See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/262889830

Inquiry on Teachers’ Emotion

Article in Educational Psychologist · January 2014

DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2013.864955

CITATIONS READS
114 732

1 author:

Paul A. Schutz
University of Texas at San Antonio
78 PUBLICATIONS 4,068 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Paul A. Schutz on 27 September 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

This article was downloaded by: [University of Oklahoma Libraries]
On: 30 December 2014, At: 11:48
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer
House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Educational Psychologist
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hedp20

Inquiry on Teachers’ Emotion

a
Paul A. Schutz
a
Department of Educational Psychology , University of Texas at San Antonio
Published online: 16 Jan 2014.

Click for updates

To cite this article: Paul A. Schutz (2014) Inquiry on Teachers’ Emotion, Educational Psychologist, 49:1, 1-12, DOI:
10.1080/00461520.2013.864955

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2013.864955

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of
the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied
upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall
not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other
liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST, 49(1), 1–12, 2014
Copyright 
C Division 15, American Psychological Association
ISSN: 0046-1520 print / 1532-6985 online
DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2013.864955

Inquiry on Teachers’ Emotion

Paul A. Schutz
Department of Educational Psychology
University of Texas at San Antonio
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014

Teaching, like other caring professions, is emotional. These emotions tend to emerge as teach-
ers’ goals, standards, and beliefs transact with other classroom stakeholders during everyday
school activities. As such, for teachers, the classroom context involves both the extreme hap-
piness and joy from a lesson that goes as planned to the intense frustration of working with
a challenging student. These academic emotions have garnered the attention of a growing
number of researchers, and will be the focus of this article. More specifically, my goal is to
summarize and extend our thoughts about the nature of research and our program of research
related to teacher emotion.

I knew I wanted to deal with people and I liked kids a lot
and—but I didn’t want to go into teaching because I thought,
‘Well, they don’t get paid enough’ and this and that. And then
I took a career exploration class and we had a lot of [field
experiences] and I went to my old third grade teacher and I got
chills when I walked in the school because I was just like ‘This
is what I want.’ So I was really excited because once I got to
talking with her and she was just so excited and still enthused
about teaching and she wasn’t burned out—and that’s what
I was afraid of, too, was that I might get burned out-but
really don’t think I will. I can just see myself there, you
know. So I’m really glad that I decided [to teach] elementary
[school].
—Ms. Ann (Schutz, Crowder, & White, 2001, p. 303)
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics,
there was a projected 3.6 million elementary and secondary
school teachers who entered classrooms during the fall of
2010. NCES also estimates that around 300,000 of those
teachers were new to the profession. Like Ms. Ann, these new
teachers entered the profession filled with excitement and
armed with—among other things—the training they received,
an emerging idea of who they expect to be as a teacher, and
some ideas about what their classroom experiences will be
like.
Also like Ms. Ann, they will learn early in the process
that teaching, like other caring professions, is emotional.
These emotions tend to emerge as teachers’ goals, standards,
and beliefs transact1 with other classroom stakeholders dur-
ing everyday school activities. As such, for teachers, emo-
tions range from the happiness and joy of a lesson that goes
as planned to the frustration and anger of working with a
challenging administrator. These academic emotions have
garnered the attention of a growing number of researchers
(see Schutz & Pekrun, 2007; Schutz & Zembylas, 2009)
and are the focus of this article. More specifically, my goal
is to summarize and extend our2 thoughts about the nature
of research and our program of research related to teacher
emotion.
To do so, I start by discussing my current worldviews
about inquiry and introduce the research problems that are
the focus of the article. Then, I synthesize and extend an
emerging ecological dynamic systems perspective on teacher
emotion by discussing some of our research on teacher emo-
tion. Finally I make an argument for the importance of
1I use the term transaction to suggest there is the potential for mutual

This article is an adaption of my American Psychological Association, changes to occur among the factors or processes involved in the event
Division 15 (Educational Psychological) Presidential Address. As such, I (Schutz, 1994). Thus, as teachers’ beliefs change, there is also the potential
tried to write it as much a possible like it was delivered in that speech. I for their goals, emotions, and teaching strategies to also change.
would again like to thank the members of Division 15 for the opportunity 2Through out the article I move back and forth between the use of “I or

serve the division as president—it was an honor.
Correspondence should be addressed to Paul A. Schutz, Depart-
ment of Educational Psychology, University of Texas at San Antonio,
501 West Durango Boulevard, San Antonio, TX 78207-4415. E-mail:
paul.schutz@utsa.edu
me” and “we or our.” Generally, when I am referring to this particular article
I use “I or me.” However, when referring to previous research I use “we or
our.” Basically, I am uncomfortable with the use of “I or me” because the
development of thoughts and research presented in this article are the results
of collaboration with the coauthors cited through out the article.
 2 SCHUTZ
including social historical contexts in educational psychol-
ogy research.
EMERGING WORLDVIEWS ABOUT
RESEARCH AND INQUIRY
I begin this discussion of “Inquiry on Teachers’ Emotions”
with my worldviews about inquiry. I think this step is critical
because my beliefs and assumptions about inquiry provide
the foundational perspectives for the problems I choose to
study, the approaches I use to study those problems, and how
I contextualize outcomes from our research. Keep in mind,
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
whether explicated on or not, researchers’ foundational as-
sumptions about research are important because they provide
direction for not only what researchers investigate but also
how they go about conducting those inquiries.
With that said, there are several assumptions that form
the foundation of my current views about research and in-
quiry. First, human conceptions or theories about the world
are socially constructed. In other words, we construct mean-
ings about the world and we transact based on those socially
constructed meanings (Schutz, Chambless, & DeCuir, 2004;
Schutz, Nichols, & Rodgers, 2009). Because of the socially
constructed nature of how we view the world, it follows that
there may be many potentially useful ways of looking at the
world. For researchers, this suggests that the same or similar
data have the potential to be reasonably explained by dif-
ferent theories (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Reichardt & Rallis,
1994; Schutz, Chambless, & DeCuir, 2004).
Second, these constructed realities tend to be complex
and layered with the potential for continual construction
or reconstruction of additional layers (House, 1994; Schutz
et al., 2004; Schutz, Nichols, et al., 2009). For example, in
the United States, teachers transact within classrooms and
schools that are nested within communities, within states,
and within a nation that is part of a global community. So, for
example, when researching the number of teachers that leave
the profession early, it is important to investigate not only
the teachers who leave but also their classrooms, schools,
families, and communities. In other words, because of the
socially constructed transactional nature of teaching, inquiry
at a single level (investigating teachers who leave the pro-
fession) may be misleading in that, if a particular teacher or
groups of teachers leave the profession, research at a single
level might suggest that these teachers are not being trained
properly. On the other hand, if the classrooms, schools, and
communities are included in the analysis, we may find a sys-
tematic bias within the overall system that creates contexts
where particular groups of teachers are more likely to leave
or not even enter the profession in the first place.
Third, these complex layered social historical contexts
are ever changing transactional open-systems, which means
there is the potential for continual change and the emer-
gence of new original processes. This implies that current
transactional patterns may not look the same in the future.
One recent example is the Internet, which has fundamentally
changed major aspects of how many humans transact since
it was commercialized in 1995. As a result, activities such
as “Googling,” “Facebooking,” and “tweeting” have become
a way of life in the last 10 years and have basically changed
how many people in the world relate to each another. What
this continual change should have also taught us is that in
the next 10 to 15 years, those activities will be thought of as
obsolete, like eight-track tapes are now.
Finally, I tend to approach inquiry from what could be
termed a “universalist” perspective as apposed to an “abso-
lutist” approach. Researchers with an absolutist perspective
tend to assume, implicitly or explicitly, that psychological
processes are essentially universal, are culture free, and there-
fore can be universally applied across populations (e.g., goal
orientation processes would be the same for all cultures). On
the other hand, from a more universalist perspective, I as-
sume that there may be some basic psychological processes
that tend to be more universal, but I would also argue for the
importance of social-historical influences on those psycho-
logical processes (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002;
Zusho & Clayton, 2011). Thus, I would suggest that it is
important for theoretical constructs developed in one context
(e.g., White, middle class, college students) be developed and
tested in other contexts. In addition, it may also be the case
that there may be context specific issues, problems, and solu-
tions that need to be investigated or applied within particular
contexts.
Based on the aforementioned assumptions it follows that
our socially constructed worldviews tend to influence our per-
ceptions of what problems should be investigate, the meth-
ods used to investigate those problems, and the interpreta-
tions made about our findings. In other words, because our
realities are socially constructed and as researchers we are
enmeshed within a complex and layered social historical con-
text, what we choose to investigate, and how we choose to
investigate those issues tend to be a function of that con-
structed worldview (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Reichardt &
Rallis, 1994; Schutz et al., 2004).
For example, in the United States, a worldview has
emerged that suggests that our children are “behind” or
not doing as well as the rest of the world in the science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) areas,
and “we need to catch up.” As a result of this percep-
tion/reality/narrative, many granting agencies have funneled
much of their funding into research that focuses on the STEM
fields. As a result, many educational psychologists have fol-
lowed the money and are now conducting research applied
to the STEM fields. In essence, the broader social-political
climate may be influencing educational psychologists’ per-
ceptions of the “problem.”
It is important to note, however, there are other equally
important educational problems and achievement gaps left
unstudied in light of this context. For example, only a few

