Accepted Manuscript

Title: Additive Manufacturing of Heat Exchangers: A Case

Study on a Multi-Layered Ti-6Al-4 V Oscillating Heat Pipe

Author: Scott M. Thompson Z.S. Aspin A. Elwany N.

Shamsaei L. Bian

PII: S2214-8604(15)00046-9
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.addma.2015.09.003
Reference: ADDMA 49

To appear in:

Received date: 10-3-2015

Revised date: 8-8-2015
Accepted date: 23-9-2015

Please cite this article as: Thompson SM, Aspin ZS, Elwany A, Shamsaei N,
Bian L, Additive Manufacturing of Heat Exchangers: A Case Study on a Multi-
Layered Ti-6Al-4<ce:hsp sp=0̈.25/̈>V Oscillating Heat Pipe, Addit Manuf (2015),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2015.09.003

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 Cover Page

Additive Manufacturing of Heat Exchangers: A Case Study on a Multi-

Layered Ti-6Al-4V Oscillating Heat Pipe

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Revised Draft

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Submitted to

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Additive Manufacturing

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Scott M. Thompson1,2,†, Z. S. Aspin1, A. Elwany3, N. Shamsaei1,2, L. Bian4
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1
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State,

Mississippi 39762, USA
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2
Center for Advanced Vehicular Systems (CAVS), Mississippi State University, Mississippi
State, Mississippi 39762, USA
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3
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station,
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Texas 77843, USA

4
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Mississippi State University, Mississippi
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State, Mississippi 39762, USA

†
corresponding author:
Attn: Scott M. Thompson, Ph.D.
PO Box 9552
Mississippi State, MS 39762
662.325.1535
thompson@me.msstate.edu

Page 1 of 49
Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) allows for layer-by-layer fabrication of complex metallic

parts with features typically unobtainable via conventional manufacturing. For heat exchangers,

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such complex features are desirable for enhancing their heat transfer capability and

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conformability to specific applications. In this case study, Selective Laser Melting (SLM), a

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laser-based additive manufacturing process, was utilized to fabricate a compact (5.08 x 3.81 x

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1.58 cm3) flat-plate oscillating heat pipe (FP-OHP) with innovative design features, including a

Ti-6Al-4V casing and a closed-loop, circular mini-channel (1.53 mm in diameter) consisting of

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four interconnected layers. Venting holes were integrated to intersect each layer to allow for a

unique layer-by-layer, plug-and-pressurize de-powdering procedure. The device channel surface

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was inspected via Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) – and it was found that the channel wall

consisted of partially un-melted particles, as well as amorphous melt regions; surface

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characteristics influential on surface/fluid capillarity and heat transfer. This study also highlights
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important design and manufacturing concerns encountered during SLM of channel-embedded

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parts, such as channel surface quality and de-powdering. The Ti-6Al-4V FP-OHP was found to
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operate successfully with an effective thermal conductivity of approximately 110 W/m·K at a

power input of 50 W; demonstrating a 400% - 500% percent increase relative to solid Ti-6Al-4V.
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Keywords

Additive manufacturing, heat exchanger, oscillating heat pipe, Ti-6Al-4V, selective laser melting

(SLM), surface quality

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Page 2 of 49
1. Introduction

In general, as manufacturing methods evolve, new design possibilities become achievable

and the state-of-the-art related to engineering components is advanced. In the past few decades,

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additive manufacturing (AM) has matured to the point where it can be used to generate

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functional metallic parts [1–3]. A typical AM approach for metals includes the layer-by-layer

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fusion of metallic powders via a concentrated heat source, allowing for the fabrication of

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complex geometries traditionally unobtainable, or challenging to achieve, using conventional

fabrication methods. Directed Energy Deposition (DED) and Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) are two

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possible means to fabricate metallic parts from powder [4–6]. However, since PBF utilizes pre-

deposited powders, as opposed to DED which utilizes injected powder, parts with complex
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features and finer surface qualities are more easily obtainable.

The utilization of AM for fabricating heat transfer equipment is of interest since such
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devices can be miniaturized and improved by incorporating complex design features such as
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capillary structures, channel arrays, porous regions and more. For example, AM can be utilized
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for generating tortuous, diamond-shaped channels along multiple axes within a volume – a
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challenging, if not infeasible, task for conventional manufacturing methods. Material selection

for heat transfer equipment is also broadened via AM as it can eliminate the need for separate
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metallurgical joining methods. Since heat transfer equipment typically undergoes less strenuous

loading during application relative to mechanically-serviced parts, their rapid adaptability is

more certain – especially since the fatigue behavior of many AM parts is still not well

understood [7].

This current study focuses on the additive manufacture of a flat-plate oscillating heat pipe

(FP-OHP), which is a two-phase heat spreader used for high heat flux applications. A PBF-L

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Page 3 of 49
method is utilized for constructing a titanium alloy FP-OHP with four integral channel layers and

an experiment for proving its functionality is conducted. The relevant background in high heat

flux thermal management and heat pipes is provided along with discussion on the common

manufacturing and material limitations encountered. Selective Laser Melting (SLM), a form of

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PBF, is introduced and described, while also providing relevant achievements in its application

toward manufacturing serviceable parts. The design of the FP-OHP prototype is provided and

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the details of the utilized SLM manufacturing process are described. A scanning electron

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microscope (SEM) image of the internal channel structure surface is provided; while the thermal

response of the FP-OHP during experimentation - including its steady-state temperature and

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effective thermal conductivity while either filled with water or being empty – is presented.

Although there have been a plethora of studies [8,9] that focus on experimentally
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validating the novelty of heat pipe design altercations (e.g. channel diameter, number of
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channels, etc.), for thermal enhancement or miniaturization, there have been limited studies (to
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best of authors’ knowledge based on the open literature) on titanium FP-OHPS with multiple

layers of a single closed-loop channel. Further, there have been limited studies demonstrating
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the utility of AM technology for the fabrication of functional heat transfer equipment, let alone
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heat pipes. This study also highlights important design and manufacturing concerns encountered
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during SLM of channel-embedded parts, such as channel surface quality and de-powdering.

