U2M3 chem. Factors influencing the site of an industrial plant & Al production 1 of 4 U2M3 chem.

U2M3 chem. Factors influencing the site of an industrial plant & Al production 2 of 4
Industrial plant site location
Industrial plants are manufactured for the sole purpose of producing materials
and items either used directly or indirectly in our everyday lives. However, the
question that first arises is where to build this industrial plant ? Near a school,
near a beach, an airport, away from everything and everybody? A place only
accessible by helicopter? WHERE?
Some factors which influence a plant site
1. Proximity to raw materials
2. Easily accessible to the workforce
3. Proximity to good infrastructure (seaport, railway, airport, roads)
4. Type of terrain (flat, rugged or slightly rolling hills)
5. Distance from general populace
Checkpoint A
Think of the cement factory in St. Lucy, which of the factors listed above
would be the most important in relation to the location of the plant site and
give reasons why.
……………………………………………………………………………………
In the case of St. Lucy’s cement factory, the most important factor in relation to the location
……………………………………………………………………………………
of the plant site could be the availability of raw materials. This is because cement production
requires large quantities of raw materials such as limestone, clay and sand. St. Lucy is known
……………………………………………………………………………………
for its limestone deposits which could have been a major factor in the decision to locate t
……………………………………………………………………………………
he cement factory there
of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, at 175 °C. This converts the alumina to
aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, which dissolves in the hydroxide solution
according to the chemical equation:
Al2O3 + 2 OH− + 3 H2O → 2 [Al(OH)4]−
The other components of bauxite which are not amphoteric like aluminium
oxide do not dissolve. However the silica is weakly acidic and dissolves to form
silicate ions as well. The mixture is then filtered to remove the solid impurities.
The mixture of solid impurities is called red mud, and presents a disposal
problem. Next, the hydroxide solution is cooled, and a “seed” of aluminum
hydroxide is added and it results in large amounts of aluminium hydroxide
precipitating out of solution to form a white, fluffy solid. NB In some cases,
carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through the aluminate and silicate solution to
form the solid aluminium hydroxide Then, when heated to 1050°C, the
aluminium hydroxide decomposes to alumina, giving off water vapor in the
process: 2 Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3 H2O
The pure alumina so produced is then subsequently electrolysed in the Hall–
Héroult process in order to produce aluminium.
Below is the Hall-Heroult electrolytic cell

All industrial plants have general safety requirements. These requirements

include head covering, eye protection, feet protection, and ears as well.
Industrial plants can be very hazardous; falling objects, loud noises as well as
fire protection and toxic fumes alerts. However not all safety requirements have
the same level of emphasis placed upon them

Checkpoint B
Compare a cement plant to a petroleum refinery plant. Which safety
requirements would be the most critical for each and why?
……………………………………………………………………………………
In terms of which safety requirements would be most critical for each facility, it would
……………………………………………………………………………………
depend on the specific operations being carried out at each facility. However, some of
the most critical safety requirements for cement plants include ensuring proper ventilation
……………………………………………………………………………………
and fire prevention measures. For petroleum refineries, some of the most critical safety Cryolite (Na3AlF6) is added to molten alumina to become the electrolyte as its
……………………………………………………………………………………
requirements include ensuring proper ventilation systems and fire prevention measures. melting temperature is reduced from 2050 ° to 950 °C. Aluminium is formed at
the cathode Al3+ + 3e-  Al and oxygen at the anode 2O2- -4e-  O2. Since the
Production of aluminium anode is made of carbon, the oxygen gas causes the anode to be eroded because
Bauxite, the most important ore of aluminium, contains only 30-54% alumina, of carbon dioxide gas produced. This process requires a lot of energy and thus
Al2O3, the rest being a mixture of silica, various iron oxides, and titanium should be located next to a hydroelectric power plant. Aluminium metal can
dioxide. The alumina must be purified before it can be refined to aluminium also be recycled without any loss of properties or quality. Only 5% of the
metal. In the Bayer process, bauxite is digested by washing with a hot solution initial energy needed for aluminium production is used in the recycling process.
U2M3 chem. Factors influencing the site of an industrial plant & Al production 3 of 4 U2M3 chem. Factors influencing the site of an industrial plant & Al production 4 of 4
Properties and related uses of Aluminium metal