years ago the Associated Press reported that 2006 Roper poll
conducted for National Geographic indicated that 33% of the
people surveyed could not locate Louisiana on a map, 47%
could not find the Indian subcontinent on a map of Asia, and
almost 75% thought that English was the most widely spoken
native language in the world. These findings also indicate
that we may also be “behind” in the area of Social Studies,
which suggests that if we wanted our students, with their
newfound STEM knowledge, to build a bridge in Louisiana,
it might be also useful if they were able to find the state on
a map. However, finding funding for research in the area of
social studies learning tends to be much harder given granting
agencies’ current priorities.
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
Based on the assumptions presented here, I would suggest
that using research as a way to search for universal “truth”
is probably unrealistic (Schutz et al., 2004; Schutz, Nichols,
et al., 2009). Therefore, I tend to view the research process
as a way of working to solve problems within social histor-
ical contexts. These problems can range from theoretical to
“real”-world problems or they may be related to gaps in our
current level of knowing, problematic phenomena, or cur-
rent ideas that are challenged by new hypotheses (Brewer
& Hunter, 1989; Schutz et al., 2004; Schutz, Nichols, et al.,
2009). However, it seems clear that these problems emerge
from transactions embedded within social historical contexts
and therefore need to be investigated within those contexts
(Schutz et al., 2004).
Current Problem Focus
Currently my focus has been on investigating how emo-
tions are linked to teachers’ work, development, and
identity—basically, how emotions impact teachers’ lives
(Kelchtermans, Ballet, & Piot, 2009; Schutz, Cross, Hong,
& Osbon, 2007; Zembylas, 2003). This focus emerged, in
part, from reports suggesting that teachers leave the pro-
fession at high rates during the first few years of their ca-
reer (Achinstein, 2006; Darling-Hammond, 1999; Kersaint,
Lewis, Potter, & Meisels, 2007; Ulvik, Smith, & Helleve,
2009). Some reports suggest that nearly 30% to 50% of teach-
ers entering the profession leave within the first 5 years (Al-
liance for Excellent Education 2004; Ingersoll, 2003; Qual-
ity Counts 2000, in collaboration with the Pew Charitable
Trust, 2000).3 If this is so, among those 300,000 teachers
that began their teaching careers in 2010, only 90,000 to
150,000 will still be teaching by 2015. Estimates of teacher
attrition are substantially higher in schools that serve stu-
dents of color and English language learners (Adamson &
Darling-Hammond, 2012; Jacob, 2007). Excessive teacher
turnover is problematic in that it results in lost revenue from
3To put this into context, when you consider the expert literature suggest
that it takes about 10,000 hr working at a skill to develop expertise and given
most teacher have around 180-day contract, it would take at a minimum
around 5 to 7 years to become an expert teacher.
INQUIRY ON TEACHERS’ EMOTION 3
the cost of professional development for new teachers and
dissolves relationships with families, the community, and
the school. Generally, high teacher turnover rate makes long-
term reform challenging in schools that also host some of the
highest needs students (Schutz, Nichols, Bilica, Rodgers, &
McKenzie Davis, 2012).
Some researchers have suggested that this teacher exodus
might be related to the emotional nature of the teaching pro-
fession (see edited volumes, Schutz & Pekrun, 2007; Schutz
& Zembylas, 2009). Teaching, like other caring professions,
involves considerable emotional labor. Emotional labor in-
volves the effort, planning, and control teachers need to ex-
press organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal
transactions. In addition, emotional labor has been associated
with job dissatisfaction, health symptoms, and emotional ex-
haustion, which are key components of burnout and therefore
choosing to leave the profession (Hochschild, 1990; Maslach,
1982; Morris & Feldman, 1996; Schaubroek & Jones, 2000).
This suggests that teacher emotions may be a useful portal
for inquires aimed at understanding the problems of teachers,
including those who leave the profession early in their career.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS: ECOLOGICAL
DYNAMIC SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
Emerging from and informed by the previously mentioned
worldviews regarding inquiry, it follows that in order to solve
more complex educational problems such as teacher emotion
and how the emotional nature of the teaching profession may
influence teachers to leave the profession, it will be impor-
tant to investigate at multiple levels. To do so, my theoreti-
cal focus on the nature of teacher emotions centers on what
Schutz, Rodgers, and Simcic (2010) labeled as an Ecological
Dynamic Systems perspective. The focus with this approach
is to acknowledge and investigate both the social historical
contexts (ecological) in which emotional episodes occur and
the dynamic transactions that occur during particular emo-
tional episodes (dynamic systems).
In terms of emotion episodes, Schutz, Hong, Cross, and
Osbon (2006) described them as socially constructed, per-
sonally enacted ways of being that emerge from conscious
and/or unconscious judgments regarding perceived successes
at attaining goals or maintaining standards or beliefs dur-
ing transactions as part of social-historical contexts (see
Figure 1). For this discussion, there are two key parts of