1.1 High heat flux thermal management

The ongoing miniaturization and power enhancement of electronic components continues

to challenge the design of denser and lighter electronics packaging schemes. Heat source areas

are continually reducing, with heat fluxes on-the-order of 500 – 1,000 kW/cm² now being

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Page 4 of 49
realized in conceivable applications. Heat must be transferred away from many of these

electronic components – to ensure their survivability and safe operating temperatures. Examples

of small, heat dissipating sources in need of integrated, high heat flux thermal management

include: central processing units (CPUs), power electronic components (e.g. inverters, gate

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drivers, etc.) and light emitting diodes (LEDs).

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There are arguably two methods for accomplishing high heat flux thermal management:

near-junction and “far-junction” surface-mounted cooling integration. Near-junction thermal

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management is novel in that a dielectric two-phase fluid mixture is directly pumped within the

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electronic heat generating body, transferring heat away from the region of heat production [10–

12]. This approach requires the careful integration of mini- or micro-channels into the heat
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dissipating body which calls for subtractive milling or etching on silicon-based materials. With

less risk, one can pursue more conventional, surface-mounted thermal solutions – i.e. air/water
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cooled heat sinks and heat spreaders. Heat spreaders can be either single or multi-phase and are
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typically positioned between the heat source(s) and sink(s), as shown in Fig. 1. The heat
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spreader is designed to allow for effective diffusion of a concentrated heat flux with the primary
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goal of establishing an isothermal surface opposite of the heat source – to ensure more effective

heat rejection (accomplished by heat sink or direct cooling methods). An ideal heat spreader has
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high thermal conductivity and a relatively thin overall form factor – to minimize overall package

thermal resistance and volume [13,14]. In addition, an ideal heat spreader should have a linear

coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) that is similar to that of the heat source. This ensures

minimal surface stresses at the source-to-spreader junction – reducing the risk of heat source

failure due to loss of mount integrity/pressure and material damage due to thermal shock.

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Page 5 of 49
Hence, source-to-substrate ‘CTE matching’ is vital for ensuring longevity in precious heat

dissipating components such as silicon-based CPUs.

In contrast to traditional, single-phase heat spreaders (e.g. copper or aluminum plates),

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two-phase heat spreaders, also referred to as thermal ground planes (TGPs) or heat pipes, possess

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relatively higher thermal conductivity via hermetic encapsulation of a liquid in a mini- or micro-

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channel and ensuring its cyclic evaporation and condensation through capillary structures. A

typical heat pipe is positioned between a heat source (evaporator) and heat sink (condenser).

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Energy retrieval at the evaporator results in the evaporation of the encapsulated liquid and an

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increase in vapor pressure, while energy rejection at the condenser results in condensation. Due

to the relatively small dimension of integrated capillary structures, which may be micro-grooves,
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sintered/porous particles or mesh screens, surface tension driven flow is induced (i.e. ‘wicking-

type’ flow) and the condensate is passively pumped to the evaporator. By establishing a cyclic
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phase-change process, the latent heat of vaporization is repetitiously exploited for increasing heat
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spreader thermal conductivity.

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1.2 The flat-plate oscillating heat pipe

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Two common types of two-phase heat spreaders are vapor chambers (or flat heat pipes)
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and flat-plate oscillating heat pipes (FP-OHPs) – both shown in Fig. 2. Both are hermetically

sealed and partially filled with a liquid such as refrigerant, water, etc. A traditional vapor

chamber consists of a hollow cavity with sintered particles around its periphery and a relatively

small volume fraction of liquid [15–17]. A FP-OHP is unique in that it does not rely on a

wicking structure to return condensate to the evaporator [18–23]. Instead, an FP-OHP operates

via temperature-induced pressure differences within a serpentine-arranged, closed-loop mini-to-

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Page 6 of 49
microchannel network, as shown in Fig. 2. The typical configuration of a FP-OHP consists of

having the bent-sections, or ‘turns’, of its channel network being heated and cooled. As a result,

heat reception in the evaporator results in non-uniform vapor expansion along portions of the

heated, closed-loop channel. Due to condensation in the condenser, a highly-dynamic,

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imbalanced pressure field is produced which results in both liquid/vapor oscillation and

circulation between neighboring channels [19,20]. The heat transfer capability of a FP-OHP

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depends on many design/operating variables [8,24–26], including: type and amount (i.e. filling

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ratio) of working fluid, orientation of channel array with respect to gravity, operating

temperature difference, evaporator/condenser area, number of serpentine turns, microchannel

design and more.

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FP-OHP characterization is typically performed experimentally, and its

effective thermal conductivity and surface temperature distribution are sought for various heat
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fluxes, cooling conditions, operating angles and more. Evidence of FP-OHP functionality is
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provided by an oscillatory, surface temperature field – indicating the cyclic fluid

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motion/evaporation inside the device.

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1.3 Design and manufacturing considerations

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Surface-mounted, far-junction thermal solutions will continue to have appeal as they

allow for the use of non-dielectric fluids and are also more easily maintained. However, there
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are still many challenges in engineering optimal two-phase heat spreaders for high heat flux

thermal management [27], including (i) establishing a high thermal conductivity in extreme

environments (ii) matching material CTEs at the heat source/spreader junction (iii) and

minimizing heat spreader thickness (i.e sub-millimeter). Since simulation and/or modeling of

heat transfer and fluid dynamics within TGPs is a challenge in its own right [28], experimental

demonstrations of technology-assisting design features are common. Since FP-OHPs are

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Page 7 of 49
suitable for miniaturization and for use in dense electronics packaging schemes, many

investigations have focused on FP-OHP design alteration for resultant heat transfer enhancement

and for assessing their next-generation applicability. For instance, studies have introduced and

demonstrated: check-valves for flow control/rectification [29], compact form factors [30],

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channel surface modifications [31,32], utilization of nanofluids [33] and increasing the number

of channel layers with respect to FP-OHP thickness [21,25,34]. These modifications to the FP-

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OHP design can result in heat transfer enhancement, higher degree of gravity independence and

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further miniaturization. Other parametric studies have focused on investigating the effect of

channel diameter, number of channels, working fluid type and much more [8].

