Chapter Goals + Explore the organization and the function of the circulatory system * Describe how the circulatory system interacts with other boc systems * Learn about the role of the respiratory system in the human body Peete as ue ead parenTransport and Cerys YOU often see a stethoscope around a doctor's neck. This instrument is mostly used to listen to the sounds of a patient’ heart and lungs. Heart and lung) conditions that affect people at different ageshave always been aconcernto scientists and physicians, Inthelpast, physicians/used to place their ear direetly on a patient's chest to listen to the internal sounds of the heart and lungs and diagnose a | patient’s condition, A French physician named René Laennec worked {0 refine this procedure. In 1816, he rolled a few sheets of thick paper into a tube and placed one open end against the patient’s chest and the other end next to his ear. Later, he made a more during typical medical checkups sen ihe fist stethoscope was designed by René Loennec. Overtime, the stethoscope became easier fo handle ‘8 if changed from a wooden tube fo {@ flexible metal and rubber instrument. durable instrument out of wood and called ita stethoscope, which is now widely usedae The Cardiovascular mS) | Key Terms atherosclerosis e blood pressure epulse aorta «capillaries ‘veins ieee ae Think about a large city; how does water reach all the houses and buildings in the city? Aiter freshwater is collected from its source, it is pumped through a network of pipes and tubes to the difierent parts of the city. Similarly, the human body has a pump connected to a network of vessels that communicate between all the systems involved in supporting lite The Heart Gerring Bp The circulatory system is the body's transport network. ILis made up of -the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular 1. Describe the system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and biood. Blood cannot structure of the heart | move on its own through the body. Its pumped into blood vessels by the and relate itto its | heart. The blood carries nutrients and oxygen to the body's cells. It also function, carries waste products, such as carbon dioxide, away-fram these cells, Lett attium Right atrium Valves Valves Lett ventricle Right ventricle Septum Figure 1 the | Structure of the Heart The heart is a muscular organ that pumps eerste | blood throughout the body. It is located in the chest cavity. ody f Solvers esentia Rottenisané oxygen | The heart is divided into a right side and a left side. These two sides are ‘and collects waste separated from each other by a wall of tissue called the septum. Each side. prevetg Ine heer = | of the heart has an upper and a lower chamber. The upper chamber is the mein organ otihe | cordiowasculer system, called an atrium and the lower chamber is called a ven 58 | Humor soyTrends ‘h Science The thythmic contraction of cardiac muscle is controlled by a group of cells in the heart called pacemaker cells. These cells create electrical impulses that begin a chain of contractions of the different heart chambers. These cells are under the control of the autonomic nervous Asttical system, which instructs them to regulate the rate of pacemaker heart beats. For example, during exercise body cells use more oxygen, and the oxygen level in the blood decreases. The autonomic nervous system senses this decrease and instructs the pacemaker cells to generate more impulses, which makes the heart chambers contract faster, resulting in a higher heart rate, Pacemaker cells can be damaged after a disease or an accident; this results in an irregular heartbeat. Doctors and engineers tried to develop a battery operated pacemaker to help people with damaged pacemaker cells. In 1958, they had the first successful artificial pacemaker implantation. This device is implanted beneath the skin and connected to the heart through electrical wires. The artificial pacemaker emits electrical impulses that travel through the wires to reach the cardiac muscle and cause ito contract at the right pace. Wires ‘© What is the function of pacemaker cells? + What device can help people with damaged pacemaker cells? Blood Vessels, Heart Rate, and Blood Pressure Goring Point Blood Vessels Blood is carried by blood vessels to and from the heart, and throughout the body. Blood vessels in the human body include 2. Wentiy the types | arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. 0f blood vessels and =| the tinction e cach Checkpoint What are the types of blood vessels in the human body? and blood pressure ‘tetioles Capillaries Capilries allow the movement of blood from arteries to veins. Artery Their single-celled thin Arteries have thick walls allow substances walls that consist of fo move out of or into three cell layers. They the blood. have a narrow cavity. Vein Veins have three cell layers in their walls. They have much thinner walls and wider cavilies than arteries. Veins have volves that restrict the backward flow of blood. Faure 4 The network of blood vessels found in ne human body 60 | Hunan Boy‘The atria receive blood that comes into the heart and the ventricles pump | blood out of the heart. The human heart has four valves that allow blood to flow in onlyonedifection. Two of the valves prevent backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria. The other two valves prevent backflow of-blood {rom blaad vessels into the ventricles. Cheekpoint What are the four chambers of the human heart? Function of the Heart Each time the heart beats, it pumps blood | ¢ through the blood vessels, The heart beats continuously, resting only | ©! >/ between beats. 4 |The cardiac muscle relaxes ond blood fowsinto the ata The valves between the cto.and the venticles ore closed, fi Figure 2 The corcioc muscle in he heart Contracts te pump blood throughout the body. 4.the ventricles contract, which ‘opens the valves between the ventricles and the blood vessels and closes the valves between the offic and the ventricles. Biood is pumped out of the heart through the blood vessels. The atria contract and squeeze blood toward the ventricles through the valves between the atria. and the ventricles, 3.the ventticles are filed wilh blood. The vaives between the ventricles ond the blood vessels are closed. a 5 chambers fill with blood. In the second the venticle nreoten phase, the cardiac muscle contracts valve close’ immediately land pumps blood from the heart into. OpenvaWe Closed valve ater bioos posses into the blood vessels. The atria contract first and squeeze blood toward the me Hier teal ventricles through the valves. Then, the ventricles contract and pump | toward the venti blood through blood vessels, out of the heart, to the rest of the body. Figute 3 The aorlic valve is between the lett Ventricie and the aorte. fo} When the pressure in the venticle creases, The functioning of the heart has two phases. During the first phase, the cardiac muscle relaxes and the heart Checkpoint What structures ensure that blood flows only in one direction inside the heart? ‘chopra Sstorsport ond Exchange | 59Trends ‘h Science The rhythmic contraction of cardiac muscle is controlled by a group of cells in the heart called