that description. First, as indicated, emotional episodes in-
volve conscious and/or unconscious judgments regarding
perceived successes at attaining goals or maintaining stan-
dards or beliefs, and second, emotions are socially con-
structed. I discuss each of these components in turn.
In terms of judgments, Schutz (1991, 1994) discussed how
teachers’ goals, standards, and beliefs represent the reference
points used by teachers to judge where they are in relation
to where they want to be (Carver & Scheier, 2000; Cross
 4 SCHUTZ
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
FIGURE 1 Nested systems (color figure available online).
& Hong, 2009; Frenzel, Goetz, Stephens, & Jacob, 2009;
Powers, 1971; Schutz & Davis, 2000; Schutz & DeCuir,
2002; see Figure 1). In other words, the goals, standards,
and beliefs that emerge during transactions as part of social
historical contexts represent ways teachers think their class-
rooms should and could be, as well as the ways they would
not like their classrooms to be (Ford, 1992; Markus & Nurius,
1986; Schutz, 1991, 1994; Schutz et al., 2001).
As referent points, these goals, standards, and beliefs pro-
vide directionality to teachers’ thoughts and activities and
tend to be what teachers use to judge how successful they see
themselves during those activities (dynamic systems). Con-
sequently, the type and intensity of emotions emerge based
on the teachers’ appraisals of how successful their goal pur-
suits are within a particular classroom context (see Figure 1).
These appraisals emerge from teachers’ goals, standards, and
beliefs about the world and are directed toward making com-
parisons among teachers’ goals, standards, and beliefs and
where they perceive themselves to be in relation to those
goals, standards, and beliefs. In most cases, these judgments
tend to occur without awareness, yet researchers see these
judgments as being key to the emotional episodes (Frijda,
1993; Lazarus, 1991; Pekrun, Frenzel, Goetz, & Perry, 2007;
Schutz & Davis, 2000; Smith, 1991).
To discuss more specifically the dynamic nature of the
appraisal process and its relationship to teachers’ emotional
episodes, I use Lazarus’s (1991, 1999) distinction between
primary and secondary appraisals. Lazarus (1991) identi-
fied two key primary appraisals that are relevant to this
discussion—goal relevance and goal congruence. Goal rele-
vancy appraisals occur when teachers make judgments about
the importance of an event to their goals, standards, or
beliefs. Goal congruence appraisals occur when teachers
make judgments about if an event is going the way they
thought or hoped it would go. Primary appraisals influence
the valence of an emotional episode such that if an event is
appraised as important and going well, pleasant emotions are
more likely to emerge. However, if this event is appraised as
being important but not going well, unpleasant emotions are
more likely to emerge. In other word, different appraisals can
result in different emotions.
Secondary appraisals are the judgments teachers make
about their potential to be able to deal successfully with the
particular event. Two key secondary appraisals are agency
(Lazarus, 1999; Pekrun et al., 2007; Schutz & Davis, 2000)
and problem efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Schutz & Davis, 2000),
or what Lazarus (1991) referred to as coping potential or the
teachers’ confidence in their ability to handle particular situ-
ations. These secondary appraisals help differentiate among
potential emotional experiences.
For example, a situation that has been appraised as goal
important (e.g., This lesson is important for my students’
success) and goal incongruent (e.g., This lesson is not go-
ing well), with additional secondary appraisals of self-blame
(i.e., I knew I should have prepared more for this lesson) and
a lack of problem efficacy (i.e., I am not going to be able to
answer my students’ questions), may result in a teacher anxi-
ety episode. Alternatively, the same situation with secondary
appraisals of other blame (i.e., These standardized tests are
just stupid!) may result in anger at the system.
To explicate the social constructed aspect of an emotional
episode, we used Bronfenbrenner’s (1986) ecological model
(Cross & Hong, 2012; Schutz et al., 2007; Schutz et al.,
2010). This model helps to explicate the broader social his-
torical contextual constraints and affordances related to the
emotions associated with teaching. For example, as discussed
by Schutz et al. (2010) in the United States, the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001 mandated that states use standard-
ized testing data to hold students, teachers, and schools ac-
countable. This particular social historical contextual event
resulted in a number of changes in the way students, teachers,
and/or school district personnel approached motivation and
learning (see Figure 1). For example, Schutz et al. (2010)
provided the following quote from a teacher, Ms. Jones,
who talked about her classroom context and her emotional
episodes (see Figure 1) associated with the state mandated
test day:
That is the most emotional draining day of our lives. Because
as the teacher, we are watching a train wreck sometimes—I
think it is so wrong [the testing] because we are supposed
to teach them and guide them, but we can’t do that with the
test. We just watch them and make sure they don’t cheat and
follow directions. It is emotionally draining and frustrating.
You know the ones that need the help but you can’t help
them. You are hoping they are doing their best. All you do
is to watch their faces because you hope that they go like:

“Oh I know this, I got this!” Instead of, “Oh, my god what is
this?” But I think it is very emotional, it is very draining to
have to watch little children take that test.
—Ms. Jones (Schutz et al., 2010, p. 57)
The aforementioned quote provides an example of how
the passing of a federal law (i.e., social historical context)
at a particular point in time has the potential to influence
school districts’ classroom context (e.g., the who, how, when,
where of testing) as well as teacher emotional episodes. Thus,
from the theoretical perspective presented here, to understand
Ms. Jones’s emotional episode and how she transacts in the
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
classroom related to those emotional experiences it would
be useful to investigate the broader social historical contex-
tual constraints and affordances that have the potential to
influence her classroom transactions (Kelchtermans et al.,
2009; Turner, Waugh, Summers, & Grove, 2009; van Veen &
Sleegers, 2009). It is these social historical factors that create
the context for the complex teacher motivational and emo-
tional processes that are associated with particular classroom
transactions.
At the emotional episode level, Ms. Jones seems to believe
that a teacher’s role is to help her students to do well (i.e.,
goal relevance: “We are supposed to teach them and guide
them”). Yet she perceives a discrepancy between her stated
belief about her role and her actual role during the test (i.e.,
goal incongruent: “We just watch them and make sure they
don’t cheat and follow directions”). In terms of secondary
appraisals her description of the situation suggests that she
does not feel in control of what she would like to do (i.e., lack
of agency: “You know the ones that need the help but you
can’t help them”) leading to what she described as “draining
and frustrating” emotional episodes.
However, in terms of the potential dynamic nature of these
processes, it is also important to keep in mind that if her sec-
ondary appraisals were not a perceived lack of control but one
of self-blame (e.g., “I knew I should have done a better job
of teaching”), her emotional experience may have resulted
in shame and not frustration (Turner & Waugh, 2007; Turner
et al., 2009). It is also possible that she could have a belief that
the students are at a deficit and therefore cannot be success-
ful, and are therefore to blame, which may result in sympathy
for their situation. As such, teachers’ goals, standards, and
beliefs, as well as their primary and secondary appraisals, are
important to the nature of the emotional episode.
This self-generated nature suggests that emotional
episodes are basically self-organizing dynamic processes that
emerge from the flow of individuals’ activities within vari-
ous contexts that are nested within social historical contexts
(Fogel et al., 1992). This view of emotions as part of a dy-
namic changing system suggests that emotions are not static
but are in a constant state of flux. In other words, teach-
ers’ emotional episodes involve interrelated transacting situ-
ational (e.g., the broader social historical contexts) and indi-
INQUIRY ON TEACHERS’ EMOTION 5
vidual systems (e.g., teachers’ goals, standards, and beliefs)
to create transient emotional episodes (Ford & Smith, 2007;
Lewis, 2005; Schutz et al., 2010; van Geert, 2008).
Therefore, in an effort to develop understanding these self-
organizing dynamic processes, I am suggesting a blending of
ecological perspectives with dynamic systems approaches.
The goal would be to provide the multiple lenses needed
to develop useful ways of investigating classroom transac-
tions. In other words, this blending may provide frameworks
for ways of both investigating the social historical contex-
tual issues that provide the constraints and affordances for
classroom transactions and developing understandings of the
dynamic processes involved throughout various classroom
episodes. It is from this Ecological Dynamic Systems per-
spective that I now discuss some of our research findings as
a way of explicating the nature of emotions in the classroom
and how those emotional episodes may relate back to the
question of why teachers are leaving the profession.
Teacher–Student Relationship Boundary
The teacher–student relationship boundary plays an impor-
tant role in the emotional episodes experienced by teach-
ers. To investigate this issue, Aultman, Williams-Johnson,
and Schutz (2009) investigated teacher goals, standards, and
beliefs in an effort to understand how teachers talk about
the boundaries between themselves and their students. The
teacher–student relationship boundary question is reflective
of the concerns teachers have regarding how they balance
their social historical constructed roles (ecological focus)
as, on one hand “the caring teacher” whereas on the other
“the disciplinarian” who maintains behavioral control in their
classrooms (Chang & Davis, 2009; Nie & Lau, 2009). In
other words, caring for students implies the development of
a level of closeness with one’s students, whereas maintain-
ing a level of behavioral control may suggest that teachers
also need to maintain a level of professional distance from
those same students. Keep in mind, these are both social his-
torically constructed roles; where the boundary is located is
determined in part by the individual teacher as well as social
cultural norms and beliefs about the nature of the relationship
between students and teachers.
Aultman et al. (2009) identified several different
teacher–student relationship boundaries, and I highlight three
here. The first is Communication Boundaries, which basi-
cally revolves around what aspects of their lives teachers are
willing to self-disclose to their students. Ms. Bonnie talked
about her communication boundary related to her classroom
experiences (dynamic system focus) like this:
In middle school the girls especially want to know about my
personal life. Like do you have boyfriend, are you married,
what are you doing this weekend? This year, if they ask me as
far as relationships go, I would let them know if I’m married.
 6 SCHUTZ
But I won’t go into the details of my personal life, like [I did]
my first year.
—Ms. Bonnie (Aultman et al., 2009, p. 640)
In this brief quote we learn a lot about Ms. Bonnie chang-
ing ideas about how to “professionally” transact with her stu-
dents (ecological focus). For example, she suggests that she
provided her students with too much personal information
about her life during her 1st year as a teacher. This suggests
she perceived a mismatch between her goals, standards, and
beliefs and what occurred during transactions with her stu-
dents (dynamic systems focus). In other words, she perceived
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
that an imbalance had developed during her 1st year between
what she told students about herself and her perceived ability
to professionally transact with her students in the classroom.
As a result, to avoid this mismatch and the emotions associ-
ated with it, she indicated that she was going to, in essence,
move the communication boundary inward so as to not re-
veal as much personal information about herself with the
future goal of enhancing her professional transactions with
her students. Getting and maintaining the communication
boundary in a place where Ms. Bonnie can create a useful
learning environment could be key to her emerging success
as a teacher.
It is important to keep in mind that teachers, and their stu-
dents, are continually developing an emerging understanding
of the norms, values, and behaviors expected of them within
classroom contexts. These expected norms, values, and be-
haviors have emerged within social historical contexts (eco-
logical focus), and they have the potential to influence the
teachers’ goals, standards, and beliefs that are used during
the appraisals that are associated with particular emotional
episodes (dynamic systems focus).
In addition to the struggle over “appropriate” amounts
of self-disclosure with students, a second related dimension
is what Aultman et al. (2009) referred to as Relationship
Boundaries. These boundaries refer to the role that teachers
see themselves playing in their students’ lives. Some common
socially constructed relationship roles for teachers might be
“parent,” “counselor,” or “mentor” (ecological focus). One
key relationship boundary that many teachers, particularly
beginning teachers, wrestle with revolved around the idea
of being “friends” versus “being friendly.” In this quote Mr.
Jack clearly explains where this Relationship Boundary is for
him:
Sometimes I’m probably too friendly because they think
we’re friends. I have to tell them I’m the teacher. They’re the
student. We’re not friends. Friends come over to my house
and we play pool or we go out to a movie or go to concerts
or go out to dinner together. That’s friends; you and I aren’t
going to do that.
—Mr. Jack (Aultman et al., 2009, p. 642)
Here we see Mr. Jack discussing how he goes about estab-
lishing the type of relationship he will have with his students.
Here he suggests that he attempts to clearly define his stan-
dards for transactions with his students (dynamic systems
focus). Again Mr. Jack’s standard acts as a referent point for
his transactions with students. As such, if a particular student
begins to act in a more “friend” manner, Mr. Jack may remind
the student about that boundary, as he does in the preceding
quote. In this case, Mr. Jack seems to have developed a clear
relationship boundary with his students.
A third boundary is labeled Emotional Boundaries (Ault-
man et al., 2009). For teachers the question is, What are the
appropriate levels and types of emotions students and teach-
ers should be sharing? As with other boundaries, individual
teachers and social historical norms about the relationship be-
tween students and teachers play key roles in determining the
boundary. Generally, teachers are expected to express pleas-
ant emotions (but not too pleasant) and repress unpleasant
emotions (ecological focus). For example, as indicated, for
teachers, displaying frustration is more socially acceptable
then displaying anger (Sutton, 2007).
However, Emotional Boundaries also include the emo-
tions that students express to teachers. For example, Ms.
Melissa indicates her standards for what student emotions
she feels comfortable with:
Now if they’re mad about something I can deal with that. No
trouble. But that wanting to cry, I’m like “Why don’t you go
see somebody else and let them deal with it?” That makes
me very uncomfortable.
—Ms. Melissa (Aultman et al., 2009, p. 641)
In this example we learn about some of the students ex-
pressed emotions with which Ms. Melissa feels comfort-
able with, which brings us to the question of how teachers
approach student emotions in the classroom.
Approaches to Student Emotions
As indicated, the teacher–student relationship boundaries are
negotiated during transactions in classrooms and tend to re-
flect how teachers, based in part on social cultural norms, ap-
proach student emotions in the classroom (Williams-Johnson
et al., 2008). This suggests that there are certain expected
social-historically based ways of expressing emotion or emo-
tional display rules that represent the standards or norms for
appropriate emotional expression during classroom trans-
actions (Schutz, Aultman, & Williams-Johnson, 2009). As
indicated, for teachers this generally means that during most
transactions with students, they are expected to show pleas-
ant emotions (e.g., joy and excitement) and suppress their
unpleasant emotions (e.g., frustration and anger; ecological
focus).