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To date, many FP-OHPs are fabricated by removing material from a solid metallic
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substrate, typically by an end-milling process. Cover plates, or ‘lids’, are then attached to the

substrate either by mechanical fastening or through metallurgical bonding (e.g. furnace brazing).
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The metallurgical bonding of lids to the substrate is preferable for ensuring hermeticity of the
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device. A fill port is then integrated to allow for introduction and removal of the working fluid.
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The fill port can exist as a metallic tube soldered to the substrate or as threaded pipe fittings.
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In addition to end-milling and brazing methods, ultrasonic consolidation (UC) - an

additive/subtractive manufacturing process that utilizes the successive build-up and end-milling
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of individual foils for achieving target geometries - can be utilized [35]. During UC, mating

foils are held together under pressure, and ultrasonic acoustic vibrations are applied to

accomplish layer-to-layer adhesion via solid state welding. After joining successive layers,

excess material is machined away, and the process is repeated until the part is completed. Taft

[35] utilized this method to fabricate aluminum alloy FP-OHPs consisting of a single layer of

channels; demonstrating that UC is appealing for structural integration of panel-type FP-OHPs.

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Page 8 of 49
 A FP-OHP substrate can have one [19,29,35] or two [21,25,30] of its sides consisting of a

channel network. A single-sided, or single-layer, FP-OHP typically requires one lid, while a

double-sided, or double-layer, FP-OHP can require two lids. For the double-sided, closed-loop

FP-OHP, thru-holes are implemented to allow for an intertwining, serpentine flow

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path/arrangement. Increasing the number of channel layers within a FP-OHP increases its

channel density (channel-to-spreader volume ratio) and provides the opportunity to manage

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higher heat fluxes (i.e. > 100 W/cm²). As the heat flux increases, the penetration depth of the

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FP-OHP’s heat affected zone (HAZ) increases [36]; therefore, having greater than two channel

layers allows for more working fluid to be vaporized, thus increasing overall heat transfer

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capability. It has already been found that increasing the number of channel layers from one to

two increases the FP-OHP’s gravity independence and maximum power limit [19,21,30].
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The challenge lies in integrating multiple channel layers (i.e. more than two) while
d

ensuring a continuous, closed-loop channel design. Subtractive channel manufacturing methods

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inherently constrain the number of channel layers that can be fabricated per substrate. Hence,
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one must utilize creative bonding/assembly methods for joining multiple substrates with multiple
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cover plates. In this case, the cover plates need to have thru-holes to allow for flow between

substrates. One can integrate multiple closed-loop FP-OHPs (i.e. stacking), but multiple filling
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ports must be then utilized [34]. This approach can be beneficial if one is inclined to use various

working fluids; having each FP-OHP consist of its own type/amount of working fluid.

Exploded views of the typical substrate/cover-plate assembly for a conventional vapor chamber,

single-layer FP-OHP and double-layer FP-OHP are shown in Fig. 3.

1.4 Material selection

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Page 9 of 49
 The traditional material of interest for any heat pipe (or TGP) has been copper due to its

inherently high thermal conductivity; however, various other materials have been recently

investigated, including aluminum [35,37–40], titanium [16,41], copper molybdenum (CuMo)

[42], polymers [43] and silicon [44]. Material selection for any TGP, and specifically FP-OHPs,

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is limited by the material’s machinability and ability to be metallurgically bonded to like or

dissimilar materials – i.e. fabrication of channel structures and in joining the substrate to lids.

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Titanium and silicon, as examples, are difficult to mill and metallurgically bond, and therefore,

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require more involved manufacturing procedures. Note that not all bonding methods are

applicable, as a quality hermetic seal is required for optimal TGP operation. A quality sealing

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procedure also reduces the risk of ‘pressure-shorting’ between adjacent channels in FP-OHPs.
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Arguably, the driver for deviating away from pure copper in high heat flux thermal

management is the ongoing CTE-matching requirement [45,46] and its cost. The CTEs (in 10-
d

6
/K) of common TGP materials near conceivable electronics operating temperatures – such as
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aluminum, pure copper, CuMo, titanium alloy and silicon - are approximately: 23, 17, 10, 9 and
p

3, respectively [47]. Since silicon has one of the lowest CTEs of any material, one is inclined to
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utilize copper-molybdenum or titanium for decreasing the CTE mismatch between heat source

and TGP. Of course, the CTE mismatch can almost be eliminated by utilizing any silicon-based
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material, but this comes with unique hermeticity challenges [48,49]. Note that for two-phase

TGPs, the trade-off of substrate/lid thermal conductivity for CTE-matching is justifiable.

The most common titanium alloy, Ti-6Al-4V (CTE ~ 8), is widely used in aerospace (e.g.

aircraft turbine engine components, aircraft structural components, and aerospace fastener),

biomedical, and military industries due to its unique properties such as: good corrosion

resistance, low density, high strength-to-weight ratio, low modulus of elasticity, non-magnetic

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Page 10 of 49
properties, high fatigue resistance, good mechanical properties at elevated temperatures, high

melting point, very short radioactive half-life, nontoxic, non-allergenic properties and

biocompatibility – all in addition to its relatively low CTE [7,50,51]. The relatively low CTE of

Ti-6Al-4V (as compared to copper or aluminum) is of immediate interest in high heat flux

t
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applications, as it allows for interface compatibility with other materials such as ceramic and

glass while also minimizing warping and fatigue effects during thermal cycling [50]. The CTE of

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Ti-6Al-4V is near-constant over a wide range of temperatures, and this is beneficial for

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suppressing thermo-mechanical fatigue failure resulting from extreme thermal stresses due to

large temperature changes in structural systems [52]. Despite these advantages, Ti-6Al-4V is

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extremely difficult to machine. This low machinability (ease of metal removal) causes high cost,

low cutting speeds (<60 m/min), large amounts of cutting fluid and short tool lives [53].
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Therefore, alternate manufacturing methods, including additive manufacturing, need to be
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explored as a means of fabricating Ti-6Al-4V parts with complex features and/or embedded
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channels.
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1.5 Additive manufacturing of metals

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Additive Manufacturing (AM) is the process of joining materials to generate objects from
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3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing methods [54].