pacemaker cells. These cells create electrical impulses that begin a chain of contractions of the different heart chambers. These cells are under the control of the autonomic nervous Attica system, which instructs them to regulate the rate of pocemaker heart beats. For example, during exercise body cells use more oxygen, and the oxygen level in the blood decreases. The autonomic nervous system senses this decrease and instructs the pacemaker cells to generate more impulses, which makes the heart chambers contract faster, resulting in a higher heart rate i Pacemaker cells can be damaged after a disease of an accident; this results in an irregular heartbeat. Doctors and engineers tried to develop a battery operated pacemaker to help people with damaged pacemaker cells. In 1958, they had the first successful artificial pacemaker implantation. This device is implanted beneath the skin and connected to the heart through electrical wires. The artificial pacemaker emits electrical impulses that travel through the wires to reach the cardiac muscle and cause it to contract at the right pace. Wires '* What is the function of pacemaker cells? ‘= What device can help people with damaged pacemaker cells? | Blood Vessels, Heart Rate, and Blood Pressure (Gearing Bpint | Blood Vessels Blood is carried by blood vessels to and from the heart, —— and throughout the body. Blood vessels in the human body include venules, and veins. 2. Identify the types | arteries, arterioles, capillaries of blood vessels and the function of each, | Checkpoint What are the types of blood vessels in the human body? and discuss heart rate and blood pressure. Atterloles Capillaries Capillaries allow the movement of blood from arteries to veins. Artery Their single-celled thin Arteries have thick walls allow substances walls that consist of en alee suepionces thee cell layers. They ihe bised. have a narrow cavity Venules Vein Veins have three cell ayers in thoir wells. They have much thinner walls and wider cavilies than arteries. Veins have valves that restrict the backward flow of blood. Faure 4 The network of blood vesset found inthe human body 60 | Human BoxyArteries are blood vessels with thick and elastic walls that carry blood irom the heart to all the organs and tissues of the body. Because of their 1nd elastic walls, arteries can support the great pressure of blood as itis pumped a eart. From the arteries, blood flows into tiny blood vessels called arterioles. Anterioles are small arteries that control the amount of blood going into capillaries. Capillaries are so narrow that only a single file of blood cells car ‘movethrough them ata time. Thetr membranes are formed from a single layer of cells, which allows substances to be exchanged between the blood and body cells. From the capillaries, blood flows into venules. Venules drain blood-4rom capillaries, then join.a larger vein. Veins are blood vessels with larger central cavities than arteries, and which carry blood back to the heart. The walls of veins are generally thinner than those of arteries. Blood flows at a lower pressure in veins. Several factors work together and help blood move in these vessels from the lower body back to the heart. One factor is the presence of valves that prevent the backflow of blood and push it up toward the heart. Another factor is the skeletal muscle contractions in the legs, which push on veins and help move blood up to the heart Checkpoint What are two factors that allow blood in veins to move from the lower body toward the heart? Volves prevent — Muscle contraction pushes backflow. blood through the epen valve nd up to the heart vcs owen Je vasclereeies misceconfeced Heart Rate and Blood Pressure The heart rate, or pulse, isa measure of cardiac activity, usually expressed as number of heart beats per minute. At rest, the average human heart rate is between 60 and 100 beats per minute. The heart rate changes depending on a person's activity level. When blood travels through blood vessels, it exerts a pressure against the walls of the blood vessels, called blood pressure. It is primarily caused by the contraction of heart muscles, As a general rule, as blood moves away from the heart, blood pressure decreases. In other terms, blood pressure is higher in arteries than in veins. Blood pressure is usually measured on an artery of the upper arm, Checkpoint How does blood pressure vary between different blood vessels? Figure § Sksletcl muscle contioctions and valves in veins allow blocs to move up to the heart. Copter 3Tersprt ond Exchange | 61‘A person's blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer and recorded as two: numbers, The first number, which isthe greater of the two numbers, is the measure of blood pressure while the ventricles contract and pump blood into the arteries. It represents the systolic blood pressure. The second number | is the measure of blood pressure while the ventricles relax between heartbeats. It represents the diastolic blood pressure. The average blood pressure of a healthy adult is Figure 6 }ecstiing blood pressure: Aris pumped intoacut about 120 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) \lapped around the upper arm. The aiciled cuff copies over 80 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), Eres or on ein s0 hare pute conte heasno a writen asthe faction 120/80. fee Cool a ae ot TT Explore the Effect of Pressure on Blood Flow Materials 100 mL. oral syringe, plastic tray, stopwatch, water Procedure (b) 1, Fill the syringe with 100 mL of water. 2. Hold the syringe upright above the plastic tray and use just your index finger to push the plunger down and squeeze the water out, as shown in picture a. 3. Record the time it takes to empty the syringe. 4. Refill the syringe with 100 mL of water, and repeat step 2 using the pressure of your entire hand instead of just your index finger, as shown in picture b. 5. Record the time it takes to empty the syringe. Draw Conclusions 1. Observe How much time did it take to empty the syringe in steps 2 and 42 2. Observe In which step did you place a larger force on the plunger, step 2 or step 4? 3. Analyze How does the force applied to the plunger affect the time needed to empty the syringe? 4. Generalize How does this activity model the pushing force that pumps blood in the human body? 5. Infer Which part of this activity could model the blood pressure in an artery? Which part could model the blood pressure in a vein? 62 | Human BoxyCirculation The main function of the heart is to pump blood throughout the body. Gerving Bye Blood transports nutrients, oxygen, and waste. The right side of the heart receives blood coming back from body organs and pumps blood into the | _ 3. Describe how Jungs. The let side receives blood coming from the lungs and pumps this | blood circulates in oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body. Thus, blood circulates through | M* P°°¥ the body in two circuits: the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation, —— 7 - Checkpoint In which direction does each side of the heart pump. Ty? blood? Table 1: Major blood vessels 4 1. Superior vena cava | It transports deoxygenated blood from the upper body (head and | | | arms} back to the heart. eee ee > Inferior vena cava_| It transports deoxygenated blood Set from the lower body (organs and <— legs) back to the heart. They transport deoxygenated blood from the hear to the lungs. They transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. 