LIGHT METALS AND ALLOYS

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 LIGHT METALS AND ALLOYS
 Light metal and it’s alloy :

 It is a white metal produced by electrical process from the oxide

(Alumina) which is prepared from a clay mineral called Bauxite.

 Bauxite is a hydrated aluminium oxide.

 The chief impurities are oxide, silica, clay and titanium oxide.

Production and Processing of Aluminum

 Extraction of Aluminum

The extraction of aluminum from its ore and subsequent processing into finished
products takes place in a series of successive operations, each largely independent of
the other.

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Generally the various processes are carried out at different plant sites.
. A summary of production steps from the bauxite mine through
casting is given in Fig.

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Bauxite mining
 Aluminum comprises approximately 8% of the earth’s crust, making it
second only to silicon (27.7%). Iron is third at about 5%.
 Metallic aluminum is not found in nature; it occurs in the form of
hydrated oxides or silicates (clays).
 The principal ore from which aluminum is extracted is called bauxite

 Bauxite is a weathered rock containing two forms of hydrated aluminum

oxide, either mostly a monohydrate AlO(OH) in caustic bauxite, or mostly
a trihydrate Al(OH)3 in lateric bauxite.
 Besides these compounds, bauxite contains iron oxide, which usually gives
it a reddish-brown color, as well as silicates (clay, quartz) and titanium
oxide.
 The crystal structure also contains 12–20% by weight of water.
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The alumina plant
 The starting material for electrolytic smelting of aluminum is pure, anhydrous
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) called alumina.

 The bauxite from the mine is crushed and ground. It is then mixed with a solution
of caustic soda (NaOH) and pumped into large autoclaves.

 There, under pressure and at a temperature of 110–270°C, the alumina contained in

the ore is dissolved to form sodium aluminate.

 The silica in the bauxite reacts and precipitates from solution as sodium-
aluminum-silicate.

 Iron, titanium oxide and other impurities are not affected chemically, and being
solid, settle out of solution.

 This waste material, known as red mud, is separated from the sodium aluminate
solution, washed to recover the caustic soda, and then pumped to disposal areas
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 Adding the weak soda washed out of the red mud to the sodium
aluminate solution dilutes it and cools it to about 100°C.

 With stirring and cooling to 60°C, aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3

(hydrargillite) precipitates.

 Vacuum filters separate the hydroxide precipitate, which is then

washed with pure water.

 Calcination in rotary kilns or in fluidized beds at 1100°C to 1300°C

finally converts the hydroxide to a dry, white powder.

 This powder is technical purity alumina (Al2O3 ), containing as

impurities at most 0.01–0.02% SiO2, 0.01–0.03% Fe2O3, and 0.3–
0.6% NaO2.
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Smelting process(reduction process)
 In an aluminium smelter, direct current (DC) is fed into a line of electrolytic cells
connected in series.

 These electrolytic cells are the nerve centre of the process.

 While the cells (or 'pots') vary in size from one plant to another, the fundamental
process is identical and is the only method by which aluminium is produced
industrially.

 It is named the Hall-Héroult process after its inventors.

 It takes about 2 tones of bauxite to produce 1 tone of alumina; and approximately 2

tones of alumina to produce 1 tone of aluminium.

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 Each cell is a large carbon-lined metal container, which is maintained at a
temperature of around 960°C and forms the negative electrode (cathode).

 The cell contains an electrolytic bath of molten salt called 'cryolite' (Na3AlF6),

.
 into which a powder of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is fed and becomes dissolved to
form a solution.

 Aluminium fluoride (AlF3) is added to maintain the target bath chemistry.

 Large carbon blocks, made from calcined petroleum coke and liquid.

 coal tar pitch, are suspended in the solution; and serve as the positive electrode or
anode.

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 The electrical current passes from the carbon anodes via the bath,
containing alumina in solution, to the carbon cathode cell lining.

 The current then passes to the anode of the next pot in series.

 As the electrical current passes through the solution, the aluminium

oxide is dissociated into molten aluminium (Al) and oxygen (O2).

 The oxygen consumes the carbon (C) in the anode blocks to form
carbon dioxide (CO2), which is released.

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The electrolytic reaction can be expressed as follows:

2 Al2O3 + 3 C → 4 Al + 3 CO2

The hot, molten, metallic aluminium obtained in the process sinks to the bottom of
the reduction cell, while the gaseous by-products form at the top of the cell.