Although additive manufacturing (AM) has existed since the early 1980s, its application was

limited to creating visualization prototypes which were primarily utilized to accelerate the

product development cycle. This role changed with the advent of AM technologies capable of

processing advanced metallic materials and alloys such as stainless steel [55,56], Ti-6Al-4V

[57], and nickel-based alloys (e.g. Inconel 625 and 718 [3]).

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 Common AM methods for metal part fabrication include Directed Energy Deposition

(DED) and Powder Bed Fusion (PBF). In DED, parts are fabricated via the in-situ delivery of

powder (or wire) and focused thermal energy – accomplished by an electron beam or laser

[6,58,59]. For PBF, successive layers are created by selectively fusing metallic powder using,

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for example, a high-energy laser in inert atmosphere, i.e. Selective Laser Melting (SLM), or

focused electron beam in vacuum, e.g. Electron Beam Melting (EBM) [60]. For laser-based PBF,

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SLM offers unique capabilities unmatched by conventional manufacturing methods. These

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include the design freedom associated with the ability to produce physical objects with highly

complex geometries (such as internal channels) to enable, for example, conformal cooling in

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injection molding tooling and tooling inserts [61,62], and complex lattice or honeycomb

structures for use in biomedical implants [1]. In addition, these parts can be produced directly
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from a digital 3D model without the need for time- and cost-intensive custom tooling [63,64].
d

The introduction of metal-based AM processes such as SLM and EBM has contributed to
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the increasing adoption of AM in direct part production. In 2013, direct part production
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accounted for 34.7% of the total product and service revenue from AM, as opposed to only 3.9%
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in 2003 [65]. General Electric Aviation recently announced that SLM will be used to produce

fuel nozzles for its Leading Edge Aviation Propulsion (LEAP) engine [66]. Aircraft
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manufacturers, such as Airbus, have started to use SLM for producing brackets for application in

their commercial airliners, promising to achieve 30-55% weight reduction and 90% raw material

usage [67]. Further, a recent study utilized SLM to fabricate multi-pinhole collimators needed

for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) applications, and reported that the timeframe for

designing and producing these parts was significantly reduced [68].

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Page 12 of 49
 The SLM process parameters (e.g. laser power, scanning speed, layer thickness, etc.) and

build strategy (e.g. part orientation, powder size, scanning pattern, etc.) are directly coupled to

target part porosity, microstructure and mechanical behavior. During SLM, these parameters

influence the laser-to-powder heat transfer, powder melting, melt pool behavior, layer-to-layer

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adhesion, cooling rates and more. Hence, SLM parameters must be carefully selected for a given

material and part geometry/size. Acceptable tolerances in dimension, microstructure (e.g.

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texture), surface quality, porosity, etc., are influenced by the part’s end use and target reliability.

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To accelerate the end use of SLM parts, the effects of process parameters on the

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encumbered microstructure, and resultant mechanical properties, of parts fabricated via SLM

have been investigated in order to determine end part dependability and performance in various
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applications. In general, it has been found that residual stress and fine, parameter-dependent

microstructures can be generated in selectively-melted Ti-6Al-4V due to very high

d

solidification/cooling rates, and that process-induced defects, such as pores, can drive
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mechanical failure [69–71]. It has also been found that the tensile strength of SLM Ti-6Al-4V
p

are near or superior to that of conventionally-manufactured Ti-6Al-4V, and that variation in

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ductility and strength exist between EBM and SLM Ti-6Al-4V [69]. The orientation of parts

during SLM can also impact final part quality and mechanical properties, and SLM process
Ac

parameters can influence grain growth direction and texture [72]. Currently, pore formation

during the build of SLM Ti-6Al-4V is typical and this can be partially attributed to initial powder

and powder bed conditions. Residual pores and stress can be minimized substantially via Hot

Isostatic Pressing (HIP) after SLM [71].

For heat transfer equipment, microstructural/mechanical properties are, arguably, not as

pivotal. Other properties such as density (porosity) and surface quality are of importance as

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Page 13 of 49
these traits can notably impact overall heat transfer capability, resistance to fouling and

hermeticity. Fully-dense heat transfer equipment, with minimized porosity, should have a better

ability to maintain vacuum pressures in evacuated two-phase heat spreaders, as well as combat

against leaks driven by high vapor pressures during high heat flux operation. Hence, the

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effective consolidation of melted powders, and thus powder dynamics, during SLM is of interest.

The particle dynamics during SLM are complex to model, due to the uncertainty in powder bed

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initial condition; however, it has been shown that the particle motion is dependent on particle-to-

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particle contact, friction, adhesion forces, as well as gravity [73]. As provided by Kruth et al.

[74], the two major challenges in minimizing pore formation in powder bed methods are (1)

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differences in time scale between laser irradiation and powder consolidation and (2) that powders

are not mechanically-assisted during consolidation; thus microscale phenomena such as capillary
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forces and localized temperature gradients drive melt pool solidification. Vandenbroucke et al.
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[75] demonstrated that the corrosion resistance of SLM Ti-6Al-4V is favorable, but dependent on
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the post-SLM finishing procedure. Strano et al. [76] experimentally demonstrated that the

surface roughness of SLM 316L stainless steel varies with the ‘sloping angle’ of the part wall
p

with respect to ground. Horizontal walls (i.e. 0º sloping angle) had minimal surface roughness,
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while the surface roughness of vertical walls (i.e. 0º sloping angle) were approximately 40%
Ac

higher.

With regard to fabrication of TGPs with CTE-matching materials, SLM provides the

opportunity to generate truly-unique, heat targeting channel structures while also allowing the lid

and substrate to be integral – avoiding the need for a secondary metallurgical/mechanical

bonding process. With SLM, many new design features can be integrated that were not possible

via traditional CNC (computer numerical control) end-milling procedures. For example, a TGP

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Page 14 of 49
can be designed to have a multi-axis channel flow path with unique cross-sectional geometry

(e.g. diamond, circular, triangular). It is worth noting that there are no significant differences

between the CTE of SLM and wrought Ti-6Al-4V, except in the 900 °C - 1000 °C temperature

range in which SLM samples exhibit a higher CTE and thermal conductivity [77]. This makes

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Ti-6Al-4V a good selection for extreme temperature, high heat flux applications.

