electronics
Review
A Review of Capacitive Power Transfer Technology for Electric
Vehicle Applications
Jiantao Zhang 1,2 , Shunyu Yao 1,2 , Liangyi Pan 1 , Ying Liu 1, *
Citation: Zhang, J.; Yao, S.; Pan, L.;
Liu, Y.; Zhu, C. A Review of
Capacitive Power Transfer
Technology for Electric Vehicle
Applications. Electronics 2023, 12,
3534. https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics12163534
Academic Editor: Nikolay Hinov
Received: 20 July 2023
Revised: 9 August 2023
Accepted: 16 August 2023
Published: 21 August 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12163534
and Chunbo Zhu 1
1 School of Electric Engineering and Automation, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
2 Harbin Institute of Technology, Zhengzhou Research Institute, Zhengzhou 450003, China
* Correspondence: cathy-ying.liu@connect.polyu.hk
Abstract: Electric Vehicle (EV) wireless power transfer technology is an excellent solution to propel
EVs forward. The existing wireless power transfer technology for EVs based on Inductive Power
Transfer (IPT) technology has the drawbacks of large size, high weight, and high eddy current loss,
limiting the further application of this technology. Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT) technology, with
its advantages of low cost and light weight, has attracted widespread focus in recent years and has
great potential in the field of EV wireless power transfer. This paper begins with the principle of
CPT, introduces the potential and development history of CPT technology in the field of EV wireless
power transfer, and then reviews the coupling mechanism and resonance compensation network of
the CPT system to satisfy the requirements of EV wireless power transfer, including the coupling
mechanism of EV static power transfer and dynamic power transfer, and the high-performance
resonance compensation network to the requirements of EV wireless power transfer. Finally, this
paper reviews the existing problems of CPT technology in the field of EV wireless power transfer and
summarizes its future development directions.
Keywords: capacitive power transfer; electric vehicle; coupling mechanism; resonance compensation
network
1. Introduction
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are of great significance to the development and progress of
the current era, as they have the potential to reduce pollution, alleviate the energy crisis,
and reduce transportation costs [1–4]. Until now, EVs have almost always been powered by
plug-in power supplies, which have many drawbacks. The first drawback is that plug-in
power supplies have wear and tear problems, affecting their service life; the second is
that the large-capacity batteries on the body add to their weight and cost [5–8]. These
drawbacks greatly limit the further development of the EV industry. That is why the
development of wireless power transfer for EVs, allowing electrical power to be transferred
to EVs without contact, is crucial to the further development of EVs. Near-field wireless
power transfer technologies can be classified into two types: Inductive Power Transfer
(IPT) and Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT). IPT technology has been widely utilized in
EV power transfer [9–12]. Despite this, the unavoidable problems of IPT technology, such
as large size, high weight, and the presence of eddy current losses, make it difficult to
achieve further development. The CPT system, however, with its low weight and size
and negligible eddy current losses, has tremendous potential in the field of EV wireless
power transfer. CPT technology has been regarded as only capable of transmitting small
power with large losses for an extended period [13,14]. However, with the continuous
deepening of research regarding CPT technology in recent years, especially the continuous
development of high-power and high-efficiency CPT technology, the power level and
efficiency of CPT systems have been significantly improved [15]. It is an essential potential
solution for EV wireless power transfer. Almost all of the existing reviews on the field of
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 2 of 43

EV wireless power transfer are mainly on IPT [16], with only a summary of CPT technology
in the field of EV wireless power transfer [17–19]. At the same time, the existing review
on CPT technology is mainly an overview of almost the whole field of CPT technology
research [20], where the applications of this technology in the EV wireless power transfer
field are only briefly summarised as one of the chapters [21,22]. In conclusion, in the existing
literature, there is no general review of the application of CPT technology to EV wireless
power transfer in a concrete and elaborate sense. This paper, being the first systematic and
comprehensive review to summarise the application of CPT technology in the field of EV
wireless power transfer, begins with the principle of CPT technology and introduces the
potential of CPT technology for EV wireless power transfer field application and the history
of its development. Different from the conventional CPT system, a CPT system suitable for
EV wireless power transfer requires larger power transmission, so the coupling mechanism
and resonance compensation network need to be improved. Therefore, this paper further
discusses the coupling mechanism and resonance compensation network of a CPT system
for EV wireless power transfer applications and provides a reference for CPT system
selection. It is worth mentioning that IPT technology currently dominates the market,
while CPT technology is still in the early stages of commercial adoption. For this reason,
this paper analyses the existing challenges of current CPT technologies and eventually
proposes solutions and development directions to overcome these challenges. The overall
framework diagram of this paper is shown in Figure 1.

CPT for EV Applications

Principles, advantages and development (Potential)

Coupling mechanisms Compensation networks

(Current
situations)
Constant- Constant-
Static Dynamic
Current Voltage

(Future
Directions for the development
Directions)

High-power High-efffciency High-security

Figure 1. The overall framework diagram of this paper.

2. The Potential and Development History of CPT Technology for EV Applications

2.1. CPT System Working Principle
CPT technology uses a high-frequency electric field to transfer power contactlessly. Its
structure is shown in Figure 2 [20,23,24]. Its principle is that the DC power is converted to
high-frequency AC power by the inverter. It flows into the coupling mechanism through
the original side LC compensation network. Under high-frequency and high-voltage AC
power, the coupling mechanism’s primary and secondary coupling pole plates are equiva-
lent to a set of flat capacitors. At the same time, an electric field is formed between them,
which generates a “displacement current”, so the power is transferred from the coupling
mechanism’s primary pole plates to the coupling mechanism’s secondary pole plates, thus
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 3 of 43

enabling non-contact power transfer. After passing through the secondary LC compen-
sation network and rectifier, it is converted into suitable power for the load [21,22,25].
LC resonance LC resonance
compensation Coupling compensation
Inverter Network Network Rectifier
mechanism
DC AC

DC Load
sources

AC DC

Figure 2. CPT system structure.

2.2. Advantages of CPT Technology in Comparison to IPT Technology

Although IPT technology has already made a significant achievement in the field
of EV wireless power transfer, it still suffers from the following shortcomings due to its
own principles.
1. The primary material of the IPT system coupling mechanism is litz wire, which is
more costly [26];
2. Frequently, IPT systems rely on ferrite, which is expensive, heavy, and fragile, and fer-
rite’s high-frequency loss limit makes IPT systems unsuitable for megahertz levels
of high frequency, so they tend to have larger sizes and are harder to embed in the
ground [27];
3. In IPT systems, large eddy current losses cause heat to be generated in metals in the
surroundings, which increases fire risks [28];
4. During long-term operation, IPT systems generate heat due to losses in the coupling
coil, resulting in the need for additional heat sinks and an increase in system com-
plexity and cost.
However, the CPT system relies on the electric field for power transmission; the cou-
pling mechanism consists only of a relatively inexpensive metal plate, does not require
ferrite, works in high-frequency environments, is small in size, and can be integrated
into the ground. Furthermore, the CPT system is insensitive to metal objects. It will not
interfere with foreign objects in the surrounding area, and since the electric field has better
directivity, it will also be more effective at preventing diversion [29,30]. As a result, CPT
technology offers more significant potential in the area of wireless power transfer for EVs
than conventional IPT technology [31,32].

2.3. Development History of CPT Technology for EV Applications

The development of CPT technology for EV applications is shown in Figure 3.
The initial research on the wireless power transfer using CPT technology in the EV field
originated from a patent proposed by Jeffrey A. Rose, an American scholar, in 1998, which
increased the equal coupling capacitance by attaching a medium between the coupling
plates and achieved a theoretical power output of 9 kW through theoretical analysis [33].
However, limited by the overall development of CPT technology, this patent only proposes
a wireless power concept, and no follow-up research has been conducted.
In 2011, Takashi Hira’s team at Toyohashi University of Science and Technology,
proposed the idea of using CPT technology for the wireless power transfer of EVs and,
in 2013, built an experimental platform that could power a small uncrewed EV [34,35]
and placed the coupling mechanism inside the wheels of the EV to provide 60 W of wireless
power to the tested EV. This opened the door for CPT technology to be applied to EVs.
However, the study was only a technical validation, and its system power level was
significantly below the power level required for daily crewed EVs.
In 2015, Daniel C. Ludois’ team at the University of Wisconsin–Madison placed a
coupling mechanism at the bumper of an EV. It enabled the first power transfer to a crewed
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 4 of 43

small EV by fastening it to a flexible foil, transmitting 1021 W of power [36]. This opened
the way for applying CPT technology in the high-power area. However, this application
was limited to crewed small EVs. The power level still fell short of the power requirements
for daily-traveling crewed EVs.

Nowadays: High-power, High-

efffciency, High-security

Utilizes shielding to reduce 2018

electric field dissipation and
enhance system security
2016 Dynamic power transfer for the
first time on a manned vehicles

Applying CPT technology to 2015

2015 The power level of the CPT
wireless power transfer for
technology is increased to 2kW
small manned vehicles

Applying CPT technology to

2011-2013
wireless power transfer for
small unmanned EV
The first patent to apply CPT
1998
technology to wireless power
transfer for EVs

Figure 3. The development history of CPT technology in the field of wireless power transfer for EVs.

In 2015, Chunting Chris Mi’s San Diego State University team proposed a scheme to
place the coupling mechanism at the chassis of the EV. It used a double-sided LCLC-type
resonance compensation network to achieve a power output of 2.4 kW, upgrading CPT’s
power transfer power level to 2 kW [37]. It kicked off the research of CPT technology in
high power and provided the solution of CPT for EV power transfer.
In 2016, Takashi Ohira’s team at Toyohashi University of Technology modified a small
human-carrying EV by placing power receiver plates at the wheels of the EV, extending
the length of the power transmitter plates, and mounting them inside the roadway. It was
the first time that dynamic power transfer of CPT technology to a crewed small EV was
achieved, traveling at a speed of 10 km/h for 4 m [38], opening the way for the dynamic
EV wireless power transfer with CPT technology.
In 2018, Mitsuru Masuda at Furukawa Electric developed metal shielding boxes for
the coupling plates to minimize electric field dissipation during power transfer. This
significantly improved the CPT system’s security. The team transmitted kilowatts of power
over a distance of 70 mm for a crewed small EV, reducing the electric field dissipation in all
directions of the coupling mechanism [39], making EV wireless power transfer more secure.
Nowadays, with the continuous development of the theory, structure, and components
of CPT technology, CPT technology for EV wireless power transfer applications is moving
rapidly towards the development of high power, high efficiency, and high security.

3. Coupling Mechanism
3.1. Coupling Mechanism Equivalent Mode
Figure 4 shows that the ideal CPT coupling mechanism equivalent model has only
two coupling capacitances, one for power transfer and the other for power return [40].
These two equal coupling capacitances form a double-capacitance structure, as shown in
Figure 4b. Considering that the two coupling capacitances are connected in series, they can
be further equated to a single capacitance, as shown in Figure 4c.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 5 of 43

P1 P2

C13 C24

P3 P4
(a)
I1 Cs1 I2 Cs
I1 I2

V1 V2 V2
V1

Cs2
(b) (c)
Figure 4. The ideal CPT coupling mechanism equivalent model: (a) two equivalent capacitances
of the ideal model of the CPT coupling mechanism; (b) double-capacitance structure; (c) single-
capacitance structure.

