CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Keeping grasses trimmed at lowest level possible in the environment remains the ideal
responsibility of home owners, recreational park keepers, golf course, highways, hotels, stadia
and other public and private establishment everywhere around the world. The task of clearing
grasses in a field or a compound may take a day or more depending on the size and topography of
the area to be cleared. The serenity and beauty of these environment may never be appreciated
when the grasses are overgrown. The activities for each venue may be hampered by the presence
of untrimmed grasses. For instance, a golf tournament may not hold in an area overgrown with
grasses. Similarly, a football competition may only be scheduled to a field that is well trimmed.
Hence the invention of the lawn mower for grass trimming operation becomes a welcome
development and since most of the machines are to be operated by man, human labor is also
employed.

The deployment of machines for mowing operation, is more effective and time management is
better compare to human manual labor which is time consuming and exhaustive on the laborer.
Lawn seed germinate between five and ten days and the growth rate is about two-third a
centimeter per week [1]. Generally, lawn is expected to be mowed once a week or once in two
weeks depending on the growth rate of the lawn [2]. Due to the growth rate of grasses on federal
roads, the national government budgeted 1billion naira for grass cutting in the Ministry of works
[3]. In the year 2023 a household spends about $50 to $100 per hour for a lawn mowing operation
in the United States of America [4].

The lawn around the home are of different variety or specie; the type of lawn found or the choice
of the lawn to be planted in a particular location determines the cost of mowing. While some
location has existing lawn, others does not have. So the home owner makes a choice of lawn for
the area. Lawn belongs to a family of plants referred to as poaceae and there are about 11,000
different species However for the purpose of design or yard identification; grasses are grouped
into two, which are warm season grasses and cool season grasses. The warm season grasses grow
well in warm climatic conditions while the cool season grasses grow well in cool climatic
condition. These grasses have been identified as they are commonly used in the United States.
There are about 10 types of lawn namely; Bent grass, Bermuda, Bluegrass, Centipede, Dichondra
grass, Fine fescue, Floratam, Ryegrass, Tall fescue, and Zoysia [5].

1
The grasses common in Nigeria includes; guinea grass, napier grass, elephant grass, spear grass,
needle grass, thread grass, carpet grass, crab grass, Bahamas grass, Devil’s grass, and also
Bermuda grass. These grasses are found in farmlands, highways, golf course, open field. Planting
of grasses may not be a popular culture in Nigeria because the climatic conditions favors the
growth of green field of grasses, especially from the middle belt across to the western, eastern and
southern (Niger Delta) part of Nigeria. Figure 1.1 shows the grass life cycle; grass germinates at
80C and maintains a green healthy presentation on the availability of water and nutrients but
during draught the water supply is limited that leads to discoloration and eventually dry off of the
grass.

Figure 1.1: Grass Life Cycle (https://www.barenbrug.biz)

In order to maintain a healthy and well-trimmed lawn, the lawn mower was first invented and
patented in the year 1830 by Edwin Budding outside Gloucestershire in England. The first lawn
mower was mainly designed to cut grass on sporting arena, cemeteries and recreational parks or
gardens [6]. The lawn mower which was made of wrought iron with machine size 19 inches wide
was designed in such a way that mobility for the machine’s cutting operation was achieved
through pushing it from behind with the handle as shown in figure 1.2.

2
Figure 1.2: First lawn mower 1830 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawn_mower)

The invention of the first lawn mower in 1830 was closely followed; about a decade later with
the animal push-pull mower in the year 1945 by John Deere, Case, Oliver, David Bradly and
McCormick Deering International mowers. The horse drawn sickle-bar mower came into popular
use shortly after the United States Civil war in 1860 [7]. The first gas powered Lawn mower was
produced by Ransomes of Ipswich in the year 1902; an English company which made the lawn
mower, whose source of power was internal combustion gas engine [8].

After the design and production of the first gas powered lawn mower in England, closely
followed were similar productions in the United states in the year 1919 and the innovations
continued till 1969 when robotics was introduced to the designs of lawn mower. By the year
2005, robotic lawn mowers had already represented the second largest class of domestic robots.
Currently lawn mowers are so design such that it can be controlled using phones, or remote
control. There is also diversification of designs base on power source. The designs started with
fossil fuel and now renewable such as solar energy and a combination with chemical energy of
battery cells.

The hand held lawn trimming machine is powered by petrol with rotary blades for grass clearing
operation as shown in figure 1.3. The materials for the design of the machine were sourced
locally. The design process also considered the mechanical properties of the material and flight
factors such as strength, durability, light weight, ease of coupling and decoupling. The device
comes with advantages which include the saving of both energy and time, compare with the
manual or push able lawn mowers, thereby providing greater and flexible mobility. From the
detailed design of the machine and performance test result shows that proper grass trimming is
achieved in a comparatively shorter time with 67 percent process efficiency [9].

3
Figure 1.3: Hand held lawn mower (https://www.ciampelli.com/brushcutters-fs-131pr232.php)

The Worx Landroid is an example of a mechatronic lawn mower, see figure 1.4. It is a pre-
programmable robotic mower that is flexible and allow easy customization of daily mowing
schedules with capacity to operate every day a week and giving the lawn a continuous trimmed
look on a routine basis as opposed to traditional mowers that take off substantial amounts of
grass on a less frequent basis. Among its many features, Landroid navigates narrow passages,
cuts with precision on slopes angling up to 20 degrees and does it all with zero emissions [10].

Figure 1.4: Worx Landroid lawn mower (https://lens.google.com)

4
The first heavier-than-air aerodyne to take off vertically was a four-rotor helicopter designed
by Louis Breguet as can be seen in figure 1.5. It was tested only in tethered flight and to an
altitude of a few feet. In 1908 it was reported as having flown 'several times', although details are
sparse [11].

Around 1907 Jacques and Louis Breguet, French brothers, built and tested Gyroplane No 1, a
quadcopter. They managed take-off, although the design proved to be very unstable and hence
impractical. In 1924 French engineer Étienne Oehmichen flew his quadcopter a distance of 360m
(1,181ft) setting a world record [12].

Figure 1.5: The early quadcopter with six blades (https://www.quora.com/Have-any-3-rotor-or-

more-helicopters-ever-been-made-even-prototype)

For small drones, quadcopters are cheaper and more durable than conventional helicopters due to
their mechanical simplicity [13]. Their smaller blades are also advantageous because they
possess less kinetic energy, reducing their ability to cause damage. For small-scale quadcopters,
this makes the vehicles safer for close interaction. It is also possible to fit quadcopters with
guards that enclose the rotors, further reducing the potential for damage [14].