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2. Prototype Design and Manufacture

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A multi-layered FP-OHP, with dimensions shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. A1, was designed for

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its additive manufacture via SLM following ASTM F2924 specifications. Gas atomized, Grade

5 Ti-6Al-4V (ASTM B348) powder (LPW Technology) was utilized. The corresponding
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particle size distribution (PSD) was measured using a laser diffraction analyzer (Microtrac)
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following the ASTM B822 standard. As shown in Table 1, the powder consisted of a D90 (i.e.
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~90% particles are below D90) ~ 45 µm and a distribution span (i.e. difference between D90 and

D10) of approximately 26 µm.

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The FP-OHP was designed to have major dimensions of approximately 5.08 x 3.81 x
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1.58 cm3 and consisted of a serpentine-arranged, closed-loop mini-channel with a diameter of

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1.52 mm as shown in Fig. 4. A protruding, circular section (i.e. fill port) was designed at the

side of the FP-OHP to accommodate for a 3.18 mm (NPT) threaded connector for

adding/removing working fluid as needed. The closed-loop channel consisted of four horizontal

layers that were interconnected with neighboring layers via vertical channels as depicted in Fig.

A1. Note that the channel diameter was not arbitrary but selected to ensure capillarity with

eventual, selected working fluid. In order for a working fluid to form stable liquid ‘slugs’ in a

capillary structure, the diameter must satisfy Eq. (1) [9]:

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Page 15 of 49
where σ is the liquid/vapor surface tension, is the liquid density, is the vapor density, and

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is the local acceleration due to gravity. Due to the nature of SLM, the cross-sectional area of

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the mini-channel structure can be non-constant and reduced due to partially un-melted particles

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along the channel surfaces. For the currently employed powder, the diameter of the current

channel can be locally reduced by ~5% due to this protruding particulate. This channel area

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reduction, and thus flow path roughness, can impact the capillary behavior of working fluid

utilized during part application. One should be cognizant of this encumbered surface roughness
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by integrating PSD data into channel design and sizing. For the case of FP-OHPs, the channel

should be slightly over-sized to achieve a target, actual diameter. Furthermore, the powder PSD
d

metrics will dictate channel roughness variation and subsequent capillarity.

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Since SLM utilizes a powder bed to additively fabricate parts in a layer-by-layer fashion,
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powder will remain within finished structures consisting of internal cavities. This can actually
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be beneficial in most cases, since the ‘trapped’ powder provides support for overhanging

structures – which are capable of collapsing. In order to eventually de-powder the internal
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channel structure of the FP-OHP, nine ‘vent holes’ (seven 1.27 mm and two 1.83 mm holes)

were integrated into the prototype design. However, due to the internal FP-OHP channel

structure being relatively long, the pressure difference across it while being packed with powder

is significant. Since the most conceivable means for removal of the packed powder is via

pumped fluid, these vent holes were integrated as to de-powder each layer separately (to

15
Page 16 of 49
minimize pressure drop). The diameter for each vent hole was designed for eventual integration

of threaded (NPT) plugs.

The FP-OHP was fabricated using the SLM system (ProX 100™) shown in Fig. 5, with

process parameters summarized in Table 2. Building was conducted in an argon-purged

t
ip
environment with a hatch scanning strategy illustrated in Fig. 6. The build plane, as shown in

Fig. 6, was horizontal with ground and the laser scanning direction alternated while maintaining

cr
a constant hatch distance. The FP-OHP was built with its protruding fill port parallel to the build

us
plane to minimize the height-wise dimension at conclusion of the build, thus reducing the

amount of powder utilized during the SLM process. In addition, this orientation allowed for the

an
longest, continuous channel segment to be collinear with the build plane, thus decreasing, on

average, surface roughness and the depth of un-melted powder directly underneath a newly
M
deposited layer. This results in the majority of layer fabrication being devoted to powder melting
d

which can promote melt pool stability, while an opposite case can consist of transient, melt pool
te

‘edge effects’, due to inconsistent melt pool surface wetting and localized heat transfer near the

powder/layer interface. For SLM processes with time-invariant process parameters (as is current
p

case), such phenomena can result in local thermal/fluid anomalies driven by melt pool instability
ce

- detrimental to part quality, such as residual stress formation and vapor recoil.
Ac

The degree of powder compaction prior to selective fusion of a new layer is also a point

of consideration. Depositing over the longitudinal axis of a channel multiple times may be more

beneficial than depositing the final ‘end-wall’ of a vertical channel segment. The amount of

entrapped gas can be higher in the latter case and this can affect the quality of adhesion; hence,

the permeability of the powder volume beneath a layer deposit may be of interest. The sorptivity

of the entrapped powder can vary based on the instantaneous melt pool wetting area, and

16
Page 17 of 49
porosity of powder relative to the enclosing, over-hanging structure. Thus, local temperature

rises and powder compaction can influence melt pool absorption at relatively small time scales,

and hence its contact angle and wettability.

The laser scanned along the build plane at 45º angles and the FP-OHP was built while

t
ip
having its fill port horizontal to ground. A Ti-6Al-4V build plate (10 x 10 x 1 cm3) was utilized

and the total build time for manufacturing the prototype was ~16 hours. Note that this build time

cr
was constrained by the maximum power capability of the SLM laser; build times can be reduced

us
by increasing laser power. A fiber laser (wavelength = 1070 nm, output power = 49 W) with

beam diameter of 70 µm was used during the build. The diameter at the laser/powder interface

an
(i.e. the minimum thickness of a thin line that can be created) is 120 µm. Since the current FP-

OHP prototype does not have design features smaller than 120 microns, there was no direct
M
effect of the laser spot diameter on the wall thickness being built.
d

Post-SLM processing of the prototype was mandatory to ensure its functional use in
te

application. The FP-OHP was first sheared off the build plate using Electrical Discharge

Machining (EDM); excess powder was brushed off from surfaces at this time. Then, the top and
p

bottom surfaces of the FP-OHP were faced (~ 0.1 mm removed) for a smooth finish. Next, all
ce

holes were reamed and tapped for eventual integration of male threaded connectors/ plugs. The
Ac

protruded circular region was tapped for 3.18 mm (1/8 NPT), while the vent holes were tapped

for either 0-80 UNF or 2-56 UNC threaded plugs. Each channel layer was de-powdered

individually via pressurized air and by ‘plugging’ and ‘un-plugging’ vent holes on other layers as

needed. Once the channel structure was sufficiently de-powdered, all the threaded plugs were

secured in place with thread-locker (Loctite 222). A stainless steel, vacuum-grade connector

(Swagelok SS-1-UT-1-2) was secured into the fill port and a copper capillary tube (Ø = 1.59

17
Page 18 of 49
mm, length ~ 6 cm) was fastened to the connector. A photograph of the manufactured, Ti-6Al-

4V FP-OHP prototype (sans connectors) is shown in Fig. 7.

