Module PED05 Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching 2

PED 05:
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
Prof. Daisy G. Gregana Prof. El Doulos B. Chua For SLSU Use Only
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PED05Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching compiled by: Prof. Gregana & Prof. Chua
COURSE GUIDE
Course Code : PED05
Course Title : Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
Description: This course explores the fundamental principles, processes and practices anchored
on learner-centeredness and other educational psychologies as these apply to facilitate various
teaching-learning delivery modes to enhance learning.
Course Outline and Timeframe
WEEK TOPICS
Orientation
SLSU Vision Mission, Goals and Objectives
Classroom Policies
Overview of the Course
Week 1 Subject Requirements
to Course Goals and Expected Outcomes
Grading System
Week 3
Climate Change
Environmental Awareness
Gender Sensitivity
Introduction to the Course
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
Lesson 1: Learning Principles Associated to Cognitive, Metacognitive,
Motivational and Affective Factors
Lesson 2: Learning Principles on Development, Social, and Individual

Differences
Week 4 Lesson 3: Cognitive Process

to
1. Units of Cognition
Week 5
2. Cognitive Strategies
3. Strategic Demands on Cognitive Processing
Week 6 Cognitive Learning Theories
Lesson 4: Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Preliminary Examination
Week 7 Cognitive Learning Theories

to
Lesson 5: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Week 9
Lesson 6: Information Processing Theory
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Lesson 7: Problem Solving and Creativity
Week 10 Behavioral Learning Theories

to
Lesson 8: Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Week 12
Lesson 9: Thorndike’s Connectionism
Lesson 10: Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Lesson 11: Neo-Behaviorism
Midterm Examination
Week 13 Constructivist Learning Theories

to
Lesson 12: Jerome Bruner’s Constructivist Theory, Gestalt Theory, and
Week 14
David Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory
Lesson 13: Cooperative and Experiential Learning
Week 15 Psychosocial, Psychosexual, and Humanist Theories of Learning

to
Week 16 Lesson 14: Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Lesson 15: Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

Week 17 Student Diversity
to
Week 18 Lesson 16: Learning Styles
Lesson 17: Multiple Intelligences
Final Term Examination
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College of
Teacher Education
PED05 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
LESSON 1 – LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

LEARNING PRINCIPLES ASSOCIATED TO COGNITIVE, METACOGNITIVE,
MOTIVATIONAL, AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
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OVERVIEW
Various teaching strategies and techniques are developed
because of the breakthroughs in psychology. Psychology is a
branch of science (2019). Through the help of psychology,
teachers are now more able to understand and meet the needs
of the learners deeply. Studies have proven that psychology
can be bases for innovations and reforms in teaching.
In this module, we will discuss the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and affective factors
of learning. Answer the questions asked in the discussion. Your answer to it will serve as
recitation this module.
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Objectives:
Upon successful completion of this module, students should have the opportunity to:
1. Explain the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and affective factors of teaching and
learning.
2. Explain the development and social factors and individual differences that influence
learning
3. Summarize learning using graphic organizers.
4. Recognize classroom instances that apply the learning principles related to development
and social factors and individual difference.
5. Cite classroom situations that manifest applications of the principles.
6. Apply the principles learned in classroom-specific situations.
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DISCUSSION
LEARNING PRINCIPLES ASSOCIATED TO COGNITIVE, METACOGNITIVE, MOTIVATIONAL, AND

AFFECTIVE FACTORS
In the early 1990’s, the task force on Psychology in Education commissioned by APA (American
Psychological Association) conducted studies that could further enhance the educators’
understanding on the teaching and learning process. These studies help the school to improve
their practices to be more meaningful and effective.
The teaching and learning process were influence by the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles. These Principles are categorized as follows: 1) cognitive and metacognitive factors; 2)
motivational and affective; 3) developmental and social; and 4) individual difference factors.
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1. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
But before we discuss the factors, let us determine first the difference between the two.
Cognitive refers to the mental processes of the learners that undergo as they process an
information while the way of the learners’ think is the concern of the metacognitive factors.
For example, imagine a child who is completing a mathematical question. The cognitive process
would allow the child to complete the task. However, the metacognition would double check
through monitoring and evaluating the answer. In this sense, metacognition helps to verify and
build the confidence of the child. This is why it can be said that metacognition helps successful
learning. (Difference, 2014)
Now here are some of the factors:

a. Intentional Learning Process
As a future teacher, you have the responsibility in guiding your students to become active, goal-
directed and self-regulating learners. You prepare lesson plans should contain activities that can
be applied in real life situation. You have to be intentional about it because experience is one of
the most effective way of teaching. Experience exercises our cognitive and metacognitive
thinking. Intentional learning environment also helps your students to become aware to their
learning process. This learning process can be used as a tool to enhance the cognitive and
metacognitive of the learner.
b. Support and Instructional Guidance

Your students should be goal-directed. You have the responsibility to help them identify their
personal goals. Why? Because if your students have their personal goal that is not dictated by
others, they have the willingness to achieve them. Learning becomes more efficient and effective
when you touch your students’ need and interest. When you support and guide them according
to their personal goals, the effect of it would long-term.
c. Link New Information

You have to know first the existing knowledge of your students and link it to the new information.
New knowledge of information came from the old knowledge, this is the very heart of
constructivism. As their future teacher, you should initiate more opportunities for your students
to share their thoughts and ideas. Collaboration, sharing ideas with their classmates, will also be
a great help in their learning process.
d. Develop Thinking and Reason

As their teacher, you should help develop your student’s strategic thinking. It is an ability to use
knowledge in different ways to solve problems, address concerns and issues, decrease difficulties
in certain situations, and make sound decisions and judgements in varied conditions. If your
students will be able to acquire this ability, they would not easily give up in difficult situations.
They will be to face challenges, no matter how many times they fail!
“Never be afraid to fail!” because from your failures you will be able to identify what areas you
need to improve. Failure is an essential part of success!
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You should give your students many opportunities to learn, experiment, solve and explore ideas
and concepts. Let them experience to failure but guide them on how to cope up and make it
better.
e. Develop Higher Order Thinking Skills

Developing higher order thinking skills to your students is one of the most challenging part of
being a teacher. HOTS means that your students can do evaluation, synthesis, analysis, and
interpretation of varied concepts, information, and knowledge. You can develop this to your
students by giving them opportunities and learning experience that can be encountered in real
life problems.
For example, a student might infer a relationship between what she has read in a newspaper or
article and what she has observed herself. The high-level thinking of synthesis is evident when
students put the parts or information they have reviewed together to create new meaning or a
new structure.
Developing this kind of skill to your students are very much needed in this fast-changing world.
f. Create Learning Environment

Your future students do not only learn inside your classroom. Today, we have different avenues
to learn things especially on the internet such as in YouTube. There are tons of video tutorial and
information that can be watched there. Because of this, as a teacher, you must select the proper
digital tools that will give proper information. Through this your students will be able to be
motivated and stimulated geared towards effective acquisition of knowledge and skills.
Learning is not only influenced by the advancement of our technology but also by the culture
they are in and the instructional practices that you do. That is why the examples that you will use
inside your classroom should reflect the actual situation of your students.
2. Motivational and Affective Factors

How your students cause them to act or push themselves and value learning are the concerns of
motivational factors while affective factors are much concern with the attitude, feelings and
emotions that your students put in to the task given.
Let us discuss the factors that cause Motivational and Affective:
a. What and How much are Learned

It is the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and habits of thinking are influences of
their motivation to learn. It pertains to an individual’s inner drive to do something, accomplish
something, pursue a goal, learn, and master a skill, or just discover without necessarily being
forced by anyone. An individual’s ability to complete a certain task is determine by his/her
motivation. As a future teacher, we should actively motivate our learner as part of the learning
process.
Before we go on, why do you think that is an “Energizer” included in program in seminars?
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Your answer is good as mine. That is why motivation is part of lesson planning. Its purpose is to
set positive mindset towards the lesson that will be discussed. Even if the topic in the lesson is
hard, new, challenging, or too technical, if your students are highly motivated, they will find
interest still to engage to your lesson. Have you experience during your high-school days that
there is a certain teacher of yours that motivates you even if the lesson is hard?
Why do you think you were motivated?
Our motivation to our students to learn is not only confined to us teachers. Our students are also
motivated by their parents, friends, relatives, or in other words, their environment. Through this
our students can establish positive emotional states and habits. But in reality, of course, our
students will always experience mistakes and failures just as we experienced before. That is why
we, teachers, it is our responsibility to keep them motivated through the use of strategic
instructional materials that would remove their anxiety, panic or even insecurities.
b. Contributor to Learning
There are two kinds of motivation. The first one is Intrinsic Motivation. It is shown when your
student engages to an activity or task that is very rewarding to them. In other words, it means
that your students are doing something because they want to do it. That is, the task or activity is
somehow meaningful or important to them.
In contrast, the second one is called extrinsic motivation. It is the direct opposite of the first one.
Your students want to engage in a task or activity to earn external rewards or to avoid external
punishment. In other words, your students are doing something because of some external force.
It is not necessarily mean that your student really wants to do what they were tasked to do.
Here are some examples:

Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation
Money, avoiding punishment, Enjoyment, satisfaction, and
avoiding getting in trouble, internal growth
seeking approval
As a future teacher, the most important way to motivate your students to learn is to PRESENT
the VALUE of that knowledge or concept to their life. Let me tell you also that, LEARNING IS NOT
only about GETTING GOOD GRADES or complying with requirement but more of knowing why
your students need to learn. When we teach things to our students creatively, it stimulates their
higher-order thinking skills. Through this our students would enhance their curiosity and interest
in learning.
c. Extensive Learner’s Effort and Guided Practice

The motivation of our student is not only solo task. It should be partnered, student and teacher.
It is the job of the teacher to give opportunities and experience while the student exerts time
and effort to finish task given. It is through the teacher’s encourage that our students finish the
task and not just for compliance sake.
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When we teachers praise the little achievements of our students that will be more motivated to
complete/finish it. We can use the errors or mistakes of our students as an opportunity for
guidance.
Sample Situation:
There was an elementary teacher who also teach children with special needs. One of her students
wants to give up going to school because he only 2 out of 10 during the test. But instead of
scolding her student because of the score, she told her student: “..… 8 na lang perfect mo na yung
test” (See… you only have 8 points left to perfect the test). When the student heard that, instantly,
his face brightens up.
Did you experience that kind of teacher before? That even if you made mistake still encourages
you to move on to achieve your personal goals?
The learning environment can also foster positive emotions when there is no competition
between and among learners, and NUMERIC GRADES ARE JUST SECONDARY considerations as
PIECES OF EVIDENCE of learning.
Wrap-Up
Based on what we have discussed, students acquire knowledge and skills from the experience
that they actively engaged in. Because of this, we, teachers have to be active also to be aware
about our student that will be a vital input to our instructional design. Cognition is activated
through different types of motivation that will build more positive affect to the students.
Likewise, prior (old) knowledge leads to new knowledge which is very useful for metacognitive
thinking.
As teachers, we should consider all the major elements of the cognitive and metacognitive factors
of learning as follows: nature of the learning process, goals of the learning process, construction
of knowledge, strategic thinking, thinking about thinking, and the context of learning. Our lesson
plans should be planned carefully to ensure its appropriateness in lesson delivery. Teachers have
their own different ways to motivate the students. We may modify other teacher’s best practices
in motivating students. In lower grade levels, majority of the students are motivated by extrinsic
motivation but as they become more mature students the motivation should be shift to intrinsic.
The students’ interest as well as the commitment to finish their tasks are now more critical rather
than just the concrete rewards.
Teacher’s comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and metacognitive factors of learning

is very much needed. The potentials, skills, talents, and abilities of learners would not be
enhanced well if learning opportunities and experiences are minimal. The teacher’s strategies
and techniques in delivering information and concepts would highly determine the extent of how
these potentials, skills, talents, and abilities of our students can be fully developed.
ACTIVITY #1
Read and analyze the statements. If true, put a check (✓) before the item; if false, leave it blank.
_____ 1. Differentiated instruction attempts to resolve diversity of learners in the classroom.
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_____ 2. The motivation of a learner from the urban community is similar to that from the rural
area.
_____ 3. The development of higher-order thinking skills is attainable among the lower years.
_____ 4. Making learning alive and active initiates students’ positive love for the subject.
_____ 5. Verbal reinforcements, as they seem fitted for the elementary level, are avoided in the
senior high school level.
_____ 6. The practice of unlocking difficulties for a difficult lesson provides scaffold to the
learners.
_____ 7. The assistance of a more advanced student to a slow learner in explaining the lesson is
defeating the purpose of active engagement of the learner.
_____ 8. Praising a slow learner for a little effort exerted is a stepping stone for his or her
progress.
_____ 9. Using new technologies in the classroom has more disadvantages and advantages, as
learners are overwhelmed.
_____ 10. A teacher who facilitates learning becomes the main source of knowledge in every
lesson in class.
ACTIVITY #2
“This subject is my Waterloo” – a statement most students attribute to subjects they find difficult.
If you were the teacher, what motivation and affective strategies would you use to alter this
perception and attitude?
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REFERENCES
Aquino, Avelino M., EdD., (2015), Facilitating Human Learning, REX Printing Co.
Bulusan, Ferdinand, et.al., (2019), Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching, Rex Bookstore. 2019
Lucas, Maria Rita D., PhD., & Corpuz, Brenda B., PhD., (2014), Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process,
LORIMAR Publishing, Inc.
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-cognition-and-vs-metacognition/
https://scottjeffrey.com/intrinsic-motivation-examples/
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College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 2: LEARNING PRINCIPLES ON DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL, AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
The capacity of students to engage in learning are considered critical factors in the development
and social factors. These principles include following:
1. Different Opportunities and Constraints for Learning

Learning is most effective when the holistic aspect
of the student is taken account. These are the
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
domains. These will serve as the reference
foundation in planning learning activities, materials,
and assessment. There are some instances that the
students are not learning well because of mismatch.
The prepared learning activity or lesson and the
stage of learning of the student are not match. For
example, the subject that you are handling is PE. Your lesson is about the different dunk moves
but you are only handling Grade 2 students. You are handling Music subject and you instruct your
class to sing without assessing them if they know how to sing properly, this is also an example of
mismatch.
Have you experienced this situation when you still in Grade school? That there are some
instances that your teacher was not able to know you and you were given task that you think?
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If you will be given a chance to talk to your teacher, what would you suggest?
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Through your suggestion/s written above, you will be able to avoid the same mistake just as in
avoiding mismatch learning among your future student, you should not only be knowledgeable
about the students. There should be a collaboration between the school administrators, guidance
counselors, parents, and even relatives. It would also be helpful for the teacher to assess the
readiness of the students through keen observations, diagnostic tools, and interviews. With
these, optimal learning contexts and environment will be created.
If you remember when enter Grade 7 and/or Grade 11, you were interviewed along with your
parents by a school representative that you enrolled in. This process is part of the collaboration
of the school administration, teacher, you as the student, and your parents to build opportunities
and constraints in your learning process in the school.
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2. Learning is influenced by social, interpersonal, and communication with others
Social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others influence the learning of the
students. Collaboration is one of the most effective tools in the learning process. It is considered
as one of the 21st century skill that all students should acquire. Why? Because as we have tackled
the previous lesson on developing thinking and reason, and developing higher-order thinking
skills, we should give the students real life situation activities. Collaborative skills cover social
interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication. When you make your learning
activities to your students, whenever possible, always incorporate collaborative works.
Have you ever wondered now why your teachers in elementary and high-school are always
incorporating group work activities? Do you have any memorable experience from your group
mates?
It is not just because your teacher wants to easily give you group grade but for to learn from your
classmates by giving sharing your ideas and practicing leadership among yourselves.
In line with our lesson, through collaboration, students do not just learn from the ideas and
sharing of their classmates but to learn to appreciate and respect diversity among them. Through
these students will be able to practice their listening skills and at the same time consider each
other’s perspective and contributions on the task be completed.
As a future teacher, when you adequately facilitate your students, this will contribute positive
and healthy learning such as respect for each other’s opinions, give-and-take relationships, and
taking responsibility for assigned tasks to develop the interpersonal relationships of your
students.
3. Learning as Function of Prior Experience and Heredity

Everyone is different from each other. That is why diversity is a natural part of life. Every student
has different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning. Some are fond reviewing
exams while watching TV at the same time. Have you experienced from your Grade School
experience that you seriously review the following day’s exam then one of your classmates does
not review at all and yet got the highest score on the test?
Each student has his or her learning style, intelligence, potential,

skills, talents, learning preferences, as well as cognitive abilities
which are the effects of both experience and hereditary. When
the teacher is able to identify the learning styles of each of his
student, it will maximize the learning process.
As future teacher, we should be knowledgeable to the current

trends in teaching and apply concepts on multicultural teaching, differentiated instruction (DI),
and the Universal Design for Learning (UDL). All these principles support the premise that we
teachers should be creative, innovative, and supportive the individual differences of our
students. These trends in teaching offer various ideas, options, and ways by which diversity can
best be used for meaningful teaching and learning.
4. Learner’s Difference are Taken into Account

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For us to know more about our students, we take a record or account of our students’ linguistic,
cultural, and social background. With these accounts, we will be able to consider and trace where
they are coming from. Language can be a barrier in learning when the students cannot express
themselves properly and when the learning material is not also related to their social context.
Classroom examples and situation should be contextualized and localized. When we say
contextualized and localized, we use familiar things to the students that they can easily relate
too. For example, the lesson is about Festival and you are teaching in Lucban. What Festival
example would you use to your student in applying the contextualization and localization?
Answer: _________________
Your answer is good as mine. Through this kind of principle, we would be able to deliver the
lesson properly without sacrificing the context of it.
Sample Situation: Master Chua grew up in Lucena City. He is not used to “mano”, to some occasion
to elderly people. When he migrated to Lucban, he noticed students or younger people still
practices “mano” not only to elderly people but also to teachers. This is an example of different
place have different culture. Culture makes one person distinct from other people. Students
manifest difference in language, values, belief systems, and way of life.
An inclusive classroom is one that welcomes and respects these differences, which are
incorporated into their learning activities. They are also used as actual examples of concepts
presented during discussions. Students do not feel discriminated upon and ridiculed because of
their uniqueness as an individual. When each student feels valued, accepted, and appreciated for
what he or she is, this affirmation contributes to a positive learning environment.
5. Integral Parts of the Learning Process