In practice, however, the CPT coupling mechanism can generate six equal coupling
capacitances, as shown in Figure 5. The four extra coupling capacitances include the self-
capacitance generated by the mutual coupling of the plates on the same side, such as C12
and C34 in Figure 5, and the cross-coupling capacitance between the “transmitter–receiver”
plates of different power transmission channels, such as C14 and C23 in Figure 5.

P1 C12 P2

C14
C13 C24
C23

C34
P3 P4
(a)
P1 I1 C12 I2 P2
VP1 VP2
C14
C13 C24
V1 V2
C23

P3 VP3 C34 VP4 P4

(b)
Figure 5. Equal six-capacitance model of the CPT coupling mechanism: (a) six equivalent capacitances
of the equal six-capacitance model of the CPT coupling mechanism; (b) two-port network for six-
capacitance models.

The six-capacitance system most accurately reflects self-capacitance distribution,

mutual-capacitance, and cross-coupling capacitance between coupling mechanisms. How-
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 6 of 43

ever, the system involves a large number of capacitances and complex line connections,
making it more challenging to perform topological analysis.

3.1.1. π/T-Type Network Model

Using this two-port network model with six capacitances, the voltage–current relation-
ship between the two sides can be represented as the combined effect of the self-capacitance
and the mutual-capacitance. Additionally, the six-capacitance model can be converted into
an equal network model composed of two self-capacitors and one mutual-capacitance using
Equation (1) [41,42]. According to the T-π conversion relationship, the π-type equivalent
model can be converted into a T-type equal network model according to Equation (2) [43],
as shown in Figure 6.

I1 CM I2

C1 C2
V1 V2

(a)
I1 I2
CA CC
CB
V1 V2

(b)
Figure 6. Equal π/T model of CPT coupling mechanism: (a) the π-equivalent model; (b) the T-
equivalent model.

(C +C )(C23 +C24 )

 C1 = C12 + C13 +C14 +C23 +C24 − C M

 13 14

(C +C )(C14 +C24 )
C2 = C34 + C13 +C23 +C23 +C24 − C M
(1)
 13 14

 C = C24 C13 −C14 C23


M C13 +C14 +C23 +C24

(C +C )(C +C )−C2M



 C A = 1 M C22 M


(C +C )(C +C )−C2M
CB = 1 M C2M M (2)


 2
 C = (C1 +CM )(C2 +CM )−CM


C 1 C

3.1.2. ICS/IVS Model

For the six-capacitance model, the transmitter and the receiver of the coupling pole
plate can be regarded as a “whole”, and the two “whole” transmitters and receivers can be
connected by introducing the concept of “mutual-capacitance”. At the same time, equal
current sources can replace the transmitter and receiver. The coupling capacitance at both
ends is expressed as total capacitance, and the ICS (Induced Current Source) equivalent
model is obtained [44]. The equal total capacitance at both ends is shown in Equation (3),
and the equation for the equal current source is shown in Equation (4). The ICS model
can be converted to the IVS (Induced Voltage Source) model by the transformation of
Equation (5), as shown in Figure 7 [45].
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 7 of 43

(
C p1 = C1 + C M
(3)
C p2 = C2 + C M
(
I p1 = jωC M Vcd
(4)
I p2 = jωC M Vab
C C −C 2



 Ctx = p1 Cp2p2 M



C C −C 2
Crx = p1 Cp2 M (5)

 p1

−C 2

 C C
C M1 = p1 Cp2M M


Itx CM Irx

+ +
Cp1 Cp2
Vab Vcd
Ip1 Ip2
- -
(a)
Itx CM1 Irx
+ Ctx Crx +

Vab + +
Vcd
Vtx - -
Vrx
- -
(b)
Figure 7. Equal ICS/IVS model of CPT coupling mechanism: (a) the ICS model; (b) the IVS model.

The comparison of several different equal modes is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of the characteristics of several equivalent models.

Models Advantages Disadvantages

Neglect mutual capacitance,
Ideal model [40] Simple and easy to calculate
poor accuracy
Complete response for all
Six-capacitance model Overly complex
coupling capacitors
Accurate response capacitance
relationship, easy to calculate Unable to respond to coupled
π/T-type network model [41]
the system pole plate voltage relationship
resonance relationship
Accurate response capacitance Unable to respond to the
ICS/IVS model [44,45] relationship for calculating resonance relationship of
overall system output system passive components

Table 1 shows that a suitable coupling mechanism equal model should be reasonably
selected according to the accuracy required, the content analyzed, and the computational
complexity. In this paper, the π-type network model is applied to the coupling mecha-
nism in the later analysis because of the requirements of a high-precision model, more
emphasis on the analysis of resonance relationships, and the demand for a simple degree
of model computation.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 8 of 43

3.2. Coupling Mechanism Placement in Static Power Transfer Scenarios

In the static power transfer scenarios, the coupling mechanism placement mode can
be broadly classified into three categories:
• Equivalent capacitance mode using a large air gap;
• Equivalent capacitance mode using EV’s body structure;
• Equivalent capacitance with a coupling mechanism attached to the EV body surface.

3.2.1. Equivalent Capacitance Mode Using a Large Air Gap

The power transmitter side of the coupling mechanism is installed on the ground,
and the power receiver side is located inside the EV. The air is used as a medium for
transmitting power. The equivalent capacitance is calculated as shown in Equation (6),
where ε 0 and ε r are the vacuum dielectric constant and the relative dielectric constant of
the capacitive medium, respectively, S is the equivalent facing area of the capacitive pole
plate, and d is the equivalent orthogonal distance of the capacitive pole plate.

ε0εr S
C= (6)
d
Due to the considerable distance between the EV chassis and the ground, it is often
necessary to increase the area of the coupling pole plate to couple out large capacitances.
As a result of this mode, the coupling plates tend to have large dimensions, increasing the
cost of the coupling mechanism. Despite this, as the receiver pole plate is placed at the
chassis of the EV, it does not affect the appearance or performance of the EV, and it is also
convenient for the maintenance personnel to overhaul the coupling pole plate.
The equivalent capacitance mode that uses a large air gap can be divided into the
four-plate parallel structure, four-plate vertical structure, and two-plate vertical structure
according to the structure of the coupling mechanism and the number of plates, as shown
in Figure 8.

Vehicle Chassis

Roadway

Four-plate Two-plate
parallel Four-plate vertical vertical
Figure 8. The equivalent capacitance mode that uses a large air gap.

In the four-plate parallel structure, two transmitter plates are placed on the road in the
same plane parallel to each other, and two receiver plates are placed at the chassis of the
EV in the same way, as shown in Figure 9 [37]. In operation, one set of transmitter–receiver
pole plates plays the role of power transfer, and the other set of transmitter–receiver pole
plates plays the role of power return [46]. The advantage of this scheme is that the influence
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 9 of 43

between the transmitter and receiver pole plates is small, and the cross-coupling capaci-
tance between them is negligible, which is convenient for the subsequent modeling design.
However, the parallel structure must occupy a large chassis area and have a significant
electric field dissipation.

Vehicle Chassis
W W
h h
e e
e
车轮
e
l l

Roadway

Figure 9. The four-plate parallel structure in the large air gap mode.

In the four-plate vertical structure, as shown in Figure 10, two transmitter plates are
vertically stacked in different planes at the road surface, where the area of the lower plate is
slightly larger than that of the upper plate [41]. Two receiver plates are placed in the same
way at the EV chassis, where the upper plate’s area is slightly larger than the lower plate’s.
The two pole plates with slightly larger areas above the chassis and below the ground
play power transfer roles and the two pole plates with slightly smaller areas below the
chassis and above the road play power return roles [47,48]. The advantage of this scheme
is that the area at the chassis is saved, and the electric field dissipation is reduced. Still,
the capacitive interference between the vertical structure of each pole plate is significant,
and the decoupling calculation is required, which reduces the capacitance utilization of the
pole plate. In addition, the distance between the pole plates on the same side is reduced,
which puts higher requirements on the insulation between the pole plates.

Vehicle Chassis
W W
h h
e e
e e
l l

Roadway

Figure 10. The four-plate vertical structure in the large air gap mode.

Based on the four-pole-plate vertical coupling mechanism, the two-plate vertical

structure is formed by using the parasitic capacitance between the vehicle chassis and the
roadway as a power circuit [49,50], as shown in Figure 11. Since only two pole plates are
used as the coupling mechanism, this scheme reduces the overall cost of the coupling mech-
anism. Since the parasitic capacitance is used as the power transmission path, there is no
need to analyze the parasitic capacitance influence for subsequent decoupling analysis [51].
However, compared with the coupling capacitance formed by using metal pole plates,
the parasitic capacitance is more challenging to control because its value is more dependent
on factors such as ground and chassis flatness, while the current flowing through the
roadway will generate more significant losses and impact the power of the system.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 10 of 43

Vehicle Chassis
W W
h h
e e
e e
l l

Roadway
Figure 11. The two-plate vertical structure in the large air gap mode.

3.2.2. Equivalent Capacitance Mode Using EV’s Body Structure

Using the body structure to form the equivalent capacitance means that the material
with a high relative dielectric constant is selected as the medium according to the different
material compositions of different parts of the EV, and the equivalent capacitance is formed
by coupling mechanism attachment. It differs from the large-area and long-distance pole
plate mode of the “equivalent capacitance mode using large air gap” by having a shorter
power transmission distance and a higher relative dielectric constant in the medium be-
tween pole plates. Therefore, the coupling plates do not necessarily have to be significant in
size to achieve the required coupling capacitance values. Currently, the EV’s body structure
provides three modes for equivalent capacitance:
• Equivalent capacitance using the windows;
• Equivalent capacitance using the body coating;
• Equivalent capacitance using the wheels.
Figure 12 shows each mode’s schematic diagram and the relative dielectric constant.

Windows
(Glass: εr =4-7)

Wheel
Bumper or
(Rubber: εr =6.6)
plastic exterior of
headlights
(Polypropylene: εr =2.2-2.4
ABS Resin: εr =2.3-2.5)
Figure 12. Composition and relative dielectric constants of different parts of the EV body.

An EV window was used by a research team from Daegu University in 2016 to generate
an eight nF coupling capacitance using a coupling pole plate with an area of 2400 cm2
and 2-mm-thick glass as a medium [52]. Following the research, in 2017 the research team
at Daegu University proposed using an Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) transparent conductor
instead of a conventional copper plate as a vehicle coupling pole plate [53], as shown in
Figure 13. Consequently, the pole plate had better light transmission, so it did not have to be
removed in a non-charging state to ensure light transmission in the vehicle. The advantage
of using the window as the coupling medium is that it has a large surface area and is placed
on the vehicle’s surface, making it easy to lay the coupling pole plate. It does not require
any structural changes. However, during the charging process, there is a risk of scratching
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 11 of 43

the window glass. At the same time, the transparent conductor ITO is carcinogenic to the
human body, which limits its application.