The FP-OHP was connected to a vacuum pump in-line with a custom cold trap. Using

this setup, the heat pipe was repeatedly flushed with acetone to ensure all loose powder was

t
ip
removed. This process also allowed for confirming the lack of any major channel blockages;

demonstrating the success of the SLM fabrication method/approach. Channel continuity and

cr
lack of blockages was ensured by the differential mass of the heat pipe empty and then filled

us
completely with acetone. After flushing, the heat pipe was filled with HPLC-grade water to a

filling ratio (encapsulated liquid volume to total internal structure volume) of 0.67 (± 0.02) and

an
the attached capillary tube was pneumatically crimped to form a hermetic seal.
M
3. Experimental Procedure and Setup
d

The FP-OHP was experimentally investigated for functionality since many novel features
te

were employed in its design. A typical testing procedure, with setup shown in Fig. 8, was
p

utilized for characterizing the thermal performance of the FP-OHP [21,25,33]. To

ce

experimentally quantify the thermal performance of a heat pipe, it is common to apply a

constant, uniform heat flux at one of its ends and then utilize a convection-cooling type method
Ac

to simulate the condenser. Then, the temperature difference across the heat pipe is measured to

estimate the device thermal conductivity and/or thermal resistance.

Using a custom-built test frame, the heat pipe was positioned horizontally or vertically

(with heater below condenser) with respect to the ground; to investigate the effects of gravity

(i.e. operating orientation) on its thermal performance. Heat was applied to the FP-OHP by

firmly attaching/mounting a custom-made, aluminum hot plate to half of its surface and

18
Page 19 of 49
consisted of two 150 W cartridge heaters (Watlow). Cooling was provided by firmly attaching a

custom-made, aluminum water block to the opposite side and face of the FP-OHP, as shown in

Fig. 9a. The water block consisted of two circulator holes (~ Ø 8.7 mm) for in-series flow of 20

ºC (inlet temperature) deionized water via a circulator/refrigerator (PolyScience AD15R-30-

t
ip
A11B). Thermal paste (OMEGATHERM 201) was applied to the surfaces of both cartridge

heaters before insertion and also between the contacting surfaces of the water block and hot

cr
plate. Power to the cartridge heaters was varied/controlled by a bench-top, variable voltage-

us
output transformer (i.e. ‘Variac’, 1400 VA, 50/60 Hz). Actual power input was measured using

a digital multimeter (DMM). The heat pipe, with attached hot plate and water block, was

an
liberally wrapped with fiberglass insulation and suspended in the test frame. Heat loss from

insulated assembly was estimated to be between 1-2 %, depending on power input.

M
Sixteen thermocouples (type-T, ‘TC’) were affixed to the surface of the FP-OHP with
d

approximate locations detailed in Fig. 9b. Specifically, TCs 1-4 were located atop the channel
te

layer closest to the heat source (evaporator layer); TCs 6, 7, 10, and 12 were located between the
p

outer edges of evaporator layer and the immediately adjacent layer (i.e. 2nd from evaporator);
ce

TCs 13-16 were located on the layer closest to the water block (condenser layer); TCs 5, 8, 9,

and 11 were located between the outer edges of the condenser layer and the immediately
Ac

adjacent layer (i.e. 3rd from evaporator). The thermocouples were connected to a Data

Acquisition System (DAQ, National Instruments 9213) in order to record temperature response

of each thermocouple (0.25 ºC resolution). Testing began when the FP-OHP was at near-

isothermal at 20 ºC (equilibrium with water block). Power was applied in 5 W increments and

sufficient time was allowed for the heat pipe to achieve a steady-state temperature distribution

after each new increment. Approximately three minutes of steady-state temperature

19
Page 20 of 49
measurements were recorded at each power increment. This process was repeated until the FP-

OHP possessed a temperature that exceeded 115 ºC or after the 50 W power increment. After a

series of power increments were complete, the FP-OHP was allowed to cool back near-

isothermal conditions at 20 ºC. A ‘large-step’ power interval test was also performed in which

t
ip
the 20 ºC FP-OHP was suddenly introduced to a 40 W power input. Note that this procedure was

repeated for both operating orientations (vertical and horizontal) and for when the FP-OHP was

cr
hermetically-sealed with 67% water and when completely empty. The ‘empty FP-OHP’

us
experiments were conducted for experimental control and to provide a benchmark for heat pipe

thermal performance.

an
M
4. Experimental Results and Discussion
d

The water-filled FP-OHP was found to operate successfully while in both the horizontal
te

and vertical orientations. This is demonstrated by the steady-state temperature response for all
p

thermocouples attached to the vertically-oriented FP-OHP surface during a power input of 35 W

ce

as shown in Fig. 10. Note that any OHP functionality is easily assessed by the presence or lack

of temporal temperature fluctuations (or oscillations) along its surface in response to a specific
Ac

heat input (or temperature difference). If present, these temperature fluctuations indicate the

successful, cyclic phase-change of the encapsulated fluid.

From Fig. 10, it may be seen that the FP-OHP temperature field oscillated with respect to

time at all thermocouple locations – clearly indicating that the SLM-built OHP is capable of

operating with four interconnected channel layers for the given heating/cooling conditions and

design. A critical power input was required to initiate the OHP operation; and this power input

20
Page 21 of 49
was found to be between 15-20 W and 20-25 W for vertical and horizontal orientation,

respectively. From Fig. 10, it may be seen that temperature and its amplitude varied with

thermocouple location. Of particular interest is the variation in temperature with respect to FP-

OHP thickness; given this current design consists of four interconnected channel layers. It may

t
ip
be seen that stronger temperature amplitudes exist at layers closer to the heated layer (e.g. T6 and

T7) while this amplitude decreases towards layers further from the heat source (e.g. T5 and T8).

cr
This is also evidenced by the strong temperature oscillations recorded by T1-T4 – which were on

us
the same plane as the heat source; while thermocouples T13-T16 provided more dampened

temperature oscillations – at locations along the plane opposite of the heat source. Interestingly,

an
both sets – T1-T4 and T13-T16 – had similar temperature magnitudes, indicating a near-

symmetric temperature distribution between the evaporator and condenser.