Property Uses
Low density Used in aerospace and transport
High corrosion resistance
industries i.e. manufacture of car parts
and aircraft frames
High corrosion An oxide layer forms on the surface of
resistance the metal and prevents any further High reflective nature
corrosion. This allows it to be used for
car parts, packaging material and
cooking utensils.
High electrical conductivity
High electrical Allows for use as overhead electric
conductivity cables
High reflective Reflects infra-red radiation and visible
nature light very well, so can be used in
firefighter suits

Checkpoint C

Bayer process

Al2O3 + 2 OHAl2O3 + 2 OH
+ 3 H2O + (OH)4]
2 [Al 3 H2O 2 [Al(OH)4]

2 Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3 H2O Al2O3 + 2 OH + 3 H2O 2 [Al (OH)4]

Unit 2 Mod 3 Refining of crude oil page 1 of 4
Crude Oil (Module 3)
a) explain the method used in the separation of the components of crude
oil
b) discuss the uses of the components of crude oil as fuels and as raw
materials for the petro-chemical industry (also refer to catalytic cracking,
fractional distillation and reforming techniques)
c) assess the impact of the petroleum industry on the environment
First the crude oil is pumped from the earth or the sea and then it
undergoes fractional distillation to obtain the separate fractions or
components.
Essentially the crude oil is heated in a long column containing trays.
Each tray has a number of bubble caps.
The way the distillation works is by becoming progressively cooler from
the base to the top. All the hydrocarbon fractions start off in gas form, as
they have been heated to that point. The gases then rise up the tower.
Unit 2 Mod 3 Refining of crude oil page 2 of 4
The gas mixture then encounters a barrier through which there are only
openings called bubble caps. The gas mixture is then forced to go
through a liquid before continuing
upwards. The liquid in the first tray is
at a cool enough temperature to get the
heaviest gas fractions to condense into
liquid form, while the lighter fractions
stay gaseous.
In this way the heaviest hydrocarbon
fractions are separated out from the
mixed gas. The remaining gas
continues its journey up the tower until it reaches another barrier. Here
the bubble cap process is repeated but at a lower temperature than before,
which then filters out the next lightest set of fractions.
This process continues until only the very lightest fractions, those of 1-4
carbon atoms, are left. These stay in gas form and are collected at the top
of the tower.
Some fractions are in heavier demand than other, for example the
fractions diesel and petrol are required in extremely large amounts while
the heavier fraction are not in such high demand. A process called
cracking is then used to fragment the large molecules into smaller
molecules (forming even more diesel and petrol fractions).
The gasoline produced then undergoes reforming techniques to improve
its octane rating. Iso-octane or 2,2,4-trimethylpentane is the standard
used to determine octane rating i.e. octane is reformed into 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane. In the final stages blending of fuels with different
octane ratings occurs to produce the retail gasoline for selling to
customers to meet certain specifications.
Checkpoint A
What is the basic property being exploited in fractional distillation?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Not only are the fractions used for the purposes as shown in the diagram
above but are also used as feedstock for the petro-chemical industry to
produce plastics, detergents, solvents and fabrics.
Unit 2 Mod 3 Refining of crude oil page 3 of 4 Unit 2 Mod 3 Refining of crude oil page 4 of 4

Safety concerns in an oil refinery

1. Air pollution (release of several contaminants during the refinery

process) as well as a persistent and unpleasant odour
2. Fire and explosions due to flammable gases in a refinery
3. Noise pollution to the industrial equipment.
4. Risk of leaks on land or in the water (water leaks more relevant
for underwater drilling) Refer to BP incident April 2010