Outside Coupling
Plate(Cu) Outside the
Vehicle

Windows

Inside Coupling Inside the

Plate(ITO) Vehicle

Figure 13. Using the window as the coupling medium.

EV body insulation coatings include under coatings (which consist primarily of epoxy
resin), intermediate coatings (which consist primarily of polyester), and top coatings (which
consist primarily of polyurethane). In 2021, a research team at Utsunomiya University
proposed using a body insulation coating as a coupling medium, attaching a metal plate
inside the body as a power receiver, and attaching a metal pole plate at the hood and doors
outside the vehicle as a power transmitter for power transfer, as shown in Figure 14. This
equivalent capacitance of 20.6 nF was fabricated with a 250 mm × 250 mm coupling pole
plate under an insulation coating with an additional 110 mm thickness [54].

OutSide Coupling
Plate
Outside the Vehicle

Body Coating

Inside the Vehicle

Inside Coupling
Plate
Figure 14. Using the body insulation coating as a coupling medium.

Because the insulation coating is relatively thin, the distance between the coupling
poles of a solution using the insulation coating as the medium is relatively small, resulting
in an enormous coupling capacitance value. However, because the insulation coating is
often exposed to the external environment, under the influence of wind, snow, sand, high
and low temperature, and other complex climates, the composition and thickness of the
body insulation coating will change, resulting in the capacitance value of the coupling
mechanism shifting to cause system detuning, affecting the stability of its application.
In 2011, a research team from Toyohashi University of Science and Technology pro-
posed a power transfer scheme using wheels as a medium, placing power receiver plates
on the inner layer of the wheels, and placing power transmitter plates within the road-
way [34,55,56], as shown in Figure 15, and in 2013 conducted experiments on a small
electric toy car [35]. In 2016, the team modified the small EV wheel structure by embedding
a power receiver pole plate at the car wheel and a power transmitter pole plate in the
asphalt roadway to achieve 900 W power transmission [38,57]. The system also had a
certain dynamic power transfer ability and could travel a distance of 4 m at a speed of
10 km/h [38].
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 12 of 43

Power transmitter
plate Wheel

Roadway
Power Receiver Plate
Figure 15. Using the wheels as a coupling medium.

With wheels as the medium, charging is more effortless since the vehicle only needs to
be parked at the designated location, and no external machine is required. Despite this,
burying the pole plate in the roadway makes it difficult to perform future maintenance and
repair operations, and the coupling mechanism placement requires structural modifications
to the roadway and vehicle wheels.

3.2.3. Capacitive Patterns Are Formed by Attaching the Coupling Mechanism to the
Body Surface
The coupling mechanism attached to the body surface of the EV to form the mode
refers to the scheme of power transfer by placing the power receiver pole plate on the body
surface and coupling it with the external power transmitter pole plate. It only requires
the installation of a pole plate on the body to transmit power, not modification of the
body structure. Moreover, the flexible structure enables the external transmitter pole
plate to be tightly attached to the body, reducing power transfer distance and electric
field dissipation, thereby allowing the coupling pole plate to be coupled with a sizeable
equivalent capacitance without using a large area, as shown in Figure 16.

Coupling Medium（PE） Flexible Foam

Bumper

Supporting
Structure
Power Power
Receiver Plate Transmitter Plate

Figure 16. Attaching the coupling mechanism to the body surface to form a coupling mechanism.

In 2015, a research team at the University of Wisconsin–Madison placed the receiver

pole plate at the bumper of an EV, made a power transmitter pole plate with metal foil,
and installed it at the transmitter mechanism with a 0.1 mm thick layer of PE material
located on the surface of the metal foil as the coupling medium, and generated an equal
coupling capacitance of 10 nF with only a 0.1 m2 area of the coupling pole plate [36,58].
The coupling mechanism was attached to the body surface to form the capacitance
mode without modifying the structure of the EV itself, and the charging process would not
damage the EV’s shell, so it would be easy to repair and replace the coupling mechanism,
with low installation costs and easy maintenance. However, the coupling mechanism on the
EV’s surface affects its aesthetics, and it would be easily damaged if the vehicle is scratched.
A comparison of the characteristics of the coupling mechanism placement methods in
different static power transfer scenarios is shown in Table 2, where the coupling capacitance
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 13 of 43

is discounted by C M in the T/π-type equivalent model or Cs in the single-capacitance

equivalent model.

Table 2. A comparison of the characteristics of the coupling mechanism placement modes in different
static power transfer scenarios.

Transmission Equivalent Transmitted Transmission

Mode Pole Plate Size References
Distance Capacitance Power Efficiency
Large air gap
610 mm × 610 mm 150 mm 18.35 pF 2.4 kW 90.8% [37]
four
610 mm × 610 mm 150 mm 14 pF 2.57 kW 89.3% [46]
plate parallel
914 mm × 914 mm
150 mm 11.3 pF 434.23 W 77.17% [47]
Large air gap 610 mm × 610 mm
four 915 mm × 915 mm
150 mm 11.5 pF 1.5 kW 85.5% [48]
plate 615 mm × 615 mm
vertical 914 mm × 914 mm
150 mm 11.3 pF 1.88 kW 85.87% [41]
610 mm × 610 mm
Large air gap 50 cm × 60 cm <1 cm 2.964 nF 111.4 W 81.14% [49]
two plate 0.45 m × 0.45 m 110 mm 15 pF 356 W 74.1% [50]
vertical 15 cm × 15 cm 19 cm 1.1 pF 3.3 kW - [51]
Body Structure- Rectangle 2400 cm2 2 mm 4 nF 1.2 kW 94% [52]
Windows Rectangle 2400 cm2 2 mm 4 nF 1.6 kW 96% [59]
316 cm2 2 mm 0.56 nF 200 W 87% [53]
Body Structure-
250 mm × 250 mm 110 µm 6.96 nF 1202.8 W 87.70% [54]
coating
Body Structure-
200 mm × 300 mm - - - - [34]
Wheels
Adhered to the 150 cm × 15 cm
0.1 mm 5 nF 1021 W 83% [36,58]
body surface 100 cm × 15 cm

The relationship between the coupling capacitance value and the coupling pole plate
area, as well as the transmission distance between the pole plates under different coupling
mechanism placement modes, is shown in Figure 17.

8,000 8,000
Using a large air gap Using a large air gap
Using EV's body structure Using EV's body structure
Attached to the EV body surface Attached to the EV body surface
6,000 6,000
Equivalent capacitance(pF)

Equivalent capacitance(pF)

4,000 4,000

2,000 2,000

0 0

0 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 0 50 100 150 200

Pole plate area (mm2) Transmission distance (mm)
(a) (b)
Figure 17. Relationship between different modes of coupling capacitance and pole plate area as
well as power transfer distance: (a) relationship between coupling capacitance and pole plate area
for different modes; (b) relationship between different modes of coupling capacitance and power
transmission distance.

As can be seen in Figure 17 and Table 2, the “Using a large air gap” mode is suitable
for large areas and long-distance scenarios with low coupling capacitance values. The re-
maining two modes are suitable for small areas and short distances with high coupling
capacitance values.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 14 of 43

3.3. Coupling Mechanism Placement in Dynamic Power Transfer Scenarios

The technology of dynamic power transfer allows EVs to be powered while driving.
An EV in dynamic power transfer technology is a moving body instead of a static one
in static power transfer technology. To ensure power transfer continuity, the coupling
mechanism, particularly the transmitter end of the coupling mechanism, needs to be
reasonably designed so that the built-in coupling pole plate of the EV can maintain a
relatively stable equal coupling capacitance with the power transmitter pole plate during
the moving process.
The existing technology of CPT for EV wireless power transfer can roughly be divided
into two categories: long-rail and segmented.
Long-rail type power transfer systems extend the power transmitter from the conven-
tional coupling pole plate directly opposite the receiver to a larger area and more extensive
rail. When the power receiver pole plate moves within the range of the rail, the coupling
area remains constant, so the capacitance remains constant.

3.3.1. Conventional Parallel Long Rail Power Transfer

The conventional parallel long rail-type structure can be divided into three structures
depending on the position of its pole plate.
In structure 1, the power transmitter pole plate is placed horizontally along the road,
and the power receiver pole plate placed at the vehicle’s chassis is coupled with the power
transmitter pole plate in the road, as shown in Figure 18 [60,61]. It is easy to install receiver
pole plates and transmitter pole plates in this structure, and the vehicle requirements and
road requirements are low. However, due to the large air gap between the vehicle’s chassis
and the roadway, the power transmission distance is large, resulting in a small coupling
capacitance and large dissipation of the electric field.

EV
Travel Direction
(Receiver)

Roadway
(Transmitter)

(a)

EV (Receiver)
Travel Direction

Roadway (Transmitter)

(b)
Figure 18. Structure 1 of conventional parallel long rail power transfer: (a) stereogram; (b) front view.

In structure 2, two transmitters are fixed vertically on the road, and two receivers are
fixed vertically on the vehicle chassis between the transmitters, as shown in Figure 19 [61].
For this structure, the receiver and transmitter poles do not need a large air gap. In contrast,
the outer transmitter pole plate can form a certain shielding effect, so its equal coupling
mutual-capacitance value is more significant, and the electric field dissipation is more
negligible. Nevertheless, this structure has poor applicability, the coupling pole plate
placement is complex, and the power transmitter plate needs to be laid vertically to the
road surface.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 15 of 43

Transmitter

Roadway

Travel
Direction

Transmitter
(Receiver)
EV
Travel Direction Roadway

EV
(Receiver)
(a) (b)
Figure 19. Structure 2 of conventional parallel long rail power transfer: (a) stereogram; (b) top view.

In structure 3, two transmitters are fixed vertically on the road, and two receivers are
fixed vertically on the vehicle chassis outside the transmitters, as shown in Figure 20 [61].
Under this structure, the same side of the receiver and transmitter plates also do not need a
large air gap between them. In contrast, the distance between the two groups of transmitter
plates and between the two groups of receiver plates are both farther, and the transmitter
plates between the two groups of receiver plates form a metal shield [62]. Therefore,
their equal coupling mutual-capacitance is larger, the parasitic capacitance between the
plates is smaller, and the coupling coefficient is higher. However, this structure is limited
by significant electric field dissipation, high coupling pole plate requirements, and poor
applicability and is almost exclusively applicable to electrified rail locomotives.
It is worth noting that in Structure 1 the distance between the power transmitter
plate and the receiver plate is large due to the air gap between the vehicle chassis and
the roadway. In Structures 2 and 3, there is no structural limitation between the power
transmitter and receiver plates. The power transmission distance can be shortened by
adjusting the plate’s position.