5. Aorta It transports oxygenated blood from the heart to other body organs. |3. Pulmonary arteries 4, Pulmonary veins Pulmonary Circulation Pulmonary circulation occurs in one circuit. | Fo/) 4 7 / The blood is pumped, through pulmonary arteries, from the right side of “ce the heart to the lungs to get oxygen. This blood that goes to the lungs is deoxygenated, or low in oxygen, and carries large amounts of carbon dioxide. It is dark red. In the lungs, carbon dioxide passes to the alveoli so it can be exhaled and oxygen diffuses into the blood, The blood leaving the lungs is oxygenated, that is, rich in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide, It becomes bright red and goes from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart, through the pulmonary veins. Checkpoint Which side of the heart is involved in pulmonary circulation? Cchoperatronsport ard Exchange | 63Figure 7 Pulmonary ond systemic circulations ‘Learning Peint Goread> 4. Identify and describe some diseases that affect the cardiovascular system, 64 | Honon toy Systemic Circulation Systemic circulation occurs in the second circuit, where the bright red oxygenated blood is pumped to the body cells. From the left ventricle, blood flows first into the largest artery of the body, the aorta, The aorta then carries the blood to arterioles and then to capillaries in all diferent parts of the body, such as the brain, the liver, the leg muscles, the kidneys, and the intestines. Oxygen and nutrients move aut of the blood into the body cells and tissues. At the same time, carbon dioxide and waste products pass from cells into the blood, The blood flows back to the right side of the heart through veins, completing the second circuit Although blood circulation follows two circuits, pulmonary and systemic circulation, both occur at the same time in less than a minute. Checkpoint What exchanges take place between blood and body cells as blood moves in systemic circulation? Pulmonary vein Pulmonary artery : Pulmonary circulation Right atrium Left atrium Left ventricle Veins systemic clrcviation Body organs I Blood fich in oxygen I Blood poor in oxygen Cardiovascular Diseases Cardiovascular diseases affect the heart and the blood vessels. Atherosclerosis is a cardiovascular disease characterized _by an accumulation of fatty materials, such as cholesterol, inside the walls of arteries. Because of these deposits, the watis of arteries become thicker ‘and less elastic, anc their lumen becomes narrower, which interferes ith the normal flow of blood.coronary upply the ies are~affectect—with heccardiac muscle will receive_less blood _and,_consequer Jess oxygen and nutrients. Cells part of the heart that does not receive blood stop functioning properly. This can lead to a heart attack Checkpoint What could be the result of atherosclerosis in coronary anteries? Wt Healthy artery Buildup of fatty moterials begins. Plaque forms and blocks blood flow. Plaque can rupture, detach from the arlery’s wall, and cause a circulating blood clot. Figure 8 General stages of atherosclerosis Hypertension occurs when blood pressure is consistently at ot higher thar risk of developing hypertension. Th __limptoper diet that is high in sod sYmptoms, itis called the “silent killer? n 140/90. People witha family history of hyp risk also increases with age and an m and low in potassium, sn can harm the walls of the blood vessels and, over tim > heart, Because hypertension does not usually cause obvious iension have a higher » can Checkpoint Why is hypertension called the “silent killer”? {Having a healthy low-fat diet, exercising, avoiding smoking, and monitoring blood pressurecan help lower the risk of having cardiovascular diseases. ote) 1. Define What is the aorta? 2. Review What are two functions of the cardiovascular system? 3. Explain Why is blood pressure ‘expressed as two numbers? Identify What are two cardiovascular diseases and what could be their causes? Describe How does the blood circulate in pulmonary circulation? Predict What would most likely happen if the valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle did not work properly? 7. Review What are two roles of the capillaries in the human body? 8, Infer Arteries can adjust the blood flow between different body parts according to their needs, supplying more blood to active organs where more oxygen is needed. Based on this statement, why do you think itis better not to exercise shortly after eating? Calculate Alice wanted to measure her pulse. In 30 seconds she had 32 beats. What is her heart rate in ‘one minute? Chapter Tonsprt and Exchange | 65,CE, Investigation Determining Target Heart Rate In this lab, you will find out your resting, target, and maximum heart rates and investigate the effect of exercise on heart rate. Your resting heart rate is the number of times your heart beats in one minute at a complete resting state, Your target heart rate is the number of times your heart should beat in one minute during physical exercise so your cardiovascular system functions properly. Your maximum heart rate is the number of times your heart beats in one minute when functioning at its maximum Materials graph paper, stopwatch, calculator Procedure 1. Locate your pulse by placing your index and middle fingers on your neck on the side of your windpipe. Do not use your thumb to find the pulse because this finger has its own pulse. 2. Once you have found your pulse, count the beats for 30 seconds and multiply the number you counted by 2 to calculate your resting heart rate. 3. To find your maximum heart rate, subtract your age from 220, 4, Calculate your target heart rate using the following formula: target heart rate = maximum heart rate x 70/100 5. Run in place with an intensity that makes you breathe faster, but not to the point of being breathless, If you feel any dizziness or chest pain, stop running immediately and inform your teacher. 6. While exercising, measure your pulse every 2 minutes: count the beats, as you step 2, for 10 seconds and multiply the number you counted by 6 to get your heart rate. 7. Keep on running for 10 minutes while you continue to measure your pulse every 2 minutes. 8. After you stop exercising, measure your pulse every 2 minutes until it returns to the resting heart rate you measured in step 2. 66 | Huron oxyData Record 1, In your lab notebook, draw the table below and record the measurements you got throughout the experiment. Resting heart rate Maximum heart rate Target heart rate Heart rate during and after exercise Time (minutes) o}|2|4] 6] 8 | 10] 12| 14] 16] 18 | 20 Heart rate (beats per minute) Analysis and Conclusion 1. Draw Plota line graph showing the changes in your heart rate as you exercise. Your graph should start with your resting heart rate and continue until your heart rate returns to its resting rate, Shade the area that belongs to your target heart rate. 2. Observe How long did it take you to reach your target heart rate? 3. Observe How long did it take you to establish your resting heart rate after you stopped exercising? Explain Why does the heart rate increase during exercise? 