Student emotional episodes are also relational transactions
that occur during classroom activities. Thus, the question of
how teachers act and react to student emotional episodes
becomes important to our understanding of teacher emo-
tion. In an effort to investigate this issue, Williams-Johnson
et al. (2008) identified several ways that teachers indicated
that they approached student emotions in their classroom, of
which I highlight three.
At the classroom context level, the ideal climate would be
one where students are involved and engaged (see Figure 1).
Emotionally this would suggest that students’ core affect
would be pleasant and activated (e.g., enthusiastic, excited,
and moderately challenged; dynamic systems focus). From
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
the teachers’ point of view, they generally begin classroom
activities with specific plans and goals for how they expect
each activity to go. Ideally teachers’ core affect would be
pleasant and activated (e.g., enthusiastic, excited, and moder-
ately challenged). As such, emerging transactional emotions,
whether they emerge inside or outside of the class, that de-
viate sufficiently from those ideals may signal appraisal that
have the potential to lead to emotional episodes. The question
here becomes, How do teachers attempt to deal with those
emerging student emotions?
Williams-Johnson et al. (2008) indicated that one way that
teachers indicated that they deal with student emotions in the
classroom was by simply asking the students to push those
emotions aside. In other words, the teachers’ emphasis (i.e.,
goals, values, and beliefs) on educational activities was seen
as more important and therefore more salient than the stu-
dents’ emotions. Williams-Johnson et al. labeled this theme
as “Put this on the back burner (not-right-now approach).”
As an example, Mr. Pedersen suggested the following:
It’s like you are so rushed and you are so pressed that I think
emotions sometimes do get pushed to the side. A lot of times
we’ll just send them to the counselor because they don’t know
how to deal with it; it’s like we don’t have time for that, we
have to do this now.
—Mr. Pedersen (Williams-Johnson et al., 2008, p. 1595)
Depending on the nature of the student emotional episode,
this may or may not be a useful strategy for dealing with in-
dividual student emotions. Part of the challenge for teachers
is being able to make the right call as to when to get involved
and when to seek outside help from other school personnel
such as counselors, psychologists, or administrative person-
nel and when to, as Mr. Pedersen suggested, “push to the
side.” This decision regarding when to get involved is based
on the social historical norms and values (ecological focus)
as well as the teacher’s goals, values, and beliefs (dynamic
systems focus).
On other occasions, student emotions can emerge from
transactions with the teacher and course content. In those
situations, Williams-Johnson et al. (2008) indicated that there
INQUIRY ON TEACHERS’ EMOTION 7
might be a need to “Shift directions (emotional regulation).”
In such a situation, Mr. Lipson indicated:
[I told them to] “Just calm down.” . . . I’ll put like 2X +
10 = 4X + 12 and then put one next to it with variables
and say, “okay, what would we do here? We’d subtract 12
or whatever.” I usually end up trying to show them and then
eventually they calm down and get to working.”
—Mr. Lipson (Williams-Johnson et al., 2008, p. 1598)
The key in situations like this for teachers is to be able to
accurately “read the room” and to be able speed or change
things up if students get bored as well as being able slow
things down or change their approach if students are becom-
ing frustrated.
Finally, at times, the teachers discussed emotional events
as an opportunity to be responsive to students’ needs. In those
situations, Williams-Johnson et al. (2008) indicated there
might be a need to try to “Handle with care” (responsive to
student emotions). For example, Ms. Napolean described a
situation where one of her students was attempting to deal
with his parents’ divorce. In that situation, she explained why
she attempted to reach out to the student during this time of
emotional turmoil.
If a student is not focused emotionally, how can they focus
on academic stuff? Like my student that is going through so
much turmoil inside with his parents divorcing, right now,
he’s doing well academically, three or four weeks down the
road he may not be. If he’s not comfortable there’s no way
his focus is on that [schoolwork].
—Ms Napolean (Williams-Johnson et al., 2008, p. 1597)
Ms. Napolean articulated that the classroom has impor-
tant implications for management and motivation of student
learning. She believed that she had the ability to generate
a safe environment where her students felt comfortable and
open to discuss their feelings. Undoubtedly teaching encom-
passes more than promoting academic achievement; it also
extends to the nurturing of the emotional and caring selves
of our students. As such, based on social historical views
about how teachers should interact with students, there are
expectations about what emotions teacher should and can
feel and how they are expected to display those emotions to
their students.
It is important to keep in mind that teachers, and students,
are continually developing an emerging understanding of
the norms, values, and behaviors expected of them within
classroom contexts. It is those expected norms, values, and
behaviors, that have emerged within social historical contexts
(ecological focus), that have the potential to influence the
teachers’ goals, standards, and beliefs that are used during
the appraisals that are associated with particular emotional
episodes (dynamic systems focus). It is the importance of
 8 SCHUTZ
those social historical influences on the classroom context
that I turn to next.
SOCIAL HISTORICAL CONTEXT
As indicated, one purpose of this discussion is to argue for the
importance of including a focus on social historical contexts
in educational psychology research. To do so, I elaborate
on two important social historical constructs that potentially
provide the backdrop for the problem I introduced earlier
in this article: teachers leaving the profession within the
first 5 years, particularly in schools that serve students of
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
color and English language learners. The two social histori-
cal constructs that I would like to foreground here are social
economic status and race/ethnicity.
In addition it will also be important to include the con-
struct of intersectionality, which in this case will be related
to transactions among economic status and race/ethnicity.
The intersectionality construct was introduced by Crenshaw
(1989) with the idea that it is important to also examine the
intersection of our various identities, particularly gender and
race/ethnicity. In this case, the potential influences of eco-
nomic status and race/ethnicity do not to act independently
of each other—they are interrelated—and therefore it will be
important to investigate the transactions among those social
historical constructs.
To begin to discuss these issues, I draw on research we are
currently conducting in a large city in the southwest (Schutz
et al., 2012). In this research we have been concerned with
two key research questions: How do emotional events and
emotional display rules shape the emerging teacher identities
of early career mathematics and science teachers4 in schools
serving students of color and English language learners? And
how do early career mathematics and science teachers’ cul-
tural identities and knowledge of culturally responsive prac-
tice inform their emotional display rules in the classroom?
From a social historical perspective it is important to keep
in mind the current demographic profile of teachers in the
United States. The National Center for Education Informa-
tion in 2011 indicated that 84% of teachers were women,
84% were “White,” 31% were older than age 50, and 44% of
all alternative certification teachers were currently teaching
in our middle schools. This suggests that for the most part,
in the United States “White” women dominate the teaching
profession, and 30% of them are older than 50, suggesting
the need for finding ways to recruit and retain more diverse
early career teachers.
4This research was conducted with the help of a small grant with in a
larger grant funded to study the training of Math and Science teachers. In
addition, the social historical information presented here was beyond the
scope of the initial study and was gathered from the public domain. As
such, the type of data that were available for analysis limited this discussion.
However, I am hopeful that what is provided can be used as “food for
thought” for futures studies designed to investigate social historical issues.
TABLE 1
Racial/Ethnicity and Economic Status
High High
City School X School Y
“Hispanic” 63% 35% 90%
“White” 27% 51% 3%
“Black” 6% 4% 7%
“Asian” 2% 8% .2%
“Native Americans” .3% .4% .2%
“Two or more” 1% 2% Not listed
Free/reduced-price lunch N/A 10% 93%
Note. Data were retrieved from the city and school’s websites.
When we zoom into this particular large city, we see the
following economic status and racial/ethnic data regarding
the city and the students in two selected schools in that city
(see Table 1). First, in terms of racial/ethnicity makeup, over-
all the city has a “Hispanic” majority population. An inter-
esting aspect of this data is that this city’s population may
be ahead of its time; at this point, people of color make up
nearly 35% of the population in the United States. However,
there are estimates that this will rise to 50% by 2050 with
Latinos/Hispanic representing the largest group of people of
color
When we look at the racial/ethnicity and economic sta-
tus of the two high schools, we see the how this city and
the school districts within it tend to be divided based on
racial/ethnicity and economic factors. There are two key
numbers that represent the intersectionality of race/ethnicity
and economic status for these two high schools. When we
look as School Y, the intersectionality is represented by the
numbers that indicate that 97% were students of color and
93% took part in the free or reduced-price lunch program. In
contrast, in High School X 39% were students of color, and
only 10% of the students took part in the free or reduced-
price lunch program, which suggests that the students of
color at school X also tended to be affluent. Clearly, these are
very different schools both in terms of racial/ethnicity and
economic status.
So the question becomes, How might this play out in an
early career teacher’s life? To provide a perspective on this, I
present two quotes from one of our participants, Ms. Miller,
a 41-year-old “White” teacher taking part in an alternative
certification program. In this program, people with degrees
and backgrounds in the STEM fields take part in course work
at a university during summers and the school year to develop
culturally responsive pedagogical skills. Ms. Miller related
her story about how she got her first teaching job:
The school district called me, on Wednesday and said, “Can
you come to interview?” I said yes and they interviewed me
Wednesday. I was hired on a Thursday and I was thrown to
the wolves on Friday. I went into a class where I didn’t have
a book or computer or the curriculum guide or even an idea