Transmitter

Travel Direction
Transmitter
(Receiver)
EV

Roadway Travel Direction Roadway

EV
(Receiver)
(a) (b)
Figure 20. Structure 3 of conventional parallel long rail power transfer: (a) stereogram; (b) top view.

3.3.2. Strip-Coupler Long Rail Power Transfer

In order to further reduce the cost while enhancing the system resistance to offset and
reduce the electric field dissipation effect, a research team from Jilin University proposed
the strip-coupler long rail power transfer system in 2019, as shown in Figure 21. Based
on the conventional parallel long rail power transfer system, the power transmitter end
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 16 of 43

is shrunk into a circular cable with a radius of 5 mm. This way, the power transmitter
rail material consumption can be significantly reduced, and the amount of aluminum
required can be reduced to 0.0785 m3 /km, only 3.2% of the original amount. Additionally,
the strip-coupler is smaller than conventional parallel long rails, making installation easier.
Further, since the size of the power transmitter plate is smaller than the power receiver
plate at the vehicle, the equivalent capacitance can be kept constant as long as the power
transmitter plate is kept in the range of the power receiver plate so that the EV has a
certain degree of freedom of lateral movement and reduces electric field dissipation [63].
Compared with the conventional parallel long rail, the disadvantage is that this structure
has a considerably smaller frontal area, decreasing its equivalent capacitance value, making
it more challenging to achieve high-power transfer.

EV
(Receiver)

Travel Direction

(Transmitter)
Roadway
Figure 21. Strip-coupler long rail power transfer.

3.3.3. Wheeled Long Rail Power Transfer

In order to reduce power transmission distance, increase equal coupling capacitance,
and reduce electric field dissipation during power transmission, the wheeled long-rail
power transfer system was proposed in 2016 by Naoki Sakai’s research team at Toyohashi
University of Science and Technology, as shown in Figure 22. The coupling mechanism on
the receiver side was placed in the vehicle wheel and coupled to the long rail transmitter
plate at the roadway. As a result, the power transfer distance of the structure was reduced,
the equal coupling capacitance was increased, and the electric field dissipation was reduced.
Through this power transfer structure, the team transferred 1 kW with an efficiency of
80.2% [57], enabling the EV to travel a distance of 4 m at 10 km/h [38]. However, this
structure is more complex than the conventional parallel long rail structure because it
requires modification of the vehicle wheels.

EV
(Receiver)
Travel Direction
(Transmitter)
Roadway

Figure 22. Wheeled long rail power transfer.

3.3.4. Vertical Long Rail Power Transfer

To reduce the size of the coupling mechanism, Siqi Li’s research team at Kunming
University of Science and Technology proposed the vertical long rail dynamic coupling
mechanism in 2016 [64], as shown in Figure 23. The power receiver pole plate on the EV side
and the power transmitter pole plate on the road surface were in vertical placement. Placing
the coupling pole plate vertically reduced the coupling pole plate volume, enhancing the
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 17 of 43

self-coupling capacitance value. However, due to the distance and presence of metal shields
on the power return side of this structure, the return measurement mutual-capacitance
value was tiny, affecting the power transmission. A solution to the mutual-capacitance prob-
lem on the return side of the Vertical long rail structure can be found in the literature [64,65]
by combining the actual structure of railroad electric locomotives in order to electrically
connect the metal wheels to the chassis, which in turn provides a way for power to be
returned, which overcomes the problem of small return measurement mutual-capacitance.

Travel
EV Direction
(Receiver)

(Transmitter)
Roadway
Figure 23. Vertical long rail power transfer.

3.3.5. Segmented Power Transfer

Unlike the long rail structure described above, in the segmented wireless power
transfer system, power transmitters are segmented into different groups to form the overall
power transmitter, and each group of power transmitters is equipped with its inverter
source. When the vehicle drives over the power transmitter segment, the power receiver at
the vehicle receives power, and when the vehicle moves, the receiver takes power from the
different power transmitter segments [27,66–68], as shown in Figure 24.

EV
(Receiver)

Travel Direction

Roadway
(Transmitter)

Figure 24. Segmented power transfer.

Compared with the long rail structure, the segmented type can transfer power to
multiple EVs simultaneously, reducing electric field dissipation and enhancing power
efficiency [68,69]. However, the structure control system is complex, and more switch-
ing power supplies are required at the transmitter end, increasing costs. Additionally,
equal coupling capacitance fluctuates as the vehicle travels through different transmission
segments, causing a certain pulsation of power transmission, which can damage the battery.
A comparison of the characteristics of different dynamic power transfer structures is
shown in Table 3.
Table 3. A comparison of the characteristics of different dynamic power transfer structures.

Power Coupling
Structures Advantages Disadvantages Power Efficiency References
Transfer Distance Capacitor
Simple Small coupling
150 mm 2.61 pF 261 W 90% [60]
Parallel long rail placement and capacitance and
50 mm 11.73 pF 150 W 85.40% [70]
structure 1 rich usage large electric
100 mm 7.18 pF - - [61]
scenarios field dissipation
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 18 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Power Transfer Coupling

Structures Advantages Disadvantages Power Efficiency References
Distance Capacitor
Large coupling
Difficult to place,
Parallel long rail capacitance and
smaller-use 20 mm 42.39 pF - - [61]
structure 2 small electric
scenarios
field dissipation
Large coupling
capacitance,
Difficult to place,
Parallel long rail small parasitic 20 mm 24.44 pF - - [61]
smaller-use
structure 3 capacitance 35 mm 13.35 pF 1.41 kW 91.67% [62]
scenarios
between
the poles
Return
measurement
Small 40 mm 19.66 pF 3.03 kW 92.46% [65]
Vertical long rail mutual-
system size 17 mm 24 pF 700 W 91.10% [64]
capacitance
is small,
Low material
consumption,
Strip-coupler high deflection Small coupling
10 mm 4.75 pF 20 W 25.50% [63]
long rail resistance, low capacitance
electric field
dissipation
Low electric field Difficult
Wheeled dissipation and installation of
- - 1 kW 80.20% [38,57]
long rail high coupling the coupling
capacitance mechanism
High safety, can
High cost and 120 mm - 500 W 88% [27]
transfer power to
Segmented power 12 mm - 257 W 90.40% [66]
multiple EVs
fluctuations 120 mm - 1.28 kW 89.80% [67]
simultaneously

4. Resonance Compensation Networks

4.1. Requirements of EV Wireless Power Transfer for Resonance Compensation Network of
CPT System
As an essential part of the CPT system, the resonance compensation network plays a
role in regulating the voltage quality, boosting the voltage at both ends of the pole plate,
and reducing the sensitivity of the system parameters [25,71,72]. Compared to conventional
CPT systems, CPT resonance compensation networks adapted to EV wireless power transfer
systems require the following characteristics: Firstly, the transfer power of the CPT system
of EV is higher than that of the conventional CPT system. As power increases, the voltage
stress on each component in the resonance compensation network increases, requiring
the resonance compensation network to have a particular voltage-dividing capability
to prevent electric breakdowns. Secondly, it is required that when the system power
increases, the system efficiency also increases, which makes it necessary for the output
power of the resonance compensation network to be positively correlated with the coupling
coefficient [48]. Finally, to ensure power output stability, the resonance compensation
network must have load-independent constant voltage or constant current capability.

4.2. Constant-Current Output Type Resonance Compensation Network

In the resonance compensation network of the CPT system applicable to EV wireless
power transfer, the resonance compensation networks that can achieve load-independent
constant current output are double-sided LCL type, double-sided LCLC type, double-sided
CLLC type, and EFR type, and the output currents (i.e., output power) of all four types of
resonance compensation networks are positively related to the coupling coefficient.
The double-sided LCL-resonance compensation is shown in Figure 25, where the
power transmitter side consists of two inductor devices, L1 and L f 1 , and a capacitor device,
C f 1 , and the power receiver side consists of two inductor devices, L2 and L f 2 , and a
capacitor device, C f 2 [41]. The topology network can be regarded as a superposition of
the primary and secondary T-type LCL topology with a low-order SS-type compensation
inductor and a coupling mechanism [73].
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 19 of 43

Coupling
mechanism
Lf1 Lf1+L1 CM Lf2+L2 Lf2

Cf1 C1 C2 Cf2
Uin R

(a)
Coupling
mechanism Lf2 Lf2
Lf1 Lf1
L1 L2
Cf1 + + + + Cf2

(b)
Lf1 L1+Lf1 CM CM L2+Lf2 Lf2

Cf1 Cf1 C1 C2 C1 C2 Cf2

+ + + Cf2

(c)
Figure 25. The double-sided LCL-resonance compensation: (a) topology of the coupling mechanism
after equating with the π-type equivalent model; (b) schematic diagram of the network structure;
(c) resonance working relationship diagram.

p system is shown in Figure 25, and the coupling coefficient, k c1 , is

The topology of the
defined as k c1 = CM / (C1 + CM )(C2 + CM ). When the system operates at the resonance
frequency, the primary inductor, L f 1 , and the primary capacitor, C f 1 , form a resonance.
Similarly, the secondary inductor, L f 2 , and the secondary capacitor, C f 2 , form a resonance,
as shown in Equation (7). The primary inductor, L1 , with capacitor C f 1 and C1 , C2 , and C M
form a resonance, and similarly, the secondary inductor, L2 , with capacitor C f 2 and C1 , C2 ,
and C M form a resonance, as shown in Equation (8) [74].

ω2 C f 1 L f 1 = 1
(
(7)
ω2 C f 2 L f 2 = 1
  
ω 2 L1 C1 + CCMM+CC22 = ω 2 L1 (C1 + C M ) 1 − k2c1 = 1




  (8)
ω 2 L2 C2 + CCMM+CC1 = ω 2 L2 (C2 + C M ) 1 − k2c1 = 1



1

The network can achieve load-independent constant-current output under the condi-
tion of Equations (7) and (8), which is the ZPA (Zero Phase Angle) state, and the output
current calculation equation is shown as Equation (9).
ωC M C f 1 C f 2 ωC f 1 C f 2
I= U = Uin (9)
C1 C2 + C1 C M + C2 C M in 1/k2c1 − 1 C M

The coupling pole plate can form a high voltage to meet the requirements of high-
power scenarios after boosting the T-type LCL structure. However, because there is no
compensation capacitor at the port of the coupling mechanism, to maintain the resonance
inductance volume within a reasonable range, it is often necessary for the coupling mech-
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 20 of 43

anism to have a large self-capacitance [41], making it more suitable for vertical coupling
mechanisms or coupling mechanisms with large self-capacitances.
The double-sided LCLC-resonance compensation network is shown in Figure 26.
Based on the double-sided LCL topology, a pair of compensation capacitors, Cex1 and Cex2 ,
are connected in parallel at the ports of the coupling mechanism [37,43]. This topology
network can be regarded as a superposition of the primary and secondary T-type LCL
topology with a low-order SS-type compensation inductor and a coupling mechanism with
compensation capacitors [73].