5. Identify What were the other body systems affected during exercise? 6. Infer Based on the equation given in step 4, how does the target heart rate change with age? Why do you think age affects the target heart rate in this manner? Further Investigation Investigate the effect of other types of exercise on your heart rate. Repeat the experiment you did above while walking, cycling, weightlifting, or performing any other physical activity. Collect your data and plot it on a graph. Present your findings to your classmates and discuss them together. Chopter 8Tronsport and Exchorge | 673.2 Blood and Lymph Key Terms ‘blood transfusion ‘elymph nodes ‘plasma “elymphatic system eplatelets ah | When you scrape your knee or have a cut on your finger, red blood comes out from your wound. Although blood appears to be a plain red liquia, is actually a complex tissue made up of many components. Blood Tissue Learning Ppint Blood is a complex tissue made up of two major components: the cellular component, which includes red blood cells, white blood cells, 5. Identify the and platelets; and the fluid component, or plasma. About 45 percent of components of blood the volume of blood is made up of cells, and the rest consists of plasma. functions. Checkpoint What are the two major components of blood? i Figure 9 Posmo makes Plasma | ‘about 55 percent of the {about 55%) i Blood volume. Proteins inplosma give iis yellowish color. White blood cells MS ond platelets (<1%) shag Red blood cells (about 45%) | Blood cells are primarily made in the red bone marrow inside long bones, where cells, called stem cells, continually give-rise to. white blood cells, | fed blood cells, and platelets, Redbone Sm nite Red Blood Cells Red marrow tap, ee ee cet blood cells, also called erythrocytes, lack many organelles and have no Or See 3 _— the lungs and deliver Figure 10 The cellular s them to the cells of the ogee te made up of red blood Stem cell ouy. 68 | Human BoyIn ted blood cells, a, protein_call lobin, Oxygen Homeaiobin hinds and transports Gxygen throughout the body: molecules mole Carbon dioxide binds to amino acids of hemoglobin. tron Hemoglobin contains iron, which is responsible for the red color of the blood. Because they laek-a.nucleus, red blood cells do not y divide. They Ive Benieen 100 and 120 dvs. They Hemoglobin are continually replaced by new cells~produced in red marrow. Their small size and their flexibility Red blood cel allow them to pass easily in the narrow capillaries. carrying oxygen Checkpoint Why do red blood cells have a limited life span? Figure 11 The iron in hemoglobin binds onygon molecu inthe ‘Anemia is a condition in which blood lacks enough healthy red blood | net 'o sever rem to cells oF henroglobin; Tan be caused by a lack in production of red | Becy,teves Coreen ‘Bloott-cetls- or hemoglobin, or by excessive blood loss. In this case, the | feccctnestoanine remaining healthy red blood cells cannot transport enough oxygen to all | cids of hemegicbin, body cells, which results in fatigue. An iron rich-cietand iron supplements | {fig iove wees, lungs to be exroled are useful ating some cases of anemia. White Blood Cells White blood cells are larger Bacterium than red blood cells and have a nucleus. They are involvedin defending the body against infectious disease and foreign invaders. White blood cells are a fewer in number than red blood cells and have a life White blood cell span ranging from hours to years. (macrophage) Platelets Platelets are cytoplasmic fragments of larger cells They have | Fave 12The macrophage no nucleus and play an important le in the f mation of blood clots. | Pee erie oye When a blood vessel is wounded, platelets immediately attach to the |i wounded site and to each other, forming, an adherent mass of platelets. Then, they change shape and release chemicals that start a series of reactions, producing protein calle ibn. Fibrin raps red blood ells and platelets, forming a blood clo Cheekpoint What is the role of platelets? Normal blood vessel Injured blood vessel Activated Blood clot Fibrin platelets’ Figure 13 Blood clotting t Chapter 3Tansprt ond Exchange | 69aa 6. Describe the human blood types in the ABO and rhesus systems and their role in blood transfusions, You have read that blood ismade up of acellular component and a fluid component Investigate how scientists separate these different blood ‘components. Do research to find out the techniques and methods used to obtain each type of blood cell. Tabulate and describe the techniques you found. Present your findings to your classmates. Hemophilia isa_group of race bleeding disorders in whichthe blood. does not clot normally. It is usually inherited and results from having abnormal clotting factors. People with hemophilia can bleed for a long, time after injury. Bleeding_can-be-stopped-by_injecting-the_missing rater Clotting factor into the bloodstream of the person after an injury. Plasma Plasma is a yellowish fluid in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets afe suspended. It is about 90 percent water, but also contains dissolved chemicals such-as-blood gases, sugars, proteins, minerals, and hormones. Plasma helps regulate temperature by carrying heat generated in tssués through areas that lose heat more readily, ike the arms, legs, and head. Blood Types and Transfusions Blood Types Red blood cells (RBCs) have many markers, also called antigens, on their surfaces. Some theories suggest that these markers help in giving resistance against some diseases and are involved in many other important biological processes. The presence or absence of these antigens on the RBCs determines the blood type of an individual Out of the thirty three major blood group systems, two blood systems, ABO and Rhesus (Rh), are usually typed. ‘The chromosome number 9 in humans holds a gene that codes for a group of antigens belonging to the ABO system. This gene has three alleles: 16, [', and i. The F and IF alleles result respectively in antigen ‘and antigen B, and the i allele results in no antigen. i is the recessive allele; I" and I? are codominant to each other, The ABO system results in four major blood types. Natural ABO antibodies are developed in a healthy individual against the antigens absent from that individual’s red blood cells, For instance, an individual with blood type A, will have A antigens on the red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in the plasma, Table 2 shows the possible combinations between these three alleles and the corresponding produced antigens and antibodies in the ABO system. Table 2: Different combinations of alleles in the ABO system with their corresponding antigens and antibodies Alleles wae ii Red blood cells Antigens on | = )¢ eae: a ae eT | ee. cells A B Aand B Se eee ate IA Antibodi Cee erate | ice te (os Anti-B Anti-A : Anti-A and Anti-B TO | Human BoxyAnother group of surface antigens on red blood cells determines the Rh blood group system. A number of distinct Rh antigens have been identified, however, the