Checkpoint B
Unit 2 Mod 3 Haber Process & Ethanol Production & consumption page 1 of 6
HABER PROCESS
The Haber Process combines nitrogen from the air with hydrogen
derived mainly from natural gas (methane) into ammonia. The reaction is
reversible and the production of ammonia is exothermic.
A flow scheme for the Haber Process looks like this:
Hydrogen gas is obtained by reacting methane with steam over a nickel
catalyst. This is called steam reforming: CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2
Nitrogen gas is obtained via fractional distillation of liquid air
According to Le Chatelier’s Principle, a lower temperature and a higher
pressure would increase the yield of ammonia. However, too low a
temperature would slow the rate of the reaction and high pressures are
costly as materials must be strengthened to withstand the pressure to
resist to risk of explosion. Thus a compromise is reached, where the
temperature is not too low nor too high and the pressure also not too high
but high enough to shift the equilibrium position to the right.
Under these conditions, the conversion rate to ammonia is 15%.
However it occurs quickly and unreacted gases are recycled to improve
efficiency.
Unit 2 Mod 3 Haber Process & Ethanol Production & consumption page 2 of 6
Checkpoint A
1. State how the following conditions would cause a shift in the position
of equilibrium (left, right or no change)
a) increase in temperature ………………………
b) decrease in pressure …………………………
c) a catalyst…………………………….
Uses of ammonia
1. Manufacture of fertilisers and/or used as a fertiliser itself
2. Ammonia used as a source of protein for livestock
3. Used in the manufacture of nitric acid, drugs and various textiles
4. Used in water treatment for control of pH
Environmental impact of ammonia industry
Atmospheric deposition
Ammonia gas which is emitted falls to the ground over land, often during
rainfall. This results in terrestrial eutrophication i.e. the enrichment of nitrogen
content on land. This ultimately causes the disruption of plant ecosystems, with
a few common fast growing species to dominate over greater variety of plants
often of conversation value.
Eutrophication
Over-use of ammonium fertilisers. These fertilisers are water soluble and excess
is leached from the soil during rainfall or irrigation, causing the bacterial levels
in nearby water bodies to increase substantially. This large increase in bacteria
robs the water body of adequate oxygen causing other aquatic life to die.
Acid soils
The overuse of fertilisers causes the soil to become acidic. Acidic soils cannot
support several crops needed today and the soil must be neutralised before
anymore crops are planted. This neutralisation must be done on a continuous
basis to ensure the viability of the soil.
Air pollution
High concentrations of ammonia in air can damage vegetation such as lichen
and moss. It also contributes to the formation of haze in the atmosphere which
reduces visibility and the formation of particulate matter which can cause
respiratory problems
Unit 2 Mod 3 Haber Process & Ethanol Production & consumption page 3 of 6 Unit 2 Mod 3 Haber Process & Ethanol Production & consumption page 4 of 6
Checkpoint B ETHANOL PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

To manufacture alcoholic beverages, there are essentially two processes

that must occur: fermentation to produce the alcohol and then distillation
to purify and increase the alcohol content.

Yeast is added to a sugar source e.g. sugarcane, molasses, grapes etc with
various nutrients and the correct temperature and pH and in the absence
of oxygen. Sugar is first broken down into glucose and fructose by the
enzyme sucrase. Eventually glucose molecules are respired
anaerobically to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide gas by the enzyme
zymase.

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

The ethanol content rises as high as 12% before the yeast cells are killed.

At this stage, distillation is required to further increase the ethanol

……………………………………………………………………… content as well as to produce pure amounts of ethanol for use to make
……………………………………………………………………… alcoholic beverages. All alcoholic beverages contain additives as well to
……………………………………………………………………… improve the colour and the taste of the beverage, these additives are
closely guarded secrets known only to one or two persons.
………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… Uses of ethanol
………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… 1. As a fuel (gasohol)
……………………………………………………………………… 2. Alcoholic beverages
……………………………………………………………………… 3. Antiseptic use
……………………………………………………………………… 4. Base chemical for petro-chemical industry
……………………………………………………………………… 5. Manufacture pharmaceutical drugs
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Unit 2 Mod 3 Haber Process & Ethanol Production & consumption page 5 of 6 Unit 2 Mod 3 Haber Process & Ethanol Production & consumption page 6 of 6
Physiological effects of alcohol consumption