5
 Figure 1.6: Modern quadcopter (https://5050cam.com)

The features of the lawn mower we are proposing is first of all air base, the quadcopter design
integrates a motor where blades for mowing operation will be fitted. This device is expected to
utilize the aerodynamics principles for lift, torque and thrust. The facility can be controlled using
a phone or remote control. The power source for the mechatronic device will be an energy
conversion from chemical energy to electrical and mechanical energy system.

Since the invention of the Lawn mower by Edwin Beard Budding of Stroud, Gloucester shire,
England in the year 1830, the machine has gone through various phase of modifications by
different individuals with the aim of ensuring improved service of the machine to users. Hence
my interest to research in this direction. There is scarcely an environment on planet earth without
the need for lawn mower to keep the environment neat by clearing the grasses routinely.

This research will provide further alternative for users to have their environment neatly tidy
effortlessly. This research covers areas of interest and by the completion of the work, knowledge
gained will appropriately provide the desired advantage needed to update academic and research
experience in the field of mechanical, automation and robotics engineering. It will also provide
the desired fun in keeping the environment in the right order and thus, adding more value to the
world of engineering. Carrying out studies or research on a self-propelling and maneuvering
grass cutting machine will at completion of the work eliminate many undesirable health and
economic factors associated with the ones available.

1.2 Background of Study

This is a Mechatronics research work that utilizes the application interdisciplinary fields of
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer, machine language and artificial
intelligence to design a machine that is capable of lawn mowing operation through phones or
remote control. Research or project scope is to achieve cutting of grasses on a football pitch and
similar environment. Maximum height of flight may not exceed 2 feet except to escape from
obstacle. The device is not to be operated under the rain. Drone like design that integrates a grass

6
 cutting function is the research focus. Data gathering, analysis, implementing the design,
simulations and test running and then documentation of reports.

1.3 Statement of Problem

Since the year 1830 when the first lawn mower was invented till now, there have been
observable increase in innovations to find a more economic, ecofriendly and stress-free mower.
So, much is expended from private to public budget locally and internationally, annually for
grass trimming that runs into billions of naira and other currencies. The most unfortunate part of
the situation is the health hazards the gardener that uses the various lawn mower is exposed to,
such as noise, standing or working under the sun all day while mowing the lawn.

1.4 Aim of Study

The aim of this project is to develop an Automated Self Lifting Lawn Mower

1.5 Research Objective

The following objectives will be considered, in other to achieve the aim of the study;
i. Determination of aerodynamic conditions for lift of the lawn mower.
ii. Determination of the balance for the device for lift and mowing operation
iii. Design of the machine components and functionality integration and controls
iv. Simulation of the model for optimal operation
v. Assembly of the model for the testing, environment and the peripheral factors.

1.6 Significance of Study

Since, Automated Self-Lifting Mower is obviously an engineering modification and

improvement work; It will however be more expensive than the conventional, manually operated
mower and the Automated Earth Moving Grass Cutting Machine Mower. However, the
advantages of this lawn mower are numerous compares to others. The automated self-lifting
lawn mower can work without involving human effort physically in the field or the work place
but can be control from a distance through Wifi, Bluetooth, or GPS. With this technology the
gardener will no longer be exposed to harsh weather conditions for lawn mowing but can control
the device from a convenient area.

1.7 Justification of the Research

Lawn mowers are the most effective machines for trimming of lawn currently and globally. To
maintain a beautiful well-trimmed and serene environment the lawn mower is needed. The
robotic lawn mowers are the product the everyone is going for currently; since you don’t need to
stand under the sun for grass clearing operation but can stay in a comfortable area and control the
process.

7
1.8 Scope of Research Project

The scope helps us to define clearly the various steps necessary for a successful research work.
These steps are not limited to the following: Material gathering such as literature collections, a
survey on practical components and software, a supervisor and a technical support team,
developing mathematical models, Engineering drawings, Modelling and simulation, Prototype,
Design and Fabrication, Test running, Evaluation and Reports. The research work is to be carried
out within the stipulated period allowable by the institution, although a minimum of four
semesters should be enough to conclude the research work.

The research idea is to combine the battery powered dc electric motor for grass cutting and
unmanned aerial vehicle for mobility. The design will consider the downward thrust force for the
grass cutting, computational fluid dynamics, the vibration and stability of the Automated self-
propelling mower.

8
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
Study shows that there are about 15 types of lawn mower [15], which includes; Ride-on mowers,
Lawn tractor, Zero-turn mower, Rear engine riding mower, Walk mower, Cylinder mowers,
Rotary mower, Push mower, Self-propelled mower, Hover mower, Power types, Manual powered
mower, Electric powered mower, Gas-powered mower, Batter-power mower, Rear wheel drive,
Front-wheel drive, all-wheel drive. In all the lawn mower types, it is only the hover mower that
has few similar features like the proposed Automated Self Lifting Mower.

Of all the 15 various lawn mowers above; lawn mowers are further categories into 3 categories
which depends on its power source and size of work area to be covered. Push mowers are only
viable for small lawns of up to about ⅓ or ½ an acre. 1 to 2-acre lawns likely require a gas,
electric, or battery-powered mower. Riding mowers like lawn tractors and zero-turn mowers are
best for large properties. Robotic lawn mowers are the most versatile for lawns of any size[16].

The global robotic lawn mower market is estimated to grow from $1.48 billion in 2021 to about
$4.04 billion in 2028 at a Compound Annual Growth Rate of 15.5% in forecast period, 2021 to
2028 period. [17]

Figure 2.1; Europe Robotic Lawn Mower Market Size

(https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/robotic-lawn-mower-market-106531)

9
 From this literature review it can be seen that robotic lawn mowers have advantage over others.
Hence statistics shows that there are Automated Earth Moving Grass Cutting Machine (Lawn
Mowers) readily available in different specifications while Automated Self Lifting Mower that
airlift itself up to about 2feet above the ground there about; hovering and carrying out the grass
cutting operation are areas yet to be developed. Considering the advantage of having a mower
that can fly a little above the ground while sustaining grass cutting process; there is need to
explore available resources to make it a reality.

The review of the work of A. O. Akinyemi etal [18] shows that they had worked on Solar
powered mower and others with similar research interest worked on mechanical mower, ac and
dc electric motor powered mower. Robotics or Automated self-propelled mowers are already
available in the market globally [19].