The aluminium is siphoned from the bottom of the cell in a process called tapping
(done by rotation every 32 hours), and transported to dedicated casting operations
where it is alloyed; then cast into ingots, billets and other products.

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Properties of aluminum
 Pure aluminum has silvery color and luster.

 It is ductile, malleable and very good conductor of heat and electricity and is
broadly used for overhead cables. .

 It has a very high resistance to corrosion than the ordinary steel.

 Its specific gravity is 2.7 and melting point is 658°C.

 Its tensile strength varies from 95 to 157 MN/m2.

 In proportion to its weight it is quite strong.

 In its pure state the metal would be weak and soft for most purposes, but when
mixed with small amounts of other alloys, it becomes hard and rigid.

 It may be blanked, formed, drawn, turned, cast, forged and die cast.

 It forms useful alloys with iron, copper, zinc and other metals.

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Application of aluminum
 is mainly used in aircraft and automobile parts where saving of weight is an
advantage.

 The high resistance to corrosion and its non-toxicity make it a useful metal for
cooking utensils under ordinary conditions.

 Aluminum metal of high purity has got high reflecting power in the form of sheets
and is, therefore, widely used for reflectors, mirrors and telescopes.

 Aluminum foil is used as silver paper for food packing etc. In a finely divided flake
form, aluminum is employed as a pigment in paint. It is a cheap and very important
non ferrous metal used for making cooking utensils.

 It is used in making furniture, doors and window components, rail road, trolley
cars, automobile bodies and pistons, electrical cables, rivets, kitchen utensils and
collapsible tubes for pastes.
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Aluminum alloys
 The aluminum may be easily alloyed with other elements like copper,
magnesium, zinc, manganese, silicon and nickel to improve various properties.

 The addition of small quantities of alloying elements into other metals helps to
converts the soft and weak metal into hard and strong metal, while still retaining its
light weight.
Duralumin
 Various aluminum alloys are;
 It is an important wrought alloy.
1. Duralumin,
 Its composition contains following chemical
2. Y-alloy, Cu-Al alloy contents.
 Copper = 3.5-4.5%,
3. Magnalium and
 Manganese = 0.4-0.7%,
4. Hindalium  Magnesium = 0.4-0.7% and
 Aluminum = 94%

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Properties
 Duralumin can be very easily forged, casted and worked because it
possesses low melting point.

 It has high tensile strength, comparable with mild steel combined

with the characteristics lightness of Al.

 It however possesses low corrosion resistance and high electrical

conductivity.

 This alloy possesses higher strength after heat treatment and age
hardening.

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 After working, if this alloy is age hardened for 3 or 4 days,

 This phenomenon is known as age hardening.

 It hardens spontaneously when exposed to room temperature.

 This alloy is soft enough for a workable period after it has been
quenched.

 It is light in weight as compared to its strength in comparison to

other metals.

 It can be easily hot worked at a temperature of 500°C.

 However after forging and annealing, it can also be cold worked.

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Applications
 Duralumin is used in the wrought conditions for forging, stamping,
bars, sheets, tubes, bolts, and rivets.

 Due to its higher strength and lighter weight, this alloy is widely
used in automobile and aircraft components.

 To improve the strength of duralumin sheet, a thin film of Al is rolled

along with this sheet.

 Such combined sheets are widely used in air-craft industries.

 t is also employed in surgical and orthopedic work,

 non- magnetic work and measuring instrument parts constructing

work.
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Copper aluminum alloy
 The addition of copper to pure aluminum increases its strength and
machinability.

 Its composition contains following chemical contents.

Copper = 3.5-4.5%, Manganese = 1.2-1.7% Nickel = 1.8-2.3%,

Silicon, magnesium, iron = 0.6% each and Aluminum = 92.5%.

Properties
 The addition of copper in aluminum increases its strength and machinability.

 Cupper aluminium-alloy can be easily cast and hot worked.

 Like duralumin, this alloy is heat treated and age hardened.

 The age-hardening process of cupper aluminium-alloy is carried out at room

temperature for about five days.
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Applications
 Cupper alumunium-Alloy is mainly used for cast purposes, but it can also be used
for forged components like duralumin.

 Since cupper aluminium-alloy has better strength than duralumin at high

temperatures, therefore it is much used in aircraft engines for cylinder heads, pistons,
cylinder heads, crank cases of internal combustion engines die casting, pump rods etc.