Practice Problems
Unit 2 mod 3 chlorine production & Contact Process Mar 6 2010 page 1 of 4
CHLORINE PRODUCTION
In diaphragm cell electrolysis, an asbestos (or polymer-fiber) diaphragm
separates a cathode and an anode, preventing the chlorine forming at the
anode from re-mixing with the sodium hydroxide and the hydrogen
formed at the cathode.
The salt solution (brine) is continuously fed to the anode compartment
and flows through the diaphragm to the cathode compartment, where the
caustic alkali is produced and the brine is partially depleted.
As a result, diaphragm methods produce alkali that is quite dilute (about
12%) and of lower purity than do mercury cell methods. But diaphragm
cells are not burdened with the problem of preventing mercury discharge
into the environment. They also operate at a lower voltage, resulting in
an energy savings over the mercury cell method, but large amounts of
steam are required if the caustic has to be evaporated to the commercial
concentration of 50%.
Unit 2 mod 3 chlorine production & Contact Process Mar 6 2010 page 2 of 4
Economic disadvantages
Very dilute sodium hydroxide produced (12%) and industry requires
50%. Large amounts of steam is required to concentrate the alkali.
The chlorine produced is usually not very pure and requires purification
Chlorine can also be produced via the flowing mercury cathode cell
The cathode is a thin layer of mercury and graphite is the anode.
The electrode reactions are:-
At cathode Na+ + e-  Na At anode 2Cl- -2e-  Cl2
However the sodium undergoes further reactions
a) Na + Hg  Na/Hg
b) 2Na/Hg + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2 + 2Hg
The product is chlorine and by-products are sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.

Importance of halogens and their compounds

These substances are used in the manufacture of:-

1. Bleaches 2. PVC 3. Solvents
4. Aerosols 5. Refrigerants 6. Anaesthetics
7. Purification of drinking water supplies 8. Herbicides/fungicides

Practice Question

Economic advantages
1. Less energy used because it operates at a lower voltage
2. No risk of releasing mercury into environment (i.e. less cost
involved in expensive recovery methods)
Unit 2 mod 3 chlorine production & Contact Process Mar 6 2010 page 3 of 4
What is the ratio of moles of NaCl used to moles of Cl2 produced?
Use this ratio to determine mass of NaCl in kg required to produce 2.5 x 1010 kg
of Cl2
Unit 2 mod 3 chlorine production & Contact Process Mar 6 2010 page 4 of 4
Importance of compounds of sulphur in industry
1. SO2
Used as a food preservative in juices and jams. It creates an acidic and
oxidising medium which prevents the growth of any microbes.

2. Sulphuric acid
Used in the manufacture of fertilisers, manufacture of detergents, production
of phosphoric acid, used to help manufacture fabrics e.g. nylon, in petroleum
refining, to manufacture dyes and as the battery acid in car batteries.

Impact on the environment

CONTACT PROCESS
The process can be divided into three stages:
1. Preparation and purification of sulphur dioxide
2. Catalytic oxidation (using vanadium pentoxide catalyst) of sulphur
dioxide to sulphur trioxide
3. Conversion of sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid
Purification of air and SO2 (using an electrostatic precipitator) is necessary to
avoid catalyst poisoning (i.e. removing catalytic activities). The gas is then
washed with water and dried by sulphuric acid.
Emissions of SO2 causes drastic changes in the atmosphere. It plays a major
role in the formation of acid rain via the reaction
SO2 + H2O  H2SO3 or even 2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O  2H2SO4
Acid rain damages or destroys buildings and vegetation and of course it is not
healthy for the aquatic life as it reduces the pH of the water decreasing their
quality of life. It also can cause the mobilisation of toxic ions in the soil which
results in vegetation’s growth being affected.
SO2 emissions can cause respiratory problems as it is irritating and causes
wheezing and shortness of breath.

To conserve energy, the mixture is heated by exhaust gases from the catalytic Practice Questions
converter by heat exchangers.
Sulphur dioxide and oxygen then react in the manner as follows:
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 SO3(g) : ΔH = −197 kJ mol−1

To increase the reaction rate, high temperatures (450 °C), medium pressures (1-
2 atm), and vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) are used to ensure a 96% conversion.