most significant one is the D antigen, which can cause severe immune reactions during a blood translusion. A gene, present on human chromosome number 1, codes for this antigen. This gene has two alleles: D, which produces antigen D, and d, which does not produce any antigen. Since each person has two copies of chromosome 1, the possible combinations of alleles a person can carry are DD or Dd resulting in positive rhesus (Rh), and dd resulting in negative rhesus (RIr). Therefore, the Rh system can result in two blood groups, Ignoring the rare blood types and the other blood systems, we therefore have 8 main blood types: AVA, BB, Blood Transfusions A blood transfusion is the transfer of blood or blood components from one person, called the donor, to another, called the recipient. any antigens that at already in the recipient's blow ierwise, if a recipient Féceives RBCS that have antigens different to their own, the immune system may attack and destroy the transfused cells, and may cause other serious medicat-complications. Table 3: Saie blood transfusions between blood groups: The universal recipient is AB*, and the universal donor is O- ‘A person with type A blood can Ze i C D : sn witht) le A person with type AB blood can | receive blood from a person with type A, SS donate blood to a person with type AB. Checkpoint What type of blood can be transfused to a person with type AB blood? receive blood from a person with type A or type O; Oo donate blood to a person with type A or type AB. type B, or type Choper ransportana Exchange | TY=<=3——_$_— Investigate a Blood Transfusion Materials petri dishes, markers, disposable droppers, toothpicks, four different blood types, disposable gloves, aprons Procedure 1, Wear your apron and gloves. 2. Label four petri dishes A, B, AB, and O. Z 3. Use a dropper to add 2 drops of the blood type A to the petri dish labeled A. Do the same for the three other blood types, adding the blood type that corresponds to the petri dish label. These petri dishes represent the recipients in a blood transfusion. 4. Add 2 drops of the blood type A to each of the blood types in the petri dishes. This blood type A represents the donor in a blood transfusion. 5. Using a clean toothpick, stir each mixture, Note how the color and texture of the blood types change. 6. Use four new, clean petri dishes and repeat steps 2 and 3. Add 2 drops of blood type O to each of the blood types in the petri dishes. 8. Using a clean toothpick, stir each mixture, Note how the color and texture of blood types change. Draw Conclusions 1. Observe What happened to each of the blood types in the petri dishes after adding the blood type A? 2. Observe What happened to each of the blood types in the petri dishes after adding the blood type O? Conclude Which recipients can safely receive blood from a donor with blood type A? Infer Why could it be important for hospitals to have an adequate supply of type O blood, if it was possible to transfuse blood between different groups? Be T2 | Human BoyThe Lymphatic System ‘As blood travels through blood vessels, some fluid flows out of the Gersing Bp capillaries into the surrounding cells, This fluid carries some materials, that cells and tissues need. After bathing the cells, some of this fluid is | 7. Describe the absorbed into the lymphatic system and travels through it. The lymphatic | _!ymphatic system. system isa network of vente vessels that returns this esta fuld to the blood. Once the fluid is inside the lymphatic system it is called Tymph. Lymph is a yellow fluid made up of water, dissolved materials, ancd-some suhite blood cells. oo Checkpoint What is lymph Lymph travels slowly through the lymphatic vessels because, unlike the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system has no pump. The lymph vessels are connected to large veins in the chest. These vessels drain the lymph into the cardiovascular system, where it becomes part of the blood plasma once again. During its journey, lymph passes through small knobs. of tissues, called lymph nodes, Lymph nodes Lymph vessels Lymph nodes are filled with a certain type of wh blood cell, called _Iympboetes. Lymph odes filter the Bip an and ap ae bacteria. | vituses-When the body: is-fighting an, ion. ymphocytes multiply rapidly ‘and Shah oes aay become Smaraee largec “The lymphatic system plays an important role in defending the human body. Figure 14 The lymehatic system, wih lymph vastels and lymph nodes. Spreads throughout the badly. Checkpoint Why could lymph nodes swell when the body is fighting certain infections? eee 1. List What are the four main . Predict What would happen during a components of blood and what is the blood transfusion if the donor's blood function of each? contained foreign antigens that were Review When you get a cut on your not already into the recipient's blood? finger, what causes bleeding to stop? —7._Explain How are red blood cells Review. What is the main function of adapted to pass through the blood white blood cells? capillaries? Explain Where does lymph come from? 8 Apply Some people are affected by a . Analyze Why can a deficiency in iron severe type of hemophilia where they lead to a decrease in the amount of are not able to produce fibrin. How. oxygen carried by blood? might hemophilia be a serious, fatal disorder? ‘Goper @ransport and Exchange | 73Hite asia mney Cnt) eabeoli ‘cellular respiration ‘residual volume ‘easthma oc tidal volume ‘breathing ‘diaphragm tuberculosis 8, Define breathing, and cellular respiration, and describe the role of the ribs and the diaphragm in breathing 74 | Human Body Food is the fuel that gives you the energy you need. In order to release and use energy from this fuel, your body needs oxygen. The cells of your body use oxygen to “burn” the molecules that the digestive system supplies. Oxygen is the “trigger” that launches the energy conversion mechanism in your body cells. Breathing You eat and drink few times a day, but you breathe thousands of times. Your body can store water and food, but not oxygen. The body needs to be continuously supplied with oxygen. The main job of the respiratory system is to take in oxygen from the air and remove carbon dioxide from the body. Cheokpoint What are two functions of the respiratory system? Breathing and Cellular Respiration The oxygen that the body needs comes from the surrounding air. Air is made up of a mixture of gases, of which about 21 percent is oxygen. The human body can get oxygen through the respiratory system. The respiratory system performs its functions in the human body in a series of mechanical processes and chemical reactions that take place between different body systems. The mechanical processes by which humans take oxygen from the air into the lungs and release carbon dioxide are known as breathing. Cellular respiration refers to the chemical processes during which oxygen reacts with nutrients 10 release energy inside cells Checkpoint What are the mechanical and the chemical processes that allow the respiratory system fulfil its function? The Role of the Diaphragm and the Ribs in Breathing the structures involved in breathing are the chest, the ribs with their attached muscles, and the diaphragm, which