2.2 Lawn mower

A lawn mower is a machine used for cutting grass. It is a device that uses a pair of revolving
blades to mow the lawn. The lawn mower comes in different shapes and sizes depending on the
advantage the designer desires to achieve. There is hand-held lawn mower pushed from behind
the machine like a wheel barrow to enable mobility during cutting process as shown in figure 2.2.
A similar design is another hand-held lawn mower like a gardener holding a water hose and
directing the hose to water the flower; this lawn mower carries its power house, that is the engine
behind the arm of the operator while the hose like shaft incorporates the motor and blade which is
directed towards the grass for mowing operation as shown in figure 2.3. Modern designs of lawn
mowers are like sport cars, there are little automated vehicle which houses; a motor with blades.
They can be controlled through remotes or phones, as it moves the grass cutting operation is
achieved as shown in figure 2.4. The model of automated self-lifting lawn mower we are
proposing is like a drone integrated with a mowing motor and blade for the grass cutting of
operation, see figure 2.5.

Figure 2.2 Pushing Mower(https://g.co/kgs/8Tw49Vn)

10
Figure 2.3 Hand held mower (https://images.app.goo.gl/Hj2rsE8rFo2TYibSA)

Figure 2.4 Remote Controller Lawn Mower (https://images.app.goo.gl/v2EhgdYXwZSn9T2r6)

Figure 2.5 Quadcopter (https://kms.djicdn.com)

11
2.3 Components of a lawn mower
A lawn mowing equipment consists of interlinking components for optimal performance of the
machine. The parts of the lawn mower have varying functions, but are related in operation to
each other, including the features of the push lawn mower machine. Below are components of a
push lawn mower machine.

2.3.1 Fuel Tank

The fuel tank component functions as fuel storage that locates underneath.

2.3.2 Carburetor
This component is responsible for supplying air and fuel to the combustion chamber.

2.3.3 Air Filter

As the name suggests, this component filters out dirty air entering the combustion chamber.
This air filter is located at the front and attaches to the carburetor. This air filter usually
produces a sponge that is easy to clean.

2.3.4 Recoil Starter

The recoil starter is in the form of a rope that can pull to start the engine. This component plays
an essential role in creating the grass cutter machine.

2.3.5 Clutch
The clutch functions to disengage and engage the engine rotation to the application shaft.

2.3.6 Ignition System (Ignition Coil and Spark Plug)

The ignition coil functions to produce high-voltage electricity, which is then sent to the spark
plug to create a spark of flame.

2.3.7 Flywheel
The flywheel works as a balancer for the engine and a place for the magnet to attach. In
addition, the flywheel has a fan that functions as an engine cooler. Therefore, the flywheel plays
a significant role when the grass cutter machine turns on.

12
2.3.8Crankcase Engine
Combustion usually occurs on the crankcase component. This component contains spark plug
holes, valves, rocker arms, lifter arms, and camshafts.

2.3.9 Piston and Piston Ring

This component serves as a compression generator in the engine. It locates inside the
crankcase. The working system moves up and down, driven by other elements, namely the
engine crankshaft.

2.3.10Crankshaft and Connecting Rod

The crankshaft is the main shaft. This component transfers the rotation caused by the up-and-
down force of the piston and passes it on to the flywheel.

2.3.11Oil Seal
In a 4-stroke grass cutter machine, this oil seal is a barrier to prevent oil from leaking out of the
engine compartment.

2.3.12Clutch Housing
The clutch housing component functions as a cover and connector between the engine and the
application shaft of the grass cutter machine.

2.3.14Flexible Shaft
The function of the flexible shaft is to connect the engine rotation with the grass-cutting blade.
This component makes it easy to move in any direction as needed.

2.3.15Blade Housing
The blade housing functions as a base for the blade to rotate. It locates at the end of the shaft.

2.3.16 Grass-cutting Blade

The blade functions to cut the grass. There are two types of blades, namely steel plate and
nylon thread. Both types of knives are equally good when used. However, the nylon thread
type is usually used for cutting soft grass.

13
2.3.17 Fuel Valve
This component opens and closes the fuel flow from the fuel tank to the carburetor. The fuel
valve must be in the ON position when you are using the lawn mower machine. Conversely,
the fuel valve must be in the OFF position when you are not using it.

2.3.18 Brake Lever

This brake lever connects to the engine flywheel and functions as a safety device for operation.
The lawn mower machine will only start if this lever is positioned forward. So, ensure to place
this lever ahead when you are going to use the push lawn mower machine.

2.3.19 Cutting Height Adjustment Lever

This lever adjusts the cutting blade's height according to the user's preference. The actual
grass-cutting size will vary depending on the condition of the grass and soil.

2.3.20 Air Cleaner

The air cleaner filters dirty air to prevent it from obstructing the airflow to the carburetor, just
as the components of the backpack grass cutter machine do. However, the air filter can reduce
the machine's performance if it is dirty.

2.3.21 Grass Bag

The grass bag functions as a container for the grass cuttings. The gardeners are to empty the
grass bag before it reaches its capacity limit. The performance of the grass bag is better when it
fills up to capacity. These parts of the push lawn mower and backpack grass cutter machines
must be well maintained to always work optimally. The backpack grass cutter machine
supported by the engine and has a mechanical brake system for operator safety.

2.4 Designs of a lawn mower

For the functional production of various type of the lawn mower to achieve the grass cutting
operation, there are design calculations for every model. Let as consider design calculation for the
following;
i. Design of a manually operated lawn mower
ii. Design of a manual mobility solar powered lawn mower
iii. Design of solar powered robot lawn mower
iv. Design and Implementation of Autonomous Lawn Mower Robot Controller

14
2.4.1 Design of a manual mobility solar powered lawn mower

Figure 2.6; Manual Mobility Solar Powered Lawn Mower (https://www.researchgate.net/An-

exploded-view-of-the-solar-powered-lawnmower_fig1_341872510)

Design Analysis for manual mobility solar powered lawn mower

i. Solar Panel
Equations for the solar panel;
E = A x R x H x PR (1)
P
But 𝑅 =
A
Where A is area of the panel, R is efficiency of the solar panel, H is annual average solar radiation
on tilted panels and PR is performance ratio and p is power of the panel and A = area of panel,
therefore, equation 1 becomes E = p x H x PR

ii. Torque developed by the motor shaft and cutter

Torque developed by the cutter can be calculated using (equation 2)
T = WR (2)

15
where W is weight of the cutter, R is the distance from the center of the hub to the end of the
cutter and T represents Torque

iii. Power developed by the cutter

Computing the power developed by the blade by using (3), where P is power, T is
torque, ω is angular velocity and N is Speed transmitted by the motor
P=Tω (3)
But angular velocity
2 πN
ω=
60

iv. Centrifugal force developed by the cutter

The centrifugal force is the force produced by the cutter, considering the rotational speed of the
motor, and can be analyzed using (4)
Fc = m ω2 r (4)
where m is mass, ω is angular velocity and r is radius of the cutter

v. Bending moment of wheel shafts

Bending moment is the reaction induced on the shaft which causes the shaft to bend when an
external force is applied and it’s a measure of force and distance from the point of application of
the force. The bending moment of the wheel shaft can be calculated using (5).