as to what I was supposed to be teaching. They said, “There’s
your classroom!” I didn’t even get a tour of the school! I cried
every day for a month basically because I would go home and
try to figure out what I’m going to do for the next day.
—Ms. Miller (unpublished data)
So the question is, Based on the information provided,
which school—X or Y—do you think hired Ms. Miller? It
should come as no surprise that School Y hired Ms. Miller
1 day before the school year started. In fact, Ms. Miller be-
ing hired 1 day before the school year started is consistent
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
with the findings of several researchers who have investi-
gated the hiring discrepancies between affluent and nonafflu-
ent schools. These researchers have shown that that districts
with students of color in low-income schools tend to hire
late in the process (Engel, 2009; Levin & Quinn, 2003). The
tendency to hire late in summer contributes to the findings
that districts with students of color in low-income schools
are more likely to have uncertified and/or underprepared
teachers as compared to students in predominantly White
and more affluent schools (Adamson & Darling-Hammond,
2012; Darling-Hammond, 2010). In other words, the later
schools hire, the more likely it is that the most experienced
and qualified teachers who are looking for jobs have already
accepted positions in other school districts. Late hirelings
can, in part, be tied to issues such as low and uncertain bud-
gets, uncertainty as to the number of students, and the transfer
of more experienced to other school districts (Engel, 2009;
Levin & Quinn, 2003). As such, due to these social historical
constraints, it is not surprising that teachers tend to leave
at higher rates in schools that serve students of color and
English language learners (Adamson & Darling-Hammond,
2012; Jacob, 2007).
As a result, in part, because of these social historical con-
straints, as Ms. Miller described it, she was “thrown to the
wolves” with little training or support from the school dis-
trict. Emotionally, this challenging beginning resulted in Ms.
Miller indicating that she “cried every day for a month.”
In this situation, the social historical contexts related to how
school districts in the United States are developed and funded
based on economic (wealth associated with property tax)
and racial/ethnic boundaries and policies are related to Ms.
Miller’s experience. In other words, typically, as in this case,
economic and racial/ethnic boundaries and policies result in
schools where some have sufficient resources (e.g., School
X with 10% free or reduced-price lunch students) and some
do not (e.g., School Y with 90% free or reduced-price lunch
students). As a result, these two schools tend provide very
different learning and teaching experiences for both students
and teachers.
When we move into the actual classroom, Ms. Miller dis-
cussed some of the emotional experiences she was having
while interacting with her students:
INQUIRY ON TEACHERS’ EMOTION 9
Now, there’s a lot of controversy on this and I’m going to say
it and I’m probably going to catch a lot of flack for it. But
there is one student she speaks both Spanish and English. I’ve
asked her not to speak Spanish in the class, because science
is a language all to its own, it’s not taught in Spanish, it’s
taught in English. She needs to learn the concepts, so she
needs to speak English in her science class.
—Ms. Miller (unpublished data)
In this brief quote we see Ms. Miller’s standards and
beliefs about language use related to science in the class-
room (i.e., “it’s not taught in Spanish”). Ms. Miller’s beliefs
and standards emerged while transacting within her social
historical context and have the potential to influence her
teacher–student relationship boundaries as well as how she
might choose to deal with student emotions with this partic-
ular student as well as other students in her classroom. It is
also important to note that science is being taught and carried
out every day in Spanish-speaking countries throughout the
world. In addition, keep in mind that 90% of the students
in the school classify themselves as Hispanic/Latino, which
also suggests that for many of the students, their language and
identity, or who they are, is tied to speaking Spanish, English,
and probably Spanglish5 throughout the day (Lanehart, 1996;
Le Page, 1986; Milroy & Milroy, 1991). As such, Ms. Miller’s
beliefs about language and science in her classroom has the
potential to create tensions and the potential for boundaries
between her and her students, resulting in the potential to
create unpleasant emotional episodes for both herself (e.g.,
“I cried every day for a month”) and her students.
If we go back to the questions of why teachers leave the
profession early, it seems clear that the reasons that a teacher
might leave School X have the potential to be very different
than why a teacher might want to leave School Y. It also seems
clear that to best understand the differences between teachers
and students experiences at these two, as well as other, high
schools within the United States or other countries, it will also
be important to investigate the social historical influences
that create the context for the economic and racial/ethnic
differences we see among schools. So if the goal is to find
a ways to recruit and, maybe more important, retain more
diverse early career teachers into the profession, we need to
be able to train them to be successful in those contexts as
well as work to change those contexts (see Ladson-Billings,
2009).
5I am using the term Spanglish here to refer to speakers who use a
combination of Spanish and English. Basically people switch back and forth
between Spanish and English, many times within the same sentence, using
whatever words seem best at communicating whatever the person is trying
to say.
 10 SCHUTZ
CONCLUSION
My goal is to use our understandings related to teacher emo-
tion and emotion in the classroom to eventually create in-
terventions for preservice and in-service teachers. To date,
researchers are just beginning to understand how emotions
and emotional regulation can help our understandings of why
teachers leave and what might be done to facilitate their
continuation in the profession (see Schutz & Pekrun, 2007;
Schutz & Zembylas, 2009). I would urge researchers in this
area to develop ways to think about and include in their re-
search additional social historical factors that will broaden
our understanding of this important issue.
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
For example, if we go back to the quote from Ms. Jones,
we see how her experiences provide evidence for the trans-
actions between the broader social historical context and her
account of the emotional nature of test day for her. In this
case, the No Child Left Behind act (NCLB) made the so-
cial historical contextual constraints and affordance explicit
(Nichols & Berliner, 2007). However, there are more sub-
tle social historical factors that influence what emotions are
deemed acceptable and how they should be displayed. For
example, Sutton (2007) suggested that teachers tended to
describe their unpleasant feelings as frustration instead of
anger because they felt that frustration is more socially ac-
ceptable for a teacher than is expressing anger. This suggests
that in terms of emotional display rules, teachers have certain
social historical prescribed ways of transacting with their stu-
dents. It is these social historical constraints and affordances
that provide the backdrop from which particular emotional
episodes emerge.
At the emotional episode level, other researchers have also
used the dynamic systems approach to study emotional trans-
actions (Eynde & Turner, 2006; Fogel et al., 1992; Lewis &
Granic, 2000) as well as a way to describe the transactional
nature of human functional systems. For example, Freder-
ickson and Losada (2005) provided evidence for the idea of
“human flourishing.” Using data that were gathered to assess
a wide range of positive and negative emotions, they sug-
gest a mathematical ratio of positive to negative affect can
be used to indicate the point at which one can be considered
“flourishing,” denoting this cutoff score as the “Losada line.”
They suggested that a ratio of positive to negative affect of
2.9 for individuals would suggest they were flourishing and
below that threshold for individuals labeled not flourishing.
In other words Losada line for flourishing is experience 2.9
more positive emotional experiences as compared to negative
emotional experiences.
This research suggests a potential difference between
flourishing within a context and simply coping with emo-
tional episodes. As such, if we go back the early classroom
experiences of Ms. Miller, it seems clear that for her, be-
ing hired the day before school started helped to create the
context where she indicated that she “cried every day for a
month,” suggesting an imbalance between her positive to
negative emotions experiences—indicating she may have
been in a survival mode. As such, if we applied the Losada
line to the study of teachers’ classroom transactions, this ap-
proach may provide insight into the question of why some
teachers leave the profession early.
In closing, I see teaching as a noble an important calling,
yet, at least in the United States, teaching is a maligned pro-
fession being blamed for many of our educational problems.
In addition to people’s negative perceptions of teaching, it is
also sometimes hard for teachers to know what impact they
are having on their students. For example, sometime small
gains only translate to greater student success after the stu-
dent has left the teachers class. However once in a while they
hear from a former student like Ms. Keirstead did:
She wrote me this letter and it about made me cry. . . . She
said, “I hope you teach [my sister] everything you taught me
and I don’t just mean in a book. I mean all about life.” So
I hope that’s what they’ll say, that I care about them and I’ll
listen and I taught them a whole lot more about life to help
them and I’ll be there for them.
—Ms. Keirstead (Williams-Johnson et al., 2008, p. 1591)
It is feedback like this that reminds us of why we choose
to become teachers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Lori Aultman, Dionne Cross, Jessica DeCuir-Gunby,
Ji Hong, Sharon Nichols, Kelly Rodgers, and Meca Williams-
Johnson for providing comments on earlier versions of the
manuscript. I also thank Clark Chin and the external reviewer
for their comments on the manuscript—it is clearly a better
article because of their efforts.
REFERENCES
Achinstein, B. (2006). New teacher and mentor political literacy: Reading,
navigating and transforming induction contexts. Teachers and Teaching:
Theory and Practice, 12, 123–138.
Adamson, F., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2012). Funding disparities and
the inequitable distribution of teachers: Evaluating sources and so-
lutions. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 20(37). Retrieved from
http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/1053
Alliance for Excellent Education. (2004). Tapping the potential: Retaining
and developing high quality new teachers. Washington, DC: Alliance for
Excellent Education.
Aultman, L. P., Williams-Johnson, M. R., & Schutz, P. A. (2009). Boundary
dilemmas in teacher-student relationships: Struggling with “the line.”
Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 636–646.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY:
Freeman.
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Segall, M. H., & Dasen, P. R. (2002). Cross-
cultural psychology: Research and applications (2nd ed.). Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.