Coupling
mechanism
Lf1 L1+Lf1 L2+Lf2 Lf2
CM

Cf1 Cex1 C1 C2 Cex2 Cf2

Uin R

(a)
Coupling
Lf1 Lf1 mechanism Lf2 Lf2

Cf1 L1 L2
+ + Cex1 Cex2 + + Cf2

(b)
Lf1 L1+Lf1 CM CM L2+Lf2 Lf2

Cf1 Cf1 Cin1 Cin2 Cin1 Cin2 Cf2

+ + + Cf2

(c)
Figure 26. The double-sided LCLC-resonance compensation: (a) topology of the coupling mechanism
after equating with the π-type equivalent model; (b) schematic diagram of the network structure;
(c) resonance working relationship diagram.

The topological resonance relationship of the double-sided LCLC type is similar to

the double-sided LCL type, and the only difference is that after the connection of the
external compensation capacitor, the primary and secondary self-capacitance capacitance,
Cin1 and Cin2 , become the superposition of the coupling mechanism self-capacitance and
external compensation capacitance, that is, Cin1 = p Cex1 + C1 , Cin2 = Cex2 + C2 , and the
coupling coefficient, k c2 , is defined as k c2 = CM / (Cin1 + CM )(Cin2 + CM ) when the
system operates at the resonance frequency; the resonance relationship between L f 1 and
C f 1 and L f 2 and C f 2 is shown in Equation (7). The primary inductor, L1 , with capacitor C f 1
and Cin1 , Cin2 , and C M form a resonance, and similarly, the secondary inductor, L2 , with
capacitor C f 2 and C1 , C2 , and C M form a resonance, as shown in Equation (10).
  
C M Cin2
 ω 2 L1 Cin1 + = ω 2 L1 (C1 + CM ) 1 − k2c2 = 1



C M +Cin2
  (10)
 ω 2 L2 Cin2 + C M Cin1 2 2


C M +Cin1 = ω L2 (C2 + C M ) 1 − k c2 = 1

Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 21 of 43

The network can achieve load-independent constant-current output when the condi-
tions of Equations (7) and (10) are satisfied, and the output current and calculation equation
are shown in Equation (11) [75].

ωC M C f 1 C f 2 ωC f 1 C f 2
I= Uin = Uin (11)
1/k2c2 − 1 C M


Cin1 Cin2 + Cin1 C M + Cin2 C M

The double-sided LCLC topology effectively increases the value of parallel port capac-
itance with the addition of compensation capacitors, which can reduce the volume of the
resonance inductor and is suitable for both parallel and vertical coupling mechanisms.
The double-sided CLLC-resonance compensation is shown in Figure 27, where the
power transmitter consists of two inductor devices, L1 and L f 1 , and two capacitor devices,
C f 1 and Cex1 . The power receiver consists of two inductor devices, L2 and L f 2 , and two
capacitor devices, C f 2 and Cex2 . This topology network can be regarded as a superposition
of the primary and secondary T-type CLC topology with a low-order SS-type compensation
inductor and a coupling mechanism with compensation capacitors [73].

Coupling
Cf1 mechanism
L1-Lf1 L2-Lf2 Cf2
CM

Lf1 Cex1 C1 C2 Cex2 Lf2

Uin R

(a)
Coupling
Cf1 Cf1 mechanism Cf1 Cf1
L1 L2
Lf1 + + Cex1 Cex2 + + Lf1

(b)

Cf1 L1-Lf1 CM CM L2-Lf2 Cf2

Cin1 Cin1
Lf1 + Lf1 + Cin1 Cin2
Lf2 + Lf2

(c)
Figure 27. The double-sided CLLC-resonance compensation: (a) topology of the coupling mechanism
after equating with the π-type equivalent model; (b) schematic diagram of the network structure;
(c) resonance working relationship diagram.

When the system operates at the resonance frequency, the double-sided CLLC- reso-
nance compensation network has the same element resonance relationship as the double-
sided LCLC-resonance compensation network, as shown in Equations (7) and (10).
The network can achieve load-independent constant-current output when the con-
ditions of Equations (7) and (10) are satisfied; the output current calculation equation is
also the same as the double-sided LCLC-resonance compensation network, as shown in
Equation (11).
The double-sided CLLC type topology network can not only satisfy the high power
requirement but also, compared with double-sided LCL and double-sided LCLC topology
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 22 of 43

networks, the resonance inductance of the primary and secondary sides are smaller and
easier to achieve under the condition of achieving the same output [46].
The EFR resonance compensation is shown in Figure 28, where the power transmitter
side consists of two inductor devices, L1 and L f 1 , and two capacitor devices, C f 1 and
Cex1 , with a mutual-inductance value of M1 between the two resonance inductors, and the
receiver side consists of two inductor devices, L2 and L f 2 , and two capacitor devices, C f 2
and Cex2 , with a mutual-inductance value of M2 between the two resonance inductors [76].
This topology can be regarded as a superposition of the primary and secondary M-type
mutual inductance topology and a coupling mechanism with compensation capacitors [73].

Coupling
mechanism

Cf1 M1 M2 Cf2
CM

C1 C2
Cex1 Cex2
Uin Lf1 L1 L2 Lf2 R

(a)
Coupling
M1 mechanism M2
Cf1 Cf1 Cf2 Cf2
L1 L2
Lf1 Lf1
+ + + + Lf2 Lf2
Cex1 Cex2

(b)
Cf1 CM CM Cf2

Lf1 + L1
Cin1 Cin1
+ Cin1 Cin2
L2 + Lf2

(c)
Figure 28. The EFR resonance compensation: (a) topology of the coupling mechanism after equating
with the π-type equivalent model; (b) schematic diagram of the network structure; (c) resonance
working relationship diagram.

When the system operates at the resonant frequency, the EFR resonance compensa-
tion has the same element resonance relationship as the doubled-sided LCLC-resonance
compensation network (and the doubled-sided CLLC-resonance compensation network),
as shown in Equations (7) and (10).
The network can achieve load-independent constant-current output when the condi-
tions of Equations (7) and (10) are satisfied, and the output current and calculation equation
are shown in Equation (12).

CM 1
I= Uin = 3
Uin (12)
ω 3 M1 M2 (Cin1 Cin2 + Cin1 C M + Cin2 C M ) ω M1 M2 C M 1/k2c2 − 1

Mutual-inductance between the two inductors of the EFR-type compensation structure

adds new circuit parameters, which allows more freedom in designing the system circuit
parameters and facilitates adjusting system performance [77,78].
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 23 of 43

4.3. Constant-Voltage Output Type Resonance Compensation Network

In the resonance compensation network of the CPT system applicable to EV wireless
power transfer, the resonance compensation networks that can achieve load-independent
constant voltage output are CLLC-CL type, LCL-L type, LCLC-CL type, and M-SS type,
and the output voltage (i.e., output power) of all four types of resonance compensation
networks are positively related to the coupling coefficient.
The LCL-L-resonance compensation is shown in Figure 29, where the transmitter side
consists of two inductor devices, L1 and L f 1 , and a capacitor device, C f 1 . The receiver
side consists of an inductor device, L2 [48]. The topology network can be regarded as a
superposition of the primary T-type LCL structure with a low-order SS-type compensation
inductor and a coupling mechanism.

Coupling
mechanism
Lf1 L1+Lf1 CM L2

Cf1 C1 C2
Uin R

(a)
Coupling
Lf1 Lf1 mechanism
L1
Cf1 + + + L2

(b)

Lf1 L1+Lf1 CM CM L2

C1 C2 C1 C2
Cf1 + Cf1 +

(c)
Figure 29. The LCL-L-resonance compensation: (a) topology of the coupling mechanism after equat-
ing with the π-type equivalent model; (b) schematic diagram of the network structure; (c) resonance
working relationship diagram.

When the system operates at the resonance frequency, the primary inductor, L f 1 , and
the primary capacitor, C f 1 , form a resonance, as shown in Equation (13). The remain-
ing elements have the same resonance relationships as the double-sided LCL-resonance
compensation network, as shown in Equation (8).

ω2 C f 1 L f 1 = 1 (13)
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 24 of 43

The network can achieve load-independent constant-voltage output when the condi-
tions of Equations (8) and (13) are satisfied; and the output voltage and calculation equation
are shown in Equation (14).

CM C f 1 Cf1
U= Uin = 2

Uin (14)
C1 C2 + C1 C M + C2 C M 1/k c1 − 1 C M

The LCL-L type topology has only three resonance elements at the transmitter side and
one resonance element at the receiver side, resulting in low cost and small system size [48].
However, because there is no compensation capacitor at the port of the coupling mechanism,
to maintain the resonance inductance volume within a reasonable range, it is often necessary
for the coupling mechanism to have a large self-capacitance, making it more suitable for
vertical coupling mechanisms or coupling mechanisms with large self-capacitance.
The LCLC-CL type topology is similar to the LCL-L type, and the only difference
is that after the connection of the external compensation capacitor, the primary and sec-
ondary self-capacitance, Cin1 and Cin2 , become the superposition of the coupling mech-
anism self-capacitance and external compensation capacitance, that is, Cin1 = Cex1 + C1 ,
Cin2 = Cex2 + C2 , as shown in Figure 30 [73].
Coupling
mechanism
Lf1 L1+Lf1 CM L2

Cf1 Cex1 C1 C2 Cex2

Uin R

(a)
Coupling
Lf1 Lf1 mechanism Lf2 Lf2
L1
Cf1
+ + Cex1 Cex2 + L2
+ Cf2

(b)

Lf1 L1+Lf1 CM CM L2

Cin1 Cin2 Cin1 Cin2

Cf1 + Cf1 +

(c)
Figure 30. The LCLC-CL-resonance compensation: (a) topology of the coupling mechanism af-
ter equating with the π-type equivalent model; (b) schematic diagram of the network structure;
(c) resonance working relationship diagram.

When the system operates at the resonance frequency, the element resonance rela-
tionships of the LCLC-CL type topology are similar to those of the LCL-L type topology;
the only difference is that after the connection of the compensation capacitors, the self-
capacitance values of the primary and secondary networks become Cin1 and Cin1 . The
resonance relationships of the LCLC-CL type topology for each elements are shown in
Equations (10) and (13) [79].
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 25 of 43

The network can achieve load-independent constant-voltage output when the con-
ditions of Equations (10) and (13) are satisfied, and the output voltage and calculation
equation are shown in Equation (15).

CM C f 1 Cf1
U= Uin = 2

Uin (15)
Cin1 Cin2 + Cin1 C M + Cin2 C M 1/k c2 − 1 C M

The LCLC-CL topology effectively increases the value of parallel port capacitance with
the addition of compensation capacitors, which can reduce the volume of the resonance
inductor and is suitable for both parallel and vertical coupling mechanisms.
The CLLC-CL-resonance compensation is shown in Figure 31, where the power trans-
mitter side consists of two inductor devices, L1 and L f 1 , and two capacitor devices, C f 1
and Cex1 , and the power receiver side consists of one inductor device, L2 , and one capacitor
device, Cex2 [62]. This topology network can be regarded as a superposition of a primary
T-type CLC structure with a low-order SS-type compensation inductor and a coupling
mechanism with compensation capacitors.