is a large flat muscle below the rib cage and the lungs. The ribs are part ofthe skeletal system. The diaphragm is part of the muscular system. Therefore, the skeletal, muscular, and respiratory systems are all involved in breathing.Diaphragm, Breathing in The digphragm contracts Breathing out: The diaphragm relaxes, “Breathing in (inhalation) Breathing out (exhalation) Rib positions during inhaling and exhaling When you inhale, or take in air, the rib muscles contract, lifting the chest up and out. Atthe same time, the diaphragm contracts and moves down. The combined action of the diaphragm and ribs increases the space inside the lungs. This provides more space for air and creates lower pressure in the lungs; air will then move into the lungs. In contrast, when you exhale, the rib muscles and diaphragm relax and the chest cavity becomes smaller. The ribs move down and in while the diaphragm moves up. This decreases the space inside the lungs and creates higher pressure, thus pushing air out of the lungs. This explains the up and down movement of the chest during breathing, Cheekpoint How does the diaphragm move during breathing? The Path of Air Asair is inhaled from the outside environmentio the lungs, it passes through the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli Nose Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronehi Bronchioles Lungs Alveali Figure 18 During breathing the diophrogm Contracts and relaxes At-Home /' activity Try to find out how your ribs move when you breathe. Put your hands on your torso and lee! your ribs. Breathe in and ‘out several times as you keep your hands on your ribs. Observe the changes that occur in your chest Explain how the changing position of your ribs allows you to breathe. 9. Idemify the structures of the respiratory system and describe how air moves from the atmosphere to the lungs Figure 16 The human respiratory system Chapter BTonsprt ond Exchange | 75)Figure 17 the lungs ore the main organs ofthe respiratory system. 76 | Human Boy The main entrance and exit of air into and out of the respiratory system is the nose. In the nose, air is warmed, moistened, and filtered. Nos hairs filter most of the dust, pollen, and other small particles from the air. Cells lining the nasal cavity produce mucus. These cells have tiny hairlike structures known as cilia, which sweep unwanted particles along with the mucus into the throat, then to the stomach where they are destroyed by the stomach’s acidic pH. These particles can also be released through sneezing, Checkpoint What is the role of cilia on the cells lining the nasal cavities? Air flowing through the nasal cavity enters the pharynx or throat. The pharynx is shared with the digestive system. It leads from the nose and mouth to the trachea. From the pharynx, air moves to the larynx, then to the trachea. The trachea is flexible and tough; itis lined with cilia and mucus to continue cleaning the air. The trachea is made of cartilage rings that prevent it from collapsing or bursting as the air pressure changes during breathing. Only air enters the trachea. If food enters, it blocks the opening and prevents air from getting to the lungs. As you read in chapter 2, the epiglottis closes off the trachea during swallowing to keep food from entering it. Checkpoint What prevents the trachea from collapsing or bursting? The trachea branches into two narrow tubes, called bronchi. The bronchi direct air into the lungs. The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. The human body has two lungs that are not of the same size; the left lung is slightly smaller to make room for the heart. The lungs are protected inside the rib cage, which is made of bones. The lungs’ function is to pass oxygen from inhaled air to the blood, which transports, it later to cells, At the same time, the lungs collect carbon dioxide from the blood and release it in exhaled ai Trachea Bronchioles Bronchi Aveol Each bronchus leads into one lung where it divides into smaller tubes called bronchioles. At the ends of the bronchioles are clusters of tiny air sacs called alveoli, Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries. The walls of the alveoli are moist and as thin as those of the capillaries, allowing gases to pass easily through them. The moist film that covers the interior of the alveoli dissolves oxygen so it diffuses more easily into the blood. Checkpoint What are alveoli?Air in the Alveoli Gas Exchange There are about 300 to 400 million alveoli in each lung. Through them, gases diffuse into and out of the blood. As you read before, deoxygenated blood carrying carbon dioxide arrives to the right side of the heart through two veins. The heart pumps this blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. Air enters the thin- walled alveoli where blood becomes oxygenated: red blood cells give up carbon dioxide and take up oxygen through the thin walls of the alveoli and capillaries. Released carbon dioxide is removed with the exhaled air. ‘Oxygenated blood travels from the lungs through the pulmonary veins and into the left side of the heart, which pumps this oxygenated blood to the rest of the body through the aorta. Checkpoint How is the structure of the alveoli important for gas exchange? Oxygenated Deoxygenated blood blood Bronchus trochea (winpine) Heart In the alveoli, carbon dioxide and excess water diffuse from the blood into the air, When you exhale, these waste materials move from the alveoli through the bronchioles and bronchi to the trachea, then out of your body through your nose and mouth. Thus, the lungs are also part Of the excretory system which functions to remove waste from the body. Cheekpoint What happens to the carbon dioxide that flows from the blood in capillaries into the alveoli? Vital Capacity How much air can lungs take in? When you are at rest or sleeping, the volume of air exchanged in each breath is only about 0.5 L. This is called the tidal volume. The deepest breath you can take, or the vital capacity, is between 3.5 and 4.8 L. After exhalation some air remains in the lungs, and this is known as the residual volume; it is around 1.5 L. This residual volume is essential for the alveoli to remain open, preventing the lungs from collapsing. The total lung volume of an adult varies depending on the size of a person, but on average it isbetween 4 and 6 L. During heavy exercise, the breathing rate increases. This change allows more oxygen to be supplied to the muscles and the extra carbon dioxide produced to be removed. Checkpoint What happens if all the air in the lungs is expelled? 10. Describe gas exchange in the alveoli, define vital capacity, and identify the factors that affect it, Figure 18 The respiratory system does the work (of tiensperting ond ‘exchanging oxygen fond carben cioxice. This important transfer of ‘gases between the bocy fond the air fakes place in the alveot. Chapter Transport ond Exchange | 77Classroom ea) Measuring Vital Capacity Materials. 5 L transparent plastic jug, large and deep cake pan, plastic tube, marker, 1 L graduated beaker Procedure Plastic ju Plastic tube ee ‘Coke pon 1. Fill the jug to the top with water. Pour some water into the cake pan as shown in the above illustration. 