 Magnesium
 It is an alloy of aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel and tin etc.
 It contains, Al = 85 to 95%,  It is made by melting the aluminum
Cu = 0 to 25%, with 2-10% magnesium in a vacuum and
Mg = 1 to 5%, Ni = 0 to 1.2%,
then cooling it in a vacuum or under a
Sn = 0 to 3%,
pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres
Fe = 0 to 0.9%,
Mn = 0 to 0.03% and Si = 0.2 to 0.6%.

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Properties
 Magnalium is light in weight and brittle. This alloy possesses poor castability and
good machinability.

 It can be easily welded.

 Here Magnalium alloy with smaller amount of magnesium(5%)exhibits greater

strength and greater corrosion resistance

 But alloy with high amount of magnesium (50%) are brittle and more susceptible to
corrosion.
 Applications
 Due to its light weight and good mechanical properties, it is mainly used for
making aircraft and automobile components.

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Hindalium
 It is a common trade name of aluminum alloy.

 It is an alloy of aluminum, magnesium, manganese, chromium and silicon etc.

Hindalium is commonly produced as a rolled product in 16 gauges.

 Utensils manufactured by this alloys are strong and hard, easily cleaned, low cost
than stainless steels, having fine finish, having good scratch resistance, do not absorb
much heat etc.

Applications
 Hindalium is mainly used for manufacturing anodized utensil. Utensils
manufactured by this alloys are strong and hard, easily cleaned, low cost than
stainless steels, having fine finish, having good scratch resistance, do not absorb
much heat etc.

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Quiz(5%)
Type of alloy composition properties application Heat treatability

duralumin

Copper aluminium
alloy
magnesium

hindalium

Magnesium and its alloys

Introduction ; Found 2.8% in sea water and other forms, i.e.,

dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2),

magnesite (MgCO3) and

Carnallite (KMgCl3.6H2O).

Magnesium with 99.8% purity are readily available but rarely used in this stage for
engineering applications.
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Dolomite Magnesite Carnallite

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Physical properties of magnesium
 Density (g.cm-3) 1.74

 Melting point (oC) 650

 easily alloyed with Al, Zn, Ag, Zr

 Alloyed with Al, Zn, Mn, rare earth metals to produce alloys with

high-strength-to weight ratios.

 Cast magnesium alloys dominate 85-90% of all magnesium alloy

products, with Mg-Al-Zn system being the most widely used.

 Low strength and toughness and corrosion resistance.

Easily flammable with oxygen.

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Production of magnesium alloys
 Extraction of magnesium:; Calcination, Pidgeon process, Dow process

Fabrication of magnesium alloys:

Casting – sand casting, die casting, thixo-casting Forming processes :

rolling, forging , extrusion

Calcination

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The Pidgeon Process
 In the Pidgeon Process, magnesium is produced from calcined dolomite under vacuum and at
high temperatures using silicon as a reducing agent.

 In the process, the finely crushed dolomite (magnesium/calcium) carbonate is fed to rotary kilns
where it is calcined, and where the carbon dioxide is driven off leaving a product of calcined
dolomite.

 The calcined dolomite is then pulverized in a roller mill prior to mixing with finely ground
ferrosilicon and fluorspar.

 The fine calcined dolomite, ferrosilicon, and fluorspar are weighed in batch lots and mixed in a
rotary blender.

 This mixture is then briquetted in briquetting presses. Briquettes are then conveyed to the
reduction furnaces.

 The reduction operation is a batch process releasing magnesium in vapour form, which condenses
in the water cooled section of the retort outside furnace wall.

 After removal from the furnace, the magnesium “crown” is pressed from the sleeve in a hydraulic
press
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Pidgeon process (Thermal reduction method)

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 Mg and its alloys  General Properties
• Over 50% of Mg produced is consumed in: • Low density (1.74g/cm3) ~ 1/5 that of
– Al alloys steel
• Mg has a HCP structure: poor formability
– Removal of sulfur from iron and steel.
• Mg alloys are advantageous over Al
• Alloys still based on the Mg-Al-Zn system
alloys:
– Al, Zn Alloying for precipitation – better machinability
hardening – lower density

– Mn improves corrosion resistance – slightly higher specific modulus

– Better flow ability in castings (thinner

– Zr refines grain structure
sections possible)
– Rare-earths increase creep resistance
• Poor corrosion performance
• Relatively poor creep performance

