent injection causes
a deterioration in the combustion process that directly

4

Figure 9: Four modes of operation for DLN combustors
6.1. Dry Low Emissions
In comparison to conventional combustion, dry low
emission combustion offers a superior emissions per-
formance [16]. Traditional methods of reducing NOs
emission are generally limited in their capacity to meet
the always lower and lower requirements in certain
countries [17].
Figure 10: Dry low NOx combustor
As shown in figure 10 the GE DLN combustor is a
good example of dry low NOx combustor. It is mainly
formed by four components: liner, venturi, fuel injection
system and cap/centerbody assembled [17]. The essence
of this combustor is the use of two-stage combustion in
order to achieve low emissions over the entire load range
[5]. This combustor operates in four distinct modes:
primary, lean-lean, secondary and premix. The most
interesting of the four is the premix one, since it
corresponds to minimal pollutant emissions [17]. In this
mode fuel is reintroduced through the primary nozzles
and the primary combustion zone (now premixed) and
then it is shifted to a region downstream of the liner
venturi where is ignited by the secondary flame zone, in
this configuration the flame is present jus in the
secondary stage [5]. This system can achieve NOx and
CO levels of 9 and 25 ppmv, respectively.
6.1.1. Lean Premix Combustion
Lean Premix Combustion represents the ultimate con-
cept in avoiding local regions of high temperature inside
5
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the flame zone. This objective is achieved by mixing the
fuel and the air upstream of the combustion zone. The
lean premixed flame has a uniform spread and forms a
blue flame in the combustion chamber as shown in figure
11 [18].
Figure 11: LPP combustion flame
A typical lean premix combustor can be divided into
three main parts:
 The first region is for fuel injection, fuel vaporiza-
tion and fuel-air mixing, whose function is to com-
plete the mixing of air and fuel before combustion
 In the second region the flame is stabilized by the
creation of one or more recirculation zones. In this
region the combustion is completed.
 The third region generally comprises the dilution
zone
Lean Premix Combustion is characterised by different
advantages. It is, in fact, almost completely clear from
carbon formation, especially when gaseous fuels are
used, in which case the prefix “lean premix” is more
correct. Consequently to the low formation of carbon an
extremely lower amount of heat is transferred to the liner
walls by radiation, thereby reducing the amount of air
necessary to cool the walls down.
Another important pros that these systems bring is that
for flame temperatures below 1900 K, the quantity of
NOx produced is not depending on the residence time.
Consequently the combustor can be designed with longer
residence times, in order to reduce the production of CO
and UHC, maintaining at the same time a low level of
NOx emissions too.
On the other hand between the drawbacks of this par-
ticular method there is the one associated with acoustic
38th Engine Systems Symposium – March 2013
L. Fracassi / Industrial Engine Low Emission Combustion System
resonance, which occurs when the combustion process
becomes coupled with the acoustics of the combustor [5].
The main issue regarding the lean premix combustion
is on the degree of mixture homogeneity. In fact a high
level of homogeneity allows not only attaining low NOx
emissions, as shown in figure 12, but also it has the addi-
tional advantage that it considerably reduces the possi-
bility of autoignition [5].
Figure 12: Flame temperature vs NOx
6.2. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
Carbon Capture and Storage technology can be de-
scribed essentially as the process of capturing waste CO2
from large sources such as fossil fuels power plants in
order to prevent its dispersion in the atmosphere. As
previously mentioned CO2 cannot be considered strictly a
pollutant. However, being a green house gas its concen-
tration in the atmosphere has become recently an issue to
be considered. Consequently, as NOx and the other main
pollutants consequence of combustion, CO2 emissions in
industrial gas turbines must comply with specific rules.
Under this aspect, CCS technology holds consequently
a great importance. Moreover since most of the technolo-
gies, belonging to the CCS family, tend to minimize the
emission of other pollutants as well, these kinds of com-
bustion hold particular importance in order to decrease
pollutant emissions in general [20]. Within CCS, three
different technologies can be distinguished:
 Pre-combustion capture, that involves de-
carbonation by gasification of the primary fuel,
either liquid or solid, which is subsequently con-
verted in combustion gas, mainly composed of H,
CO and CO2. In this way the CO2 is not between the
exhaust gases [21].
Figure 13: Pre‐combustion capture
 Post-combustion capture, where the carbon dioxide
is removed fro the combustion reaction product
steam, before the emission in the atmosphere [22].
6
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Figure 14: Post‐combustion capture
 Oxy-fuel combustion, that requires the delivery of
oxygen rather than air to the combustion chamber
and that consequently allows having a pure CO2
stream going out of the combustion chamber, com-
pletely free from impurity such as NOx.
For the purpose of this paper particular attention will be
given in this part to some technologies that have recently
been developed, in particular in the following section
particular emphasis will be given to the oxy-fuel com-
bustion. Oxy-fuel combustion is, in fact, a technology
that allows both to store the CO2 emitted, and to reduce
to zero the emission of NOx since the combustion hap-
pens in oxygen and not in air, and it is consequently free
of Nitrogen.
6.2.1. Oxy-fuel Combustion
This kind of combustion is mainly characterised by
two properties: it is, in fact, a semi-closed cycle and
moreover the working fluid used is carbon dioxide. The
main difference between this kind of process and the
conventional one is that the fuel is burnt in a O2/CO2
mixture rather than in air, and consequently the exhaust
of the combustion is an almost pure stream of CO2 and
H2O, clear from the impurity typical of the combustion in
air [24]. The pure stream of oxygen is generally produced
by an air separation unit (ASU), which aims to
cryogenically separate air into O2 and N2, in order to be
able to utilize them separately [21].
Figure 15: Oxy‐fuel combined cycle concept
The products of the combustion are gases that are ex-
panded finally in the turbine that produces the work
necessary to drive both the compressor and the generator.
The exhaust gases of this cycle are a free source of en-
ergy that is usually employed in a steam bottoming cycle.
In fact these gases are directed to a heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG) where heated steam is produced.
38th Engine Systems Symposium – March 2013
L. Fracassi / Industrial Engine Low Emission Combustion System
Afterwards at the exit of the HRSG the gases are re-
cycled back. After a condensation process, where water
vapour is converted to liquid water, the pure carbon
dioxide stream is compressed in order to be subsequently
stored [25].
Since oxy-fuel combustion needs to provide power to
several units, that are not required during a conventional
combustion, it is generally less efficient per unit of en-
ergy produced.
7. Conclusion
In the previous sections the diverse technologies
associated to industrial low emission combustion systems
have been discussed. After a brief introduction in which
the main issues regarding environmental aspects have
been treated, the main pollutants and the different ways to
reduce their emissions have been exposed. In this part the
main parameters that influence the emissions of pollutant
have been highlighted; subsequently different
technologies useful to reduce these emissions have been
listed and explained. In conclusion in the last part of this
paper technologies recently and currently being
developed have been discussed, underlining in particular
the Dry-Low NOx combustion and the Carbon Capture
and Storage technology. Since the more and more
restrictive laws on pollutant emissions around the world
the development of technologies capable of emitting low
quantities of pollutant is of primary importance. In
addition, considering that renewable energies still doesn’t
represents a valid alternative to fossil fuel burning, until
they will definitely become a real main character of the
energy sector, low emission technologies for
conventional sources of energies will be needed. The
Carbon Capture and Storage technology, in particular,
currently represents an extremely valid clean source of
energy, that seems to be able to withstand to the new low-
emissions rules easily, and that consequently will keep
holding a fundamental role in the industrial sector in the
future.
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