Brewer, J., & Hunter, A. (1989). Multimethod research: A synthesis of styles.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for hu-
man development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology,
22, 723–742.
Carver, S. C., & Scheier, M. F. (2000). On the structure of behavioral self-
regulation. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Hand-
book of self-regulation (pp. 41–84). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Chang, M. L., & Davis, H. A. (2009). Understanding the role of teacher
appraisals in shaping the dynamics of their relationships with students:
Deconstructing teachers’ judgments of disruptive behavior/students. In
P. A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher emotion re-
search: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 95–127). New York, NY:
Springer.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A
Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory,
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989, 139–
167.
Cross, D. I., & Hong, J. Y. (2009). Beliefs and professional identity: Critical
constructs in examining the impact of reform on the emotional experi-
ences of teachers. In P. A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in
teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 273–298).
New York, NY: Springer.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1999). Solving the dilemmas of teacher supply,
demand, and standards: How we can ensure a competent, caring, and
qualified teacher for every child. New York, NY: National Commission
on Teaching and America’s Future.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s
commitment to equity will determine our future. New York, NY: Teachers
College Press.
Engel, M. (2009). Time-out on timing: The relationship between the timing
of teacher hires and teacher quality (National Center on Performance In-
centives Working Paper 2009–04). Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University.
Eynde, P. O., & Turner, J. E. (2006). Focusing on the complexity of emotion
issues in academic learning: A dynamical component systems approach.
Educational Psychology Review, 18, 361–376.
Fogel, A., Nwokah, E., Dedo, J. Y., Messinger, D., Dickson, K. L., Matusov,
E., & Holt, S. A. (1992). Social process theory of emotion: A dynamic
systems approach. Social Development, 1, 122–142.
Ford, M. E. (1992). Motivating humans: Goals, emotions and personal
agency beliefs. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Ford, M. E., & Smith, P. R. (2007). Thriving with social purpose: An in-
tegrative approach to the development of optimal human functioning.
Educational Psychologist, 42, 153–171.
Frederickson, B. L., & Losada, M. F. (2005). Positive affect and the complex
dynamics of human flourishing. American Psychologist, 60, 678–686.
Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., Stephens, E. J., & Jacob, B. (2009). Antecedents
and effects of teachers’ emotional experiences: An integrated perspective
and empirical test. In P. A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in
teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 129–152).
New York, NY: Springer.
Frijda, N. H. (1993). The place of appraisal in emotion. Cognition and
Emotion, 7, 357–387.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S., (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative
methods. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative
research (pp. 105–117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hochschild, A. R. (1990). Ideology and emotion management: A perspective
and path for future research. In T. D. Kemper (Ed.), Research agendas
in the sociology of emotions (pp. 117–142). Albany: State University of
New York Press.
House, E. R. (1994). Integrating the quantitative and qualitative. In C. S.
Reichardt and S. F. Rallis (Eds.). The qualitative-quantitative debate: New
perspectives (pp. 13–22). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Turnover and shortages among science and math-
ematics teachers in the United States. In J. Rhoton & P. Bowers (Eds.),
INQUIRY ON TEACHERS’ EMOTION 11
Science teachers retention: Mentoring and renewal (pp. 1–12). Arling-
ton, VA: National Science Education Leadership Association and National
Science Teachers Association Press.
Jacob, B. (2007). The challenges of staffing urban schools with effective
teachers. The Future of Children, 17, 129–153.
Kelchtermans, G., Ballet, K., & Piot, L. (2009). Surviving diversity in
times of performativity: Understanding teachers’ emotional experience
of change. In P. A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher
emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 215–232). New
York, NY: Springer.
Kersaint, G., Lewis, J., Potter, R., & Meisels, G. (2007). Why teachers leave:
factors that influence retention and resignation. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 23, 775–794.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of
African American children. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Lanehart, S. L. (1996). The language of identity. Journal of English Lin-
guistics, 24, 322–331.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Stress and emotions: A new synthesis. New York, NY:
Springer.
Le Page, R. B. (1986). Acts of identity. English Today, 8, 21–24.
Levin, J., & Quinn, M. (2003). Missed opportunities: How we keep high-
quality teachers out of urban classrooms. New York, NY: The New
Teacher Project.
Lewis, M. D. (2005). Bridging emotion theory and neurobiology through
dynamic systems modeling. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 169–245.
Lewis, M. D., & Granic, I. (Eds.). (2000). Emotion, development, and self-
organization: Dynamic systems approaches to emotional development.
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist,
41, 954–969.
Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Milroy, J., & Milroy, L. (1991). Authority in language: Investigating lan-
guage prescription and standardization (2nd ed.). London, UK: Rout-
ledge & Kegan Paul.
Morris, J. A., & Feldman, D. C. (1996). The dimensions, antecedents, and
consequences of emotional labor. Academy of Management Review, 21,
986–1010.
Nichols, S. L., & Berliner. D. C. (2007). Collateral damage: How high-stakes
testing corrupts America’s schools. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education