Coupling
mechanism
Cf1 L1-Lf1 L2
CM
Cex1 C1 C2 Cex2
Uin Lf1 R

(a)
Coupling
Cf1 mechanism
Cf1 L1 L2
Lf1
+ + Cex1 Cex2
+

(b)
Cf1 L1-Lf1 CM CM L2

Cin1 Cin1 Cin1 Cin2

Lf1 + Lf1 +

(c)
Figure 31. The CLLC-CL-resonance compensation: (a) topology of the coupling mechanism af-
ter equating with the π-type equivalent model; (b) schematic diagram of the network structure;
(c) resonance working relationship diagram.

When the system operates at the resonance frequency, the CLLC-CL type topology
has the same element resonance relationship as the LCLC-CL type topology, as shown in
Equations (10) and (13) [80].
The network can achieve load-independent constant-voltage output when the con-
ditions of Equations (10) and (13) are satisfied, and the output voltage and calculation
equation are shown in Equation (15).
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 26 of 43

Compared with the LCLC-CL structure, the primary resonance inductor, L1 , is smaller
and easier to achieve under the condition of achieving the same output [81].
The M-SS type compensation network is shown in Figure 32, where the power trans-
mitter side consists of two inductor devices, L f 1 and Lex1 , and two capacitor devices, C f 1
and Cex1 , with a mutual-inductance value, M1 , between the two resonance inductors [82],
and the receiver side consists of one inductor device, L2 , and one capacitor device, Cex2 .

Coupling
mechanism
Cf1 M1 L2
CM

Cex1 C1 C2 Cex2
Uin Lf1 L1 R

(a)
Coupling
Cf1 M1 Cf1 mechanism
L1 L2
Lf1 Lf1 + + Cex1 Cex2 +

(b)
Cf1 CM CM L2

Cin1 Cin1 Cin1 Cin2

Lf1 + L1 +
(c)
Figure 32. The M-SS type compensation network: (a) topology of the coupling mechanism after equat-
ing with the π-type equivalent model; (b) schematic diagram of the network structure; (c) resonance
working relationship diagram.

When the system operates at the resonance frequency, the M-SS type compensation
network has the same element resonance relationship as the LCLC-CL type topology (and
the CLLC-CL type topology) [82], as shown in Equations (10) and (13).
The network can achieve load-independent constant-voltage output when the con-
ditions of Equations (10) and (13) are satisfied, and the output voltage and calculation
equation are shown in Equation (16).

CM Uin
U = Uin = 2 (16)
ω 2 M1 (Cin1 Cin2 + Cin1 C M + Cin2 C M ) ω M1 C M 1/k2C2 − 1

Similar to the EFR-type compensation network, the mutual-inductance between the

two inductors of the M-SS type compensation network adds new circuit parameters, which
allows more freedom in designing the system circuit parameters and facilitates adjusting
system performance.
A summary of high-power CPT resonance compensation networks adapted to EV
wireless power transfer scenarios is shown in Table 4, where the coupling capacitance is dis-
counted by C M in the T/π-type equal network or Cs in the single-capacitor equal network.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 27 of 43

Table 4. A summary of high-power CPT resonance compensation networks adapted to EV wireless

power transfer scenarios.

Coupling Transmitted Transmission

Function Topology Type Frequency References
Capacitor Power Efficiency
11.3 pF 1 MHz 1.88 kW 85.87% [41,83]
Double-Sided LCL
9.91 pF 1 MHz 1.97 kW 91.65% [74]
18.35 pF 1 MHz 2.4 kW 90.80% [37,84,85]
Constant current Double-Sided LCLC
12.8 pF 1 MHz 1.41 kW 93.57% [75]
Double-Sided CLLC 14 pF 1 MHz 2.57 kW 89.30% [46]
16.33 pF 1 MHz 2.99 kW 95.70% [76]
EFR 6.75 pF 1 MHz 3.25 kW 95% [78]
LCL-L 11.5 pF 1 MHz 1.5 kW 85.50% [48]
19.66 pF 500 kHz 3.03 kW 92.46% [65]
LCLC-CL
31.7 pF 500 kHz 5 kW 90.08% [79]
Constant voltage
13.35 pF 1 MHz 1.41 kW 91.67% [62]
CLLC-CL
12.75 pF 650 kHz 2.13 kW 89% [80]
M-SS 25 pF 3 MHz 2.12 kW 89.80% [82]

5. Directions for the Development

Although CPT technology has already achieved a series of results in the field of
EV wireless power transfer, it still has many shortcomings compared with IPT tech-
nology. In order to achieve further development of CPT technology, it can be devel-
oped in three directions: high-power transmission, high-efficiency transmission, and
high-security transmission.

5.1. High-Power Transmission

The low power level of existing CPT power transfer systems compared to the wire-
conducted power supply and IPT wireless power transfer is a prominent factor limiting the
application of CPT technology in EVs. Upgrading the power of CPT systems can be carried
out by three technical routes: adopting higher-order resonance compensation networks,
using multiple-input systems, and upgrading component withstand voltage values.

5.1.1. Adopting Higher-Order Resonance Compensation Networks

Early CPT systems were mainly based on single inductor compensation, due to the
single compensation system, so the early CPT system transmission power is generally only
a few tens of watts [86–89]; with the development of low-order compensation systems
represented by double-sided LC-type resonance compensation networks, the power level of
CPT was raised to the hundred-watt level [90–93]. After introducing higher-order networks
represented by double-sided LCLC-type resonance compensation networks, the power
level of CPT systems was raised to values above 2 kW. It can be seen that the development
of high-order resonance compensation networks is a crucial way to enhance the power
level of CPT systems and an effective means to further develop CPT technology in high-
power scenarios.

5.1.2. Using Multiple-Input Systems

The power limitations of a single CPT system can be overcome by connecting multiple-
input systems in parallel for power input. This is called “multiple-input, single-output”
mode. Multiple parallel inputs include multiple parallel inverters and multiple parallel
transmitter channels.
Multiple parallel inverter input means that multiple inverters are connected in parallel
at the power transmitter for power input. The parallel structure of multiple inverters
can significantly reduce the current stress of the switching devices and thus increase the
system input power. Due to timing and component tolerance-related mismatches and
high-frequency circuit parasites, paralleling high-frequency inverters directly can bring the
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 28 of 43

challenge of uneven current sharing and circulating currents. To solve these challenges, a re-
search team at Cornell University proposed four power combination architectures: in-phase
power combiner, out-phased power combiner, quadrature power combiner, and immittance
network-based power combiner, which can realize parallel power input and then enhance
the power level, as shown in Figure 33. Eventually, the immittance network-based power
combiner connects two power structures in parallel. It produces 2.3 kW of output power at
6.78 MHz with almost half the current stress per switching tube compared to a conventional
single-inverter CPT system [94].

+ +
+jXcm/2
S1 S3 +jX/2
S1 S3
Xdiff +jX/2

+jXcm/2
S2 S4 S2 S4
VIN
2Δ VIN
+jXcm/2
S5 S7 -jX/2
S5 S7
Xdiff -jX/2

+jXcm/2
S6 S8 S6 S8
- -
Inphase power combiner Out-phased power combiner
(a) (b)

+ +
+jX +jX/2 +jX/2
S1 S3 S1 S3
-j2X -jX
-j2X

+jX +jX/2 +jX/2

S2 S4 S2 S4

90 ° VIN VIN
+jX
S5 S7 S5 S7 +jX/2 +jX/2
-j2X
-j2X -jX

+jX
S6 S8 S6 S8 +jX/2 +jX/2
- -
Quadrature power Immittance network-based
combiner power combiner
(c) (d)
Figure 33. Four multiple parallel inverter input structures: (a) Inphase power combiner; (b) out-phased
power combiner; (c) quadrature power combiner; (d) immittance network-based power combiner.

Multiple parallel transmitter input means adding one or more power transmitter
plates to the original CPT system. Different inverter power supplies control the additional
power transmitter plates, thus increasing the number of power transmission channels.
The multiple power transmission channels are added up to achieve high power transmis-
sion. Compared with multiple parallel inverter structures, the structure of multiple parallel
transmitter inputs does not require the additional design of power combination architec-
ture, and the system circuit part is simple. However, it increases the number of coupling
pole plates at the transmitter side. It produces additional parasitic capacitance, which
requires decoupling calculation and increases the complexity of the coupling mechanism
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 29 of 43

part. In 2019, Rui-Kun Mai’s research team at Southwest Jiaotong University connected
two transmitters in parallel to achieve a dual-transmitting terminal system with a power
output of 1.47 kW and an efficiency of 90.63%, resulting in a 50% reduction in the current
flowing through the switching tubes compared to conventional systems with the same
power output [95], as shown in Figure 34.

Secondary converter Load

Receiver
Coupling
mechanism

DC Primary Transmitter1 Transmitter2 Primary DC

Sources converter converter Sources

Figure 34. Multiple parallel transmitter input.

5.1.3. Upgrading Component Withstand Voltage Values

The voltage stress of each component in the system increases as the power increases,
resulting in component damage as the voltage stress exceeds the component voltage
stress tolerance value. Therefore, component voltage withstand capability is one of the
critical factors limiting the power increase of the CPT systems. In CPT systems, parallel
with coupling mechanisms, compensation capacitors are often subjected to the highest
voltage stress, up to thousands of volts. For this reason, improving withstand voltage
of the compensation capacitors is fundamental to improving the withstand voltage of
the components.
Using vertical coupling mechanism or another coupling mechanism with a larger
self-capacitance is crucial to solving the compensation capacitance withstand voltage
problem. Without any external capacitor, only the coupling mechanism itself can provide
the compensation capacitance required by the system. After corresponding insulation
measures are taken, the coupling mechanism is capable of withstanding the voltage itself,
thus solving the voltage resistance issue. Using capacitor components with higher with-
stand voltage performance is a technical way to withstand voltage stress, and the different
capacitor devices have different voltage withstand levels, as shown in Table 5 [96,97].
Components with higher voltage and current withstand values, especially capacitor devices,
must be developed in conjunction with new material technologies, structures, and other
fields. This is also an effective solution to enhance the power level of CPT systems.
Using a series-parallel connection of components is also an essential solution to the
problem of components withstanding voltage. The component group’s overall voltage and
current withstand capability can be enhanced under the condition that the components’
overall capacitance and inductance value remain unchanged after connection to meet the
actual requirements of high-power scenarios.

5.2. High-Efficiency Transmission

In the existing research of EV wireless power transfer, the efficiency of CPT technology
still has more improvement space compared with IPT technology [71]. There are three
leading causes of efficiency loss in CPT systems: loss of inverter and rectifier parts, loss of
coupling mechanism, and loss of resonance component.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 30 of 43

Table 5. Different voltage withstand levels of different capacitor devices.