Hot sulfur trioxide passes through the heat exchanger and is dissolved in
concentrated H2SO4 in the absorption tower to form oleum:
H2SO4(l) + SO3(g) → H2S2O7(l)

Note that directly dissolving SO3 in water is impractical due to the highly
exothermic nature of the reaction. Acidic vapour or mists are formed instead of a
liquid.

Oleum is reacted with water to form concentrated H2SO4.

The average percentage yield of this reaction is around 30%.
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2 H2SO4(l)
Water & Its importance page 1 of 4
a) describe the importance of the water cycle
b) discuss the methods of water purification (include desalination via
reverse osmosis)
c) discuss the importance of dissolved oxygen to aquatic life
d) discuss the sources of water pollution (include nitrates, phosphates, heavy
metals (lead and mercury), cyanides, trace metals, pesticides, herbicides,
petroleum reside, suspended particles)
e) assess the impact of the pollutants in part d) above on the aquatic
environment
Module 3 Water & its importance
Water Cycle
Water cycle is essential for the continued supply of water on the earth’s
surface. Our bodies are made of about 65% water and thus all metabolic
activities require water to be present. We cannot easily make MORE water,
so we must depend on the water cycle for our present supply of it.
Water Purification
In many cases, the water obtained from nature is not pure enough for our
needs, whether it is drinking or bathing or even for industrial processes.
Hence a series of purification steps must be conducted in order for the water
to be used for our various purposes.
Please note that desalination can also be considered a process of water
purification via the use of reverse osmosis
Water & Its importance page 2 of 4
Flocculation
Water from raw water reservoirs (natural
sources) is collected in large tanks/basins
for a sufficient time period to permit large
particulate matter to settle down at the
bottom. This material is removed and then
the water is treated with flocculants such
aluminium sulphate which form a floc that
precipitates and carries with it
microorganisms on the surface.
Suspended organic matter settle onto the
bottom of the tanks/basins. In this ways
most substances that impart turbidity to
water get coagulated.
Sedimentation
The water, after coagulation, is left in settling basin further for sufficient period to
allow sedimentation of remaining materials. Sedimentation however considerably
reduces microbial population of the water aside from removing most of the
suspended particles.
Filtration
After sedimentation, water is subjected to sand filters to remove flocks of living
organisms. The process of filtration is highly critical and important as it can remove
protozoan cysts and also about 98-99% of bacteria from water. The water may also
be filtered through activated charcoal to remove potentially toxic organic
compounds and organic compounds that impart undesirable colour and/or taste to
the water.
Disinfection
Disinfection is the final step in municipal water purification and it ensures that no
pathogenic microorganisms are carried through water. For water supplies of small
towns and localities sodium or calcium hypochlorite (NaOCl or CaOCl2
respectively) may be used to disinfect water, but for larger cities, however,
chloroamine (as opposed to chlorine) is now the method for disinfection.
Water & Its importance page 3 of 4 Water & Its importance page 4 of 4
Importance of Dissolved Oxygen Practice Questions
1.
All aquatic life depend on the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) present. This
allows all aquatic life to conduct their metabolic processes essential to life. High
levels of DO (above 90%) indicate “healthy” water bodies. DO can also be related
indirectly to biological oxygen demand (BOD), the higher the DO, the lower the
BOD. Once DO levels begin to drop, this usually indicates some form of pollution
is present in the water body.