M δb E
= = (5)
I y R

δb × I
Therefore M =
y
where M is moment, I is moment of inertia, δb is bending stress, E is young modulus R is radius
of curvature and y is distance of element from central axis.
4
πD F
But I = ∧δb=¿ , where D is diameter, F is force and A is area.
64 A

vi.Design calculation of the restraining spring

The restraining spring is incorporated in the design to aid in holding the wheel shaft in place upon
the adjustment of the wheel shaft to the various cutting heights of the design. Selection of the
spring was done after considering some factors like the maximum axial force exerted by the
wheel shafts on the spring, the maximum shear stress of the spring, etc.
Maximum force the spring can undergo without failing can
be calculated using (6).
4
Gd e
Fmax = Ke = 3 (6)
8NaD
where Fmax is maximum force the spring will undergo, G is shearing modulus of spring material,
D is mean diameter of the spring, d is spring wire diameter, Na is number of active coils of spring
and e is extension
The maximum shear stress of the spring can be calculated
with (7)

16
 8 WD F max
τmax = 3 (7)
πd
where W, represents wahl’s factor, D and d, are the mean coil diameter and wire diameter
respectively, Na represents the number of active coils in this spring and Fmax represents the axial
force.
4 C −1 0.615 D
But W ¿ +¿ , where C = spring index ( )
4C−4 C d

vii. Battery Capacity

The battery capacity is a measure of the charge stored by the battery and it is determined by the
mass of active material present in the battery. This can be calculated using (8), where A is
current , T is time to charge or discharge battery by half and C is battery capacity.
C = AT (8)

viii. Battery life is the amount of time the device runs before it needs to be charged and it can
be calculated with (9), where C represents battery capacity, p is power, I is current and V is
voltage.
C ×60 × P
Battery life = (9)
I×V

ix. Time of charge of battery

This is the time it takes to charge the battery. The battery charging time is usually dependent on
both the charging current and the battery capacity. For this design, the battery will be charged
from two sources; the solar panel source and the alternating current (A.C) plug-in.
Charging with solar energy source,
Battery capacity
battery charge time = (10)
cℎarging current

¿
x. Machine efficiency = Areaof grass mowed ¿ desired ℎeigℎt Total area of grass x 100
(11)

2.5 Quadcopter
Wikipedia defines quadcopter or quadrotor as a type of helicopter or multi-copter with four
rotors. An aircraft or a device flying without a human pilot; such a machine is referred to as an
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The quadrotor may be operated autonomously or by a human
operator through remote embedded computers and robotic control systems. The propellers or
rotors push air downwards, this gives rise to an opposite reaction known as thrust which acts
against gravity and pushes the quad-copter upwards [20].
The application of quadcopter is widely utilized in defense globally as part of national military
intelligence surveillance, and security information gathering. Quadcopter also called drones are
used in the agricultural sector by farmers to gather accurate and precise information on their
crops, such as health of plants, the growth rates, nutrient deficiencies, pest, and disease affecting

17
 the farm [21]. The device is employed in the media and entertainment industry; in photography
and filming of movies [22]. It is also used in the oil and gas industry for inspection of oil rigs,
pipelines, derricks, and other installations [23].
The courier company also engages the services of drones for delivery of parcels to customers.
Drones are also useful in survey, emergency response or distress call, disaster relief and
geographic information system. This device can go where humans may not go.
The quadcopter comes in various shapes and sizes but the frame determines the class, as there are
two classes of quadcopter; the fixed-wing and the rotary-wing [24]. The following are the
components responsible for the optimum functionality of the quadcopter; the frame, battery,
motors, propellers, remote controller, electronic speed controller, propeller guard, flight
controller, camera, radio transmitter and receiver, GPS module, and integrated remote ID.

2.6 Components of a quadcopter

The dynamic function of the quadcopter comprises of the following components; frame, battery,
propellers, sensors, flight controller, electronic speed controller, brushless motors, power
distribution panel, and so on.

2.6.1 Frame
The frame of a quadcopter is the housing or casement with provisions for four to six rotors and
all other components of the drone. Although the commonly available drone or quadcopter design
carries four rotors. There are provisions for all other components of the quadcopter.

Figure 2.7 Quadcopter Frame (https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/geprc-

moz7-long-range-7-frame-kit.jpg)

2.6.2 Main Body Part

This is the central part of the frame. The main body frame is the central hub from which booms
radiate like spokes on a wheel. It houses battery, main boards, processors avionics, cameras, and
sensors. Since the design of the drones are not provided for it to be waterproof, it is vital that the

18
 internal components of the main body are not expose to water or moist. The careful landing of
the machine is a design consideration, because a crash landing even though body parts are not
broken, other internal components of the drone may be affected, and shock could damage the
internal drone components in the main body.

2.6.3 Battery
Battery is a chemical source of power supply for the operation of the quadcopter. The chemical
energy is converted to electrical and mechanical energy in the process during operation of the
device. The lithium-polymer battery is always the preferred choice of power supply for the
machine as it is easily rechargeable on solar and other power source with excellent battery life
and durability. Lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries offer the best combination of energy density,
power density, and lifetime on the market. On usage, it’s a great idea to have a back-up battery,
proper charging and storage of battery enhances long lasting performance of the machine. It is a
good practice to ensure the battery does not overheat. All batteries are dangerous when
physically damaged so, we have to avoid using a damaged or compromised battery.

Figure 2.8; Quadcopter Battery

(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/3979b3fd908fbb12b31974edb6316b2e/
l/u/lumenier-nav-6000mah-6s-lithium-ion-batteryxt604.jpg)

2.6.4 Remote controller

Remote control is a system of controlling a machine or a vehicle from a distance by using radio
or electronic signals [25].

This is a handheld device equipped with joysticks for sending precise commands to the drone. It
is through the remote controller that the command to various direction of flight is initiated.

A remote control (RC) is a small, usually hand-held, electronic device for controlling another
device, such as a television, radio or audio/video recording device. Remote controls commonly
operates via infrared signals but sometimes by radio frequency signals. The remote control may
control a variety of functions such as volume, channel, track number and other functions.

19
 Modern remote control devices often have more controlling functions than are found on the
device itself, which may have only a few primary essential controls [26].

Most remote control of electronic appliances is done by infrared signals using an infrared diode
that emits an invisible beam of light, typically a 940 nanometer wavelength LED. Multichannel
remote controls use sophisticated technology to modulate carrier signals, demodulate the
received signals, and use a variety of frequency filters to separate signals for various remote
control functions. However, these infrared signals need to be in line of sight to operate the
device, and may be reflected by mirrors as would any other light source.