Capacitor Type Voltage Withstand Value Capacitance Value Characteristics

High-frequency ceramic Small high-frequency loss,
63 V∼500 V 1 pF∼6800 pF
dielectric capacitors good stability
Low-frequency ceramic Small size, low price, high loss,
50 V∼100 V 10 pF∼4.7 µF
dielectric capacitors poor stability
Small volume, large capacity, heat and
humidity resistance, poor stability,
Polyester film capacitors 63 V∼630 V 40 pF∼4 µF
high loss, not resistant to
high frequency
Polystyrene film capacitors 100 V∼30 kV 10 pF∼1 µF Stable, low loss, large volume
Similar performance to polyphenylene
Polypropylene film capacitors 63 V∼2000 V 1000 pF∼10 µF
but smaller and slightly less stable
Aluminum electrolytic Small volume, large capacity, large
6.3 V∼450 V 0.47 µF∼10,000 µF
capacitors device loss, large leakage
Less loss and leakage than aluminum
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors 6.3 V∼125 V 0.1 µF∼1000 µF
electrolytic capacitors
Large capacitance value, small size,
high reliability, stable capacitance
Monolithic capacitors device 2 times rated voltage 0.5 pF∼1 µF
value, good resistance to high
temperature and humidity
Better stability, low loss, high
Vitreous enamel capacitors 63 V∼400 V 10 pF∼0.1 µF
temperature resistance

5.2.1. Reducing the Loss of Inverter and Rectifier Components

The loss of inverter and rectifier devices can be divided into conduction loss and
switching loss. The conduction loss refers to the power loss caused by the on-resistance of
the switching device when the current flows through the switching device of the inverter
rectifier, and the switching loss refers to the power loss caused by the voltage and current
of the switching device that cannot be changed suddenly and then interleaved during
the process of opening and closing the switching device [77]. Using new-generation
semiconductor devices and designing circuits with soft switching states can reduce the
losses of inverters and rectifiers [98].
New-generation semiconductor devices are represented by silicon carbide (SiC) and
gallium nitride (GaN), and their characteristics compared with traditional silicon-based
devices are shown in Table 6 [99].

Table 6. New-generation semiconductor devices are represented by silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium
nitride (GaN), and their characteristics are compared with traditional silicon-based devices.

Material Properties 4H-SiC GaN Si

Band gap energy (eV) 3.26 3.39 1.12
Critical electrical field (kV/cm) 3400 3550 300
Electron mobility (cm2 /V × s) 950 1300 1400
Saturation velocity (cm × 106 /s) 22 25 10
Thermal conductivity (W/cm × K) 4 1.55 1.5

According to Table 6, SiC/GaN has a critical breakdown electric field more than ten
times higher than silicon, Si, which significantly increases the current density and voltage
withstand capacity of these two semiconductor power devices and significantly reduces
the conduction loss as well. Additionally, SiC/GaN’s saturation velocity is twice that of
silicon, Si, making it more suitable for CPT systems due to its high-frequency characteristics.
A comparison of the conversion efficiency of switching power supplies using SiC/GaN
devices with Si devices is given in the literature [99]. The efficiency of the inverter rectifier
is improved using SiC/GaN power devices, as shown in Figure 35.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 31 of 43

Si SiC/GaN
100%
98%
96%
94%
92%
90%
88%
86%
84%
82%
80%
DC-AC DC-DC AC-DC

Figure 35. Comparison of the efficiency of SiC/GaN devices with conventional Si devices in the
power conversion process.

Despite being part of the same new generation of wide-band semiconductor devices,
GaN and SiC differ in their material properties and device structure, thus resulting in
different output power, voltage levels, and performance capabilities, leading to different
application scenarios for each device [100]. From an electrical perspective, GaN switching
losses at low to medium voltages (below 1200 V) are approximately three times lower
than SiC at 650 V. Additionally, GaN devices have better performance at frequencies over
500 kHz, whereas SiC is usually designed to operate at voltages of 650 V, 1200 V, and more;
SiC devices are more suitable for working in hot and harsh environments due to their high
junction temperature characteristics [100,101].
Class D and Class E converters easily achieve soft switching and high power conver-
sion efficiency among the commonly used CPT inverter circuits [102,103]. However, they
are prone to high-voltage stress and sensitive to changes in component parameters, making
them unsuitable for EVs with high power demands [103]. For full-bridge inverters that can
operate at high power, soft switching can be achieved by operating the circuit in the induc-
tive region. In the literature [77], by adjusting the values of the system resonance element
parameters, the system as a whole is made to be weakly inductive, thereby enabling the
system to operate in a soft switching state, reducing switching losses and increasing the
efficiency to 95% at a system output of 3.2 kW.

5.2.2. Reducing the Loss of the Coupling Mechanism

The coupling mechanism is also one of the primary sources of power loss in the
CPT system. In EV wireless power transfer CPT systems, the power loss of the coupling
mechanism mainly occurs due to the parasitic resistance of the coupling pole plate and the
parasitic capacitance between the coupling mechanism and the external environment, such
as the vehicle chassis and the roadway.
The coupling pole plate parasitic resistance is shown schematically in Figure 36, and its
calculation equation is shown in Equation (17) [14]. When the current flows through, it
generates a loss of I 2 Rcs in the parasitic resistance. Where I is the current flowing through
the coupling mechanism and Rcs is the coupling mechanism parasitic resistance.
γ
Rcs = (17)
ωCs
In Equation (17), γ is the loss angle tangent value(tan δ), expressed as the residual
angle resulting from the phase angle between the phase current flowing within the medium
and the phase voltage when an AC voltage is applied.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 32 of 43

Coupling plate

Rcs Cs

Figure 36. Schematic diagram of parasitic resistance of coupling mechanism.

ω is the operating angular frequency of the system. Cs is the equal capacitance of the
coupling pole plate, and its calculation equation is shown in Equation (6).
As can be seen from Equations (6) and (17), raising the system’s operating frequency
reduces the parasitic resistance of the coupling pole plate. Additionally, the loss angle
tangent value of the coupling plate is positively correlated with its relative dielectric
constant, i.e., increasing the relative dielectric constant of the coupling plate increases the
equal inter-pole capacitance of the coupling plate, but at the same time increases its loss
angle tangent value. To reduce the parasitic resistance of the coupling plate, it is important
to select the coupling plate interpolar medium with a balance between its relative dielectric
constant value and its loss angle tangent value. Let k Q be the ratio of the loss angle tangent
to the relative dielectric constant, i.e., k Q = γ/ε r .
Then the parasitic resistance of the coupling mechanism can be expressed in the form
of Equation (18).
kQ d
Rcs = (18)
ωε 0 S
Equation (18) shows that the parasitic resistance of the coupling mechanism is only
positively proportional to k Q when the distance between the poles of the coupling plate and
the orthogonal area is constant. The relative dielectric constant and the loss angle tangent
values of common substances and k Q are shown in Table 7 [104,105].

Table 7. The relative dielectric constant and the loss angle tangent values of common substances
and k Q .

Relative Loss Angle

Substances kQ
Dielectric Constant Tangent Value
Gas 1.0006 0.0001 9.994 × 10−5
Water 81 0.04 4.938 × 10−4
PVC 3 0.03 0.01
TiO2 170 0.017 0.0001
BTiO3 1300 0.012 9.23 × 10−6
PZT 2600 0.019 7.31 × 10−6
Quartz 3.8 0.00075 1.97 × 10−4

In the EV wireless power transfer scenario, a series of parasitic capacitances are

generated in addition to the coupling capacitance between the power transmitter side of
the coupled pole plate and the power receiver. These parasitic capacitances originate from
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 33 of 43

cross-coupling between the plates (Cd ), as well as from coupling between  two plates on
0


the same side (C pp,r and C pp,v , the plates and the roadway (C pr and C pr , the plates and

the vehicle chassis C pv and C 0pv , the roadway and the vehicle chassis (Crv ), the roadway
   
and the inverter ground Cr,gnd , and the vehicle chassis and the rectifier ground Cv,gnd ,
as shown in Figure 37 and Table 8.

Rectifier PC
Board Cv,gnd

Vehicle Chassis
Cpv Cpv
W W
Cpv’
h Cpv’ Cpp,r h
e Cd Cd e
Cs Crv
e Cs e
l l
Cpp,v
Cpr’ Cpr’

Cpr Cpr
Roadway
Inverter PC Cr,gnd
Board

Figure 37. Schematic diagram of parasitic capacitance of EV coupling mechanism.

Table 8. A series of parasitic capacitances.

Category Capacitance
Power transfer capacitance Cs
Coupling between two plates on the same side C pp,r /C pp,v
Cross-coupling between the plates Cd
Coupling between the plates and the roadway C pr /C 0pr
Coupling between the plates and the vehicle chassis C pv /C 0pv
Coupling between the roadway and the vehicle chassis Crv
Coupling between the roadway and the inverter ground Cr,gnd
Coupling between the vehicle chassis and the rectifier ground Cv,gnd

In the case of parasitic capacitances, when the current passes through them, the power
transfer is reduced, resulting in lower system efficiency [67,106–108].

Cs,eqv = Cs − Cd




C C0

C p1,eqv = C pp,r + 2pr + 2pv + Cd (19)

C0

C

C p2,eqv = C pp,v + 2pv + 2pr + Cd


To resolve the parasitic capacitance problem, in 2019, a research team at Cornell

University used a separated inductor matching network. An inductor in a matching
network was divided symmetrically into two halves, with one half placed in the forward
path and the other in the return path. As a result, power loss was minimized by avoiding
current flow through parasitic capacitors Cr , ground, Cv , ground, and Crv . Furthermore,
the remaining parasitic capacitance was utilized as a compensation capacitor, which was
reduced to a four-capacitance model by the decoupling method shown in Equation (19),
as shown in Figure 38.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 34 of 43

L1/2 Cs L1/2

Cpr Cpr’ Cpv’ Cpv

Cd
Cpp,r Cpp,v
C1 Crv C2
Uin R
Cr,gnd Cv,gnd
Cd
L1/2 Cpr Cpr’ Cpv’ Cpv L1/2

Cs
(a)
L1/2 Cs,eqv L1/2

Cp1,eqv Cp2,eqv
C1 C2
Uin R

L1/2 L1/2

Cs,eqv
(b)
Figure 38. Parasitic capacitance of coupling mechanism and its decoupling results; (a) equal topology
of the parasitic capacitance of coupling mechanism; (b) four-capacitance model after decoupling of
the parasitic capacitance of coupling mechanism.