Sources of water pollution

Pollutant Source Effect on environment

Nitrates Manmade fertilisers
Phosphates Manmade fertilisers and
detergents
Heavy metals (e.g. Use of lead pipes causes
lead and mercury) dissolved lead ions to form
in the water, improper
disposal of mercury from
industrial processes
Cyanides Improper disposal after
used in making fabrics
Trace metals mining waste and tailings,
landfills, or hazardous
waste dumps.
Pesticides and Run off from backyards,
herbicides farms and golf courses
Petroleum residues From underground storage
tanks
Suspended particles Industrial processes e.g.
cement manufacture
Drinking water that gets
contaminated with nitrates can
prove fatal especially to infants
that drink formula milk as it
restricts the amount of oxygen
that reaches the brain causing
the ‘blue baby’ syndrome as
well as eutrophication.
Eutrophication
Lead affects the nervous
system and can ultimately lead 2.
to death. Mercury stunts
physical development of
organisms
Acts as a poison
Hazardous effects on nervous
systems and physical
development
Accumulate up the food chain
and cause impairment of
physical development of
aquatic life
Similar to pesticides
Respiratory problems, covers
wide area in fine dust
Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 1 of 10
THE ATMOSPHERE
Layers of Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly
determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From
highest to lowest, these layers are:
Troposphere
The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 7 km (23,000 ft) at
the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to
weather. The lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature
decreases with altitude. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere
and stratosphere.
Stratosphere
The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32 mi;
170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height, which restricts turbulence and
mixing. The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and
mesosphere.
Mesosphere
The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–
280,000 ft). It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the
atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere.
Thermosphere
Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere from the mesopause up
to the thermopause, then is constant with height. The top of the thermosphere is
the bottom of the exosphere, called the exobase.
Exosphere
The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward.
Here the particles are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of km without
colliding with one another.
Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 2 of 10
Maintenance of ozone concentration in stratosphere
Ozone is produced by uv radiation which is plentiful in the stratosphere.
These four equations are the Chapman reactions which regulate the
concentration of ozone in the stratosphere. Note that hv represents uv light.
(1) Photodissociation causes the oxygen molecule to dissociate, (2) each oxygen
atom then can combine with an oxygen molecule to form ozone.
(3) Ozone molecules dissociate when in contact with uv rays reforming an
oxygen molecule and oxygen atom. (4) An ozone molecule and oxygen atom
combine to form 2 oxygen molecules.
Significance of CFCs in ozone layer
CFCs and other contributory substances are commonly referred to as
ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most
harmful UVB wavelengths (270–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light)
from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected
decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to
adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs and
halons (halogenoalkane) as well as related ozone depleting chemicals
such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a
variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer,
cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the
ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to
ozone depletion. Ozone is also a very powerful oxidising agent.
CFCs are non-toxic, low boiling, inert compounds and thus diffuse to the
stratosphere where it undergoes fission by uv light. An example of the
reactions are shown below
Step 1 CFCl3 + hν → CFCl2 + Cl
Step 2 Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
Step 3 ClO + O3 → Cl + 2 O2
Steps 2 and 3 result in a chain reaction. Essentially CFCs result in the
destruction of the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can destroy 100,000
ozone molecules.
Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 3 of 10 Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 4 of 10
Checkpoint A
Effects of ozone on human life
a) Stratospheric ozone
Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is
vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation coming from the Sun. UV radiation is divided into three categories,
based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400–315 nm), UV-B
(315–280 nm), and UV-C (280–100 nm). UV-C, which would be very harmful
to humans, is entirely screened out by ozone at around 35 km altitude. UV-B
radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive
exposure can also cause genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin
cancer. The ozone layer screens out 95% of UV-B; for radiation with a
wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million
times stronger than at the Earth's surface.

b) Tropospheric ozone
The majority of tropospheric ozone formation occurs when nitrogen oxides
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as
xylene, react in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. NOx, CO, and VOCs
are called ozone precursors. Motor vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and
chemical solvents are the major anthropogenic (man-made) sources of these
chemicals.