M
Due to the asymmetric, non-uniform pressure field in the OHP, the occurrence of
d

isolated, more-severe temperature gradients can occur. For instance, although T1 and T2 are
te

relatively close to each other, there is a ~ 8 ºC temperature difference between them during 35 W
p

of power input. While TCs 1 and 2 are similar in distance from the heat source, T2 is located
ce

closer to the channels that connect the layers of the OHP. This results in cold fluid from the

condenser being pushed into the region measured by T2. Similar disparity is seen between TCs
Ac

3 and 4, as T4 is also influenced by this cooler working fluid. Note that these local temperature

discrepancies may also be attributed to non-uniform heating applied by the utilized cartridge

heaters embedded in the hot plate utilized in the current experiment.

Maximum temperatures occurred along the face normal and closest to the heat source

(e.g. T11 and T12), while the coldest temperatures was located on the face normal and closest to

the water block (e.g. T9). In contrast, as evidenced in Fig. 11, the empty FP-OHP demonstrated

21
Page 22 of 49
a steady-state temperature field that did not oscillate with respect to time and consisted of greater

temperature variation between thermocouple locations; and this type of temperature field was

observed at all power inputs investigated. In general, the FP-OHP provided for a more

isothermal surface – with less temperature variation between the heat source and water block.

t
ip
The effective thermal conductivity of the FP-OHP was estimated using Eq. (2). For this

cr
estimation, the heat transfer through the FP-OHP was idealized as being uni-directional; from the

center of the evaporator to the center of the condenser (length = ). Based on similar

us
temperatures adjacent and opposite of the evaporator, as shown in Fig. 10, this idealization

an
appears justifiable. The electrical power input, P, was assumed to be similar to heat throughput

and the cross-sectional area of the FP-OHP, , was taken as the total width and thickness of
M
heat pipe (i.e. 38.1 x 15.75 mm²). The temperature difference between the evaporator and

condenser, , was taken as the difference between the spatiotemporal average of the
d

evaporator (i.e. T13-T16) and condenser (i.e. T1-T4) layers.

p te
ce

Based on Eq. (2), the effective thermal conductivity of the FP-OHP (with water and while
Ac

empty) is shown in Fig. 12.

From Fig. 12, the advantage and functionality of the Ti-6Al-4V FP-OHP is clearly

apparent. After the FP-OHP is activated, its effective thermal conductivity starts to increase with

power and eventually remains near-constant. For both the horizontally- and vertically-oriented

FP-OHP, the effective thermal conductivity was approximately 110 W/m·K at power levels

greater than 45 W. The empty FP-OHP consistently had an effective thermal conductivity close

22
Page 23 of 49
to that of solid Ti-6Al-4V (6.7 W/m·K), at approximately 18 W/m·K. Regardless, a significant

improvement in thermal conductivity is accomplished via the FP-OHP; just over 500% percent-

relative enhancement at high power inputs. The water FP-OHP was found to transfer powers as

high as 50 W while maintaining measurable evaporator temperature below 115 ºC. The empty

t
ip
FP-OHP could only transfer 25 W of power for the same temperature constraint. Although it

was found that a slightly higher power is -required to activate the horizontally-oriented FP-OHP,

cr
the results indicate that the thermal performance of the FP-OHP was near-independent of

us
operating orientation. The higher activation power for the FP-OHP in the horizontal orientation

can be attributed to lack of gravity-pumped fluid return to evaporator during the start-up

an
operating regime; as this is the case in the bottom-heated/vertical orientation.
M
In order to discern the surface quality of the channel structure within the FP-OHP, a

separate SLM Ti-6Al-4V FP-OHP (similar in design) was sectioned along its second channel
d

layer using EDM. A portion of one of the channels (near a turn) was inspected using Scanning
te

Electron Microscopy (SEM) (Zeiss SUPRA 40) in order to observe the channel surface quality at
p

the microscale. A SEM image, confirmed to be representative of all channel locations within the
ce

FP-OHP, is shown in Fig. 13. From Fig. 13, it may be clearly observed that the channel surface

consists of partially-melted, or sintered, spherical Ti-6Al-4V particles with various diameters.

Ac

Intertwined with the particles are regions of melted, amorphous Ti-6Al-4V. It appears that the

surface quality of the walls is gravity dependent and thus affected by the orientation of the part

relative to the build plane during SLM. The observed, sintered surface quality of the internal

channels may serve as secondary capillary structures – allowing for decreased OHP start-up

power and the increased probability of pressure balancing between channel sections [78]. The

23
Page 24 of 49
sintered surface condition can also be advantageous for heat transfer between the wall and the

adjoining liquid – increasing the surface area for thin film evaporation [31,79].

t
ip
5. Conclusions

cr
This case study has demonstrated the manufacture and functionality of a novel FP-OHP

with desirable features that are difficult to achieve using conventional fabrication approaches.

us
Such desirable features were obtained via selective laser melting (SLM) and, for this case study,

an
included: (i) four integrated channel layers, (ii) channels with circular cross-section and (iii)

utilization of Ti-6Al-4V material. A ‘design-for-additive’ concept was employed by integrating

M
several channel-intersecting ‘vent holes’ into the heat pipe to allow for a layer-by-layer de-

powdering process that utilized pressurized air. A fill port was fabricated to allow for integration
d

of a hermetic-grade coupler to enable introduction and removal of working fluid. This

te

additively-manufactured fill port provides the opportunity to fabricate materials which were once
p

very challenging to metallurgical bond or assemble.

ce

The Ti-6Al-4V FP-OHP was shown to operate effectively in both the bottom- and

horizontal-heating operating orientations while filled with HPLC-grade water at a filling ratio of
Ac