5.2.3. Reducing the Loss of Components

Since CPT systems are usually operated at a high frequency, component losses are
primarily due to inductor losses, and inductor losses frequently comprise the most consid-
erable portion of CPT system losses. Several factors contribute to more significant power
losses in conventional inductors. Due to their higher internal resistance, conventional
inductor devices consume more power than other devices. Secondly, some inductors with
magnetic cores also result in additional hysteresis and eddy current losses at high frequen-
cies; furthermore, structural and material limitations can result in a lower quality factor of
inductor devices, causing more significant power losses. Finally, the frequency effect of
inductor devices causes the inductance of inductor devices to decrease when frequency
increases, increasing power loss.
To overcome the losses in conventional inductor devices, a team of Cornell University
researchers proposed new Semi-Toroidal Interleaved-Foil (STIF) coupled inductors and
Toroidal Interleaved-Foil (TIF) coupled inductors in 2019 and 2022, respectively [107–109].
These new interleaved-foil coupled inductors have a semi-toroidal or toroidal structure,
respectively, where on the outer surface of the toroidal or semi-circular structure, the parallel
wires are laterally adjacent and in alternating positions, while along the inner surface,
the parallel wires are stacked but also in alternating positions. This unique inductor
winding is equivalent to coupling two inductors. With the two inductors coupled, the flux
from one increases the flux from the other, increasing the overall inductance and reducing
the wire turns for the same inductance value, thereby reducing winding losses [32,110].
Compared to conventional single-layer foil-wire coupled inductors, the AC resistance of
interleaved-foil coupled inductors can be significantly reduced, as shown in Figure 39
(resonance frequency of 13.56 MHz) [32,109].
Finally, the team transferred 320 W of power with 94% efficiency using STIF-coupled
inductors and 3.75 kW with 94.7% efficiency using TIF-coupled inductors.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 35 of 43

482

290

220

Figure 39. AC Resistance Comparison of New Interleaved-Foil Inductors and Conventional Single-
Layer Foil Wire-Coupled Inductors at 13.56 MHz Frequency.

5.3. High-Security Transmission

5.3.1. The Security of Electric Field Dissipation
Power transmission in CPT systems involves not only the electric field power at the
transmitter end flowing to the receiver end but also some of it flowing into the external
environment, resulting in power dissipation. It is likely that the electric field dissipating to
the outside environment will cause damage to human and electronic equipment within the
vicinity. According to the standard for safety levels concerning human exposure to electric
fields in IEEE C95.1-2019, the range of safety levels for the human body at high frequencies
is shown in Table 9 [111,112].

Table 9. The range of safety levels for the human body at high frequencies.

Frequency f (MHz) Electric Field Strength E (V/m)

0.1–1.34 614
1.34–30 823.8/ f (823.8 divided by f )
30–400 27.5

The following five options can be used to reduce electric field dissipation: low gap
charging mode, adding a shielding layer, optimizing the structure and shape of the
coupling pole plate itself, adjusting the coupling plate area, and utilizing segmented
coupling mechanisms.
The low gap power transferring mode means that among the coupling mechanism
placement modes discussed in Section 3, both modes of “equivalent capacitance mode
using the EV’s body structure” and “capacitive patterns are formed by attaching the
coupling mechanism to the body surface” are preferred with low transmission gaps, rather
than “equivalent capacitance mode using the large air gap” with high transmission gaps.
By reducing the power transfer gap, electric field dissipation is reduced. The advantage of
this option is that electric field dissipation can be reduced without any additional external
devices. However, in practice, not all EVs can be powered by these two modes and therefore
have high requirements for use conditions.
Adding a shielding layer means adding a metal shield to the power dissipation side of
the coupling mechanism. This shields the power dissipated to the external environment,
thus forming a six-plate structure. As far as shielding layer material is concerned, the re-
search team at AIUB compared the shielding performance of single metals and composite
metals for the same thickness, and the average value of electric field strength under the
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 36 of 43

shielding effect of a copper–zirconium–copper composite pole plate was only 49% of the
average value of electric field strength under the shielding effect of pure copper pole plates
at 1.5 mm thickness [113]. Adding a shielding layer option has the advantage of operating
conveniently and loosening the requirements for use conditions. However, metal plates
must be added as shielding layers, increasing the system’s cost and weight. Additionally,
shielding layers introduce the problem of parasitic capacitance that must be decoupled for
analysis, as shown in Figure 40.

Transmitter

Receiver

Shielding
pole plate
Coupling

layer
shielding layer

(a) (b)
Coupling
pole plate
P6
P3 C36 C34 C46 P4
C16 C26
C56 Shielding
C13 C14 C12 C23 C24 layers
C35 P1 C25 P2 C45
C15
P5
Coupling
pole plate
(c)
Figure 40. Structure of shield layer for coupling mechanism; (a) stereogram; (b) front view. (c) para-
sitic capacitance due to the addition of a shielding layer.

Adjusting the coupling plate area means reducing the area of the transmitter side of
the coupling plate, similar to the “strip-coupler long rail power transfer” in Section 3.3.2.
By reducing the area of the transmitter plate, the outer side of the receiver plate forms an
electric field shielding effect, thereby reducing the electric field dissipation [63]. The option
is easy to achieve and does not require any additional devices. Despite this, due to the
reduced pole plate coupling area, the equal coupling capacitance will be further reduced,
making it challenging to meet the requirements of a high-power scenario.
Optimizing the structure and shape of the coupling pole plate itself refers to the
reasonable design of the structure and shape of the coupling mechanism without additional
external devices to reduce the electric field dissipation. In the vertical coupling mechanism
itself, the outer pole plate creates a shielding effect; therefore, under the same conditions,
the electric field dissipation intensity of the system with this coupling mechanism is
generally lower than that of the parallel coupling mechanism. Based on the vertical
structure, the Chongqing University research team proposed a “groove” type pole plate.
In this type, the shape of the outer pole plate is designed as a “groove” to form a shield,
further reducing electric field dissipation [114]. The benefits of optimizing the structure
and shape of the coupling pole plate itself are that no external device is needed, and no
restrictions are placed on use conditions. However, the self-capacitance between the pole
plates of the vertical coupling mechanism is more significant, and the utilization rate of the
pole plates is lower.
Segmented coupling mechanisms divide the large coupling pole plate into several
small segmented pole plates. The segmented coupling mechanism is often used in the
dynamic power transfer scenario of EVs, where each small-area segmented pole plate is
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 37 of 43

powered by its own separate inverter power supply, and when the phase shift between
the pole plates is 180°, the edge fields between the pole plates cancel each other, thus
reducing the electric field dissipation. In 2015, researchers from the University of Colorado,
Boulder, used an eight-plate transmission system to transfer power at 6.78 MHz, resulting
in a five-fold reduction in the electric field at the edge of the pole plate compared to a
conventional two-plate design [69]. The advantage of this option is that no additional
shielding mechanism is required. No structural modifications are needed to the pole plate,
and the application scenario requirements are relaxed. Despite this, the segmented structure
requires a separate power supply for each coupled pole plate, significantly increasing the
cost of the overall system.
A comparison of the effects of different electric field dissipation reduction schemes is
shown in Figure 41.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 41. Comparison of the effectiveness of different electric field dissipation inhibition schemes;
(a) electric field dissipation without added electric field inhibition measures; (b) low gap power trans-
ferring solution; (c) adding a shielding layer; (d) adjusting the coupling plate area; (e) optimizing the
structure and shape of the coupling pole plate itself; (f) adoption of segmented coupling mechanisms.

5.3.2. The Security High-Voltage

Considering the effects of the resonance topology of the CPT system on voltage
boosting of the pole plates, voltages between the coupled plates of the CPT can reach
thousands of volts or even tens of thousands of volts. Two main threats to practical EV
applications are posed by high voltage. On the one hand, the high-voltage stress on the
pole plate and its resonance elements damage the surroundings and the characteristics
of the components. On the other hand, the high voltage generated by the pole plate and
resonance element will induct a high voltage on metal objects, such as EV shells.
The most common solution for high-voltage stress on the pole plates and components
is to use an insulating layer attached around the coupling pole plates and the high-voltage
resonance elements. The properties of common insulating materials are shown in Table 10.
For the problem of high-voltage stress of resonance elements, to avoid the electric
breakdown accident of resonance elements and to prolong the service life of resonance
elements, a voltage optimization method of passive resonant elements is proposed in the
literature [80]. Through an analysis of the relationship between the voltage stress of each
resonance element and the element parameters, passive resonance element parameters are
rationally configured to reduce the maximum voltage carried by the element. The compen-
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 38 of 43

sation capacitor voltage is reduced by 17%, and the resonant inductor voltage is reduced
by 15% at the same output voltage level.

Table 10. The properties of common insulating materials.

Breakdown Electric Field

Materials Volume Resistivity (ω-m)
Strength (MV/m)
High-density polyethylene 1014 26–28
Polyvinyl chloride 1012 –1015 15–25
Nylon 6 1012 –1015 22
Nylon 66 1012 15–19
Polytetrafluoroethylene 1016 25–40
Styrene butadiene rubber 1013 20
Polycarbonate 1014 17–22

For the problem of high voltage induced by the high-voltage pole plate at the metal
car shell, a voltage optimization method for the EV shell voltage was proposed in the
literature [115]. An analysis of the capacitance relationship between the roadway, the car
shell, and the coupling mechanism was simplified to a three-capacitance model. The rela-
tionship between the car shell’s frequency and safety voltage was analyzed to optimize the
resonance element parameters. Under the condition of maintaining 1.3 kW output power,
the shell voltage at the periphery of the coupling mechanism was reduced to 3.88 V.

6. Conclusions
This paper analyses the potential of CPT technology in the field of EV wireless power
transfer; presents a systematic review of the static and dynamic coupling mechanisms
of CPT systems applicable to EV wireless power transfer; comprehensively analyses the
advantages, disadvantages, and application scenarios of different coupling mechanism
placements; and presents a description of the structures and characteristics of a high-
performance resonance compensation network addressing the actual requirements of EV
wireless power transfer. It provides a reference for the selection of coupling mechanisms
and resonance compensation networks for the application of CPT system in the EV wireless
power transfer field. Overall, CPT has already achieved a series of research results, but
despite this, CPT technology still has many limitations when it comes to the actual applica-
tion of EV wireless power transfer. Adopting high-performance resonance compensation
networks, new components, and other technologies is crucial to achieving high-power
and high-efficiency transmission. System structure and parameter optimization should be
carried out to enhance overall system security and achieve high-security transmission so
that CPT technology can be more effectively applied to the wireless charging of EVs. This
will assist in laying a solid foundation for the promotion of EVs, contributing to the goal of
saving energy and reducing pollution.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.Z. and S.Y.; methodology, S.Y.; software, J.Z.; validation,
J.Z.; formal analysis, L.P.; investigation, S.Y.; resources, L.P.; data curation, Y.L.; writing—original
draft preparation, J.Z.; writing—review and editing, S.Y. and L.P.; visualization, Y.L.; supervision,
C.Z.; project administration, Y.L.; funding acquisition, J.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
under Project 52107002. And Civil Space Technology Advance Research Program of China. And
Heilongjiang Postdoctoral Fund to pursue scientific research LBH-Z20157.
Data Availability Statement: The data supporting the findings of this study are available by reason-
able request to cathy-ying.liu@connect.polyu.hk.
Conflicts of Interest: All co-authors have seen and agree with the contents of the manuscript and
there is no financial interest to report. We certify that the submission is original work and is not under
review at any other publication.
Electronics 2023, 12, 3534 39 of 43

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