Some remote control is done by radio frequency signals. These do not require line of sight to the
device being controlled. They can be focused in one direction, or be multidirectional. Radio
frequency remote control is widely used in such applications as garage door openers, automatic
barrier control, burglar alarms and wireless home alarm systems.

Figure 2.9; Quadcopter Remote Controller

(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/fa4da5475405b0da777dc0f4b9d16483/
d/j/dji-fpv-remote-controller1000x1000_1.png)

2.6.5 Brushless Motors

Practically most recent quadcopter uses a brushless electric “outrunner” type of motor. The
brushless motors are more efficient, reliable, and quiet compare to brushed motors. Motor design
is essential as more efficient motors save battery life and provide the quadcopter with more
flying or working time which is the desired design focus. There are developed and patented a
new curved magnet which fits perfectly around the motor allowing the motor to run more
efficiently by DJI. Motors should be examined regularly to ensure they are clean and free from
dust. The condition of the quadcopter can be easily detected from the sounds of the quadcopter

20
 when it is on, since most of the quadcopter sound comes from the motors. Motor mount
sometimes is built into combination fittings with landing struts or can be part of the UAV frame.

Figure 2.10; Quadcopter Motor

(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/fa4da5475405b0da777dc0f4b9d16483/
l/u/lumenier-zip-v2-3115-cinematic-motor-900kv-main.jpg)

2.6.6 Propellers

Propeller produces lift. In Newton's Law of Lifts and deflection of the flow, lifts are generated
due to air pressure and compressive forces from the wing area, that the pressure of the wing
area does not produce a pure force, but a pressure difference is needed to produce a lift.

A device consisting of a set of two or more twisted, airfoil-shaped blades mounted around a shaft
and spun to provide propulsion of a vehicle through water or air, or to cause fluid flow, as in a
pump [27]. The drone propeller components include; adapters, reducers, lock nuts and other
accessories.

Drone Propellers are a key component that keeps your multirotor in the air, and they have a
direct impact on how your drone flies. Taking time to choose the right drone propeller for your
multirotor, and how you want to fly, will allow you to get the best out of your machine.

Standard propellers of the quadcopter are back propellers and front propellers, although drones
look more or less the same from any angle, there is a front and back. The “tractor” propeller are
the propellers at the front of the quadcopter. These propellers pull the quadcopter through the air
like a tractor. Most drone propellers are made of plastic and the better quality made of carbon
fiber. Better propellers design gives a better flying experience and longer time of flight. There is
also some big innovation towards low noise UAV propellers. It is a good practice to always
inspect the propellers before flying or working with the quadcopter and having an extra set of
propellers in case of eventual damage. Flying with a damaged or bent propeller must be avoided.

21
 Apart from the tractor propellers we have the pusher propeller are at the back and push the UAV
forward hence the name “Pusher”. These counter clock rotating propellers exactly cancel out
motor torques during stationary level lift. Opposite pitch gives downdraft. Again, can be made of
plastic with the better pusher propellers made of carbon fiber. The propellers may also be fitted
with guards.

Figure 2.11; Quadcopter Propellers(Propellerhttps://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/

cache/3979b3fd908fbb12b31974edb6316b2e/l/u/lumenier-gate-breaker-propeller-transparent-
black.jpg)

2.6.7 Antenna
Depending on the receiver, it may be a loose wire whip or helical “rubber ducky” type. This is
easy to upgrade. Circularly polarized cloverleaf antenna gives you further video signal distance
and improves the video stability. A very good antenna stops the problem of the multi-path effect
and also blind angle.

Figure 2.12; Quadcopter Antenna

22
 (https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/fa4da5475405b0da777dc0f4b9d16483/t/
r/truerc_blaze_5.8ghz_antenna_6_.jpg)

2.6.8 Control Receiver Transmitter

These wireless communication devices bridge the connection between the remote control and the
quadcopter. The minimum number of channels needed to control a quad is 4, but 5 is usually
recommended. There are many manufacturers of receivers on the market available for building
drones.

Figure 2.13; Quadcopter Control Receiver Transmitter

(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/fa4da5475405b0da777dc0f4b9d16483/
e/z/ezgif-5-fe825f6b09a2.jpg)

2.6.9 Power Distribution Panel

As the name implies is a board which allows transferring the power from the battery to ESCs /
Motors and generate power supply for the autopilot and other peripherals with different
voltage levels. Also, PDB provides the functionality for battery voltage / current
measurements [28].

Figure 2.14; Quadcopter Power Distribution Panel

(https://www.getfpv.com/media/catalog/category/Power-Distribution-Boards.jpg)

23
2.6.10 Boom
Shorter booms increase maneuverability, while longer booms increase stability. Booms must
be tough to hold up in a crash while interfering with prop downdraft as little as possible. In
many drones the boom is part of the main body. Other drone have a definite boom as a
separate part.

2.6.11 Arm Bracer

Quadcopter Arm Bracers provide extra structural support to the quadcopter. It adequately help
in reducing the risk of arm damage and are easy to couple and decouple.

Figure 2.15; Quadcopter Arm Bracers

(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/fa4da5475405b0da777dc0f4b9d16483/
d/j/dji-fpv-drone-arm-bracersmain1000x1000.jpg)

2.6.12 Landing Gears

Drones which need high ground clearance may adopt helicopter-style skids mounted directly to
the body, while other drones which have no hanging payload may omit landing gear altogether.
Many fixed wing drones which cover large distances such as the Sense-fly eBee, Trimble UX5
or the 3DR Aero-M don’t have landing gear and land perfectly fine on their belly. Most drone
has a fixed landing gear. However, the best drones will have retractable landing gear giving a full
360- degree view. With retractable landing gear, keep it clean and free from dust and dirt. In that
way the landing gear doesn’t seize up.

24
 Figure 2.16; Quadcopter Landing Gears
(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/fa4da5475405b0da777dc0f4b9d16483/
l/u/lumenier-qav-pro-lifter-cinequads-edition---extended-landing-gear.jpg)

2.6.13 Battery Monitor

Provides in-flight power level monitoring to flight controller. The battery is critical to operating
the quadcopter safely. When quadcopter runs out of battery then it will either make an
emergency landing or will crash.

2.6.14 Gimbal
The drone gimbal is the pivoting mount that rotates about the x, y, and z axes to provide
stabilization and pointing of cameras or other sensors. A device for keeping an instrument such
as a compass or chronometer horizontal in a moving vessel or aircraft, typically consisting of
rings pivoted at right angles [29]. A gimbal is a piece of film equipment that helps make filming
and transitions smoother. Gimbals are a type of camera stabilizer that keeps the camera and
filming stable, even on bumpy or shaky surfaces or when the videographer has an unsteady hand
[30].