Ozone is known to have the following health effects at concentrations common

in urban air:
 Irritation of the respiratory system, causing coughing, throat irritation, Importance of carbon cycle
and/or an uncomfortable sensation in the chest.
 Reduced lung function, making it more difficult to breathe deeply and
vigorously. Breathing may become more rapid and more shallow than
normal, and a person's ability to engage in vigorous activities may be
limited.
 Aggravation of asthma. When ozone levels are high, more people with
asthma have attacks that require a doctor's attention or use of
medication. One reason this happens is that ozone makes people more
sensitive to allergens, which in turn trigger asthma attacks.
 Increased susceptibility to respiratory infections.
 Inflammation and damage the lining of the lungs. Within a few days,
the damaged cells are shed and replaced much like the skin peels after a
sunburn. Animal studies suggest that if this type of inflammation
happens repeatedly over a long time period (months, years, a lifetime),
lung tissue may become permanently scarred, resulting in permanent
loss of lung function and a lower quality of life.
Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 5 of 10
The element carbon is necessary for all organic material. Its presence is
maintained by the carbon cycle. On the previous page shows the various
processes involved in the carbon cycle.
If all the carbon was present in the atmosphere as CO2, the greenhouse
effect would be enhanced to such a level, that life as we know it on Earth
would cease to exist. If all the carbon was locked in the sediments
(rocks) or vegetation or animals, again life would cease as no more
photosynthesis would be able to occur and life would swiftly end.
In recent times, the balance of carbon has been disrupted by the extreme
levels of fossil fuel combustion, causing a dramatic increase in the level
of CO2 in the atmosphere. CO2 is a greenhouse gas and an increase in its
levels causes an increase in the mean temperature of the Earth. This has
undesirable effects on weather patterns and countries’ climates.
In order to remove the excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a
concept such as carbon sequestering can be used. Carbon sequestering
is a geoengineering technique for long-term storage of carbon dioxide or
other forms of carbon to mitigate global warming. Carbon dioxide is
usually captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or
physical processes.
Biological:- Reforestation i.e. the replanting of trees on marginal crop
and pasture lands
Physical:- Biomass burial i.e. burying trees which are now dead which
resulting in a mimicking of the natural process of fossil fuel formation
Chemical:- Mineral sequestration i.e. the reaction of carbon dioxide with
either magnesium oxide or calcium oxide to form the respective
carbonates.
Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 6 of 10
The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a process by which radiative energy leaving a
planetary surface is absorbed by some atmospheric gases, called
greenhouse gases. They transfer heat to other components of the
atmosphere, and also re-radiate energy in all directions, including back
down towards the surface. This transfers energy to the surface and lower
atmosphere, so the temperature there is higher than it would be if direct
heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.
Higher levels of CO2 in present time (around 380ppm) causes an
enhanced greenhouse effect which results in an increase of the average
temperature of the Earth than in the past with lower levels of CO2
(315ppm)
Causes of global warming
 High levels of combustion of fossil fuels releasing CO2
 High amounts of methane gas from grazing animals and landfills
 Release of nitrous oxide from fertilisers
 Release of refrigerants for industrial processes
 Deforestation whether man-made or natural via the burning of forests
in dry seasons
Effects of global warming
 Sea levels to rise
 Change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including
expansion of subtropical deserts
 Continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice.
 Other likely effects include changes in the frequency and intensity of
extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in
agricultural yields.
 Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around
the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is uncertain.
Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 7 of 10 Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 8 of 10
Photochemical smog Effects of combustion of hydrocarbon based fuels
Photochemical smog is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere, which Pollutants Source/how Effects
leaves airborne particles (called particulate matter) and ground-level produced
ozone. carbon burning of oil, coal Increase of carbon dioxide in the
dioxide and natural gas atmosphere leads to the
Nitrogen oxides are released by nitrogen and oxygen in the air reacting together "greenhouse effect".
under high temperature such as in the exhaust of fossil fuel-burning engines in When the energy from the sun is
cars, trucks, coal power plants, and industrial manufacturing factories. VOCs are reflected back from the earth, the
released from man-made sources such as gasoline (petrol), paints, solvents,
gas prevents this energy from
pesticides, and biogenic sources, such as pine and citrus tree emissions.
returning to outer space and
ultimately causes temperatures on
Effects of photochemical smog
Earth to rise, similar to a
 It can inflame breathing passages, decrease the lungs' working
greenhouse.
capacity, cause shortness of breath, pain when inhaling deeply,
sulphur burning of oil, coal the gas is absorbed in rain water
wheezing, and coughing.
dioxide or gasoline which causes the formation of acid
 It can cause eye and nose irritation and it dries out the protective
containing sulphur rain.
membranes of the nose and throat and interferes with the body's
acid rain destroys vegetation and
ability to fight infection, increasing susceptibility to illness.
damages marble and limestone
buildings.
Checkpoint B
carbon incomplete burning poisonous, prevents uptake of
monoxide of fossil fuels oxygen by haemoglobin.
increases the formation of carbon
dioxide i.e. enhancing the
greenhouse effect
Oxides of Internal Same as for sulphur dioxide
nitrogen combustion engine,
reaction of nitrogen
gas with oxygen
gas
Lead Leaded gasoline Forms volatile lead compounds or
compounds specifically elemental lead. Lead acts as a
tetraethyl lead cumulative poison and it can cause
madness and then death
CFCs Petro-chemical Forms radicals in the ozone layer
industry, aerosol which ultimately destroys the
propellants ozone layer. This can cause an
increased incidence of skin
cancers.
Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 9 of 10 Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 10 of 10
NOx concentration in the atmosphere Methods of control and prevention of atmospheric pollution
NOx is produced in the atmosphere by a variety of ways. Pollutant Method of control
 Via lightning high temperature causes the reaction of nitrogen gas and Particulate For large particles:- Baghouses or similar
oxygen gas to form nitrogen monoxide equipment are used which utilise centrifugal forces
 In the internal combustion engine, the high temperature causes the to create a cyclone to trap particles and collect
nitrogen and oxygen gases to react to form NOx them, removing them from the air flow