For us to know the status of learning of our students, we should use appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing the students. This include diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment. It is very important to have an Assessment and evaluation as parts of the teaching
and learning process. The results of assessments conducted are used to gauge learner’s
strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and areas of difficulties. Teachers can also determine what
kind of support and scaffold the learners need. This process also includes knowing which
instructional materials would best assist a student for better school performance.
Assessment should be an ongoing process. Whether it was FORMATIVE or SUMMATIVE, results

should be used as a means of improving the teachers’ strategies and techniques in teaching. LOW
RESULTS MAY NOT ALWAYS BE attributed to students’ negligence and difficulties but may also
be because the teacher’s strategy was not effective during the delivery of the lesson. Assessment
therefore, is for both the teacher and students.
ACTIVITY 1
Put a check (✓) before each item if the teaching practice satisfies the development and social
factors, and individual differences of learning; leave it blank if not.
_____ 1. A teacher varies the level of difficulty of the same task for bright and slow learners.
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_____ 2. A teacher allows a learner in Social Science to explain the answer to the question in the
dialect in which the learner is fluent and the class understands.
_____ 3. Mr. Ramos asks far-sighted learners to be seated in front.
_____ 4. Mrs. Jurado tolerates the minor misbehavior of a learner.
_____ 5. Ms. Renante discourages the use of local materials in the Art projects of her learner.
_____ 6. A teacher cites cultural practices of the students as examples for learning.
_____ 7. Mr. Ruma asks the fast learners to coach or mentor the learners needing assistance.
_____ 8. Miss Pascual tells Rema, the class singer, to enroll in the Special Program for the Arts
track.
_____ 9. Girlie was told by the teacher to concentrate on academics, not on the school paper
assignment.
_____ 10. The Science teacher asks for the help of the school nurse to explain fertilization.
ACTIVITY 2
Why is it important for beginning teachers to be aware of the learner-centered psychological
principles for school reform?
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Activity 3
Do you think that the length of service of being a teacher guarantees effectiveness in
implementing learner-centered principles? Defend your answer.
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Wrap-up:
In engaging learners to learn, development and social factors as well as individual differences are
considered. Effective classroom strategies and activities stem from these principles. These
principles highlight the need to communicate and collaborate with other learners because
learning is a social experience. They are given paramount emphasis to facilitate learner-centered
teaching.
Theories in learning provide a vibrant framework for understanding the teaching and learning
process. The principles provide a framework that could assist educators in improving their and
learning practices. The primary goal of these principles will make teachers more reflective of their
current practices so that learning becomes more meaningful and exciting to all kinds of learners.
School reforms and innovation should be a regular part of the education process.
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EVALUATION:
Interview 1 new and 1 seasoned teacher nearby your place. List his or her practices in terms of
implementing the learner-centered principles of learning. Which among his or her practices, do
you believe, is the best or is most effective? Write down your answers on the space provided on
the next page.
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College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 3 – COGNITIVE PROCESS

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Overview:
Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge
and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It
encompasses many aspects of intellectual functions and processes such
as attention, the formation of knowledge, memory and working memory,
judgment and evaluation, reasoning and "computation", problem
solving and decision making, comprehension and production of language.
Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge.
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Objectives:
1. Explain how cognitive process is influenced by their heredity, maturation and
environment.
2. Apply the psychological principles in seeking for creative ways of thinking.
3. Strengthen prior knowledge so that they may develop deep transfer of information.
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Discussion:
Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling rapidly inside your mind.
How is it possible that the brain is able to move from one thought to the next in an organized,
orderly fashion? The brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning, organizing, and
remembering—it is always active. Yet, you don’t notice most of your brain’s activity as you move
throughout your daily routine.
This is only one facet of the complex processes involved in cognition. Simply put, cognition is
thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem
solving, judgment, language, and memory.
Unconsciously, we already use cognitive skills the moment

we wake up in the morning. Have you experienced when
you wake in the morning that you don’t feel going out of
your bed because you do not have class that day?
Answer: ________
Why?
Answer: ______________________________________________________________
I guess we all have the same answer to the question. But why do we come up with that
answer? It is because we use our cognitive skill/reasoning.
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It the same way here in our lesson, our everyday experiences are supplied with simple to
complex events that call for cognitive processes. The processes are interdependent and occur
simultaneously. They play a role in experiential and reflective modes of cognition.
Cognitive Processes
• Attention: process for selecting an object on which to concentrate. Object can be a

physical or abstract one (such as an idea) that resides out in the world or in the mind.
Design implications: make information visible when it needs attending to; avoid cluttering the
interface with too much information.
• Perception: process for capturing information from the environment and processing it.
Enables people to perceive entities and objects in the world. Involves input from sense
organs (such as eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and fingers) and the transformation of this
information into perception of entities (such as objects, words, tastes, and ideas).
Design implications: all representations of actions, events and data (whether visual, graphical,
audio, physical, or a combination thereof) should be easily distinguishable by users.
• Memory: process for storing, finding, and accessing knowledge. Enables people to recall
and recognize entities, and to determine appropriate actions. Involves filtering new
information to identify what knowledge should be stored. Context and duration of
interaction are two important criteria that function as filters.
Design implications: do not overload user’s memory; leverage recognition as opposed to recall
when possible; provide a variety of different ways for users to encode information digitally.
• Language: processes for understanding and communicating through language via

reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Though these language-media have much in
common, they differ on numerous dimensions including: permanence, scan-ability,
cultural roles, use in practice, and cognitive effort requirements
Design implications: minimize length of speech-based menus; accentuate intonation used in

speech-based systems; ensure that font size and type allow for easy reading.
• Learning: process for synthesizing new knowledge and know-how. Involves connecting
new information and experiences with existing knowledge. Interactivity is an important
element in the learning process.
Design implications: leverage constraints to guide new users; encourage exploration by new
users; link abstract concepts to concrete representations to facilitate understanding.
• Higher reasoning: processes that involve reflective cognition such as problem-solving,

planning, reasoning, decision-making. Most are conscious processes that require
discussion, with oneself or others, and the use of artifacts such as books, and maps. Extent
to which people can engage in higher reasoning is usually correlated to their level of
expertise in a specific domain.
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Design implications: make it easy for users with higher levels of expertise to access additional
information and functionality to carry out tasks more efficiently and effectively.
Now let us discuss the factors that influence Cognition:

But before we continue, I have a question:
If the Father is intelligent and the Mother is also intelligent,
Probably their child will be ________________?
Your answer is good as mine! Why is that? It is because of….
• Heredity – At this point, it is very difficult to separate biological and genetic makeup. Our
ability to learn is influenced by neurological efficiency and genetic component.
In life, the person who always fail but use failure as a challenge achieves success! Why? It is
because of…
• Maturation – It is a process of becoming fully grown, experienced adult learners. In short,
this is a change brought about by biological growth and development. It does not require
an external stimulus for it is a natural occurrence within the learners.
The first two factors may influence cognition intrinsically but this last factor is more of external.
Why do you think the people in Harvard University becomes more and more excellent in
Academics?
Answer: _______________________
You have an idea! Same thing with cognition.

• Environment – This may include learning opportunities that provide avenues for learning.
If teachers are supportive and the environment is conducive, then learning is sure to
happen. Environmental stimuli should support and encourage learning.
Units of Cognition
• Concepts – are the building blocks of cognition. They are general labels that we attach to
categories of things and information that share common characteristics. These are
mental structures by which we represent categories. Objects, people, and events are
grouped together according to perceived properties of characteristics.
• Propositions – are composed of related concepts. These are units of declarative
knowledge that can stand alone as separate assertions about the observed experiences,
events or the relationships among concepts.
• Schemata – is an organizational pattern of the mind. It is a mental structure that helps us
organize knowledge, aids us to understand all thigs around us. Schemata are general
knowledge used for understanding. A schema is knowledge. It is not what is true about
the world, but it is one’s knowledge about the world. Schemata possesses the following
characteristics:
1. They are basic knowledge. In all types of knowledge, schemata are present. They do
not tell what is true about an object or person; rather, they are what we know about
such objects.
2. They are highly structured. Schemata are highly structured in the sense that they do
not only contain sets of knowledge, but they also include how such are related to one
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another. This structure allows new bits of information to fir into the old ones. In this
way, new forms of knowledge are facilitated for inferring additional knowledge.
Schemata aids us to facilitate simple recall.
3. They are general categories of knowledge. The brain does not encode information
about a particular situation; instead, it encodes certain types of situation. As such,
the brain does not treat information as separate entities but as dependent on one
another.
4. They are used in comprehension. Schemata are significant features of
comprehension; they are used to activate prior knowledge needed to understand a
particular text.
• Productions - are basic units of procedural knowledge. Productions are things made or
created which are composed of our knowledge on how to follow series of step-by-step
procedures.
• Scripts – is the last unit of cognition. These are knowledge representations that set the
framework for procedural knowledge. These are also used for our experiences which
represent the cluster of past and present events so that we may interpret future events
and occurrences.
Cognitive Strategies
These are mental plans that we apply to manage our thinking and behaviour during
problem solving or learning. These help us regulate the flow of information. Cognitive strategies
do not fulfil thinking; they merely help us select and use the appropriate mental skills needed in
a particular task. When we solve for the value of x and y in Algebra, we follow rules. We use
heuristics to generate declarative and procedural knowledge in coming up with the correct
solution to a problem.
1. Student-centered instruction. Students must be actively involved in the learning process.

Learning tasks should be participatory and appealing. Students who are actively engaged
in problem-solving tasks tend to interact socially and environmentally.
2. Activating prior knowledge. Prior knowledge plays a vital role in constructing meaning.
Students do not come to class with zero knowledge; they do not come to school as blank
slates.
3. Social interactions. Social interactions are necessary for students to develop authentic
learning. It is in the social context in which they learn how to negotiate, work in a
collaborative manner, and construct meaning.
4. Problem solving. The creative process of solving a problem happens when students
engage themselves in meaningful learning. The classroom is a microcosm of the real
world that is replete with problems of real life situation.
5. Elaboration. As much as possible, we avoid the use of memorization of basic facts.

Instead, we should require students to use those facts in meaningful contexts. However,
we do not mean to disregard basic facts and information for they are building blocks of
information.
6. Concept learning. This learning equates to knowledge construction which needs to

consider the following:
6.1 Use core knowledge. To provide core knowledge of the different concepts, we should
introduce the necessary lessons that provide strong foundation for mastery and
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understanding. It is also important that we present ore knowledge in a well-organized
and skill-based context.
6.2 Integration of concepts across curriculum. To learn the core knowledge in a

successful manner, it should be integrated across all disciplines, if possible. For
example, the lessons on thriftiness in Values Education can also be integrated in
English or in some other subjects.
6.3 Provision of cognitive flexibility. As teachers, we should identify what skills our
students should master. This may lead to flexible application of knowledge and not
rote memorization. To be flexible, we should introduce students to a wide array of
examples and a plethora of experiences so that they may have the chance to
contextualize their learning.
6.4 Provision of Cognitive Apprenticeship. It is assumed that immersion to the real

context plays a major role in learning. In the classroom, we teach all the abstract
concepts and theories. However, this is not enough for they must be verified and
applied outside the school setting.
STRATEGIC DEMANDS ON COGNITIVE PROCESSING

The major goal of instruction is student learning. Every teacher wants his or her students
to learn. Specifically, the goal of instruction is to help students achieve the learning objective.
This is why a lot of teachers exert a lot of effort to make instruction effective.
1. Extraneous Processing occurs when there is poor instructional design and students’
processing during learning does not support learning objective. Extraneous processing
uses inappropriate learning design that does not match with the learning objective. To
avoid extraneous processing, teachers need to plan ahead and may use the four Es:
Empower, Engage, Enhance an Enable.
By using the four Es, teachers select relevant materials for active engagement and processing;
organize the material around a coherent mental structure; and integrate the material with prior
knowledge and long-term memory system.
2. Essential Processing is needed when there is inherent complexity of the material being
learned. It is construed that if the material is too complex or difficult to comprehend,
students need more processing activities in order to fully grasp the meaning of the said
material.
3. Generative Processing should be developed when students lack the needed motivation.
For example, when teachers are so engrossed with helping students comprehend a
certain lesson in English, everything may be put to naught if they lack the enthusiasm to
learn. Therefore, it is important that teachers develop students’ motivation by:
3.1 developing clear learning objectives;
3.2 determining reasons for achieving said learning goals;
3.3 using visualization technique for reaching goals;
3.4 creating a positive attitude
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Evaluation:
Activity 1: Answer the following questions.

1. How does concept formation happen among children?
2. How can you structure and organize your own learning?
3. If you were already a teacher, how would your students see that the goals and activities
in school relate to the values and aspirations in their homes and communities?
Activity 2: Complete the table below.

Question: Answers:
1. Why is metacognition important to a.
a teacher and a learner?
b.
c.
2. Is prior knowledge essential in a.

developing metacognitive
knowledge? Justify your answer.
b.
________________________________________________________________________
References:
Aquino, Avelina M., Ed.D., 2015, Facilitating Human Learning, 2nd Ed., REX Bookstore, Inc.
Bulusan, Fedinand, et.al., 2019, Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching, 1st Edition, REX Bookstore
Lucas, Maria Rita D. PhD and Corpuz, Brenda B., PhD. 2014, Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Processes, 4 th
Ed., LORIMAR Publishing, Inc.
https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_leading-with-cultural-intelligence/s06-02-what-is-metacognition.html
https://www.activelylearn.com/post/metacognition
https://www.ldatschool.ca/metacognitive-strategies-or-thinking-about-my-thinking/
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 4 – PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

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Overview:
Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of
cognitive development. His contributions include a stage theory of child
cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in
children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different
cognitive abilities. This theory of cognitive development explains how a
child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea
that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development
as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.
Piaget’s theory has two parts: an “ages and stages”, which predicts what children can and
cannot understand at different ages, and a theory of development that describes how children
develop cognitive abilities (Chambliss, 1996). The theory of development is the major foundation
of cognitive constructivist approaches to teaching and learning. Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development suggest that humans cannot be given information which he automatically
understand and use, they construct their own knowledge. They have to build their knowledge
through experience. Experiences allow them to create mental images in their heads.
The role of the teacher is to provide a classroom full of interesting things to encourage the child
to construct their own knowledge and to have the ability to explore. The classroom must give the
students the opportunity to construct knowledge through their own experiences. They cannot
be “told” by the teacher. There is less emphasis directly on teaching specific skills and more
emphasis on learning in a meaningful context.
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Objectives:
1. Explain terms and concepts associated with Piaget’s Cognitive Theory.
2. Discuss the stages of cognitive development.
3. Identify teaching strategies that are supportive of Piaget’s theory.
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Discussion:
In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget argued that children’s cognitive
development is influence by biological maturation and their interaction with the environment.
Children undergo a similar order or stages of development. But because of varied circumstances
the children are exposed to, the rate at which children go through the stages differ. Some
children may even miss the later stages of cognitive development.
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How Learning Occurs
To explain how cognitive development happens, Jean Piaget introduced the concepts of schema,
assimilation and accommodation.
Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing
knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one
aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.
When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was referring to
increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.
Do you remember still remember the classroom situation when your teacher instructed you to
get one-fourth (¼) sheet of paper? What is the first thing that you will think of?
Answer: _____________
Why is it that it is automatic to you that you think of that even if your teacher only instructed you
to get ¼? Why is it that you also know that you should write your name on the top and at least
number your paper 1 to 10.
Why is that?
Because of the schema in you! The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which
includes preparing to take the quiz, writing your name, and numbering it from 1 to 10. This is an
example of a type of schema called a 'script.' Whenever you are instructed to get ¼, you retrieve
this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.
The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He
described how - as a child gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.
Piaget believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas - even before they
have had many opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive
structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us.
Assimilation is a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and
incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge. For example, when a young child
learns the word dog for the family pet, he eventually begins to identify every similar-looking
canine as a dog. The child has extended his learning, or assimilated, the concept of dog to include
all similar 4-footed friends.
Accommodation is another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas
in light of new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves
altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New
schemas may also be developed during this process.
Let’s have an example:
What is the first thing that comes to your mind when you call this thing?
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Answer: _____________
If you answered “USB”, you are now about to experience “accommodation” because the proper
name of it is “Flash Drive”. It has been your schema to call it “USB” but now you are provided
new information and experiencing the process called accommodation.
*Equilibration. Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children
progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new
knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from
one stage of thought into the next.
Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Milestones
Sensorimotor Learns through reflexes, senses and movement- actions on the
(0 – 2 years) environment. Begins to imitate others and remember events; shifts to
symbolic thinking. Comes to understand that objects do not cease to
exist when they are out of sight – object permanence. Moves from
reflexive actions to intentional activity.
Preoperational Begins about the time the child starts talking, to about seven years old.
(2 – 7 years) Develops language and begins to use symbols represent objects. Has
difficulty with past and future – thinks in the present. Can think through
operations logically in one direction. Has problems understanding the
point of view of another person.
Concrete Operational Begins about first grade, to early adolescence, around 11 years old. Can
(7 – 11 years) think logically about concrete (hands-on) problems. Understands
conservations and organizes things into categories and in series. Can
reverse thinking to mentally “undo” actions. Understands the past,
present and future.
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Formal Operational Can think hypothetically and deductively. Thinking becomes more
(12 years and up) scientific. Solves abstract problems logically. Can consider multiple
perspectives and develops concerns about social issues.
A. Sensorimotor Stage
During this period, infants are
busy discovering relationships
between their bodies and the
environment. The child relies on
seeing, touching, sucking,
feeling, and using their senses to
learn things about them-selves
and the environment. Piaget calls
this the sensori-motor stage
because the early manifestations
of intelligence appear from
sensory perceptions and motor
activities. Through countless
informal experiments, infants
develop the concept of separate
selves, that the infant realizes
that the external world is not an extension of themselves. Infants realize that an object can be
moved by a hand (concept of causality), and develop notions of displacement and events. An
important discovery during the latter part of the sensorimotor stage is the concept of "object
permanence".
Object permanence is the awareness that an object continues to exist even when it is not in view.
In young infants, when a toy is covered by a piece of paper, the infant immediately stops and
appears to lose interest in the toy. This child has not yet mastered the concept of object
permanence. In older infants, when a toy is covered the child will actively search for the object,
realizing that the object continues to exist.
After a child has mastered the concept of object permanence, the emergence of "directed
groping" begins to take place. With directed groping, the child begins to perform motor
experiments in order to see what will happen. During directed groping, a child will vary his
movements to observe how the results will differ. The child learns to use new means to achieve
an end. The child discovers he can pull objects toward himself with the aid of a stick or string, or
tilt objects to get them through the bars of his playpen.
B. Preoperational Stage
This stage begins around age two
and lasts until approximately age
seven. During this period, children
are thinking at a symbolic level but
are not yet using cognitive
operations. The child's thinking
during this stage is pre (before)
operations. This means the child
cannot use logic or transform,
combine or separate ideas. The
child's development consists of
building experiences about the
world through adaptation and working towards the (concrete) stage when it can use logical
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thought. During the end of this stage children can mentally represent events and objects (the
semiotic function), and engage in symbolic play.
The key features of the preoperational stage include:

B.1 Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at one time. When a
child can focus on more than one aspect of a situation at the same time they have the ability to
decenter. During this stage children have difficulties thinking about more than one aspect of any
situation at the same time; and they have trouble decentering in social situation just as they do
in non-social contexts.
B.2 Egocentrism
Children’s thoughts and communications are typically egocentric (i.e. about themselves).
Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view.
According to Piaget, the egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly
the same as the child does.
Play
B.3 Play
At the beginning of this stage you often find children engaging in parallel play. That is to say they
often play in the same room as other children but they play next to others rather than with them.
Each child is absorbed in its own private world and speech is egocentric. That is to say the main
function of speech at this stage is to externalize the child’s thinking rather than to communicate
with others. As yet the child has not grasped the social function of either language or rules.
B.4 Symbolic Representation

The early preoperational period (ages 2-3) is marked by a dramatic increase in children’s use of
the symbolic function. This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for
something other than itself. Language is perhaps the most obvious form of symbolism that young
children display. However, Piaget (1951) argues that language does not facilitate cognitive
development, but merely reflects what the child already knows and contributes little to new
knowledge. He believed cognitive development promotes language development, not vice versa.
Pretend (c) Play
B.5 Pretend (Symbolic) Play
Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policeman), and may play
these roles with props that symbolize real life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary
playmate. In symbolic play, young children advance upon their cognitions about people, objects
and actions and in this way construct increasingly sophisticated representations of the world.
C. Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage is
the third in Piaget's theory of
cognitive development. This stage
lasts around seven to eleven years
of age, and is characterized by the
development of organized and
rational thinking.
Piaget considered the concrete

stage a major turning point in the
child's cognitive development,
because it marks the beginning of
logical or operational thought.
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The child is now mature enough to use logical thought or operations (i.e. rules) but can only apply
logic to physical objects (hence concrete operational).
Seriation
Transitivity Classification
Concrete Operational Stage
Decentering Reversibility
Conservation
C.1 Conservation
Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance
changes. To be more technical conservation is the ability to understand that redistributing material does
not affect its mass, number, volume or length.
C.2 Classification
Piaget also studied children's ability to classify objects – put them together on the basis of their color,
shape etc. Classification is the ability to identify the properties of categories, to relate categories or classes
to one another, and to use categorical information to solve problems. One component of classification
skills is the ability to group objects according to some dimension that they share. The other ability is to
order subgroups hierarchically, so that each new grouping will include all previous subgroups.
For example, he found that children in the pre-operational stage had difficulty in understanding that a
class can include a number of sub-classes. For example, a child is shown four red flowers and two white
ones and is asked 'are there more red flowers or more flowers? A typical five year old would say 'more
red ones'.
C.3 Seriation
The cognitive operation of seriation (logical order) involves the ability to mentally arrange items along a
quantifiable dimension, such as height or weight.
C.4 Decentration
The child’s ability to focus on more than one dimension of an object at a time. Children at this stage would
understand that the smaller but wider glass contains the same amount of fruit juice with the content of
the tall but narrower glass. These children not only focus on the height of the glass but also considers its
width. The width of the narrow glass compensates the shortness of its height.
C.5 Reversibility
In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the third stage is called the Concrete Operational stage.
During this stage, which occurs from age 7-12, the child shows increased use of logical thinking. One of
the important processes that develops is that of Reversibility, which refers to the ability to recognize that
numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition. For example, during this
stage, a child understands that a favorite ball that deflates is not gone but can be filled with air again and
put back into play.
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C.6 Transitivity
In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the third stage is called the Concrete Operational Stage.
During this stage, which occurs from age 7-12, the child shows increased use of logic or reasoning. One of
the important processes that develops is that of Transitivity, which refers to the ability to recognize
relationships among various things in a serial order. For example, when told to put away his books
according to height, the child recognizes that he starts with placing the tallest one on one end of the
bookshelf and the shortest one ends up at the other end.
D. Formal Operational Stage

The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age twelve and lasts into
adulthood. As adolescents enter this
stage, they gain the ability to think in an
abstract manner by manipulating ideas
in their head, without any dependence
on concrete manipulation. At this point
in development, thinking becomes
much more sophisticated and
advanced. Kids can think about abstract
and theoretical concepts and use logic
to come up with creative solutions to
problems. Skills such as logical thought,
deductive reasoning, and systematic
planning also emerge during this stage.
Piaget believed that what he referred to as "hypothetical-deductive reasoning" was essential at this stage
of intellectual development. At this point, teens become capable of thinking about abstract and
hypothetical ideas. They often ponder "what-if" type situations and questions and can think about
multiple solutions or possible outcomes.
Teaching Implications of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

The influence of Piaget on classroom instruction tells that teachers need to be creative in
imparting knowledge and skills to the students to engage them in a more active learning environment,
curriculum, and instructional materials should complement each other.
Some considerations for teachers to ponder upon in their teaching

practices.
• Consider the stage characteristics of the student’s thought processes in
planning learning activities.
• Use a wide variety of experiences rather than drill on specific tasks to
maximize cognitive development.
• Do not assume that teaching adolescence or adulthood guarantees the ability to perform formal
operations.
• Remember that each person structures each learning situation in terms of his schemata; therefore
no two persons will derive the same meaning or benefit from a given experience.
• Individualize learning experience so that each student is working at a level that is high enough to
be challenging and realistic enough to prevent excessive frustration.
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• Provide experience necessary for the development of concepts before the use of these concepts
in language.
• Consider learning as an active restructuring of thought rather than an increase in content.
• Make full use of wrong answers by helping the students analyse his or her thinking to retain the
correct elements and revise the miscomprehensions.
• Evaluate each student in terms of improving his or her performance.
• Avoid overuse of materials that are so highly structured that creative thought is discouraged.
• Use social interaction in learning experiences to promote increase in both interest and
comprehension.
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Evaluation:
Activity 1: Identify the mental abilities the learners possess based on the descriptions provided. Encircle
the number of the description.
1. Estela claims that 5 +3 and 3 + 5 are both equal to 8.
2. Joy peeped under the cabinet where her ball rolled in.
3. Bryan reads the day of the week in the calendar from left to right.
4. Evan argues that the 4Ps program has more disadvantages than advantages.
5. Karen insists that her rules must be followed.
6. Ben does not envy his brother who received five one-peso coins while he has one five-peso coin.
7. Jim grabs the milk bottle of the baby next beside her.
8. Renz explained that the cold water comes from the block of ice that melted.
9. Mary groups tamarind, santol, kamias, and pomelo together.
10. Three-year old Kim names the picture of a bird correctly.
Activity 2: Answer the following questions.

1. As a future teacher in elementary or secondary school, how will you apply your knowledge of
the process of equilibration and Piaget’s stages of development in your classroom? How does
this knowledge influence your selection of what to teach and how to teach it?
2. Why does a teacher prefer the use of more concrete instructional methods in teaching to
encourage students to think formally?
______________________________________________________________________________
References:
Aquino, Avelina M., Ed.D., 2015, Facilitating Human Learning, 2 nd Ed., REX Bookstore, Inc.
Lucas, Maria Rita D. PhD and Corpuz, Brenda B., PhD. 2014, Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Processes, 4 th Ed., LORIMAR
Publishing, Inc.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/formal-
operational.html#:~:text=The%20formal%20operational%20stage%20begins,Inhelder%20%26%20Piaget%2C%201958
https://www.webmd.com/children/piaget-stages-of-development#1
https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
PED05 Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
LESSON 5 – VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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Overview:
The sociocultural theory of cognitive development was formulated by
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist. Its major argument is that
social interaction mediated through language, is a key factor in the child’s
development. From the child’s interaction with others, concepts and social
behavior are formed (social level), and he or she later thinks internally. The
theory underscores his belief that children’s thinking is affected by their
knowledge of social community.
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Objectives:
1. Explain sociocultural theory of cognitive development.
2. Determine the major terms and concepts related to the theory.
3. Cite classroom implications of the theory.
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Discussion:
Social Interactions Language
Cognitive
Development
Cultural Context
The Role of Social Interaction

Vygotsky emphasized the significance of social interaction in one’s thinking. Children
from the more knowledgeable others (MKO), which include parents, teachers, adults, and more
advanced peers. An MKO is anyone who has higher skill level than the learners in terms of the
specific task to perform. For instance, a child who is guided by verbal clues by the mother learns
how to tear off the plastic covering of the cookies. In another case, children playing “Chinese
Garter” abide by the rules that they agree with. This is called a co-constructed process as the
negotiated to create an acceptable rule on how to play the game.
The Role of Language

Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that language plays a central role in the theory of human
cognitive development. Language plays multiple roles, including culturally shaping the overt
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behaviour (our physical actions, verbal behaviour, facial or bodily gestures. Ex: Shaking hand
with a friend, dancing, walking) of individuals as well as influencing their covert behaviour
(behaviour that cannot be observed by anyone or other person. Ex: thinking, dreaming
(Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000). Through language, human cognitive development and higher
mental functions are initiated from social communications.
Egocentric
Speech
•Thinking not •Speech
related to speech internalized
•Thinking in the •Thinking out
loud •Speech guides
form of images, thinking,
emotions •Talking to behavior
Social or oneself
external Speech Inner Speech
1. Social or External Speech. At this stage (birth to approximately age 3), thinking is not
related to speech at all. Instead, thinking is primarily in the form of images, emotions,
and impressions. For instance, a child would tell “Dede” or milk if hungry. At this stage,
speech is merely a tool to make things happen in the external world.
2. Egocentric Speech. At this stage, (approx. 3 – 7), children think out loud or talk to
themselves as they are doing something. For instance, Roy plays with his car toy car and
it does not run, he tells himself “Sira na”. Called egocentric speech, it is used to guide
behaviour and help to solve problems. It is an important part of transition to inner speech
and more sophisticated thinking.
3. Inner Speech. Inner speech is soundless speech or thought. Here, speech becomes
internalized and is used to guide thinking and behaviour. It eventually leads to higher
levels and more complex types of thinking.
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Zone of Proximal Development
Scaffolding as Intervention to reach the Zone of Proximal Development

The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do
without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled
partner. Thus, the term “proximal” refers to those skills that the learner is “close” to mastering.
Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a particular
task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve
the task.
To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are
encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:
1. The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a more
knowledgeable other).
2. Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and practice their
skills.
3. Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer,
to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.
The "More Knowledgeable Other"

The concept of the "more
knowledgeable other" is quite simple
and fairly self-explanatory. The more
knowledgeable other is someone who
has a higher level of knowledge than the
learner. It is the more knowledgeable
other who provides critical guidance and instruction during the sensitive learning period. While
a child might not yet be capable of doing something on their own, they are able to perform the
task with the assistance of a skilled instructor.
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Social Interaction
This more knowledgeable other is often a parent, teacher, or another adult, but this is not
always the case. In many instances, peers provide valuable assistance and instruction. During
certain periods of a child's life, they may even look to peers more than they look to adults. The
teen years, when forming an identity and fitting in is so critical, is just one example. Kids at this
age often look to their peers for information about how to act and how to dress.
Vygotsky believed that peer interaction was an essential part of the learning process. In
order for children to learn new skills, he suggested pairing more competent students with less
skilled ones.
Scaffolding
When children are in this zone of proximal development, providing them with the
appropriate assistance and tools gives students what they need to accomplish the new task or
skill. These activities, instructions, tools, and resources are known as scaffolding. Eventually, the
scaffolding can be removed and the student will be able to complete the task independently.
While scaffolding is now almost synonymous with the zone of proximal development, it
is not a concept that was initially introduced by Vygotsky. Instead, this component has been put
forth by other researchers who have expanded upon the original theories.
Applications of ZPD in the Classroom

It is important to realize that the zone of proximal development is a moving target. As a
learner gains new skills and abilities, this zone moves progressively forward.
Teachers and parents can take advantage of this by continually providing educational
opportunities that are a slight stretch of a child's existing knowledge and skills.
By giving children tasks that they cannot quite do easily on their own and providing the
guidance they need to accomplish it, educators can progressively advance the learning process.
For Example: A teacher in an experimental psychology course might initially provide

scaffolding for students by coaching them step-by-step through their experiments. Next, the
teacher might slowly remove the scaffolding by only providing outlines or brief descriptions of
how to proceed. Finally, students would be expected to develop and carry out their experiments
independently.
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Evaluation:
Activity 1: Answer the following questions. Write your answer on the space provided on the
next page.
1. “Playing house” is part of kid’s childhood experiences. How beneficial is it in cognitive
development?
2. Research has shown that learners from low income groups are at a disadvantage
because parents cannot provide educational toys and entertainment media. How
important are these technological tools at an early age?
3. Recall one difficult lesson you were taught in the past. If you were the teacher then,
what scaffolds should you have used to facilitate learning?
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College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 6 – INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

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Overview:
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge
enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive
theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process.
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Objectives:
1. Explain the major features of the information processing theory.
2. Cite teaching implications derived from the theory.
3. Identify teaching strategies that facilitate the storing and retrieving of information.
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Discussion:
Information Processing Theory
Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy.
The terms used in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this
analogy. In fact, those who program and design computers aim to make
computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the human
mind.
Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change
(as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve
information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives
shape what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information
processing theory.
IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment
through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will
continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and the long-term
memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or
"remembered" when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details.
We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.
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TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
• General vs. Specific
This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one.
• Declarative
This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They
may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a
nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
• Procedural
This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson
plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
• Episodic
This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation
• Conditional
This is about "knowing when and why” to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.
Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term memory and
the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external
information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema,
concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).
These three primary stages in IPT are:

Encoding - Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
Storage - The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
Retrieval - The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated
for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.
What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a
stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the
memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information
processing revolve around the three main stages in the memory process, namely: Sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
The Information Processing Model (lifted from tcd.ie
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Sensory memory is the state in which the stimuli sensed (heard, seen,
touched, smelled, tasted) are temporarily held in mere seconds for the
information to be processed further. As a person is presented a lot of stimuli
at a given time, the sensory memory serves as a filter on what to focus on.
When viewing a basketball game, you can see one person focused on the one
in possession of the ball, while another one's attention is centered on the guard's action.
Selective attention is the individual's ability to choose and process information while disregarding
the other stimuli or information. Schunk (2012) cited several factors that influence attention:
1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information.
2. The similarity between competing tasks or source of information.
3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as influenced by prior knowledge.
4. The ability to control and sustain attention.
As the information held in the sensory memory is for about three seconds only, unattended
stimuli are forgotten. The information the person gave attention to is transferred to the short-
term memory.
Short-term memory serves as a temporary memory while the information

is given further processing before it is transferred to long-term memory,
Information in this stage is 15 20 seconds only and can hold from 5 to 9 bits of
information only at a given time. Before the information is transferred to long-
term memory, there are two strategies involved: rehearsal and encoding or
elaboration
Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of the information to sustain its maintenance in

the short-term memory. The use of ABC songs and number songs serve as rehearsal strategies
among children Meanwhile, elaborative rehearsal is the process of relating the new information
to what is already known and stored in the long-term memory to make the new information
more significant. One scheme is organization, the process of classifying and grouping bits of
information into organized chunks. For instance, memorizing the mobile number involves
grouping the 11 numbers into sets of numbers, like XXXX. - YYY-ZZZZ. Arranging information into
hierarchies is another scheme. For instance, flora and fauna are grouped into phyla/divisions,
classes, orders, families, genera, and species.
The use of mnemonic devices is also helpful. Mnemonic devices elaborate information in
different ways. For instance, learners are taught the acronym "ROYGBIV” to recall that red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet are the rainbow colors. To differentiate stalactite
and stalagmite found in caves, learners are taught that the “g" in stalagmite tells that the calcium
carbonate deposit is located on the floor (ground), whereas the letter “c” in stalactite gives away
its location (ceiling).
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Imagery is a strategy that involves the memory taking what
is to be learned and creating meaningful visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic images of the information (Schunk, 2012). For
instance, it is easy to locate Apayao in the Philippine map
because it looks like the bust of a former president of the
country. An example of kinesthetic imagery is associating that
the left hand on the waist illustrates a less than value; the right
hand on the waist indicates a greater than value.
Information that is not rehearsed and maintained in the short-term memory is forgotten. It also
involves the relationship between the new information and what is already known.
The long-term memory is the storehouse of information transferred

from short-term memory. It has unlimited space. Varied contents of
information are stored, namely:
1. Semantic memory is the memory for ideas, words, facts, and concepts
that are not part of the person's own experiences. Individuals with good semantic memory
include those who know the capital of countries in the world, many words and their meanings,
the order of planets, and other facts.
2. Episodic memory includes the memory of events that happened in a person's life, connected
to a specific time and place. An example is a student who can explain the details of his or her
most embarrassing moment (who were involved, when, where, why, and how it happened).
3. Procedural memory accounts for the knowledge about how to do things. A student teacher
who recalls the step-by-step process of presenting the lesson to the class has procedural
memory.
4. Imagery refers to mental images of what is known. For instance, beginning readers use
configuration clues, shape, and appearance of words to help in word recognition. Associating a
familiar image to the name of a newly introduced person, like giraffe, guides one to recall the
name of Gigi, a long-necked beautiful lady.
Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory

Retrieving information from long-term memory involves locating the
information and transferring it to the short-term memory to be used for a
purpose. Studies (e.g., Bransford & Johnson, 1972) have shown that a
person remembers a lot less of the information stored in long-term
memory. The quality of how the information was stored influences its access and retrieval.
Retrieval of information from the long-term memory entails bringing to mind the previously
acquired information to understand some new input or to make a response. Schunk (2012)
mentioned two ways of information retrieval. One is recalling, which is either free recall or cued
recall. In free recall, the person has to rely on the information previously learned purely by
memory. In contrast, the cued recall involves the provision of cues and clues to the person to
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help in the recall of the information. It is observed that whatever hints the person used to encode
the information, the same would likewise facilitate its retrieval. Elementary learners can recall
the letter in the alphabet if its image is accompanied by a picture of an object whose name begins
with that letter.
Recognition is another way to retrieve information. It involves providing the learner's with stimuli
as choices to make a decision or judgment. In a multiple-choice test item, the difficulty of
retrieving the correct answer is reduced because the examinees have options to choose from.
Guided by their long-term memory, they would eliminate those options that are not plausible, to
eventually arrive at the correct answer.
Based on the primacy and recency effect principle, the information presented close to the start
of the experience, and those that are close to the end are most remembered by learners.
Forgetting
Forgetting is the loss of information, either in the sensory memory, short-term

memory, or long-term memory. Interference is the process that occurs when
remembering certain information hampered by the presence of other information
(Woolfolk, 2016). At the sensory memory, there are other stimuli that bombard
the person. As one stimulus is just the focus at a time, others are forgotten. In the
short-term memory, as rehearsal and maintenance activities are made, incoming
new information interferes. The same phenomenon happens in long-term
memory. When new information interferes with recalling the previous information, it is called
retroactive interference. If the old information interferes with recalling the new information, it is
referred to as proactive interference.
In addition to interference, time decay is another factor for the loss of stored information from
long-term memory. Unused information decays and is forgotten. However, some theorists argue
that stored information in the long-term memory is never lost. To illustrate, a learner who had a
traumatic experience in learning a Mathematics skill may deliberately want to forget the previous
learning concepts. After several years, when those skills are required to learn another subject,
those concepts surface again if there is conscious effort to review them.
This situation is also related to the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. It involves the failure to
retrieve the information, but the person is sure the information is known. The person feels that
retrieval is imminent, but there is difficulty to directly it at the moment.
TEACHING IMPLICATIONS OF THE IPT

Following the concepts and principles associated with the IPL, Woolfolk (2016), Slavin
(2018), and Schunk (2012) recommend the following to be used in helping learners
to understand and recall what they have learned:
1. Make sure you have the students’ attention. Develop a signal that tells students to stop what
they are doing and focus on you. Make sure that students respond to the signal. Practice using
the signal.
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2. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone.
3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic.
4. Regain the attention of individual students by walking closer to them, using their names, or
asking them a question.
5. Help students to separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important
information. Summarize instructional objectives to indicate what students should be learning.
Relate the material you are presenting to the objectives as you teach.
6. When you make an important point, pause, repeat, ask a student to paraphrase, note the
information on the board in colored chalk, or tell students to highlight the point in their notes or
readings. The use of mnemonic devices could assist learners’ retention of the information
learned.
7. Help students to make connections between new information and what they already know.
Review prerequisites to help students bring to mind the information they will need to understand
new material.
8. Provide for repetition and review of information. Using graphic organizers for rehearsals can
help.
9. Present material in a clear and organized way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear.
Advance organizers can help.
10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. For instance, in teaching new words, help students
to associate the new word to a related word they already understand.
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Evaluation:
Activity 1:
Cite a teaching implication of the information process given in the Table. One is done for you.
Process Teaching Implication/s

1.1. Be sure that the learners’ senses are functioning
1. Information is received
through the senses. 1.2.
2.1.
2. If information is not
relevant, it decays. 2.2.
3. If information goes to 3.1.

the Short-Term Memory
and if given attention and 3.2.
is found to be relevant, it is
sent to the Long-Term
Memory.
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4.1.
4. If information is not
properly encoded,
4.2.
forgetting occurs.
Activity 2
1. Why is attention essential in the learning process? Give some ways to sustain the interest of
the learners.
2. Why are drills and exercises necessary in the teaching-learning process? Is this connected to
the concept of teaching to the point of mastery?
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References:
Publishing, Inc.
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College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 7 – PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY

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Overview:
Problem solving and creativity to hand in hand. You need to be creative in order to solve a
problem. It is unfortunate that these are adequately taught in the classroom.
A necessary element of a problem is the presence of an obstacle or block toward the attainment
of that goal. For this reason, problem-solving happens when an individual strives to eliminate the
obstacle that hinders the attainment of the desired goal.
“If no obstacle hinders progress toward a goal, attaining the goal is no problem”
- Reese, 1994
Objectives:
1. Describe problem solving and creativity.

2. Explain the stages/processes of problem solving and creativity
3. Differentiate common problem-solving strategies
4. Determine the role of transfer of learning in problem solving and creativity
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Discussion:
Before we dive in to our lesson, try to solve this match puzzle.
Instruction: Remove 8 matches to leave just two squares, which should not touch.
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Block/Obstacle
Desired Goal
Current State
Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the
problem solver does not initially know a solution method. This definition consists of four major
elements, namely:
1. Cognitive - problem solving occurs within the problem solver’s cognitive system and can
only be inferred indirectly from the problem solver’s behavior (including biological changes,
introspections, and actions during problem solving.
2. Process - problem solving involves mental computations in which an operation is applied to

a mental representation, sometime resulting in the creation of new mental representation.
3. Directed - problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.
4. Personal - problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so that
what is a problem for one problem solver may not be a problem for someone who already knows
a solution method.
Types of Problems
Problems can be classified in many ways. For one, it could either be well-defined or ill-defined
problem. Robertson (2015) described a well-defined problem as one that “provides all the
information required to solve it.” Jonassen (1997) considered it as a problem requiring the
application of a definite number of concepts, rules, and principles being studied to a constrained
problem situation. The problem tells you everything you need to know to solve it or whether you
need to work out for yourself what you are supposed to do. Likewise, it tells you whether or not
there is only one answer or solution or there are many solutions.
For example, in the problem 4 + 3 = 7, you are certain that you are to add the two numbers and
there is only one correct answer. You also know that you are 100% right or wrong. Nevertheless,
there are instances that you have everything to know to solve the problem, but you cannot still
arrive at the answer, In Mathematics, for instance, you know the MDAS (multiplication, division,
addition, and subtraction) rule, but applying them may not be clear to you.
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An ill-defined problem, meanwhile, is one where the initial state of the problem is given but what
the goal state looks like is not provided (Robertson, 2015). It is typically situated in and emergent
from a specific context, where an aspect or aspects of the problem scenario are not well
specified, the problem descriptions are not definite, or the information needed to solve it is not
expressed in the problem statement (Chi & Glaser, 1985). Because of this situation, there may be
many correct answers as the learners have divergent circumstances and experiences related to
the emergent context. An example of an ill-defined problem is, "You notice that the population
of your town is tremendously increasing and you are alarmed of the consequences. What could
you do?" This problem is ill-defined as it is a complex problem. The solution to the problem is
multifaceted as there is an interplay of social, political, religious, and psychological issues to
consider in arriving at the solution. The solution is one town varies to another town as their
circumstances are different. Thus, there is the possibility of getting many correct responses.
Approaches to Problem Solving
Several approaches have been advanced to explain the problem-

solving abilities of individuals (Anderson, 1996). One is the behaviorist
approach, reproducing a previous behavior to solve a problem. A
person faced with a problem situation is likely to use the same solution
previously used and was effective in the past. To prepare the garden
before planting, pick mattock is traditionally used because the Crop
Science teacher told it so.
In contrast to the reproductive approach advocated by behaviorists, the Gestaltist approach to

problem solving is a productive process. Kohler's experiments with apes underscored the role of
insight in the restructuring of a person's representation of the problem. As the individual ponders
upon how to solve a problem, a flash of an idea comes to mind, which eventually provides the
best solution to the problem. This situation illustrates the Eureka moment, the moment a person
realizes or solves something." A Science student saw a rural folk using akapulko extract (Cassia
alata Linn.), locally known as andadasi (lloko), as an antifungal treatment. The extract was used
on his face to treat tinea flava. After three days of treatment, the extract did not only treat the
main problem, but it also peeled off dead cells in the face. The student concluded that the plant
extract also has exfoliating effect.
Problem-Solving Cycle
Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single skill, but rather an overlapping of some
thinking skills, as logical thinking, lateral thinking. synthesis, analysis, evaluation, sequencing,
decision-making, research, and prediction are likely to be involved (Teare, 2006). Metacognitive
thinking. Creativity, and transfer of learning interplay in the process. These cognitive and
metacognitive skills are expressed in the several models proposed to undertake problem solving.
The IDEAL model is adopted to explain the process of problem solving.
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Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities.
Problem solving initially identifies the problem or potential problems.
Determining the causes of the problem is necessary to pinpoint the major
cause to prioritize in resolving the problem. Considering problems with a
positive outlook serves as opportunities to do something creative. When
problems are treated as opportunities, the result is often an unexpected
solution or invention. It can be beneficial to actively attempt to identify
problems that have gone unnoticed. People who identify important problems and treat them as
opportunities are often among the most successful in their fields.
For instance, your parents have informed you that in the next semester you will stop for the
meantime as they are financially incapable to send you to college. It is just one semester more;
just the Practice Teaching that you need to fulfill to finish your degree. The problem is how would
you financially support your last semester in school. This dilemma is the current state of the
situation.
Step 2: Define goals.

The second aspect of the model requires you to carefully define
your goals in the problem situation. This is different from
identifying the problem. For a problem situation, a group of
people could identify the existence of a general problem and
agree that it represents an opportunity but still disagree about
what their goals should be. Different goals often reflect differences in how people understand a
problem. For the problem situation above, the goal is to continue with your college education
because it is just one semester before graduation. Another student with the same problematic
situation may have a different goal. Different goals can lead people to explore very different
strategies for solving a problem.
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Step 3: Explore possible strategies.
This step involves looking back at your goals and finding possible strategies
to solve the problem. It entails the recall of procedural knowledge from
long-term memory. As you think of alternative ways to solve the problem,
ascertain that the chosen alternative fits the goal set. Bransford and Stein
(1993) argued that even when people explicitly try to solve problems, they
often fail to use appropriate strategies. Some strategies in problem solving are very general and
apply to almost any problem, whereas there are strategies that are very specific and applicable
only to a few or limited cases.
Many strategies are suggested to make problem solving easier; however, the two main strategies
used are heuristic and algorithm. Heuristic is a "rule of thumb, a mental shortcut that works for
solving a problem," especially those about decision-making tasks. Although there is no 100%
certainty that the strategy is successful or adequate to solve the problem, it is most of the time
effective and efficient in solving the problem. Because of its efficiency, heuristic can lessen the
time to solve and can reduce cognitive load. A student who is always late to class may use the
alarm clock in the cellphone to signal it is time to wake up. It may work effectively at times, but
if one is in deep slumber, the person may not be awakened by the alarm. In another example, a
Mathematics student may know the application of the mnemonics FOIL (First Outside Inside Last)
and can solve problems involving simple numbers, but may not be able to answer correctly
because he or she does not know the multiplication rules of signed numbers.
Besides, Newell and Simon (1972) suggested three general problem-solving heuristics for moving
from a given state to a goal state: random trial and error, hill climbing, and means-ends analysis.
Random trial and error involves randomly selecting a legal move and applying it to create a new
problem state and repeating that process until the goal state is reached. Random trial and error
may work for simple is not efficient for complex ones. Hill climbing involves selecting the legal
move that moves the problem solver closer to the goal state. Hill climbing will not work for
problems in which the problem solver must take a move that temporarily moves away from the
goal as is required in many problems. The means-ends analysis involves creating goals and
seeking moves that can accomplish the goal. If a goal cannot be directly accomplished, a sub-goal
is created to remove one or more obstacles.
The second major strategy is an algorithm, the use of a series of steps to solve a problem. The
elements of an algorithm include clarity of what is to be done, defined inputs, outputs, results,
and preconditions. Computer programming is a classic example using an algorithm. The use of
"If..., then..." propositions tells the precondition for the next step to progress. If the next step
does not satisfy the condition, it will not result in the expected goal. Doing the standard
algorithms for the fundamental operations in Mathematics requires doing the same steps
repeatedly with each place value column in a given problem. For instance,
3012
+ 1224
4236
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In teaching origami (the art of paper folding), steps presented should be followed one at a time
to arrive at the correct art piece. When withdrawing money using the ATM card, one needs to
follow the electronic cues to succeed.
Step 4: Anticipate Outcomes and Act.

Once a strategy is selected, the person must anticipate what outcomes will likely be. The
expectation is the solution to the problem. When assured that the goal will be solved, the person
acts or implements the planned strategy. For example, a learner anticipates that the answer to
the problem 23 x 21 should be more than 400 but not 500. It should not be less than 400 because
20 x 20 is already 400. This assurance gives the person the confidence to implement the planned
strategy. When a person withdraws money through the ATM, the anticipation is that money will
be churned out by the machine. That motivates the person to follow the steps as cued by the
machine.
Step 5: Look Back and Learn.

What transpired after the planned strategy to solve the problem is proof of its effectiveness. In
metacognition, this step is the evaluation of the actions or solutions implemented. If the results
give the correct answer, then the strategy used is good and effective. If the answer is wrong, then
metacognitively ask. "What went wrong?" The answers could be in the details missed during the
analysis of the problem, the inappropriateness of the heuristic or algorithm strategy, or in the
miscalculations. Realizing the errors committed along the way will make the person understand
the mistakes committed. Learning from the experience will make the person more careful next
time a similar task is given.
Barriers to Problem Solving

In the search for alternative strategies to solve the problem, the individual finds difficulty in
coming up with a potential solution because of varied reasons. Anderson (1996) listed some of
these and they are as follows.
1. Mental Set
The situation when the person becomes fixated on the use of a strategy that previously produced
the right solution, but in the new situation it is not the application. In metacognitive thinking, this
is conditional knowledge.
Example: An English learner may be fixated on the rule that the past tense of the verb is usually
formed by adding -d, -ed to the base form. Thus, given an irregular verb like GO, the answer given
could be “goed”
2. Functional Fixedness
This is a phenomenon when individuals fail to recognize that objects can have other purposes,
aside from the traditional use they were made for. A learner may think that a spoon is only used
for eating. However, in instances when no bottle opener is available, a spoon is usually used to
open a bottle of soda drink.
3. Failure to distinguish Relevant and Irrelevant Information.
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This happens when a situation arises during the analysis of a problem when an individual cannot
discern the relevant information needed in planning the strategy to solve a problem. When the
irrelevant information is given more emphasis in the process, it will lead to a wrong solution to
the problem.
An example is a problem of what to include in a bulletin announcement to help someone who lost
a bunch of keys. Children were asked which details to include were relevant, like where and when
it was lost, how many keys were there in the keyholder, which keys were these, who owned it,
where the key holder was bought, when it was bought. Some children may not be able to identify
the relevant from the irrelevant ones.
Creativity in Problem Solving

As pointed out in the earlier discussion, mental set and functional fixedness are stumbling blocks
in problem solving. These obstacles hamper the consideration of new alternative ways to solve a
problem. They illustrate the lack of creativity on the part of the person. Theorists agree that
creative problem solving must be taught and encouraged among learners.
What is creativity? Plucker et al. (2004) defined creativity as "the interaction among aptitude,
process, and the environment by which an individual or group produces a perceptible product
that is both novel and useful as defined within a social context.” The definition underscores the
role of aptitude, process, product, novelty, and use. According to Plucker et al. (2004), aptitude
represents a dynamic set of characteristics (e.g., openness, tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility in
thinking, perseverance, motivation for creativity, need for self-expression), as well as abilities
pertaining to the creative process, that can be shaped by experience, learning, and training
(Grohman & Szmidt, 2013). Others call aptitude as creative attitude.
Varied theories explain how creativity is developed (Kozbelt et al., 2010). One is the
developmental theory, which advocates that creativity develops over time (from potential to
achievement). It is mediated by an interaction of person and environment. It emphasizes the
influence of the place and family structures—the role of play and support during the transitions.
Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states that ideational thought processes are
foundational to creative persons and accomplishment. Individuals who discern remote
association, and are good at divergent/convergent thinking and conceptual combination and
metacognitive processes are likely to be more creative. The stage and componential process of
creativity point out that creative expression proceeds through a series of stages or components.
The process can have linear and recursive elements. It highlights the importance of preparation,
incubation and insight, and verification and evaluation in creative thinking.
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Framework for Creative Thinking

A common framework for creative thinking processes is described by Torrance (1979). Each
aspect is defined below, along with ways to facilitate the respective aspect by using key words
and application activities.
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Fluency refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions to a problem.
Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering information that is learned.
Key words: compare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list, match,
name, outline, paraphrase, predict, summarize.
Application activities:
Trace a picture and label the parts.
Outline an article you find on your topic.
How many uses can you think of for a clothes hanger?
List 15 things that are commonly red or contain red.
Example: Apple, blood, brick, caboose, cherry, Christmas stocking, exit sign, fire alarm,
flag, heart, red nose reindeer, rose, tomatoes, wagon.
Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities or realms of
thought. It involves the ability to see things from different points of view, to use many different
approaches or strategies.
Key words: change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpolate, interpret,

predict.
Application ideas
What would happen if ... there were no automobiles?
How would a ... dog look to a flea?
How is _______ like ________?
How would you feel if ... you were invisible for a day?
How would you group the ideas about "red" into categories?
Example: Fruit, safety features, vehicles.