25
 Figure 2.17; Quadcopter Gimbal
(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/
3979b3fd908fbb12b31974edb6316b2e/m/7/m7r.jpg)

2.6.15 Gimbal Motor

A gimbal motor is a 3-phase brushless motor whose stator is wound with many turns, and as such
exhibits much larger resistance and inductance compared to the high-current brushless motors
used to provide lift to drones, rc planes etc [31]. Brushless DC motors can be used for direct
drive angular positioning, too, which requires specially-wound coils and dedicated control
circuitry that have only recently become commercially available.

Figure 2.18; Quadcopter Gimbal Motor

(https://www.getfpv.com/media/catalog/category/gimbal-motors.jpg)

2.6.16 Gimbal Controller

Allows control of direct-drive brushless gimbal motors as if they were standard hobby servos.
As a controller its primary function is to ensure the gimbal remains stabilized so that you can
record silky smooth video. As a secondary function it allows you to position the gimbal remotely
thanks to its RC input support [32]. Gimbals are powerful tools that connect to your smartphone
to give you silky-smooth footage no matter how you move your camera. It's a little like a mech
suit for your camera that makes it invincible to unwanted shakes and vibration and elevates your
smartphone footage to cinematic quality [33].

26
 Figure 2.19; Quadcopter Gimbal Controller
(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/fa4da5475405b0da777dc0f4b9d16483/
h/o/hof-rs3-gimbal-control-link-module-_crossfire-micro-rx__1.jpg)

2.6.17 GPS Module

It's the navigator, providing location data and aiding in navigation.
GPS stands for Global Positioning System. It is an American standard which provides location
and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Often combines GPS receiver and
magnetometer to provide latitude, longitude, elevation, and compass heading from a single
device. GPS is an important requirement for waypoint navigation and many other autonomous
flight modes. Without GPS drones would have very limited uses. Along with FPV, drones can
navigate long distances and be used for exiting applications such as lidar and photogrammetry.
Note: Some of the latest drones have added Glonass, which is the Russian equivalent of GPS.
This means the drone is almost guaranteed to find many satellites to get its positioning from.
With both systems the quadcopter can fly more accurately and also can fly safer without losing
satellite connection. Most drones allow programing in a failsafe home point. This allows the
drone to fly back to a point if it loses connection to the remote controller. Most drones have a
minimum requirement of satellites before the home point can be set.

27
 Figure 2.20; Quadcopter GPS Module
(https://cdnv2.getfpv.com/media/catalog/product/cache/3979b3fd908fbb12b31974edb6316b2e/
h/g/hglrc-m100-5883-gps-module.jpg)

2.6.18 Electronic Speed Controller

Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs): These are like the drone's throttle managers, hidden
beneath the frame, responsible for regulating motor speed and direction. The ESC connects the
flight controller and the motor. The ESC takes the signal from the flight controller and power
from the battery to make the brushless motor spin. Electronic Speed Controllers are an essential
component of modern quadcopters (and all multirotor) which offer high power, high frequency,
high resolution 3- phase AC power to the motors in an extremely compact miniature package. An
electronic speed controller or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an electric
motor’s speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake. It converts DC battery
power into 3-phase AC for driving brushless motors. The latest ESC innovation was on the DJI
Inspire 1 which uses new sinusoidal drive ESC which replace the squarer wave drive of
traditional ESCs. The Inspire 1 goes further by using closed loop torque control and distinct
functional redundancy which adds extra efficiency and reliability to the motors. The ESC is
inside the main frame of the drone and most drone owners won’t need to do anything with these.
However, companies such as DJI, 3DR and Parrot develop drones which can be customized.
What allows these drones to be customized is a Special Development Kit (SDK). With the SDK,
then you could reprogram the electronic speed controllers and many other drone components.

28
 Figure 2.21; Quadcopter Electronic Speed Controller
(https://www.getfpv.com/media/catalog/category/Electronic-Speed-Controllers-ESC.jpg)

2.6.19 Flight Controller

The flight controller is the brain of the quadcopter. It processes data from various sensors and
user input to stabilize the quadcopter and execute flight commands. The Flight Controller is the
heart of a drone and controls most onboard electrical components with the assistance of a
microprocessor and an array of sensors [34]. Modern flight controllers often include
accelerometers, gyroscopes, barometers, and other sensors to provide stability and position
control. interprets input from receiver, GPS module, battery monitor, IMU and other onboard
sensors regulates motor speeds, via ESCs, to provide steering, as well as triggering cameras or
other payloads. It controls autopilot, waypoints, follow me, failsafe and many other autonomous
functions. It’s central to the whole functioning of the UAV.

Figure 2.22; Quadcopter Flight Controller

(https://www.getfpv.com/media/catalog/category/Flight-Controllers.jpg )

29
2.6.20 Camera
The camera is the sight sensor of the quadcopter. Drones equipped with computer vision sensors,
such as stereo cameras or depth cameras, can analyze their surroundings and detect obstacles
using advanced image processing techniques. This technology is valuable for complex flight
scenarios and autonomous missions. The following are the common camera sensors that enable
the quadcopter carries out its expected designed operations [35]. First-person view (FPV), also
known as remote-person view (RPV), or video piloting, is a method used to control a radio-
controlled vehicle from the driver or pilot's viewpoint. Most commonly it is used to pilot a radio-
controlled aircraft or other type of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) such as a military drone [36 ].
FPV Equipment is at the core of an FPV Drone system. FPV Equipment usually consists of an
FPV Camera, a Video Transmitter plus Antenna, and a Video Receiver plus Antenna connected
to either an FPV Monitor or FPV Goggles. With recent technological advancements, FPV
Equipment now features a HD video feed from the Drone to the Goggles or Monitor

Figure 2.23; Quadcopter Camera

(https://www.getfpv.com/media/catalog/category/FPV-Cameras-and-Accessories-2.jpg)

i.CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) Sensors: CMOS sensors are widely used

in consumer and professional drones due to their low power consumption and cost-effectiveness.
They offer excellent image quality, improved dynamic range, and faster readout speeds, enabling
drones to capture sharp and vibrant visuals even in challenging lighting conditions.

ii. CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) Sensors: Although less common nowadays, CCD sensors still
find their application in specialized drone cameras. They excel at capturing high-quality images
with low noise levels, making them suitable for professional aerial photography and surveillance
tasks.

iii. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) Sensors: LiDAR sensors emit laser pulses and
measure the time it takes for the light to bounce back after hitting an object. They provide precise
3D mapping and distance measurements, enabling drones to perform tasks like terrain mapping,
forestry analysis, and construction site inspections.