Once NOx is in the atmosphere, their concentrations can be affected by For small particles:- Electrostatic precipitators are
precipitation resulting in acid rain. That is the reaction of NOx and water used, these exploit the fact that particles are
forming dilute solutions of nitric acid. usually charged and by passing “dirty” air through
charged plates, the particles are attracted to the
The formation of acid rain, the Haber Process and use of fertilisers also oppositely charged plate and the air comes out
affects the nitrogen cycle, the amount of nitrates present in the soil. clean
Gases Scrubbers (wet)
A wet scrubber uses an anti parallel flow of water
against the flow of gas (gas travelling upward and
water flowing downward). Note the water is in
very fine droplets to increase surface area. The
pollutant then dissolves or reacts with the water,
allowing the air to become “clean”.

Prevention of atmospheric pollution

 Use of alternative fuels (purely electric cars)
 Improved technology (improved catalytic converters, hybrid cars (use
of electricity and gasoline for propulsion)
 Mass transit (car pooling, use of public transportation) (although the
cars or vehicles would still cause pollution)

Checkpoint C
Unit 2 Module 3 Topic Solid Waste Management Impact of solid waste on the terrestrial environment

The 3 R’s 1. Space required vs space present

Reduce :- decrease the amount of substance used for any given process
e.g. using less styrofoam containers
Reuse involving using the item for the same purpose or even a different
purpose after the item has been cleaned and dried e.g. reuse of glass
bottles for more liquid or solid or even a different substance altogether.
Recycle implies either or both the physical or chemical processing of an
item for future use e.g. the melting of an aluminium can to produce a
new can.
Recycling
Glass
It must be first cleaned and all labels removed and then sorted in Practice Questions
different colours and chemical compositions. It is then melted and then
reshaped into the new object.
2. Contamination of water supply or soil
3. Biodegradable vs non-biodegradable
4. Aesthetic aspect (unsightly and/or foul odour)
Incineration vs Landfill
1. Reduction of volume of space required but release of toxic fumes
2. High initial cost of construction of incinerator
3. For either incineration or landfill, areas for construction must be
away from populace, also to minimise risk of contamination
4. Inhalation of emissions from incinerator
5. Landfills produce methane gas which can be used as fuel but can
cause water pollution

Plastic
All plastics have a resin code which represents the type of chemical
processing required for recycling purposes. Thus all plastics must be
cleaned, all labels removed and then sorted into their different resin
codes. Some plastics are merely heated while others undergo a type of
reverse polymerisation and then the melt is shaped into new plastics.

Aluminium
Aluminium metal is very good for recycling as 95% of the energy used
to make virgin aluminium is saved. The metal is melted and then easily
reshaped into new objects.

Paper
Paper is first sorted for suitable use for recycling and then it is easily
mixed with water to form a paste and then rolled into large sheets. Paper
is not infinitely recyclable.

Steel is one of the most recycled materials in the world. Roughly 75% of
the energy is saved when steel is recycled. Again it is a process of
melting the scrap metal and reshaping it for future uses.