2. Tightly cover the opening of the jug with your hand and turn it upside down, keeping, your hand over the opening. Put the jug in the cake pan so the opening is underwater. Remove your hand. 3. Pinch one end of the tubing. Slip the other end of the tubing into the jug. Hold on to. the jug so that it does not fall over. 4. Take a deep breath, and release the pinch at the end of the tubing, Blow all the air in your lungs into the tubing, then pinch the tubing quickly. Plastic Plastic tube ae Cake pan 5. Use the marker to mark the level of water inside the jug. Remove the jug and empty all the water. 6. Fill the jug with water up to the mark you drew on it. Then pour the water into the graduated beaker and measure its volume. Draw Conclusions 1. Observe What is your vital capacity? 2. Observe What is the vital capacity of your classmates? 3. Calculate What is the average vital capacity of your classroom? 4, Suggest How is it possible to get more accurate results for your vital capacity measurement? 5. Identify What factors could affect a person's vital capacity? 6, Explain Why might vital capacity vary among different people? _ ss TB | Human 2Respiratory Disorders Despite the efficiency of the cleaning system of the respiratory tract, some pollutants and infectious agents from the atmosphere still manage to enter the respiratory system and cause diseases. Lung diseases can | 11, Describe asthma be caused by a pollutant that obstructs the respiratory tract or promotes | and lung infections. serious disorders. Asthma Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the airways of the lungs. Asthma patients have increased mucus production due to oversensitivity to certain invitants, This leads to episodes of breathing difficulty, or what is called an asthma attack, However, asthma attacks only happen periodically and are usually triggered by airborne inritanis, such as chemical fumes, cigarette smoke, or airborne particles to which the patient is allergic. Asthma patients should be careful to avoid these irritants. Checkpoint How does asthma affect the respiratory system of patients? | awe 19 People eing from asthene can use mecicines in inhalers to Lungs Infections A bacterium called Streptococcus pneumoniae can | breathe easier cause pneumonia. Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs in which fluids accumulate in the alveoli and reduce the space available for ai. This accumulation of fluids is called edema. Blood cells can also pass from capillaries to alveoli. Symptoms of pneumonia are high fever, cough, sputum, coughed-out mucus, and chest pain. Vaccines are available, yet pneumonia is still a leading cause of death, especially for the individuals with poor immunity. Healthy lung Fluid ond blood celsin alveok Figure 20 Aiveotiin Alveolar wails heatny ng fa feng allung infection thickened by edema ong alung ected ppneumonice (0) Pheumenic-aifected lung opie Sonsprt ond Exchoge | 7912. Explain how smoking affects the human respiratory system, Figure 21 there is an obvious diference: wean the lungs of onemeke (a) and ‘asmoker[b). Figure 22 Cigarettes ore deadly BO | Human Boa ‘Mycobacteria are another type of bacteria that can infect the lungs and cause tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is a highly contagious disease in which nodules, containing mainly white blood cells and bacteria, form inside the lungs. Among the symptoms are fever, chest pain, and coughing. Tuberculosis is spread by coughing or sneezing. A vaccine for tuberculosis exists and is usually given to children in high-risk areas, Checkpoint What are two lung infections caused by bacteria? Smoking and Respiratory Disorders In 1999, the head of the World Health Organization (WHO) defined a cigarette as “a cleverly crafted product that delivers just the right amount of nicotine to keep its user addicted for life before killing the person.” Checkpoint How did the head of the WHO define a cigarette? a | Smoking is among the major causes of lung diseases. Tobacco smoke contains about 4,000 chemicals, out of which more than 43 can cause cancer. Three harmful chemicals in tobacco are tar, carbon monoxide, and nicotine. The highest damage comes from tar. Tar is a sticky brown substance that can destroy the cilia in the respiratory tract, causing the buildup of mucus. Smokers cough to clear the mucus clogging their respiratory airways. In addition, carbon monoxide binds to the hemoglobin in red blood cells and takes the place of oxygen. This leads to an increase in breathing and heart rates. Finally, nicotine can speed up the activity of the nervous system, the heart, and other organs. It ‘causes addiction that makes it difficult for smokers to quit Cheekpoint What are three harmful chemicals found in tobacco? | Smokers are at a high risk of developing serious respiratory problems, such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer. Chronic bronchitis, or inflammation of the mucous membranes that line the bronchi, causes severe coughing and high fever. Eventually, lung, tissues lose elasticity and mucus accurnulates on the internal membranes of bronchioles, The alveoli can “break” from the constant coughing due to smoking.Emphysema is the name of the disease characterized mainly by breathlessness. Less oxygen can be taken up by the lung, The heart then pumps harder to get more blood into the lungs to be enriched with oxygen, Eventually, the heart gets weaker. This can lead to heart failure and death due to the increased strain on the heart, (Chronic bronchitis Inflammation and excess mucus accumulation, Healthy : Emphysema Healthy frombranes breaking down L- *s Smokers can develop lung cancer from exposure to the many cancer causing chemicals in cigarette smoke, Cancerous growths reduce the space in the lungs that is normally used for gas exchange. Checkpoint Why are smokers at risk for developing chronic bronchitis? ee ee Define What is breathing? Pre Figure 23 [o) incrvonic bronchi, excess mucus coccumulates inside bronchioles. [b)Inlungs ollecied by emphysema, ‘veclor membranes break down, which makes It order for ‘onygen fo pass inte the loos. What would happen to a List What parts of the body make up the respiratory system? Relate How might an improper function of the respiratory system affect cellular respiration in body cells? Review What three substances are exchanged in the alveoli? Explain How are the lungs part of two organ systems? . Explain Why is it better to breathe through the nose than through the mouth? person who smokes five packs of cigarettes a day? Apply How could air pressure and oxygen availability in the air affect breathing and gas exchange in the alveoli? Hypothesis How might nicotine- containing substances, such as gum or skin patches, help a person who is trying to quit smoking? Chapter 3oneport ond Exchange | BLChapter Review Chapter Summary 3.1 The Cardiovascular System * The heart has four chambers thvo atria that receive blood and thvo veniticles that pump blood out of the heart # The chambers of the heart are separated by valves that ensure that blood flaws in one direction only. ‘+ The left side of the heart pumps blood to the organs of the body through systemic circulation * The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs through pulmonary circulation. Arteries carry blood from the heart into arterioles, then into capillaries. In the capillaries, materials are exchanged between blood and body cells. From the capillaries, blood flows into venules, then into veins that carry it back to the heart. © Atherosclerosis is a condition in which an artery wall thickens and hardens due to the buildup of cholesterol and other fatty materials. © Hypertension is a disorder in which blood pressure is consistently at or higher than 140/90. 