Once categories are identified, fluency may be further demonstrated by generating
more ideas about the idea red within categories. Even a modest attempt could
result in the following lists, recognizing that the creative thinking process may shift
the mind in a spiral way between all four aspects of creativity.
Red fruit Red safety features Red vehicles

apple exit sign caboose
cherry fire alarm fire truck
raspberry stop sign tricycle
tomatoes tail lights wagon
Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by providing more detail. Additional detail and
clarity improve interest in, and understanding of, the topic.
Key words: appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test.
Application ideas
Tell your neighbor about your last family trip using as many details as possible.
What can you add to_______ to improve its quality or performance?
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Describe all the possible characteristics of the red quality in a wagon.
Example: Shade, finish, texture, uniformity.
Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual. It involves synthesis or
putting information about a topic back together in a new way.
Key words: compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct,
reorganize, revise.
Application ideas
Find an original use for_________.
What would be the strangest way to get out of bed?
Design a new___________ that is better than the one you have.
Write an unusual title for the ideas about red.
Example: Revolutionary "Red" Representation.
Preparation is the initial stage of the creative process. It involves becoming passionate about
an idea, which motivates you to gather materials (read, observe, compare). The information
gathered seeps subconsciousness, eventually remaining there momentarily. The next step is
incubation, the period where you unconsciously continues to work on the idea, but there is no
active attempt to solve the problem. The mind just wanders until an idea takes form. In the next
step, illumination, a sudden idea your mind. The subconscious thoughts find the connection with
the consciousness, resulting in the AHA and Eureka moments. Once the idea is concretized, it
needs to be verified. Verification, the final stage of the creative process, involves working with
the idea into a form that can be tested and, once proven, it could be communicated to others.
A research conducted by Calubaquib (2013) illustrates the creative problem solving. One time,
she heard from a fellow teacher about the parents' personal experience about the potency of
cat's whiskers or balbas pusa (Orthosiphon aristatus Linn.) as antihypertension treatment. As it
sounded interesting to her, she read more about the plant and the use of its extract. She
wondered about what other studies could be made out of the plant extract. At this stage, she
was in the preparation stage.
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While thinking of a novel use for the balbas pusa extract, she was informed by the fellow teacher
after two weeks that not only did her blood pressure stabilize, but she also observed that there
were intestinal worms in her stool. This phase was the incubation stage.
As Calubaquib was intrigued, a bright idea came to her mind. Balbas pusa cannot only act as
antihypertension but also be an antihelminthic. This is the illumination stage as she realized
about the possibility of using the plant extract to expel internal parasites. Following that idea,
she planned using swine as experimental animals to prove the antihelminthic potency and
efficacy of the plant extract, a study for her master's degree in chemistry. This is the verification
stage of the creative problem-solving process.
Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity

Problem solving is made easier if the learner can retrieve declarative knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and conditional knowledge from the long-term memory. If the problem-solving task
requires convergent answers, problem solving can be quite easy if the learner has mastered
algorithm techniques. Nevertheless, even if the problem-solving tasks require divergent thinking,
if there have been experiences in the past that enabled the learner to answer such task, solving
them could be successfully done.
The phenomenon that past experiences in solving problems are carried over or used in solving
new problems is referred to as the transfer of learning. Transfers of learning are categorized into
the following:
1. Near transfer and far transfer. When learners apply their knowledge and skills in
situations and contexts that are very close to those in which the learning occurred, it is near
transfer. When learners perform a skill in a context very much different from the context it was
learned, it is far transfer (Johnson, 1995). Learners find it easier to add three-digit numbers after
they have learned the lesson (near transfer). However, they find difficulty employing the same
skill when the task is transformed into a word problem solving (far transfer).
2. Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use their prior knowledge or
experience in solving a new problem situation, it is a positive transfer. When the previous
learning or skill obstructs the acquisition of a new skill or the solving of a problem, it is negative
transfer. Using a new model of the same brand of Android mobile phone is easy as the features
are most likely the same (positive transfer). However, when a new phone using IOS technology
is bought, there will be difficulty in using it the first time (negative transfer).
3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When learners use their learning at a lower
level to perform a higher level of cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs. It is the goal of the spiral
progression in the K to 12 curriculum. When learners use the same skill to solve a related but
different problem of the comparable level of difficulty after learning it, lateral transfer happens
For example, Ruben finds it easy to add five-digit numbers as he has mastered adding numbers
such skill can be transferred to a similar situation. Meanwhile, the theory of configuration,
anchored on Gestalt psychology, emphasizes the important role of perception in the transfer of
learning. It argues with or without carrying over in the previous grade (vertical transfer). Likewise,
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Ruben relies on his knowledge of finding ratios in Mathematics in acquiring the skill of finding the
sea germination rate in a Science laboratory task (lateral transfer).
4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past learning or prior experience does not
enhance or hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.
In the transfer of learning, Glass and Holyoak (1986) stated that the problem-solving process
involves several aspects from which three major facets tend to emerge: the solver's
representation of the problem, the solver's background experiences, and the solver's
understanding of the problem." They explained that the learner begins the problem-solving
process as soon as enough information about the problem space is generated to gain an
understanding of the problem. The process involves associating concepts from previous
experiences to solve a similar problem. The learner is prompted by the potential answer when
he or she recognizes similarities between the previous experience and the new task.
Several theories explain how learning is transferred from

one situation to another (Woolfolk. 2017). The theory of
identical elements by Thorndike maintains that the quality
of transfer depends on the identical elements that are
common in both past and new situations. If the content,
method, goal, and attitude in the two situations are similar,
the transfer is facilitated. The theory of generalization,
developed by Judd, states that skills learned are transferrable to other situations. It argues that
if the learner has fully understood the lesson and mastered the competency, there is a greater
likelihood that such skill can be transferred to a similar situation. Meanwhile, the theory of
configuration, anchored on Gestalt psychology, emphasizes the important role of perception in
the transfer of learning. It argues that what is learned in one situation can be shifted directly to
another situation only when similarity in content, method, or attitude of the two situations is
perceived by the learner.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories

Teachers can benefit from the teaching principles associated with cognitive learning theories.
Along with problem solving, Woolfolk (2017) recommended the following:
1. Ask students if they understand the problem. Let them separate relevant from irrelevant
information. Test their awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize the problem
by diagramming or drawing it. Ask them to explain the problem to someone else.
2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Suggest several different
possibilities yourself, and then ask students to offer some. Give students practice in taking and
defending different points of view on an issue.
3. Let students think; do not just hand them solutions. Offer individual problems as well as group
problems, so that each student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if students have
good reasons for “wrong” solutions to problems. If students are stuck, resist the temptation to
give too many clues. Let them think about the issue overnight.
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4. Help students to develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Tell them to think out
loud as they solve problems. Ask: “What would happen if?” Keep a list of suggestions.
5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to solve problems.
In teaching creativity, Woolfolk (2017) also recommended the following strategies in teaching
learners:
1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce attempts at unusual solutions to problems,
even if the final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for projects or modes of presentation
(written, oral, visual or graphic, using technology).
2. Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting opinions, make sure that nonconforming
students receive an equal share of classroom privileges and rewards.
3. Encourage students to trust their judgement. When students ask questions that you think they
can answer, rephrase or clarify the questions and direct them back to the students. Give ungraded
assignments from time to time.
4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity is some form. Avoid describing the feats of
great artists or inventors as if they were superhuman accomplishments. Recognize creative efforts
in each student’s work. Have a separate grade for originality on some assignments.
5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative projects. Here are some examples:
collect “found” materials for collages and creations – buttons, stones, shells, paper, fabric, beads,
seeds, drawing tools, clay – and try flea markets and friends for donations. Have mirrors and
pictures for drawing faces. Make a well-lighted space available where children can work on
projects, leave them, and come back to finish them. Follow up on memorable occasions (field
trips, new events, holidays) with opportunities to draw, write, or make music.
6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class brainstorming sessions whenever possible. Model
creative problem solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class problems. Encourage students
to delay judging a particular suggestion for solving a problem until all the possibilities have been
considered.
7. Capitalize on new technology, ask the students to use free apps to create visual maps of ideas
and share their ideas with others.
To promote the transfer of learning, the following teaching-learning strategies are helpful
(Woolfolk, 2017):
1. Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so they can support their learning. At the
beginning of units or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a few of the major
assignments, and some common problems that students have in learning the materials for that
unit. Ask parents for suggestions about how their child’s interests could be connected to the
curriculum topics.
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2. Give families ideas on how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or apply
what they learn from school. This strategy promotes a near transfer of learning. Ask family
members to include their children in some projects that require school learning.
3. Show connections between learning in school and life outside of school. Ask families to talk
about and show how they use the skills their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies, or
community involvement projects.
4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies. Focus on one learning strategy at a time.
Ask families to simply remind their children to use a particular strategy for a homework that week.
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Evaluation:
1. One of your students in Art made a drawing entitled “Fishes”, with only sea waves seen at the
bottom of the frame. When you questioned the title because you could not see any fish in the
drawing, your student answered that they were under the water. How would you react? Why?
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References:
Publishing, Inc.
http://www.bethel.edu/~shenkel/PhysicalActivities/CreativeMovement/CreativeThinking/Torrance.html
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 8 – PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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Overview:
In the parlance of psychology, behaviorism is concerned with the behavioral changes and the role
of the environment in these changes. Behaviorists claim that nurture is crucial in the process of
acquiring knowledge (Dastpak et al., 2017). One known behaviorist is John B. Watson (1982), who
writes that the ultimate goal of behaviorism is to derive laws to explain the relationships existing
among antecedent conditions (stimuli), behavior (responses), and following
conditions (rewards, punishments, or neutral effects). The theory of
behaviorism may be dichotomized into associationism and reinforcement.
In this lesson, you will meet Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well know his
work in classical condition or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned
experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the
dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.
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Objectives:
1. Explain how behaviors are learned according to the Pavlovian and Watsonian theories
2. Determine the salient processes and phenomena of the Pavlovian and Watsonian
theories
3. Cite classroom implications of the association theory.
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Discussion:
Before we dive in to our lesson, I want you to think of a teacher that is most unforgettable to you
in elementary or high school. What kinds of rewards and punishments did he/she apply in your
class? For what behaviors were the rewards and punishments for? Write your answer on the
table below:
Student Behavior Reward/Punishment
1.
2.
3.
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The theory of Pavlovian conditioning involves a set of multilayered procedures. Initially, the food
is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In psychology, any environmental event that affects
the organism is called stimulus. The food is an unconditioned stimulus because it leads to an
unconditioned response (UCR) without any learning taking place. The immediate salivation of the
dog is referred to as the UCR, The UCS and UCR are considered unlearned stimulus-response units
termed as reflexes.
Conditioning the dog requires recurrent presentation of a neutral

stimulus paired with the UCS. For instance, the buzzer was sounded
repeatedly but caused no dog's salivation at all. However, when the
buzzer came with the food, the dog salivated. Later, by just hearing the buzzer, the dog salivated.
The buzzer is now called a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited the salivation of the dog, now
termed as a conditioned response (CR).
When applied in the classroom, the use of the pointer or stick to whip unruly learners in class
may affect other pupils. They may associate the stick with whipping, thus triggering fear. Later,
merely hearing or seeing a stick in class may elicit fear among them. This is why expert educators
in the country suggest that classroom teachers should avoid using the stick as pointers. Instead,
they are advised to use their open palm to pointing words on the chalkboard
Other Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
According to Buoton and Moody (2004), when the CS is

repeatedly unreinforced, that is, without the UCS, the CR will
eventually diminish in intensity and effect. This phenomenon is
called extinction. When the extinction of learning passes
through time, the CR may still be restored (Robins, 1990). This
recovery-after-extinction phenomenon is termed as spontaneous recovery. This means that
extinction does not completely involve unlearning of the pairings (Redish et al., 2018).
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Generalization is another phenomenon in Pavlovian's
classical conditioning. When the dog salivates by just
merely hearing the buzzer, it is likely to elicit similar CS
when it hears a faster or a slower beat of the buzzer or
any device with quite a similar sound. Harris (2006),
however, pointed out that the more different the new
stimulus to the CS, the lesser generalization surfaces.
When the dog recognizes that the sound of the buzzer is

different from other stimuli (i.e., the sound of a bell), thus
salivating only upon hearing the buzzer, discrimination
occurs. This is a phenomenon when the subject reacts
differently to other stimuli. This means that it can decipher
the CS very strongly.
Watsonian Conditioning
During the dawn of the 20th century, a psychologist, greatly influenced by Pavlov, rose and aimed
to revolutionize the status of American psychology. He was John Broadus Watson (1878-1958).
According to Watson, if Pavlov is successful in proving associationism between stimulus and
response, people can also have such ability to associating certain feelings, behaviors, instances,
and even symbols. He theorized that unlearning and relearning can occur. He also posited that
humans are born with emotional responses such as love, fear, and hate.
Perhaps the most popular conditioning experiment he did was “Little Albert.” Here, Watson tried
to prove that emotions can be learned. Initially, Albert played with the white rat, thus not eliciting
any fear upon seeing the rat. After some time, Watson and his partner, Rosalie Rayner,
accompanied the appearance of the white rat with a banging sound, so Albert was conditioned
to fear the rat. Later, Watson and Rayner accompanied the presentation of the rat with other
objects. They found out that Albert also feared the occurrence of the objects even without the
rat's presence. This experiment became the anchor of Watson's belief that learning happens by
association.
Association
Stimulus Behavioristic
Learning
Response Repetition
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Evaluation:
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Activity 1
1. Teacher Clariza is a neophyte teacher in a public elementary school. She always complains
about her noisy and unruly pupils. Telling them to keep quiet in a soft manner has not been
effective. Suggest some tips on how she can condition her class to keep still by applying the
Pavlovian and Watsonian Behaviorism theories.
2. How do teachers form a good and lasting image to their students by using classical
conditioning?
3. Why is it important for in-service teachers to learn the concept of conditioning in teaching a
learner-centered classroom?
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References:
Publishing, Inc.
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of Teacher Education
LESSON 9 – THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM

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Overview:
Within the first half of the 21st Century in the United States,
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) was prominent because of
his laws of learning, primarily under the umbrella of
associationism or connectionism (Mayer, 2003). It is mainly
concerned with the connection between the stimulus and response (S-R). According to Karadut
(2012), Thorndike is one of the few psychologists who focused on education. In proving his
findings, Thorndike used an experimental approach in measuring a student's academic
achievement. Thorndike believed that forming associations or connections between sensory
experiences and neural impulses results in the prime type of learning. The neural impulses, called
responses, are behaviorally manifested. He believed that learning often occurs by trial and error
(selecting and connecting).
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Objectives:
1. Identify the primary laws of learning postulated by Edward Thorndike

2. Describe how behaviors are learned according to Thorndike’s laws of learning
3. Provide teaching implications of Thorndike’s laws of learning
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Discussion:
Thorndike's basic ideas rest in the laws of exercise and effect. Firstly, the Law of Exercise is
divided into two parts: the law of use and the law of disuse. The law of use means that the
frequent recurring of the response to a stimulus strengthens their connection. Meanwhile, the
law of disuse means that when a response is not made to a stimulus, the connection's strength
is weakened or even forgotten.
Drills are vital to acquire and sustain learning. In the very words of Thorndike (1913), bonds
between stimuli and responses are strengthened through being exercised frequently, recently,
and "vigorously." Learners usually learn faster when they often apply a certain skill (e.g., spelling
new terms) and tend to forget when such a response does not recur over some time (Karadut,
2012). This explains why pianists, for example, repeatedly practice their pieces before their
performances. By practicing (law of use), they ensure that they will play correctly. If they do not
exercise playing their pieces (law of disuse), they may encounter difficulty in smoothly
accomplishing their performances.
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Thorndike later revised the Law of Exercise. He confessed that by merely practicing, one does
not bring improvement in learning. Practicing, according to Thorndike, is not sufficient. Hence,
the constant practice must be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner. In short,
the pupil must be motivated to learn.
The Law of Effect, meanwhile, emphasizes that if a response is followed by a “satisfying” state of
affairs, the S-R connection is strengthened; if a response is followed by an "annoying state of
affairs, the S-R connection is weakened. Thus, Thorndike posited that satisfiers and annoyers are
critical to learning. This explains why teachers give favorable comments to students who show
pleasant behavior in class, when such ego-boosting comments satisfy the learners, the higher the
chance that they will repeat such behavior.
The third law of learning also has something to do with boosting human motivation. The law of
readiness states that if one is prepared to act, to do so is rewarding, and not to do so is punishing.
In short, before learning commences, one must be physically, emotionally, mentally, and
psychologically prepared. This law is illustrated when a learner knows the answer to a particular
question, thus raising his or her hand. Calling him or her to recite is rewarding. However, when
the teacher calls on a student who does not know the answer may be annoying on his or her part,
thus weakening the bond of stimulus and response. The law of readiness is also used in
sequencing topics. When students are ready to learn a particular action (in terms of
developmental level or prior skill acquisition), then behaviors that foster this learning will be
rewarding. Meanwhile, when students are not ready to learn or do not possess prerequisite skills,
then attempting to learn is punishing and even becomes a waste of time.
Other Laws of Learning
Thorndike also observed that the first thing learned has the strongest S-R bond and is almost
inerasable. He calls this as the Law of Primacy. It implies that learning a concept or skill again is
more difficult than the first time one has learned it. This explains why teachers correct students
who have misconceptions in a new lesson. The application part in a lesson plan or daily lesson
log is strategically situated before generalizing a concept so that teachers can detect the
misunderstandings of the students in a certain lesson. When the misconception is not corrected
for the first time, that may lead to habit formation. In English Language Teaching, a recurring
mistake among learners is called fossilization (Demirezen & Topal, 2015). Relearning the correct
concept later will be confusing to the students or even time-consuming. Hence, the first (prime)
learning experience should be as functional, as precise, and as positive as possible so that it paves
the way to the more comfortable learning experiences to follow.
As much as possible, teachers provide activities that come with extreme relevance to the
learners. This teaching principle is primarily rooted in Thorndike's Law of Intensity. Thorndike
believed that exciting, immediate, or even dramatic learning within the real context of the
students would tremendously facilitate learning. Hence, the Law of Intensity implies that
exposing the students in real- world applications of the skills and concepts makes them most
likely to remember the experience. The current K to 12 curriculum of the country immerses senior
high school students to a short-time real-world application called "on-the-job training” or OJT.
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They receive a foretaste of how the skills and concepts
they learn in class are applied in the real workplace. In that
sense, the learning experience becomes more intense and
will most likely be remembered.
The concepts or skills most recently learned are least

forgotten. This is the gist of the Law of Recency. Thus,
when learners are isolated in time from learning a new
concept, the more difficult it is for them to remember. For
instance, in a foreign language class (e.g., French), it is easier to recall and recite those which are
learned minutes ago than those which were taught the other month. This implies that teachers
should facilitate learning by providing the learners with a clear connection between the previous
and the current learning experience. Letting the students mention or apply the formerly learned
skill or concept in the new learning experience may refresh their memory, thus the higher the
probability of forgetting
Thorndike also mentioned that humans tend to show an almost similar response to an entirely
different stimulus if, on recurring instances, that stimulus has slight changes compared to the
previously known one. Thorndike coins this as the Principle of Associative Shifting. For example,
to teach pupils to add a three-digit number, teachers let them master the adding of a one-digit
number first. As they solve increasing numbers, pupils will tend to associate the response to the
previously paired S-R.
The transfer occurs when the contexts of learning have identical

elements and call for similar responses. Thorndike called is as
generalization. This implies that not only skills should be taught in
one isolated topic, but also that other related subjects or topics
should provide opportunities for the students to apply them. In a
Social Studies class, it is not enough to teach the students to read
maps, but it is better if they are also taught to calculate miles from
inches. Later, that skill is reinforced when they will create their maps and map problems to solve.
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Evaluation:
Activity 1
1. In what ways do the theories of Pavlov and Thorndike become similar and different?
2. If you were to critique the Laws of Learning postulated by Thorndike, what may be its
3. Do you think the laws of learning can be applied to all ages and subject areas? Why or why
not?
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College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 10 – SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

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Overview:
One of the most popular behavioral theorists of all time is B.F. (Burrhus Frederic)
Skinner (1904–1990). He postulated the operant conditioning. Classical
conditioning refers to the association of stimuli whereas operant conditioning
actively involves the subject's participation. The subject in operant conditioning
has a choice to respond. In other words, operant conditioning is the type of
learning whereby learning occurs as a consequence of the learner's behavior.
B.F. Skinner made this conclusion after

experimenting on animals through his
Skinner's box, a device that modified the
animal's behavior. In his experiment, he put
a rat in a box with a lever, a bowl, and a
closed chamber. If the lever was pushed, the
chamber opened and dispensed food.
Unconscious about this mechanism, the rat
accidentally pushed the lever, and the food
was dispensed. The rat learned that continuously pushing the lever could open the food
dispenser to the bowl. Skinner termed the food in such an experiment as the reward.
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Objectives:
1. Describe reinforcement and punishment in the context of operant conditioning.