Press.
Nie, Y., & Lau, S. (2009). Complementary roles of care and behavioral con-
trol in classroom management: The self-determination theory perspective.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 185–194.
Pekrun, R., Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., & Perry R. P. (2007). The control-value
theory of achievement emotions: An integrative approach to emotions in
education. In P. A. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotions in education (pp.
13–36). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
Powers, W. T. (1971). Behavior: The control of perception. Chicago, IL:
Aldine.
Quality Counts 2000, in collaboration with the Pew Charitable Trust.
(2000, January 13). Who should teach? [An Education Week/Pew Char-
itable Trusts report on education in the 50 states]. Education Week, 19
(18).
Reichardt, C. S., & Rallis, S. F. (1994). The qualitative-quantitative debate:
New perspectives. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schaubroeck, J., & Jones, J. R. (2000). Antecedents of workplace emotional
labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptoms.
Journal of Organizational Behavior 21, 163–183.
Schutz, P. A. (1991). Goals in self-directed behavior. Educational Psychol-
ogist, 26, 55–67.
Schutz, P. A. (1994). Goals as the transactive point between motiva-
tion and cognition. In P. R. Pintrich, D. Brown, & C. E. Weinstein
 12 SCHUTZ
(Eds.), Perspectives on student motivation, cognition and learning: Es-
says in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie (pp. 113–133). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Schutz, P. A., Aultman, L. P., & Williams-Johnson, M. R. (2009). Educa-
tional psychology perspectives on teachers’ emotions. In P. A. Schutz &
M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact
on teachers’ lives (pp. 195–214). New York, NY: Springer.
Schutz, P. A., & Davis, H. A. (2000). Emotions and self-regulation during
test taking. Educational Psychologist, 35, 243–256.
Schutz, P. A., & DeCuir, J. T. (2002). Inquiry on emotions in education.
Educational Psychologist, 37, 125–134.
Schutz, P. A., Chambless, C. B., & DeCuir, J. T. (2004). Multimethods
research. In K. B. deMarrais & S. D. Lapan (Eds.), Research methods in
the social sciences: Frameworks for knowing and doing (pp. 267–281).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schutz, P. A., Cross, D. I., Hong, J. Y., & Osbon, J. N. (2007). Teacher
Downloaded by [University of Oklahoma Libraries] at 11:48 30 December 2014
identities, beliefs and goals related to emotions in the classroom. In P.
A. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 223–241). San
Diego, CA: Elsevier.
Schutz, P. A., Crowder, K. C., & White, V. E. (2001). The development
of a goal to become a teacher. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93,
299–308.
Schutz, P. A., Hong, J. Y., Cross, D. I., & Osbon, J. N. (2006). Reflec-
tions on investigating emotions among educational contexts. Educational
Psychology Review, 18, 343–360.
Schutz, P. A., Nichols, S., Bilica, K., Rodgers, K., & McKenzie Davis,
J. (2012, April) Early career mathematics and science teachers’ emo-
tional experiences, and emerging teacher identities. Paper presented at
the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association,
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Schutz, P. A., Nichols, S. L., & Rodgers, K. (2009). Using multimethod
approaches. In S. D. Lapan & M. T. Quartaroli (Eds.), Research essentials:
An introduction to design and practices (pp. 243–258). San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Schutz, P., & Pekrun, R. (Eds.). (2007). Emotion in education. Boston, MA:
Academic Press.
Schutz, P. A., Rodgers, K. A., & Simcic, J. (2010). Motivation and emotional
transactions: Where do we go from here? In T. Urdan, S. Karabenick,
View publication stats
& F. Pajares (Eds.), Advances in motivation, Vol. 16: The next decade
of research in motivation and achievement (pp. 43–69). Bingley, UK:
Emerald.
Schutz, P. A., & Zembylas, M. (2009). Advances in teacher emotion re-
search: The impact on teachers’ lives. New York, NY: Springer.
Smith, C. A. (1991). The self, appraisal and coping. In C. R. Snyder & D. R.
Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health
perspective (pp. 116–137). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
Sutton, R. E. (2007). Teachers’ anger, frustration, and self-regulation. In P.
A. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 251–266). San
Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Turner, J. E., & Waugh, R. M. (2007). A dynamical systems perspective
regarding students’ learning processes: Shame reactions and emergent
self-organizations. In P. A. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotions in edu-
cation (pp. 125–145). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
Turner, J. E., Waugh, R. M., Summers, J. J., & Grove, C. M. (2009). Im-
plementing high-quality educational reform efforts: An interpersonal cir-
cumplex model bridging social and personal aspects of teachers’ motiva-
tion. In P. A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher emotion
research: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 253–274). New York, NY:
Springer.
Ulvik, M., Smith, K., & Helleve, I. (2009). Novice in secondary school—The
coin has two sides. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 835–842.
Van Geert, P. (2008). The dynamic systems approach in the study of L1 and
L2 acquisition: An introduction. Modern Language Journal, 92, 179–199.
Van Veen, K., & Sleegers, P. (2009). Teachers’ emotions in a context
of reforms: To a deeper understanding of teachers and reform. In P.
A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher emotion re-
search: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 253–272). New York, NY:
Springer.
Williams-Johnson, M. W., Cross, D. I., Hong, J. Y., Aultman, L. P., Osbon,
J, N., & Schutz, P. A. (2008). “There is no emotion in math”: How
teachers approach emotions in the classroom. Teacher College Record,
110, 1574–1612.
Zembylas, M. (2003). Interrogating teacher identity: Emotion, resistance,
and self-formation. Educational Theory, 53, 107–127.
Zusho, A., & Clayton, K. (2011). Culturalizing achievement goal theory and
research. Educational Psychologist, 46, 239–260.