3.2 Blood and Lymph © Blood is a liquid tissue made up of a cellular component, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets and a liquid component, called plasma * Red blood cells contain hemoglobin that carries oxygen and deliver it to body cells. They also carry carbon dioxide from body tissues to the lungs ‘© White blood cells fight infections. 82 | Humor Bay 3.3 * Platelets are important in forming blood clots + The blood group of a person is, determined by the presence of certain proteins on the surface of red blood cells. * During blood transfusion, itis necessary to consider the blood types of the donor and the recipient to prevent transfusion complications. * The lymphatic system returns fluid bathing cells into the blood and aids in nutrient absorption and body defense The Respiratory System * Breathing is a mechanical process by which humans take oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide. © Cellular respiration refers to a chemical process during which oxygen reacts with nutrients to release energy inside cells. * The diaphragm and rib muscles contract or relax to help in breathing. # Asair travels irom the outside environment to the lungs, it passes through the nose, pharynx, trachea, and bronchi © In the alveoli, oxygen moves from the air into the blood, while. carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the air. ‘= The most harmful substances in tobacco smoke are tar, carbon monoxide, and nicotine. ‘* Smoking increases the risk of chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.aay Part | Reviewing Key Terms A. Fill in each blank with the most appropriate key term. 1. The process by which glucose and oxygen react in cells to release energy is called 2, The air remaining in the lungs after exhalation is known as the 3. Blood leaving the heart travels through the to all organs and muscles. 4, Cholesterol is a fat-like substance associated B. If the statement is true, write true next to it. If itis false, change the underlined words} to make the statement true. 1, The mechanical process by which humans take oxygen from air and release carbon dioxide is known as cellular respiration 2. Tar is a chemical in tobacco that causes addiction. 3. White blood cells contain hemoglobin. 4. Blood type AB contains both A and B antigens. C. Circle the letter of the term or phrase that best completes each sentence 1. Tiny branches that carry blood cells in 3. Structures that remove foreign a single line to body cells are called particles from the trachea are called a. veins a. alveoli. b. arteries. b. vessels. cc. bronchioles. c. cilia. d. capillaries , platelets 2. An infection that 4, Vessels that carry blood back to the accumulate in the alveoli and reduce heart are space for air is a, arteries a. pneumonia. b. veins. b. hypertension c. bronchioles. c, atherosclerosis. d. lymph vessels. d. hypertension D. Answer each question. 1. What does the number of times the heart beats in one minute represent? 2. What is the deepest breath a person can take called? 3. In which type of circulation is blood pumped from the right side of the heart to the lungs to get oxygen? ‘Gioper 2-ronsport and Exchange | 83Part Il Developing Skills A. Circle the letter of the term or phrase that best answers each question 1. Why are alveoli surrounded by a 3. Which of the following is not network of capillaries? a. to allow the passage of nutrients from the alveoli to the blood b, to allow gas exchange between the air in alveoli and the blood in capillaries c. tallow blood clotting after an injury d. to help white blood cells bind oxygen Which of the following statements explains why it is hetter to breathe through the nose than through the mouth? a. The nose brings in more air. b. The nose has mucus and hairlike structures that filter air. c. The mouth allows air to go into the digestive system. d. The mouth does not allow any air to go into the lungs. a preventive measure to avoid cardiovascular diseases? a. a diet rich in fat b, a regular exercise program c. less smoking d. blood pressure control Which of the following statements explains why blood turns from dark red to bright red in pulmonary circulation? a. Blood in arteries is dark red while blood in veins is bright red. b. Blood in veins is dark red while blood in arteries is bright red. c. Blood rich in carbon dioxide is dark red while blood rich in oxygen is bright red. d. Blood rich in oxygen is dark red while blood rich in carbon dioxide is bright red. B. Organize Information Complete the table below to describe how blood flows from and to the heart inside blood vessels throughout the body. Characteristic Wall thickness Number of cell layers in their walls Cavity Function C. Critical Thinking | Veins Capillaries 1. The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events which make up one heartbeat via three stages. An adult male recorded the contraction time and relaxation time for each beat ‘The results are shown in the table. Beats per minute| 40 48 Contraction (in seconds) Relaxation time (in seconds) 84 | Hon boy 57 | 58 037 | 039 | 039 | 038 | 0.38 1.14 0.82 0.66 0.60 60 6468 Koso 042} 038 0.38 -—}-—— 0.57 | 054 | 045 | 0.46 | 0.44 {| tt +2 73a, Draw Present these results as a two-line graph, The beats per minute should be expressed on the x-axis, and the contraction and relaxation time on the y-axis. b. Suggest How could the man have increased his heart rate for the purpose of the experiment? cc. Explain How are heart rate, contraction time, and relaxation time of ventricles related? 2. This graph shows a comparison between the breathing rate of a heavy smoker and a nansmoker during different physical activi monster 15 msmoker Breaths per minute Fesing Wang 200g Activity a. Observe How many breaths per minute were taken by the smoker and the nonsmoker at rest and during each activity? b. Analyze Data How did the breathing rates change for the smoker and the nonsmoker between the resting state and the jogging state? ©. Conclude What can you conclude when you compare the breathing rate of a smoker at rest with the breathing rate of a nonsmoker during walking? d. Infer How can you relate the data given in the graph to the effect of smoking on the cardiovascular system? Part III Thinking Further Some people may have a damaged heart that requires surgery. Investigate how blood continues to be pumped throughout the body during heart surgery, while the heart is being repaired. Use the Internet to find out about heart-bypass surgery. Identify the machines used in such a surgery and explain to your classmates how these machines work Choper srorspar ond Exchange | 85