2. Differentiate the characteristics of the theories of classical and operant conditioning.
3. Analyze a research article about operant conditioning.
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Discussion: Reinforcement
Skinner's operant condition is dichotomized into a
reinforcement and punishment. Each category is also
divided into positive or negative. Reinforcement is
defined as something that strengthens the behavior or
is sometimes called as the response strengthener
(Schultz, 2006). Positive reinforcement is defined as
the addition of a pleasant stimulus. This is exactly what is illustrated in the Skinner's box. The
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dispensed food became a positive reinforcement that caused the rat to continually push the lever
(behavior).
Positive reinforcement has many classroom applications. Preschool teachers stamp three big
stars on the hands of their pupils who may have behaved throughout the class, achieved the
highest score, or become friendly within the academic time. To maximize the use of the positive
reinforcement, however, teachers should make it clear to their students why they are stamping
them three stars and what the three big stars mean. In that way, the pupils will be motivated to
repeat their pleasant behavior and can eventually gain the reward the stamp.
By building operant conditioning techniques into lesson

plans, it is easily possible to teach children useful skills
as well as good behaviors. By using symbols like smiley
faces, “Good Work” stamps, stickers, and even simple
ticks when a child does something correctly, you are
encouraging them to repeat such satisfying work
further down the line.
Meanwhile, negative reinforcement is taking

something away from a situation that subsequently
increases the occurrence of the response. In other
words, it is taking away an unpleasant consequence to cause the behavior to happen again. Some
stimuli that often function as negative reinforcers are loud noises, criticisms, annoying people,
and low grades, because actions that remove them tend to be reinforcing. For instance, Teacher
X wants her Grade 3 class to master the multiplication table, so she gives the pupils a problem
set on multiplication. After a set is solved, they would recite the multiplication table from
multiples of 5 to 10. If they master the multiplication table, the problem set is withdrawn, thus
strengthening the behavior-perfectly reciting the multiplication table.
Schedule of Reinforcements
According to Skinner (1938), as mentioned by Zeiler (1977), schedules refer to when
reinforcement is applied (Skinner, 1938; Zeiler, 1977). The table below summarizes the
reinforcement schedules according to Skinner.
Reinforcement
Description Classroom Application
Schedule
Reinforcement is given every Students receive feedback
time the animal gives the after each response
Continuous Schedule
desired response. concerning the accuracy of
their work.
Reinforcement is given Students are not called on
irregularly as the animal gives every time they raise their
Intermittent Schedule
the desired response. hands, not praised after
working each problem, and
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not always told they are
behaving appropriately.
The time interval is constant Appreciating a student’s
from one reinforcement to the answer is done for the first
Fixed Interval
next. response made after 5
minutes.
The time interval varies from The first correct response
occasion around some average after 5 minutes is reinforced,
Variable Interval
value. but the time interval varies.
(e.g., 2, 3, 7, or 8 minutes).
Reinforcement is given Teacher gives praises to a
depending on the number of student after reciting the fifth
Ratio Schedule
correct responses or the rate of correct answer.
responding
Every nth correct response is Every 10th correct response
Fixed Ration
reinforced, where n is constant. receives reinforcement.
Every nth correct response is A teacher may give free time
reinforced, but the value varies periodically around an
Variable Ration
around an average number n. average of five completed
assignments.
Punishment
Operant conditioning also includes punishment, whose
main aim is to weaken the response. However,
punishment does not necessarily eliminate the behavior;
when the threat of punishment is removed, the punished
response may recur (Merrett & Wheldall, 1984). Skinner
believed that positive punishment is an addition of an
unpleasant stimulus to decrease the behavior. For
instance, Max, a Grade 6 pupil, had been neglecting his
Math assignments. He completely hated washing the
dishes. To decrease such behavior of neglecting his assignments, her parents assigned him to
wash the dishes after dinner. After some time, Max eventually became more diligent to complete
his assignments in Math. The addition (positive) of the work Max hates (punishment) decreases
the likelihood for the behavior (neglect of doing the assignments) to occur.
Negative punishment, meanwhile, is the removal of rewarding stimulus to decrease the behavior.
For example, Jennie, a Grade 3 pupil, is always noisy in a group activity. Her teacher calls her
attention and warns her that she could not participate in the subsequent fun activity if she
continues to behave noisily. Joining in a fun activity is a pleasant stimulus. Withdrawing it
(negative) is believed to reduce noisy behavior (punishment).
Relationship of reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement Punishment
(increasing the behavior) (decreasing the behavior)
Positive Adding something to increase the Adding something to decrease the
(adding) behavior behavior
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Negative Subtracting something to increase the Subtracting something to decrease the
(subtracting) behavior behavior
Alternatives to Punishment
Punishment is often applied in schools to address disruptions. Maag (2001) enumerated some
common punishments like loss of privileges, removals from the classroom, in- and out-of-school.
Suspensions, and expulsions. Nonetheless, there are several alternatives to punishment (see
Figure 18). The primary advantage of this alternative over punishment is that it shows the student
how to behave adaptively.
Allow the
Change the Extinguish the Condition and
unwanted
discriminative unwanted incompatible
behavior to
stimuli behavior behavior
continue
* Reinforce learning
* Move misbehaving * Have student who * Ignore minor
progress, which
student away from stands when he or misbehavior so that
occurs only when a
other misbehaving she should be sitting is not reinforced by
student is not
students continue to stand teacher attention.
misbehaving.
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____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 11 – NEO-BEHAVIORISM
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Overview:
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable

and measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly
learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and
the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.
As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill in the gap between behaviorism
and cognitive learning beliefs. It is called neo-behaviorism. Notable psychologists that
contributed much in the development of neo-behaviorism included Edward Tolman and Albert
Bandura. The neo-behaviorists were more self-consciously trying to formalize the laws of
behavior. They believed that some mediating variables into the established stimulus-response
theory contribute much to learning
__________________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:
1. Distinguish behaviorism by Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner to Neo-Behaviorism

by Tolman and Bandura
2. Relate the salient features of Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and Bandura’s social-
cognitive theory to actual teaching.
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Discussion:
Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
Purposive learning encapsulates Edward Tolman's theory. He insisted that all behavior is directed
because of a purpose. Hence, all behaviors are focused on achieving some goals by cognition-an
intervening variable. For Tolman, a behavior is never merely the result of mindless S-R
connections. He further believed that "mental processes are to be identified in terms of the
behaviors to which they lead." In other words, his intervening variables are tied to observable
behaviors.
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In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes
for 17 days. The first group of rats was fed (rewarded)
every time they found their way out. The second group of
rats was non-reinforced. The rats did not receive any food
from days 1 to 10 even if they have seen the end point.
Later, it was observed that in the first 10 days, the rats
developed a cognitive map. Hence, from day 11 onward,
they were motivated to perform and look for the end point faster than the first group to find
food because they were hungry.
From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a behavior because it has a
purpose or a goal. It has also led to the birth of latent learning a form of learning that occurs
without any visible reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. In addition,
latent learning occurs every time an organism sees a reason to perform or show it. For instance,
a 4-year-old boy observed his father in using the TV remote control. When he would be left alone
and had the opportunity to turn on the TV using the remote control, he could easily demonstrate
the learning.
Another distinctive feature of the purposive behaviorism is the coining of the term "cognitive
map." According to Tolman, it is a mental illustration of the layout of the environment. It is
believed that everything in our cognitive map influences our interaction with the environment.
Hence, making our cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning
Tolman's Other Salient Principles

1. Behavior is always purposive.
By this, he meant that all behavior is ignited to accomplish a specific goal. In its purest sense, a
demonstration of learning is the outcome of possessing a purpose to show it.
2. Behavior is cognitive.
The expectations that underlie and guide behavior are cognitions. This means that an organism
is mindful of the connections between specific actions and certain outcomes (cognitive map).
Such mental map is developed by expanding the experiences, coupled with the stimuli and
rewards. Notably, Tolman considered a cognition as an abstraction or a theoretical invention. He
believed that cognitions should only be inferred from behavior, not through introspection.
3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies.
Tolman also underscored the role of reinforcement in learning. As previously stated, learning,
according to Tolman, deals with connections between stimuli and expectancies or perceptions,
representations, needs, and other intervening variables. Because expectancies develop in
situations in which reinforcement is possible, the role of reinforcement is primarily one of
confirming expectancies. The more often an expectancy is established, the more likely it is that
the stimuli (signs) associated with it will become linked with the relevant significate (expectancy).
____________________________________________________________________________________
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Under the social learning theory, learning occurs

within the social context and by observing and
copying others' behavior or imitation (Akers &
Jensen, 2006,). Albert Bandura is the proponent of
this theory, where modeling is a crucial component.
Modeling refers to a change in one's behavior by
observing models (Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978).
Historically, modeling was equated with imitation, but modeling is a more inclusive concept
(Mussen, 1983).
Bandura's theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because of the influence of cognition
in his theory. He is one among few behaviorists who believed that humans process information
through cognition. The term self-efficacy has bridged social learning theory and cognitive
psychology. Self-efficacy is defined as one's evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish or
perform an action in a particular context. Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as capable,
or useful, in dealing with the world and with other people.
Fundamental Principles of Social Learning Theory:

1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior.
- this is in contrast to what other behaviorists; for them, a change in behavior is always an
indication of learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model.
- that model possesses characteristics (i.e., intelligence, physical aura, popularity, or
talent) that a learner finds attractive and desirable. Admiration plays an essential role in
imitating a particular behavior of the model. This explains why speech teacher recite a
crucial sound first, then guide the learners until they can recite the sound correctly by
themselves.
3. An observing person will always react to the one being imitated depending on whether the
model is rewarded or punished.
- If the model receives rewards, the imitator copies the behavior; and if the former is
punished, the latter will most likely avoid copying the behavior.
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different.
- Bandura made a demarcation line between performing and acquiring a behavior. One
can acquire the behavior by observing someone but may opt not to perform it until the
context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning.
- Social learning may occurs successfully when learners interact with their co-leaners and
models (Mourlam, 2013). Leaning in isolation may dampen self-efficacy. This means that
copying behavior involves the guiding of one person’s behavior by another person, such
as when an art instructor gives guidance and corrective feedback to an art student who is
____________________________________________________________________________________
attempting to draw a picture. With copying behavior, the final “copied” response is
reinforced and thereby strengthened.
6. Learning is self-regulated.
- Bandura noted that self-regulation occurs when individuals observe, assess, and judge
their behavior against their standards, and subsequently reward and punish them.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously.
- Vicarious learning is acquired from observing the consequences of others’ behavior. For
instance, when a model is given praises and rewards, the observer may likely repeat the
copied behavior because he or she feels the same satisfaction, too.
8. Learning may be reinforced by the model or by others.
- Compliments coming from the model may strengthen the occurrence of the behavior.
Similarly, when a person is praise by his or hew peers because of a change in behavior, he
or she may show an increase in that behavior.
Components of Successful Modeling
1. Attention. To meaningfully perceive relevant behaviors, one should pay attention. At any given
moment, one can attend to many activities. The characteristics of the model and the observer
influence one's attention to models. This explains why teachers make use of bright colors or large
fonts in their instructional aids for modeling to snatch the attention of the learners.
2. Retention. Paying attention to something should result in retention that requires cognitively
organizing, rehearsing, coding, and transforming modeled information for storage in memory.
Rehearsal also serves a vital role in the retention of knowledge. This is a mental review of
information. Sometimes, the observer retains the information through association and cognitive
pattern. In a dance class, for instance, an observer counts 1-2-3-4 and 5 with corresponding steps
to store the dance steps in his or her memory. Rehearsal without coding and coding without
rehearsal are less effective.
3. Production. To strengthen learning through observation, one needs to translate the visual and
symbolic conceptions into observable behavior. Subsequent production of this behavior indicates
an increase in learning. Bandura noted that observers refine their skills with practice, corrective
feedback, and reteaching. Sometimes, problems in producing modeled behaviors arise not only
because information is inadequately coded but also because learners experience difficulty
translating coded information in memory into overt action. For example, a child may have a basic
understanding of how to tie shoelaces but not be able to translate that knowledge into behavior.
Teachers who suspect that students are having trouble demonstrating what they have learned
may need to test students in different ways.
4. Motivation. Influencing observational learning is motivation. Individuals perform actions they

believe will result in rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be responded
to negatively (Schunk, 1987). Persons also act based on their values, performing activities they
value and avoiding those they find unsatisfying, regardless of the consequences to themselves or
others. Motivation is a critical process of observational learning that teachers promote in various
ways, including making learning interesting, relating material to student interests, having
____________________________________________________________________________________
students set goals and monitor goal progress, providing feedback indicating increasing
competence, and stressing the value of learning.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation:
Activity 1:
State a personal message derived from the key concepts of Tolman’s purposive behaviors.
Number 1.1. is done for you.
Key Concept of Tolman’s

Theory on Purposive Personal Message
Behaviorism
1.1. To make my students do what I require them to do, I should
1. Learning is always purposive state the goal clearly and specifically.
and goal-directed 1.2.
2. Cognitive maps help 2.1.

students perform well.
Organisms select the shortest 2.2.
or easiest path to achieve a
goal.
3.1.
3. Latent learning stays with
the individual until needed. 3.2.
4. Learning is influenced by 4.1.

expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and 4.2.
other internal variables like
hunger.
Activity 2:
Choose 2 key concepts of Bandura’s social learning theory then state how you apply the concept
as you teach.
2 Key Concepts of Albert

How I apply it in my teaching
Bandura
1. 1.1.
1.2.
2. 2.1.
2.2.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
References:
Publishing, Inc.
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 12 – JEROME BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY, GESTALT THEORY, and DAVID

AUSUBEL’S SUBSUMPTION THEORY
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Overview:
Coming from the works of Piaget and Vygotsky, the
constructivist theory of learning posits that learners derive
meaning and form concepts out of their own experiences.
In the process, the learner reflects on the experience and
then creates new understanding and knowledge from a
new experience. It the experience is related to a previous
one, the learner revises the knowledge and understanding
and discards whatever information is deemed irrelevant.
Using questioning, exploring, and assessing, the learner constructs and reorganizes knowledge.
Therefore, the learner is an active creator of knowledge and understanding. For instance, a small
child who touches the flame of a candle soon realizes that it is hot, and that touching it hurts.
From that experience, the child learns that the flame is hot; that the flame can burn the skin.
Now, the child, with this realization, evades and no longer attempts to touch a lit candle again.
These concepts are derived from the child's personal experience.
______________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:
1. Explain the major features of constructivism by Bruner, Gestalt, and Ausbubel.
2. Cite teaching implications derived from the theories.
3. Digest research article on constructivism relative to teaching.
______________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:
Bruner's Constructivist Theory

Jerome Bruner believes that learning is an active process where learners can create
new ideas or concepts using their current or past knowledge about things, events,
or situations. Learners can select information, transform them into new ones, add-
up to them. to make decisions or create new sets of understanding. When properly
guided and motivated, learners can even go beyond the information given to them.
This is a time when learners creativity on concept formation is made evident
because they are given opportunities to make hypotheses and tests them through further
discovery. Very remarkable from Bruner is his emphasis on categorization in learning.
"To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize,

to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize.”
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Categorization involves perception, conceptualization, learning, decision-making, and making
inferences. Bruner encourages teachers to allow students to discover concepts by themselves
through and activities that allow them to explore and experiment. The learners should never fear
committing mistakes or errors while discovering because everything that happens in between is
a part of their construction of new ideas or concepts.
Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1)
predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so
that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to
present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for
structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing
the manipulation of information.
Gestalt Theory
Gestalt came from a German term that means pattern or form. Gestalt psychology was
introduced by Max Wertheimer. He is a German psychologist who believed that a whole is
more than just the totality of its parts. The focus of this theory was on grouping.
a. Similarity - elements that have the same or nearly similar features are grouped
together
b. Proximity - elements that are near to each other are grouped together
c. Continuity - elements that define smooth lines or even curves are also grouped
together
d. Closure - elements that fill up missing parts to complete an entity are grouped
together
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When teachers present information or concepts to their learners, instructional strategies should
use these laws of grouping. The strategies a teacher uses will help the learners to discover if there
are elements hindering them from learning new concepts. Teachers assist learners in removing
these barriers to learning so that new knowledge can be stored and effectively used in varied
situations
Gestalt theory looks into an individual's way of problem solving. A person can solve a problem if
he has a good understanding of the overall or general structure of the problem. Understanding a
problem means knowing and seeing the whole and its parts. Gestalt theory also looks into how
people organize their learning by looking at their experiences both inside and outside of the
classroom. When the instructions given are related to their experiences, learning effectively takes
place.
Major principles of Gestalt theory of learning (Koftka, 2013):