67%. Results demonstrate that the FP-OHP provides for a significant increase in thermal

conductivity; approximately 500% higher than that of solid titanium alloy. At a power input of

50 W, the heat pipe provided for peak temperatures under 115 ºC and an effective thermal

conductivity of approximately 110 W/m-K. In addition to demonstrating the use of additive

manufacturing for generating a functional, compact heat exchanger for high heat flux transport,

two key conclusions have been made with regard to OHP technology, namely: (i) the OHP is

24
Page 25 of 49
capable of operating independent of orientation with four interconnected channel layers and (ii)

the OHP functions when manufactured from Ti-6Al-4V and filled with water. Increasing the

channel density and layer-number within the FP-OHP allows for a thicker evaporator –

facilitating higher latent heat transfer. Surface roughness inside the device, due to SLM

t
ip
manufacture, can actually allow for secondary capillary force, and evaporation, mechanisms

advantageous for increased heat pipe performance. Utilization of Ti-6Al-4V thermal ground

cr
planes will provide unique opportunities in ‘CTE matching’ with silicon-based heat generators in

us
electronics packages.

an
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) provides the unique opportunity to fabricate complex heat

exchangers (or thermal ground planes) and structures for specific applications while utilizing
M
atypical heat transfer materials. Previous limitations in heat exchanger fabrication are

surmountable via AM – accelerating their adaption to next-generation heat fluxes and

d

applications. Relative to Directed Energy Deposition (DED) methods – such as Direct Laser
te

Deposition (DLD), SLM is currently more suitable for fabrication of overhanging structures in
p

heat transfer equipment with internal cavities and channels. In SLM, un-melted powders from
ce

previous layers act as a supporting structure to prevent porous parts from collapsing. The

channel/cavity surface quality of the investigated SLM part is reminiscent of a sintered channel
Ac

structure, consisting of partially melted particles and amorphous melt regions. The channel

surface quality appears to be dependent on the orientation of the channel(s).

The resolution of current SLM machine lasers and powder sizes will further dictate the

shortest dimensional trait of complex parts. This will impact the additive manufacturing of heat

exchangers with micro-sized structures and/or channels. Integration of channels for the sole

purpose of post-SLM de-powdering should be considered for heat transfer equipment

25
Page 26 of 49
manufactured via SLM. Overall, since the microstructural tolerances and mechanical integrity

are, arguably, less stringent than those of parts intended for heavy/cyclic mechanical loading,

heat exchangers built via SLM should be more rapidly deployable to market/application. There

are many opportunities to exploit the capabilities provided by additive manufacturing for next-

t
ip
generation of conformal heat transfer equipment. Challenges in smallest-feature resolution, de-

powdering, porosity and manufacturing time should be overcome to further the opportunity set.

cr
Titanium-based heat spreaders are sought for far-junction thermal management within

us
high heat flux applications; primarily due to their relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion

an
(CTE). However, their widespread adoption has been hampered due to the plethora of

challenges associated in their machining and bonding. Additive manufacturing provides a

M
unique solution for overcoming such material, fabrication, and design limitations - and this

should disruptively impact the state-of-the-art in heat exchanger design and application.
d
te

Acknowledgments
p
ce

Authors would like to acknowledge Mr. Carl W. Johnson at Texas A&M University for his work

on post-SLM machining and J.G. Monroe at Mississippi State University for his inputs regarding
Ac

design modifications for de-powdering.

Appendix

Fig. A1. Cross-sectional views and dimensions of FP-OHP (in millimeters); in reference to Fig.

5, (a) Section A-A, (b) Section B-B, (c) Section E-E and (d) Section F-F in reference to Fig. 5.

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Page 27 of 49
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Tables

Table 1 Ti-6Al-4V powder size distribution

Particle Size (µm) <16 16-22 22-31 31-44 >45

Percentage (%) 5 10 28 46 11

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Table 2 SLM processing parameters

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Parameter Laser Power Scanning Speed Hatch Distance Layer Thickness
Value 49 W 400 mm/s 70 µm 30 µm

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Figures

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Fig. 1. Typical far-junction thermal management consisting of heat source, spreader and sink.
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(a)

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(b)
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Fig. 2. Two phase heat spreaders with adjoined heat source and sink: (a) internal serpentine
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channel structure within a FP-OHP and (b) internal cavity of a vapor chamber.
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Fig. 3. Typical assembly of two phase heat spreaders with fill ports: (a) vapor chamber with two

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wicked substrates, (b) single-layer FP-OHP with milled substrate and one cover plate, (c)

double-layer FP-OHP with milled substrate and two cover plates.

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Fig. 4. Dimensioned drawings (with units in millimeters) of FP-OHP prototype (a) isometric
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view with channel structure displayed, (b) back view, (c) front view, (d) side view, (e) top view.
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Sections A-A, B-B, E-E and F-F are provided in Fig. A1.
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Fig. 5. The ProX 100™ SLM system (left) external front view and (right) internal chamber with

major features.
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Fig. 6. The FP-OHP with build plane (a) shown relative to fill port and (b) relative to powder

bed including the laser path directions and hatch distance.

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Fig. 7. Photograph of Ti-6Al-4V FP-OHP.

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Fig. 8. Experimental setup for characterizing the thermal performance of the Ti-6Al-4V FP-

OHP.
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Fig. 9. Approximate thermocouple locations and relative positioning of the hot plate and water
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block.

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Fig. 10. Steady-state temperature vs. time for thermocouple locations T1-T16 for water FP-OHP
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in vertical orientation with a power input of 35 W.

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 TC11

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TC4
TC2

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TC9

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Fig. 11. Steady-state temperature vs. time for thermocouple locations TC2, TC4, TC9 and TC11

for empty FP-OHP in vertical orientation with a power input of 35 W.

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Fig. 12. Effective thermal conductivity vs. power input for bottom-heated Ti-6Al-4V FP-OHP.
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Fig. 13. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image along the turn of a channel within the SLM
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Ti-6Al-4V FP-OHP.
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Fig. A1. Cross-sectional views and dimensions of FP-OHP all in reference to sections shown in
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Fig. 4, (a) Section A-A, (b) Section B-B, (c) Section E-E and (d) Section F-F.
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