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Common Alloys and Properties
• AZ91: Mg-9Al-1Zn-0.2Mn
– General casting alloy
• Properties
– Yield Strength: 100MPa
– UTS: 165MPa
– Ductility: 2.5%
– Relative Cost 4-8
• AE42: Mg-4Al-2.5RE
– Mg engine blocks
• Properties
– Yield Strength: 145MPa
– UTS: 235MPa
– Ductility: 11%

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 Common Alloys and Properties
• ZK60: Mg-5Zn-0.5Zr
– Forged Mg high performance
wheels
• Properties
– Yield Strength: 270MPa
– UTS: 325MPa
– Ductility: 11%
 Other Uses of Mg
• In Sparklers and Fireworks
– Mg powder is extremely
explosive
• Original flash photography
used Mg
• It has good radio frequency
shielding and is often used in
computers
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Ti and Ti Alloys Cu

• Ti is one of the Light alloys. Steel

Ti
• The demand for materials of high
Al
strength-to-weight ratios from the
Be

aerospace and aircraft industry and more Mg

recently from automobile and other 0 2 4 6 8 10

Density (kg/m3)

transportation industries has promoted the

development of these light alloys.

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 General Properties of Ti
• Melting temperature: 1678 °C
• Modulus of elasticity: 127 GPa
• Low density: 4.5 g/cm3
• Very high specific strength
/stiffness
• High Corrosion and oxidation
resistance (up to ~500oC) F22 jet fighter, some 39% of its
• Bio-compatible weight is made of titanium.
Use of titanium in the F22,
• High affinity to O, H, N, C
Eurofighter, JointStrike fighter
• High tendency to form and Rafale fighter aircraft over the
intermetallic compounds with next ten years will maintain
other metals titanium demand from the military

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 Classification of Ti Alloys
• Commercially pure titanium (CP):
• 99+% purity
• ~20% of all Ti usage
– Applications
• process plant equipment for its
corrosion resistance
• Jewelry, ring and watches
• Wire
• Heat exchangers in corrosive
environments
– Properties
• Yield Strength: 400MPa
• UTS: up to 450MPa
• Ductility: 18%

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 - Titanium
• Contain C, O, N, H, Al, & Sn as alloying elements
• not quench hardenable,
• strengthened by solid solution
– Strength increases by ~50MPa per 1% addition
– Common alloy is Ti-5Al-2.5Sn
– Used as pressure vessels to store liquid H2 in space vehicles

• Properties Ti-5Al-2.5Sn
• Yield Strength:
800MPa
• UTS: up to 860MPa
• Ductility: 15%
• Relative Cost 150
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 + - Titanium
• Tip containing Al, Cr, V, Fe,
Mo….)
• Contains 2 phases at equilibrium (
& )
• Accounts for more than 70% of Ti
products
• most common type: Ti-6Al-4V
• Properties Ti-6Al-4V
– Yield Strength: 925MPa
– UTS: up to 990MPa
– Ductility: 14%
• Applications
– Aircraft components (inc
engines)
– Sporting equipment (bike
frames, motor sport..)
– Hip implants….
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  - Titanium
• Ti containing Mo,V,Nb,Fe,Cr

• Single phase at equilibrium

• Formable when not heat treated

• May be quenched to martensite or age hardened

• Highest strength of all Ti alloys

• Properties Ti-8Mo-8V-2Sn-2Fe

– Yield Strength: 1280MPa

– UTS: up to 1400MPa

– Ductility: 6%
 Applications
– Golf drivers
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- Dive Knives - Wheel spokes 37
Ti Applications Summary
Aerospace applications: aircraft; aero-engines; airframes;
commercial and military aerospace industry; space flight
Industrial applications: chemical and petrochemical;
metal recovery and refining; oil and gas industry;
geothermal energy; marine applications; thermal power
generation & transmission; nuclear power stations; water
desalination; building and construction; tool & machinery
coatings; automotive applications;

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 Land & sea based military applications: armour; field guns and
small arms; naval applications; watches;
Consumer applications: golf clubs; bicycles; sports equipment;
computer casing; spectacle frames;

 Medical applications: hip & knee prostheses; spinal implants &

cages; heart components; wheel-chairs; dentistry;

 High technology applications: sputtering targets; superconductivity;

computers; optical systems;

 Alloying additives: carbon & stainless steels; super alloys; tool, die
and valve steels; shape memory alloys

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