1. The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying nature of a topic or a problem.
2. Gaps, incongruities, disturbances are an essential stimulus for learning.
3. Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: similarity, proximity, continuity,
closure.
Subsumption Theory
Developed by David Ausubel. This theory emphasizes how individuals learn
large amounts of meaningful material from both verbal and textual
presentations in a school setting. The use of advance organizers is a useful way
of learning. Subsumption means to put or include something within something
larger or more comprehensive. A person learns something from what he
already knows. An individual's cognitive structure consists of all his learning
experiences that make up his knowledge of facts, concepts, and other data. Sometimes, some of
these are forgotten because they are integrated into larger structures of knowledge.
Before a new set of knowledge can be learned, a person's cognitive structure should be
strengthened. Using advance organizers is one way of strengthening one's cognitive structure
because they enable the learner to see a general picture of the concept even before looking into
its details or parts. Advance organizers enable a learner to connect new information with what
he or she already knows about it and also helps the learner to see the interrelationships of
concepts to each other.
The Subsumption Theory presents four learning processes where a piece of new knowledge is
assimilated into an existing cognitive structure (Ausubel et al., 1978):
1. Derivative subsumption: a new concept learned is an example of a concept that you have
already learned before.
2. Correlative subsumption: a new concept learned is an extension or modification of a
previously learned information.
3. Superordinate subsumption: what was learned are specific examples of a new concept.
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Combinatorial subsumption: a new concept is combined with a prior known concept to
enrich both concepts.
______________________________________________________________________
References:
Publishing, Inc.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1c75/083a05630a663371136310a30060a2afe4b1.pdf
https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/constructivist/#:~:text=Bruner%20(1966)%20states%20that%20a,%2C%20and%2
0(4)%20the%20nature
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
MODULE 13 – COOPERATIVE AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

______________________________________________________________________________
Overview:
Cooperative learning allows many opportunities to develop
learners' interpersonal skills. It would give them experiences
on how they can properly interact with the others and at the
same time listen and learn from their groupmates.
Cooperative learning is also a type of constructivist teaching
because it allows the creation and innovation of knowledge
through group interaction and active participation of each
member.
Cooperative learning has the following features:

1. Students are actively engaged, thus, developing in each member, a cooperative spirit.
2. Each member is challenged to give his or her best because it can create a healthy and
competitive spirit.
3. It allows learners creativity and innovation because they interact with people their age,
peers, or classmates.
4. It develops positivity like open-mindedness, humility, and give-and-take attitude, as well
as listening skills.
5. It reduces pressure from work and creates a positive classroom atmosphere.
______________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:
1. Determine the importance of cooperative and experiential learning in K to 12 classroom.
2. Relate the features of collaborative and experiential learning to constructivism.
______________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:
When teachers use cooperative learning as an instructional strategy, proper guidance should be
established. Clear instructions should be given before the groupings. Expectations and outputs
should be made clear so that the learners will not be wasting their time during their groupings.
Cooperative learning usually follows three stages:
1. Teachers assign learners to groups. Sometimes, learners can also be given a chance to
choose their groupmates depending on the nature of the task given. Teachers should be
creative; groupings should also be varied now and then so that learners get to experience
working with others.
2. Tasking is a vital component of cooperative learning. Everybody should clearly
understand what is expected from them and what kind of output are they supposed to
accomplish at the end of the grouping. Clear and concrete instructions should be given by
the teacher, like the time element involved to finish the task, materials to use, the role of
the members, and the like. This way, time is also well spent.
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. The working time and task collaboration should be an active process. Teachers need to
also actively monitor how tasks are done. Each member performs his or her assigned role.
Learners should be free to interact and to comment on each other's work.
Experiential Learning
Actual hands-on activities are still the
most effective means of learning.
Experiences that are direct and purposeful
are still the learners’ best opportunity to
master a concept or a skill. Direct and
purposeful experiences are rich
experiences that the senses bring, from
which ideas, concepts, generalizations are constructed (Dale, 1969). Realities can be brought to
the classroom through the planned activities of the teacher. In planning the delivery of a lesson
or topic, the way experiences are processed and used in the classroom makes it easier for the
learner to internalize what has been taught. They can see and feel that what is being learned is a
part of their real-life situations. Experiences through the planned activities of the teacher is a way
of achieving a goal or objective in learning. Learning by doing, then, is an essential element in
discovering and constructing new knowledge and concepts.
Contrived experiences are substitutes for real things, objects or situations. Examples of these are
models, mock-ups, specimens, simulations, and even games. These are brought or performed in
the classroom because not all real things can be brought to the classroom. Substitutes such as
these can also bring near-to-real experiences to the learners. In addition, experiential learning
can also take the form of dramatized experiences like plays, pageants, tableau, pantomime,
puppets, and role-playing.
Learners enjoy when they take active roles in experiential learning activities. Teachers challenge
them to come up with their creative styles of presentation. With all their access to varied
information combined with their experiences, creation and construction of new concepts are
seen visibly from them.
______________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation:
Activity 1
Choose a topic in your field of specialization. Suggest some teaching strategies and applications
on how you could reflect the following concepts on cooperative and experiential learning. The
table below will you to organize your thoughts.
Topic/Subject Matter: _______________________________________

Grade Level: _____________________________________
Cooperative and
Experiential Learning Specific Teaching Applications/Activities
Principles
Actual hands-on activities
are still the most effective
means of learning.
Tasking is a vital component
of cooperative learning.
____________________________________________________________________________________
Cooperative learning allows
learners creativity and
innovation because they
interact with people their
age, peers, or classmates.
Teachers challenge them to
come up with their creative
styles of presentation.
Teachers need to also
actively monitor how tasks
are done.
______________________________________________________________________________
References:
Publishing, Inc.
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 14 – ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY AND FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY

___________________________________________________________________________
Overview:
Erikson's work described the development of human beings, including all the human lifespan -
from infancy to adulthood. He stressed the importance of interpersonal, social, and cultural
influences in the development of the people. Erikson saw that each stage presents its own
specific challenges, which he called crisis. He believed that these crises presented challenges in
an individual's identity. Successful development of the personality depends on meeting and
overcoming these tasks or crises (Fleming, 2004). On the other hand, Erikson coined the term
epigenetic principle to refer to the different stages because he believed that human beings
develop through a predetermined unfolding of personalities in eight successive psychosocial
stages, wherein the progress through each stage is in part determined by the success or lack of
it in the previous stages. In his presentation, each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two
opposing emotional forces (contrary dispositions). These are the syntonic or the first-listed
positive disposition in each crisis; and dystonic, the second-listed negative disposition. He
mentioned that there is malignancy if there is too little of the positive and too much of the
negative aspect. Maladaptation is also present if there is too much of the positive and too little
of the negative (Sokol, 2009).
___________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:
1. Identify the levels and stages of Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory.
2. Explain the salient features of Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory.
3. Relate Kohlberg’s Moral Developmental Theory to current issues of learners.
___________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:
The Psychosocial Stage
____________________________________________________________________________________
Stage One: Trust vs Mistrust
Starting from infancy to about 18 months, this first stage develops the infants to
trust others. Letting them feel that they are cared for is a paramount concern. They
should view the world as nonthreatening. When caregivers provide reliability, care,
and protection, children will develop a sense of trust. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust. Hence, it is implied that parents should provide the best possible means
to meet all the basic needs of the infant like shelter, food, and water, and ensure
that the place within which the infant moves is safe and secured.
Stage Two: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

The prime ways to take good care of themselves should be taught to children from
2 to 3 years old feeding themselves, toilet training, and changing their clothes are
a few examples. In this stage, they ask themselves if they can stand alone or always
need to rely on others. This stage implies that parents should ensure that their
children develop a sense of personal control over personal skills. Eventually,
success leads to feeling of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Stage Three: Initiative vs Guilt

Children, at this stage, are fond of doing things on their own. Exploration and play
are crucial activities for them to learn new ideas to apply in their lives. Children
need to assert control and power over their environment. Success in this state
results to a sense purpose. If they exert too much effort and become too
authoritative, they will feel a sense of guilt.
Preschool teachers, therefore, should ensure that children are given sufficient
opportunities to select choices and act independently. For instance, in an art class,
a teacher may give a chance for the pupils to choose the colors or kind of paper
they want to use. They may chunk activities so they could take risks. Completing
nothing without any sense of independence and authority may cause them to feel
guilty.
Stage Four: Industry vs Inferiority

At this stage, levels of maturity and self-awareness are increased. Children
always ask themselves how they can be good. They are ensured to cope with the
new social and academic demands. Success at this stage results to a sense of
competence, whereas failure leads to feeling of inferiority. Teachers need to
ensure that, at this stage, children feel successful in their own learning.
Classroom opportunities to apply their learning should be rich. As much as
possible, the difficulty of each task is gradually controlled so that the feeling of
accomplishment is felt, and their industry is maximized.
Stage Five: Identity vs Role Confusion

Social relationships play a vital role at this stage, when their sexual identity is
developed. Discovery of Oneself comes with the thought of where one should fit in a
social circle, At this stage, too, adolescents develop their framework of morality.
Identity crisis, as a result of the transition from childhood to adulthood, may also be
experienced. It is a result of high expectations from others. Some of them may be
doubtful whether what they do is appropriate for their age. Failure to balance at this
stage may result to experiencing upheaval and role confusion. Hence, teachers should
____________________________________________________________________________________
ensure that teens have the opportunities to develop a sense of self and personal identity through
collaborative tasks and activities.
Stage Six: Intimacy vs Isolation

Finding the right partner confronts the young adults at this stage. Failure to do so
results to fear of spending the rest of their lives alone or isolated. Because young
people interact most frequently with others, they are most susceptible to feeling
intimacy and loneliness. Although finding someone whom they can share a lifelong
commitment is not always the norm, some may opt to be single and forge a significant
friendly relationship with their peers and colleagues.
Stage Seven: Generativity vs Stagnation

Adults, at this stage, are mostly attached to their careers and professional
journeys. They find life's meaning by contributing something to the community,
taking responsibilities and control, and leaving an indelible legacy. Success leads
to feelings of usefulness or generativity, whereas failure to attain so causes
inactivity or meaninglessness.
Stage Eight: Ego Integrity vs Despair

When thinking that they have contributed something valuable during their
younger years, retired and about-to-retire people should feel a sense of
fulfillment. Harking back the days with sense of fulfillment, adults can feel a sense
of wisdom and integrity. Failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
Sigmund Freud's Psychosexual Theory

States the need to satisfy basic biological needs. His theory, also known as the theory of libidinal
development, is one of the earliest theories explaining how personality develops in human
beings. He posited a series of universal developmental stages in which psychic energy becomes
focused in different erogenous zones. The psychic energy refers to the biologically based,
instinctual drives that energize behavior, thoughts, and feelings. The erogenous zones are the
areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development. It is
through this premise that the personality structure of a human being is also influenced.
Personality Structure
This is known as the biological drives with which the infant is born. It is said to be the
Id earliest and most primitive personality structure and refers to the unconscious usually
operates with the goal of seeking pleasure.
Ego This structure is the rational, logical, problem-solving component of the personality.
This is the structure based on the child's internalization of the adults' attributes,
Superego
beliefs, and standards.
____________________________________________________________________________________
According to Freud, personality development takes place through constant activation of the life
instinct. For him, the first five years of life are determined for the formation of personality. The
following is the tabular presentation of the theories: psychosocial and psychosexual:
Psychosexual
Age Description
Stage
Oral
Infants find pleasure on doing oral activities like sucking, chewing, and
Birth to biting; hence, feeding activities are vital. In effect, infants weaned too
1 year early or abruptly may later crave close contact and become
overdependent on a spouse.
Anal
Gratification is primarily caused by voluntary urination and defecation.
Thus, toilet-training produces major conflicts between children and
1-3
parents. The emotional climate that parents create can have lasting
years
effects. For example, children who are punished for toileting accidents
may be messy, topsy-turvy, or wasteful.
Phallic
Genital stimulation causes gratification at this stage. Children develop
incestuous desire for the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus complex for boys
3-6
and Electra complex for girls). Anxiety stemming from this conflict
years
causes children to internalize the sex-role characteristics and moral
standards of their same-sex parental rival.
Latency
Traumas of the phallic stage cause sexual conflicts to be repressed and
6-11 sexual urges to be rechanneled into school work and vigorous play. The
years ego and superego continue to develop as the child gains more
problem-solving abilities at school and internalizes societal values
Genital Puberty triggers a reawakening of sexual urges. Adolescents must now

learn how to express these urges in socially acceptable ways. If
12 years
development has been healthy, the mature sex instinct is satisfied by
marriage and raising children.
___________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation:
1. Basing on the salient features of the theories of Erikson and Freud, what may be a few of their
implications for the beginning teachers?
2. You heard that some of your students watch adult/pornographic movies. As a classroom
adviser of Grade 7 students, how would you react to this and what would be your advice to your
students?
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 15 – KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

______________________________________________________________________________
Overview:
Moral development does not simply talk about increasing knowledge of cultural values leading
to ethical standards (Kohlberg, 1977). It represents the transformations that occur in a person's
form or structure of thought. According to him, children form ways of thinking through their
experiences, which include understandings of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality, and
human welfare. Once children had a negative experience on these concepts, they would develop
an idea, and later on, a moral concept that what they did was just and good. Kohlberg identified
six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major levels, and each level represents a
significant change in the social-moral reasoning or perspective of the person. The best-known
moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the "Heinz" dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying
the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a
dilemma that determines positive moral development.
______________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:
1. Compare and contrast Erikson’s Psychosocial and Freud’s Psychosexual Theories.
2. Connect Erikson’s Psychosocial and Freud’s Psychosexual Theories to teaching
3. Relate Erikson’s Psychosocial and Freud’s Psychosexual Theories to current issues of
learners.
______________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:
Level Stage Description

Preconventional. 1 Punishment and Obedience.
This is the level where moral reasoning is One is motivated by fear of
based on the consequence or result of the punishment. Thus, he will act to avoid
act (reward and punishment) or the punishment or for the sake of
physical consequences of the action, not 2 following an authority.
____________________________________________________________________________________
on whether the act itself is good or bad. Instrumental-Relativist.
A person is motivated to act by the
benefit that one may obtain later or
the concept of mutual benefit.
Conventional. 3 Interpersonal Concordance.
Moral reasoning is based on the One is motivated by what others
conventions or norms of society; these expect in behavior. The person usually
may include approval of others, law, and acts because he or she values how he
order, and expectations from a person's or she will appear to others. One gives
family, group, or nation are perceived as importance to what people will think
valuable. The attitude is not only one of 4 or say about him or her.
conformity to personal expectations and Law and Order Orientation.
social order, but of loyalty, of actively One is motivated to act to uphold law
maintaining, supporting, and justifying the and order. It refers to doing one's duty,
order, and of identifying with the persons showing respect to authority, and
or group involved in it. maintaining the given social order for
its own sake.
Post-conventional, Autonomous, or 5 Social Contract, Legalistic.
Principled. There is a clear awareness of the
Moral reasoning is. based on enduring or relativism of personal values and
consistent concept of moral values and opinions and a corresponding
principles and not just following the law. emphasis upon procedural rules for
Moral values and principles are clearly 6 reaching consensus.
defined on this level. Universal-ethical Principle.
The moral values and principles are
defined through the conscience by
self-chosen ethical principles. This also
refers to the universal principles of
justice, equality, respect for the dignity
of human beings.
The aim of holistic education is growth and development in intellectual and moral aspects. Moral
education should model ethical standards and principles by providing a just community-school
approach. The ultimate objective of moral education is that of justice-the primary regard for the
value and equality of all human beings and reciprocity in human relations is known as a basic and
universal standard.
In this era of fast development and improvement, understanding learners characteristics and
how teachers could provide a more realistic and healthy learning environment for the learners is
a very important consideration. Identifying their social, sexual, and moral characteristics is a
crucial part of becoming a teacher. Once teachers are able to understand these unique
characteristics of our learners they can now provide a healthy environment and later on, the
parents and immediate community could benefit from these because they will be informed and
trained on how to handle and deal with our learners. The education sector should become more
emphatic and sensitive to this advocacy for the sake of training the younger ones with the ideals
of integrity and identity building.
Isaksson (1979) postulated that Kohlberg's theory can be a basis for moral education in school or
other educational settings. The conditions for the efficacy of such programs are the following:
____________________________________________________________________________________
1. The teachers' prior knowledge of the developmental stage or level of the individual
students, both as regards cognitive and moral development, as well as some knowledge
of the principles underlying cognitive-developmental psychology
2. An accepting classroom atmosphere (and probably some minimum of correlation
between this classroom atmosphere and the ambience of the school as a whole, as well
as a morally advanced ethos in the family, the peer group, the mass media, politics, etc.,
that is, in the child's environment and the society at large);
3 Exposure of the students to the next stage above their own:
4. Cognitive conflict, and Role-taking by students.
5. Role-taking by students
______________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation:
1. Explain why moral education must be a part of the school curriculum even until tertiary level.
What do you think are the possible challenges that school might face once moral educational is
given emphasis in the curriculum?
2. Recent news reports show that there are students who have suicidal tendencies of have
committed suicide. Suggest at least one concrete activity that would help students to realize
the value of life.
_________________________________________________________________________________
References:
Publishing, Inc.
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 16 – LEARNING STYLES

__________________________________________________________________________________
Overview:
Ignacio Estrada's statement that, "If learners cannot learn the way we teach them, maybe we old teach
them the way they learn,” is a clear reminder for teachers to always consider in their daily teaching the
unique style of learners. Considering the different characteristics of the learners as visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic, teachers are challenged to provide activities and materials that will correspond so their
learning preferences, especially if the learners are eclectic (a learner whose learning preference is a
mixture of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic). In 1984, a known educational psychologist, David Kolb,
described learning styles as the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience. Jones and Blankenship (2017) view learning styles as the preferential way in which the
students absorb, process, comprehend, and retain information. Each learner has their way of processing
information, and this situation motivates the teachers
to plan and prepare lessons that will satisfy the unique
learning styles of the learners. The importance of
knowing the concept of learning styles could influence
teachers understanding of students' individual
differences (Li et al., 2016). When teachers are
critically aware of learning styles, they are likely to be
very careful when designing a lesson plan, during their
teaching, and when assessing individual student
(Pajares, 1992).
__________________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:
1. Explain the big ideas concerning learning styles.
2. Identify the differences and similarities among the different learning style preferences
3. Create a graphic organizer about the learning styles of learners.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:
Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle

It is typically represented through a four-stage learning cycle. Directive learning is seen when a learner
progresses through a cycle of four stages. Kolb (1974) views learning as an integrated process in which
each stage is mutually supportive and feeding into the next part of the cycle. It is further explained that
effective learning only occurs when a learner can experience all four stages of the model.
____________________________________________________________________________________
LEARNING STYLES (Kolb, 1984)
These types of learners excel at accomplishing tasks by following directions,
meticulously planning, and ultimately seeking new experiences. They are
characterized as being opportunistic, action driven, and risk takers. They can
easily adapt to changing circumstances. They can solve problems in an
Accommodative intuitive trial-and-error manner rather than through careful examination of
facts, and they rely heavily on other people for information rather than on
their analytic ability. The learning modes associated with this learning style
are concrete experience and active experimentation.
These types of learners can reason inductively. They can create theoretical
models in assimilating disparate observations into an integrated
explanation. They are concerned with ideas and abstract concepts rather
Assimilative than with people and social interactions and are concerned with abstract
logical rather than practical aspects of theories. They incorporate the
learning modes of reflective observation and abstract conceptualization.
Divergent learners are best at tasks that require imaginative ability and
awareness of meaning and value. They can identify concrete examples of a
concept and generate numerous qualities of a concept from many
Divergent perspectives. They are considered as brainstormers because they prefer to
observe rather than act, are emotionally oriented and tend to be very
creative. They prefer the learning modes concrete experiences and
reflective observations.
Convergent learners’ greatest strength is the ability to efficiently solve
problems, make decisions, and apply practical 1deas to solve problems.
These learners do well on standard conventional intelligence tests because
they can organize knowledge by hypothetical-deductive reasoning and
Convergent converge to one given answer. People with this learning styles are well adept
at controlling their emotions and prefer dealing with technical tasks and
problems rather than with issues that involve interpersonal and social
interactions. Convergent learners draw from the learning modes of abstract
conceptualization and active experimentation.
____________________________________________________________________________________
LEARNING MODES (Kolb, 1984)
This learning mode is the characteristic of learners who desire plenty of
opportunities for direct human interpersonal interactions. They prefer to
feel and experience rather than think. They are intuitive decision makers
Concrete who value circumstances involving people in real-world situations. This
Experience learning mode is concerned with the uniqueness and complexity of present
reality as opposed to theories and generalizations. Learners who prefer this
learning mode take an artistic, intuitive approach to problem solving rather
than a scientific approach.
This mode focuses on the ability to understand the meaning of ideas.
Reflective Learners under this mode value objective judgment, impartiality, and
Observation patience. They prefer abstract understanding over practical applications and
prefer to reflect and observe rather than act on a situation.
Learners who belong to this mode typically attend to tasks that involve
logical investigation of ideas and concepts. They are characterized by a
preference to depend on cognitive rather than emotional skills. They involve
Abstract themselves with and tackle academic problems that require the ability to
Conceptualization build general theories to come up with a solution. They value rigorous idea
analysis and well-defined conceptual systems. This mode involves the use of
systematic planning, manipulation of abstract symbols, and quantitative
analysis.
This mode focuses on actively influencing people and changing situations.
Individuals prefer to be involved in peer interactions that allow them to play
an integral role in the decisions made in these interactions. This mode
Active emphasizes practical applications or solutions rather than a reflective
Experimentation understanding of a problem. Learners who belong to this mode are
pragmatists and focus on doing rather than observing, they enjoy and are
especially efficient at getting the job done, and truly value the ability to
manipulate their environment to produce productive results.
Four learning environments support the various learning styles and their associated learning modes.
Teachers must be sensitive enough to incorporate learning environment with the learning styles and
learning modes.
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (Kolb, 1984)

This learning environment emphasizes concrete experiences so that
Affective learners experience the real thing. Affective learning tasks include activities
such as practical exercise, simulations, or field experiences Information is
Learning usually peer-oriented and delivered informally. Activities are non-
Environment competitive, and feedback should not be comparative but personalized to
the individual learner's goals and needs.
Learners are involved in trying to solve problems for which there is usually a
right answer or the best solution. Information is abstract and usually
Symbolic presented in readings, data, pictures, and lecture formats. Characteristic
Learning activities may include lecture, homework, and theory readings. The teacher
Environment is acknowledged as the expert, enforcer of rules, regulator of time, and
taskmaster. The instruction format is typically with a top-down, hierarchical
class structure.
Perceptual The main goal is to identify and understand relationships among concepts.
Perceptual environment emphasizes the process of problem solving rather
Learning than coming up with the best solution. Learners are required to collect
Environment relevant information for researching questions and are expected to attack a
____________________________________________________________________________________
problem situation through different perspectives (own opinion, expert
opinion, and literature) by listening, observing, writing, discussing, and
personal pondering. The teacher's role is to act as a facilitator of the learning
process, be non-evaluative, and act as a mirror by reflecting student
observations and comments. Learning processes may include reflective
exercises such as keeping journals, writing reflective essays, or engaging in
dialogue with other students.
This learning environment emphasizes active application of knowledge or
skills to a practical problem. Activities should not be structured so that
Behavioral learners gain intrinsic rewards and values. The teacher acts as a coach or
guide but only when the student initiates or solicits help. Small group work,
Learning interactive projects that apply theory to real-world settings, and peer
Environment feedback are prime examples of student activities in this environment.
Measurement is in the form of how well something worked, feasibility,
salability, client acceptance, cost, testing results, and aesthetic quality.
It is important to note that for each learning style, there are two corresponding learning modes, and for
each learning mode, there is a corresponding learning environment. As Kolb and Fry (1975) suggested,
each of the four learning environments is supportive of a particular learning mode with its accompanying
learning styles. The Symbolic Learning Environment best supports the Abstract Conceptualization learning
mode, which is part of both the Convergent and Assimilative learning styles. The Perceptual Learning
Environment is the most effective environment for the Reflective Observation learning mode that is part
of the Divergent and Assimilative learning styles. The Behavioral Learning Environment best supports the
Active Experimentation learning mode, which is part of the Convergent and Accommodative learning
styles. Finally, the Affective Learning Environment is the most effective learning environment for the
Concrete Experiences learning mode, which is part of the Divergent and Accommodative learning styles.
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation:
Activity 1
Through a graphic organizer, discuss the similarities and differences of a VISUAL, AUDITORY, and
KINESTHETIC learner. Write a one-paragraph explanation.
_________________________________________________________________________________
References:
Publishing, Inc.
____________________________________________________________________________________
College of
Teacher Education
LESSON 17 – MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

__________________________________________________________________________________
Overview:
Educators understand and know that learners come to school with different, varied, and unique
intellectual and information processing abilities because learners have different biological, cultural, and
personal backgrounds (Ayesha & Khurshid, 2013). Learners respond to different motivation in a very
special way due to their mental capabilities that help them to process knowledge and skills using their
way of operating information. This difference is the reason of the paradigm shift from the traditional
teaching-learning process to student-centered classroom where the questions of what content to teach
and how it would be taught were changed into big questions of how do students learn and process the
lesson and how can the teacher facilitate the delivery of the lesson. This perspective in teaching has led
educators to view the classroom as a place where teachers can provide more enjoyable learning activities
in which student learning is facilitated (Alrabah et al., 2018). Once the student-centered classroom is given
emphasis, the Multiple Intelligences (MI) of the students is given consideration. In the research conducted
by Reid (1998), MI has the potential to positively influence classroom teaching. Through accommodating
the MI and learning styles of the learners, learning and understanding of the lesson can be maximized
because the learners will be potentially more receptive to the teaching presentation and modes of
presentation. Through these practices, learners manifest varying degrees of intelligence.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:
1. Explain the concept of Multiple Intelligences.
2. Identify each component of Multiple Intelligences
3. Suggest activities that will cater to the need of Multiple varied Intelligences of the learners.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:
Gardner (1999) presented the concept of MI based on the skills and abilities of the
learners. He debunked the century-long and traditional concept of intelligence
referring only to Intelligence Quotient (1Q). Having a high level of IQ would facilitate
achieving success according to traditional concept; however, this belief on pure
intelligence measurable by a single IQ can be labeled inaccurate (Ayesha & Khurshid,
2013).
In 1983, when Howard Gardner presented his concept about intelligence through his book, Frames of
Mind, he stated that any individual has different capabilities and tendencies in different areas and that
each has several types of intelligence that are intermingled in different ways. He suggested MI as an
alternative way to traditional classroom designs that need a variety of ways people learn and understand.
Learners do not have a single intelligence, but a range of intelligence; that all people have these
intelligences but, in each person, one of them is more pronounced. His theory on MI had virile effects on
different fields, most especially in teaching. Through this theory, there were profound innovations in new
ways and methods of lesson presentation. At present, teachers are challenged and enjoined to provide a
student-centered classroom emboldened by MI-inspired instructions.
____________________________________________________________________________________
The Nine Multiple Intelligences
While identifying the potentials of intelligence, Gardner identified eight criteria to be identified as
Intelligence:
a. potential isolation by brain damage;
b. the existence of idiots, savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals;
c. a distinctive developmental history;
d. evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility;
e. support from experimental psychological tasks;
f. support from psychometric findings; and
g. susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.
1. Verbal-linguistic (word smart)

Sensitivity to the written and spoken language. This ability is mainly concerned with the ability to
comprehend and compose language efficaciously, both oral and written. People who are verbal-linguistic
intelligent have good auditory skills to segment sound and even visualize words through sensory
perceptions.
2. Logical-mathematical (number smart)

This is the ability to calculate and comprehend situations or conditions systematically and logically. People
are good at exploring patterns and relationships, problem solving, and deductive and inductive reasoning.
____________________________________________________________________________________
People with logical-mathematical intelligence can easily experiment with cause-effect relationships,
categorization, classification, inference, generalizations, calculations, and hypothesis testing.
3. Visual-spatial (picture smart)

This is the ability to perceive, modify, and create images. People who are visual-spatial intelligent can
understand patterns of space. They are environmentally sensitive to the potential to think in terms of
physical space and three-dimensional objects.
4. Musical-rhythmic (music smart)

This is the ability to identify pitch, rhythm, and emotional side of sound. And sensitivity capabilities toward
sounds from the environment and musical instruments. Learners with this intelligence can perceive and
transform discriminate between and express in musical forms.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic (body smart)

This refers to the use of the body for expression. It is described as the potential in using the body and its
parts in mastering problems or the creation of products. People with this kind of intelligence can express
oneself with movements, gestures, and facial expressions using the coordination of brain and body,
creating a product using the whole body or a part of the whole body.
6. Intrapersonal (self-smart)
This requires the ability to have self-knowledge and recognize people's similarities and differences among
them. It is also manifested through the ability to understand oneself and interpret and appreciate own
feelings, emotions, desires, strengths, and motivations. Learners with this intelligence
enable them to have self-knowledge, with clear understanding of themselves and their inner moods, can
discipline themselves and can maintain self- esteem, and are able to take responsibility for their own life.
7. Interpersonal (people smart)

This intelligence suggests the ability to identify, comprehend, and appreciate the emotions, intentions,
motivations, desires, and beliefs of other people. People with this intelligence can learn best through
interactions and can win a lot of friends because of empathy for others.
8. Naturalistic (nature smart)

This talks about the ability to identify and classify the natural world around people. The naturalistic
intelligent people usually live in harmony with nature and have the ability to recognize and research all
living things in nature and to think on their creation and are good at categorizing natural as
well as scientific inventions.
9. Existential (life smart)

People who are existential intelligent can question the existence of human the meaning of life, the reason
for existence, and even death. They have sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence and its meaning.
Gardner mentioned two important advantages of MI in education (Yalmanci & Gozum, 2013). First, the
MI theory gives the opportunity to plan education program to make the students desire for certain area
(becoming a musician, a statistician, an engineer). Second, it enables teachers to reach more students
who are trying to learn different disciplines and theories. Learning would be realized much easily on the
condition that students are trained by using these intelligence fields.
Teachers are expected to integrate MI in their daily lesson in which all types of learners can benefit. It is
true that when teachers recognize the significance of MI in the lesson, they effectively execute lessons
involving all learners and not just those who are good in numbers and words.
Before we go to our evaluation, let us discover what type of learner are you.
Answer the Learning Style Inventory below, and find out!
____________________________________________________________________________________
1. What kind of book would you like to read for fun?
(V) A book with lots of pictures in it
(A) A book with lots of words in it
(K) A book with word searches or crossword puzzles
2. When you are not sure how to spell a word, what are you most likely to do?
(V) Write it down to see if it looks right
(A) Spell it out loud to see if it sounds right
(K) Trace the letters in the air (finger spelling)
3. You're out shopping for clothes, and you're waiting in line to pay. What are you most likely to do while
you are waiting?
(V) Look around at other clothes on the racks
(A) Talk to the person next to you in line
(K) Fidget or move back and forth
4. When you see the word "cat," what do you do first?
(V) Picture a cat in your mind
(A) Say the word "cat" to yourself
(K) Think about being with a cat (petting it or hearing it purr)
5. What's the best way for you to study for a test?
(V) Read the book or your notes and review pictures or charts
(A) Have someone ask you questions that you can answer out loud
(K) Make up index cards that you can review
6. What's the best way for you to learn about how something works (like a computer or a video game)?
(V) Get someone to show you
(A) Read about it or listen to someone explain it
(K) Figure it out on your own
7. If you went to a school dance, what would you be most likely to remember the next day?
(V) The faces of the people who were there
(A) The music that was played
(K) The dance moves you did and the food you ate
8. What do you find most distracting when you are trying to study?
(V) People walking past you
(A) Loud noises
(K) An uncomfortable chair
9. When you are angry, what are you most likely to do?
(V) Put on your "mad" face
(A) Yell and scream
(K) Slam doors
10. When you are happy, what are you most likely to do?
(V) Smile from ear to ear
(A) Talk up a storm
(K) Act really hyper
11. When in a new place, how do you find your way around?
(V) Look for a map or directory that shows you where everything is
(A) Ask someone for directions
____________________________________________________________________________________
(K) Just start walking around until you find what you're looking for
12. Of these three classes, which is your favorite?
(V) Art class
(A) Music class
(K) Gym class
13. When you hear a song on the radio, what are you most likely to do?
(V) Picture the video that goes along with it
(A) Sing or hum along with the music
(K) Start dancing or tapping your foot
14. What do you find most distracting when in class?
(V) Lights that are too bright or too dim
(A) Noises from the hallway or outside the building (like traffic or someone cutting the grass)
(K) The temperature being too hot or too cold
15. What do you like to do to relax?
(V) Read
(A) Listen to music
(K) Exercise (walk, run, play sports, etc.)
16. What is the best way for you to remember a friend's phone number?
(V) Picture the numbers on the phone as you would dial them
(A) Say it out loud over and over and over
(K) Write it down or store it in your phone contact list
17. If you won a game, which of these three prizes would you choose?
(V) A poster for the wall
(A) A music CD or mp3 download
(K) A game of some kind (or a football or soccer ball, etc.)
18. Which would you rather go to with a group of friends?
(V) A movie
(A) A concert
(K) An amusement park
19. What are you most likely to remember about new people you meet?
(V) Their face but not their name
(A) Their name but not their face
(K) What you talked about with them
20. When you give someone directions to your house, what are you most likely to tell them?
(V) A description of building and landmarks they will pass on the way
(A) The names of the roads or streets they will be on
(K) "Follow me—it will be easier if I just show you how to get there."
Scoring Instructions: Add the number of responses for each letter and enter the total below. The area
with the highest number of responses is your primary mode of learning.
Visual Auditory Kinesthetic

V = ___ A = ___ K = ___
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation:
Activity 1
1. How do Multiple Intelligences provide holistic learning for all learners?
2. Explain how Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles complement each other. Suggest ways on
how to integrate these two bug concepts in holistic teaching.
_________________________________________________________________________________
References:
Publishing, Inc.
https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2102/Intelligence-MULTIPLE-INTELLIGENCES.html
http://www.educationplanner.org/students/self-assessments/learning-styles-quiz.shtml
____________________________________________________________________________________

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PED 05:

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Course Code : PED05

Course Title : Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Course Outline and Timeframe

Lesson 1: Learning Principles Associated to Cognitive, Metacognitive,

Motivational and Affective Factors

Lesson 2: Learning Principles on Development, Social, and Individual

Week 4 Lesson 3: Cognitive Process

Lesson 4: Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Week 7 Cognitive Learning Theories

Week 10 Behavioral Learning Theories

Lesson 10: Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Lesson 11: Neo-Behaviorism

Week 13 Constructivist Learning Theories

Lesson 13: Cooperative and Experiential Learning

Week 15 Psychosocial, Psychosexual, and Humanist Theories of Learning

Lesson 15: Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

Lesson 17: Multiple Intelligences

Final Term Examination

PED05 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

LESSON 1 – LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

LEARNING PRINCIPLES ASSOCIATED TO COGNITIVE, METACOGNITIVE, MOTIVATIONAL, AND

Now here are some of the factors:

b. Support and Instructional Guidance

c. Link New Information

d. Develop Thinking and Reason

e. Develop Higher Order Thinking Skills

f. Create Learning Environment

2. Motivational and Affective Factors

Let us discuss the factors that cause Motivational and Affective:

a. What and How much are Learned

Why do you think you were motivated?

Here are some examples:

c. Extensive Learner’s Effort and Guided Practice

Teacher’s comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and metacognitive factors of learning

PED05 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

LESSON 2: LEARNING PRINCIPLES ON DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL, AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

1. Different Opportunities and Constraints for Learning

3. Learning as Function of Prior Experience and Heredity

Each student has his or her learning style, intelligence, potential,

As future teacher, we should be knowledgeable to the current

4. Learner’s Difference are Taken into Account

5. Integral Parts of the Learning Process

Assessment should be an ongoing process. Whether it was FORMATIVE or SUMMATIVE, results

PED05 FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

LESSON 3 – COGNITIVE PROCESS

Unconsciously, we already use cognitive skills the moment

• Attention: process for selecting an object on which to concentrate. Object can be a

• Language: processes for understanding and communicating through language via

Design implications: minimize length of speech-based menus; accentuate intonation used in

• Higher reasoning: processes that involve reflective cognition such as problem-solving,

Now let us discuss the factors that influence Cognition:

Your answer is good as mine! Why is that? It is because of….

You have an idea! Same thing with cognition.

1. Student-centered instruction. Students must be actively involved in the learning process.

5. Elaboration. As much as possible, we avoid the use of memorization of basic facts.

6. Concept learning. This learning equates to knowledge construction which needs to

6.2 Integration of concepts across curriculum. To learn the core knowledge in a

6.4 Provision of Cognitive Apprenticeship. It is assumed that immersion to the real

STRATEGIC DEMANDS ON COGNITIVE PROCESSING

Activity 1: Answer the following questions.

Activity 2: Complete the table below.

2. Is prior knowledge essential in a.