30
 iv. Thermal Imaging Sensors: Thermal cameras detect heat signatures emitted by objects,
allowing drones to capture images based on temperature differences. This technology is
invaluable for search and rescue operations, monitoring crop health, and identifying energy
inefficiencies in buildings.

v. GPS (Global Positioning System): GPS is a fundamental sensor in drones that provides
accurate positioning data, helping drones navigate and maintain stable flight paths. This
technology is essential for autonomous flight, surveying, and mapping applications.

vi. IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit): IMUs combine accelerometers, gyroscopes, and
magnetometers to provide real-time information about the drone's orientation and movement.
These sensors enhance flight stability, especially in challenging weather conditions or when GPS
signals are weak.

vii. Ultrasonic Sensors: Ultrasonic sensors use sound waves to detect obstacles in the drone's
vicinity, enabling it to avoid collisions during flight. These sensors are particularly useful for
indoor navigation and close-quarter maneuvers.

viii. Computer Vision Sensors: Drones equipped with computer vision sensors, such as stereo
cameras or depth cameras, can analyze their surroundings and detect obstacles using advanced
image processing techniques. This technology is valuable for complex flight scenarios and
autonomous missions.

2.6.21 Integrated remote ID

A Standard Remote ID drone has a built-in Remote ID broadcast. ID; simply means
identification while remote has to do with location and control.
Remote ID is often referred to as a “digital license plate” for drones. It provides identification of
drones in flight as well as the location of their ground control stations, providing crucial
information to ensure public safety [37]. Remote ID will provide information about drones in
flight, such as the identity, location, and altitude of the drone and its control station. Remote ID
is the ability of a drone in flight to provide identification and location information that can be
received by other parties [38].

Figure 2.24; Quadcopter Integrated Remote ID

(https://www.getfpv.com/flite-test-ft-ez-id-remote-id-module.htm)

31
2.6.22 LED Lighting
Having drone lighting allows you to see your drone in dark places, illuminating the night sky,
and it’s just plain cool! Our quad LED lights are bright and available in
.different models and colors. We also have LED distribution boards, controllers, and more to
light up your drone today

Figure 2.25; Quadcopter LED Lighting

(https://www.getfpv.com/electronics/led-lighting.html)

2.7 Design of a quadcopter

The quadcopter is an helicopter with 4 rotors that principally have 2 spinning directions; the
clockwise and the anti-clockwise, which makes the total angular momentum to be equal to zero.
This allows the quadcopter to hover in place.

The free body diagram of a quadcopter as shown in figure 2.26 consists of a brushless motor,
which is a type of motor that has a permanent magnet construction (rotor) and a wire-bound
polar stator. Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy by the influence of magnetic
force between the permanent magnet and a polar stator. The number of magnetic poles in the
rotor also affects the step size and torque ripple of the motor. Equation 12 is the model equation
for the various movement of the quadcopter.

32
Figure 2.26; Quadcopter Free Body

Figure 2: Shows Mathematical Components for flight dynamics and maneuvering movement of
the self-lifting lawn mower.
There are about six (6) movement possible with the aerial unmanned vehicle;
i. Up/down
ii. Left/right
iii. Front/back
iv. Roll
v. Pitch
vi. Yaw

The various component of force and direction of application enable us to determine, the torque,
thrust, acceleration, velocity etc, needed as necessary inputs to airlift the vehicle and to sustain
the stability during the grass cutting operation.

The mathematical model is an application of Euler's equation and Laplace transform. The design
calculations are carried out by using the quad-copter dynamic modelling and simulation in
MATLAB and Simulink software.

(12)

Cb/i means the conversion of the body frame value to the inertial frame value. ϕ (phi), θ (theta),
ψ (psi) is a Euler Angle which is the rotation angle formed by a quadcopter when flying against
the x, y, and z-axes.

33
2.8 Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller
Proportional Integrative Derivative (PID) is a control system to determine the precision of an
instrumentation system with the characteristics of feedback on the system. This PID control
component consists of three types, namely Proportional, Integrative, and Derivative [39,40]. In a
control system, there are several types of control actions, including proportional control, integral
control, and derivative control. Each of these control actions has certain advantages, where the
proportional control action has the advantage of rapid rise time, integral control action has the
advantage of minimizing errors, and the derivative control action has the advantage of
minimizing errors or reducing overshot/undershot. For this reason, in order to produce output
with fast rise time and a small error, we can combine these three control actions into the PID
control as in Figure

Figure 2.27 PID Control Block Diagram

The output value of the PID control is formulated as:

t
d
u(t) = k pe(t) + k i ∫ e ( t ) dt +k d e(t) (13)
0 dt

Equation (13) describes the output value u(t), which is the sum of proportional gain (Kp),
integral
gain (Ki), and derivative gain (Kd), each of which is changed by error (e) in a specific interval
(t).

34
2.9 Analysis of the Quadcopter Components
This analysis will cover the moment of inertia for the brushless motors, Electronic Speed
Controller, Arm, and Middle frame [41].

35
 CHAPTER THREE

Materials and Methods

3.1 Materials
This chapter covers the materials and methods applied to achieve the set goals for the research
work. The materials to accomplish the construction of the automated self-lifting lawn mower are
as follows and these materials are also shown in Table1.

Some of the main specifications for the design of Automated Self Lifting Mower include but not
limited to the following [42,43&44];

I. Size of the Automated Self Lifting Mower: Portable

II. Energy source: Battery Powered DC Electric Motor (12 -40volts)

III. Blade: Low lift

IV. Brush less drone motors

V. Set of propellers and brush less motors

VI. Antenna

VII. Control Receiver

VIII. FPV Transmitter

IX. Power Distribution Panel

X. Electronic Speed Controller

XI. FPV Camera

XII. Flight Controller

XIII. Automation accessories

36
Figure 3.1 represent the design of the Automated Self Lifting Mower. This design was done
using Autodesk inventor 2021, for compatibility for SIMMECHANICS. The orientation for
stability during cutting operation is where we are now. We noticed the yaw moment of the
quadcopter when the cutter is centralized. So we have the option of taking the mower to the sides
of the quadcopter with varying the distance from it and see the performance at simulation.

Figure 3.1 Automated Self Lifting Lawn Mower

37
Figure 3.2 represents the quadcopter design using SIMMECHANICS, with which
we have been able to put the various components together for simulation. The four
rotors for the lift of the quadcopter, the various movement and hovering. The PID
is to provide stability on the go.

Figure 3.2; The Quadcopter SIMMECHANICS Presentation

38
Table 1; Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation
Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME)

Project: Automated Self Lifting Mower

Item Description Specifications Qty Amount

Grass Cutting Components

1. Battery Powered DC Model name: 1 65,000

Electric Motor
(12 -40volts) SM57BL(S)55

2. Nylon Grass Cutter Trimmer Head Diameter: 26mm Shaft 1 41,000

Head
Head Size: 26mm
Mounting Type: Screw

Self Lifting Components

3. Brush less drone motors Voltage: 12V 4 92,000

Motor Diameter: 12mm

Torque: 0.20Nm

Speed: 2500 RPM

4. Set of propellers Material: Carbon fibre 4 15,000

Weight: 0.02kg

Size: 119.38x66.04 mm

5. Antenna Sma Wifi Antenna Aerial 2.4ghz 4 10,000

18dbi W/Rp-sma Male connector For
Wireless Router Wifi Adapter Gsm

39
 Gps

6. Control Receiver APM 2.8 Flight Controller With 1 46,000

Build-In GPS, Speed At Rated Load:
8.4 in/min, 115 V AC

7. FPV Transmitter/Camera LST-S2 FPV AIO Transmitter 1 23,000

8. Power Distribution Board NeutronRC 1 25,000

9. Electronic Speed Controller Arduino 40A BLDC Brushless 1 10,000

10. Battery Lithium-Ion Polymer (LiPo)10,000 1 250,000

mAh / 222 Wh

11. Flight Controller Ublox NEO-6M GPS Modules 10,000

12. Frame Plastic Q550 Quadcopter Frame 1 10,000

13. Connectors 2rolls 5,000

14. Screws 1pk 2,000

Automation Design Software

15. Matlab

16. Simulink

17. Flight Surv app Free Free

18. Eagle Map

19. Python

20. Velocidrone 1 28,000

21. Simscale

22. ANSYS and OpenFOAM

40
 Total 622,000

3.2 Methods
In order to achieve the research objectives, the block diagram below, shows the methods
from creating the plant model to implementation. As part of creating the model, Autodesk
inventor is used because of the SIMMECHANICS link, to aid easy export to MATLAB.
These are the design environment we are familiar to get the work done. There is other
software like SolidWorks and Python to achieve the same purpose or results. We are using
proportional integral derivative to control the device and provide balance or stability during
the mowing operation. After the designs have been concluded, simulation is done to see if the
physical prototype will work as expected, the simulation performance will the true picture of
the design so far, if there will be need for adjustment. when the expected result is achieved,
then design implementation is the next step to take.

CHAPTER FOUR
41
 Results and Discussion

4.1 Discussions

Considering the labor of handling a mower for grass cutting and the need to make the work easy
by using a hand held remote controlled or an android phone to control the cutting operation.
Through the reality of this project the task to work for hours under varying weather conditions
with mowers would have been eliminated. Engineering research and innovation provides
manufacturing companies the possibilities of migrating from one phase of technology to the
other. It is a current trend that engineering machines or devices are produced with automation
and robotics features. It makes life easier though it may be expensive initially.

REFERENCE

42
1. https://www.gardenersworld.com, How long does grass seed take to grow? BBC Gardeners’
World Magazine. Retrieved December 2023.
2. https://www.ecogreen.ca/ How often should I mow my grass? Retrieved December 2023.
3. https://dailytrust.com/budget-works Ministry to spend 1bn naira on grass cutting. Retrieved
December 2023
4. https://insights.workwave.com/ how much is lawn care per month. Retrieved December 2023
5. https://www.moving.com/ 10 types of grass for your lawn. Retrieved December 2023
6. https://whirltronics.com/ lawn mowers a brief history and surprising facts Retrieved
December 2023.
7. https://smallfarmersjournal.com/ a short history of the horse drawn mower. Retrieved;
December 2023.
8. https://www.briggsandstratton.com/ history of the lawn mower. Retrieved; December 2023.
9. https://www.academia.edu/31659934/ Design of a Hand Held Grass Mower. Retrieved;
December 2023
10. https://electrek.co/ green deals worx landroid m-cordless robotic lawn mower 750-reg-1000-
more/ Retrieved; December 2023
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadcopter Retrieved; December 2023
12. https://www.krossblade.com/ history of quadcopters and multi-rotors. Retrieved; December
2023
13. Young, Warren R. (1982). The Helicopters. Chicago: Time-Life Books. .
14. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadcopter
15. www.trees.com/gardening-and-landscaping/types-of-lawn-mowers Retrieved; August, 2023.
16. https://blog.ecoflow.com/us/types-of-lawn-mowers
17. https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/robotic-lawn-mower-market-106531
18. Adubika O. A., Hamzat F. A. And Adebayo S. D. Design and Fabrication of a Solar
Operated Lawnmower International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 IJISRT20OCT179 www.ijisrt.com 1161; 2020.
19. https://www.pcmag.com/picks/the-best-robot-lawn-mowers Retrieved; August, 2023.
20. https://devopedia.org/quadcopter
21. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/drone-technology-nigerian-agriculture-shifting

43
22. https://youthtimemag.com/drones-creating-enhanced-aerial-panoramas-in-the-media-and-
entertainment-industry
23. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-essential-applications-drone-inspections-oil-gas-industry-
shore.
24. https://www.holystone.com/Article/detail/id/2985.html
25. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/remote-control
26. https://www.techopedia.com/definition/17269/remote-control-rc
27. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/propeller
28. https://ardupilot.org/copter/docs/common-smartap-pdb.html
29. https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en
30. https://glidegear.net/blogs/news/understanding-how-a-3-axis-gimbal-works
31. https://tinymovr.readthedocs.io/en/latest/hardware/gimbal.html
32. https://www.flyingtech.co.uk/category/gimbal-controller
33. https://www.insta360.com/blog/tips/what-is-a-gimbal.html
34. https://www.getfpv.com/electronics.html
35. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/types-sensors-cameras-drone-anatomy-dronelabtech
36. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-person_view_(radio_control)
37. https://auterion.com/remote-id
38. https://www.faa.gov/uas/getting_started/remote_id
39. A. S. Wibowo and E. Susanto, “Performance Improvement of Water Temperature Control
using Anti-windup Proportional Integral Derivative,” Lontar Komputer, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 81-
94, Aug. 2018.
40. K. A. Tehrani and A. Mpanda, “PID Control Theory,” in Introduction to PID Controllers -
Theory, Tuning, and Application to Frontier Areas, 2015.
41. Design of Autonomous Quadcopter Using Orientation Sensor with Variations in Load
Fulcrum Point Ratna Aisuwaryaa1, Fitra Marta Yonasa, Dodon Yendria Computer
Engineering, Faculty of Information Technology, Andalas University, Kampus Unand Limau
Manis, Padang, Indonesia.
42. https://cfdflowengineering.com/working-principle-and-components-of-drone/ Retrived;
August 2023.
43. https://upgradedhome.com/types-of-lawnmower-blades/ Retrieved; August, 2023.

44
44. Okafor, Basil (2013) Simple Design of Self-Powered Lawn Mower .

45