Early Child Development and Care

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/gecd20

Gender differences in the development of

children's social and emotional competencies
during the pre-school year

Veronica McTaggart, Rosemary McGill & Simon Stephens

To cite this article: Veronica McTaggart, Rosemary McGill & Simon Stephens (2022)
Gender differences in the development of children's social and emotional competencies
during the pre-school year, Early Child Development and Care, 192:12, 1952-1966, DOI:
10.1080/03004430.2021.1957859

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2021.1957859

Published online: 31 Jul 2021.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 1003

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Citing articles: 2 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=gecd20
EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE
2022, VOL. 192, NO. 12, 1952–1966
https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2021.1957859

Gender differences in the development of children’s social and

emotional competencies during the pre-school year
a a b
Veronica McTaggart , Rosemary McGill and Simon Stephens
a
Department of Early Education and Social Studies, Faculty of Science, Letterkenny IT, Letterkenny, Donegal,
Ireland; bSchool of Business, Letterkenny IT, Letterkenny, Donegal, Ireland

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

While studies have used assessments on gender differences regarding Received 27 April 2021
social and emotional development, there remains a lack of research on Accepted 14 July 2021
the abilities as well as difficulties that are expressed by pre-school aged
KEYWORDS
boys and girls. This study examines the influence of gender on the Gender; social competencies;
development of social and emotional competencies during pre-school. emotional competencies;
Pre-school Practitioners within five pre-school settings, completed a pre-school; Ireland
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ); and an Emotional
Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) at two separate intervals. ERQ results
indicate that boys initially express greater emotional difficulties and by
the end of term three, the amount of difficulties decrease for both boys
and girls. Between pre and post time scales, both boys and girls were
able to increase their abilities and boys rated higher in emotional
competency abilities (facilitated by adults). SDQ results indicate that
girls had higher proficiencies in the pro-social scale. Furthermore, boys
show more improvements than girls between intervals.

1. Introduction
Cadima, Aguiar, and Barata (2018) explain that across Europe, there is an increase in the number of
children attending early childhood education and care (ECEC) services. In Ireland, with the Govern-
ments introduction of a second free pre-school year, many children are now educated by pre-school
practitioners for two, important years, during their early childhood. Therefore, practitioners share
(with parents) a responsibility to ensure a child is provided with the appropriate skills, to enable
them to associate positive emotions with their early learning experiences. Positive social and
emotional competency experiences, in the pre-school environment can facilitate a child to under-
stand, regulate and express emotions, which in turn impacts future cognitive and social abilities
(McClelland et al., 2007; Muftuler et al., 2012; Sylva et al., 2006). Emotional Intelligence experts
have suggested that social skills and emotional competencies can be learned by children
(Goleman, 1995; Krasnor, 2007; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Thus, pre-schools are optimal environments
for enabling these social and emotional competencies to be developed through new challenges and
interactions with peers. Therefore, it is important to understand the levels of these skills at an early
age and how they develop within a pre-school environment.
Interest in social and emotional competence has continuously increased since the theories of
Emotional Intelligence (EI) were documented and described as an equally if not more important
concept than IQ (Goleman, 1995; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Researchers including Durlak, Domitrovich,
and Gullotta (2015), Hendry, Farley, and Mc Lafferty (2012) and Schultz, Richardson, Barber, and
Wilcox (2011) have recognized that the most rapid and complex changes which occur in human

CONTACT Veronica McTaggart veronica.campbell@lyit.ie

© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 1953

development do so during early childhood. Subsequently, these changes determine future social
and emotional competence (Campbell et al., 2016). Payton et al. (2008) and Durlak et al. (2015)
propose that the early development of positive social and emotional competencies influences all
other developmental domains, as well as developing children’s future skills for life-readiness. Accord-
ing to Endrulat, Tom, Ravitch, Wesley, and Merrell (2010) and Gordon, Sheridan, Bates, de Souza, and
Pradzinski (2020) studies of gender differences in relation to intrapersonal skills have produced
mixed results, whereby gender differences can become more apparent over time, and between
transitions.
Within the pre-school setting, social competence is important for facilitating interactions with
peers and adults, while emotional competence is necessary for being able to understand,
express, and modulate emotions within social interactions (Thayer, 2012). Therefore, if problems
occur within these domains, they put children at risk of developing difficulties when they enter
primary school. They may also develop negative relationships with peers and experience academic
underachievement (Domitrovich, Cortes, & Greenberg, 2007). Therefore, it is necessary to identify
the social and emotional competencies that boys and girls exhibit upon entering the pre-school
year and document the progression of these competencies within that year. This gap will be
addressed in this study. This study presents findings from two different time intervals on pre-
school children’s social and emotional competencies with a focus on gender. Specifically, this
study highlights which areas of the ERQ and SDQ that pre-school boys and girls are more or
less proficient in regarding their social and emotional competencies. In this study ‘pre-school chil-
dren’ relate to children aged between three years three months and four years six months by Sep-
tember 1st of the pre-school year. This definition is set out by the Department of Children and
Youth Affairs (DCYA, 2014). The term ‘practitioner’ represents all personnel who engage in Early
Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) practice within pre-school provision (McTaggart, McGill, &
Stephens, 2020). Gender is critiqued in relation to the specific skills within children’s social and
emotional competencies and comparisons will be made regarding the strengths and difficulties
that pre-school children present upon entering and finishing term three of the pre-school year.
A clearer insight into the role of these concepts and their relationships is important for supporting
early years practitioners to plan and differentiate a social and emotional learning curriculum within
a pre-school setting.

2. Gender and social and emotional competencies

A number of studies (Denham, Wyatt, Bassett, Echeverria, & Knox, 2009; Halle & Darling-Churchill,
2016; Kwon, Kim, & Sheridan, 2012) have examined the importance of social and emotional compe-
tence. The authors present evidence that the development of positive social and emotional compe-
tence in pre-school years is critical to ensuring a child’s well-being. Authors including Barblett and
Maloney (2010), Denham et al. (2009), Domitrovich et al. (2007), McCoy and Raver (2011) and
Sette, Baumgartner, and MacKinnon (2015) report that within the pre-school setting social compe-
tence is important for facilitating interactions with peers and adults; while emotional competence is
important to support understanding and the expression of emotions. Light et al. (2009) explain that
although pre-school children feel various emotions, they differ from older kids in terms of how they
express them. This is an important issue, Mathieson and Banerjee (2011) report that a child who
expresses positive emotion, is likely to be more accepted by their peers.
Dennis and Kelemen (2009) propose that a child’s efficiency in relation to emotional understand-
ing can be understood in terms of their ability to recognize their emotions and those of others,
during social encounters. Catherine and Schonert-Reichl (2011) and Fabes, Hanish, Martin, Moss,
and Reesing (2012) report that these skills are essential for establishing and sustaining: positive
pro-social skills; meaningful and secure relationships with adults and peers. Cole, Martin, and
Dennis (2004) explain that emotional regulation provides children with an ability to inhibit one
response and enact another on-demand (Eisenberg et al., 2005). Furthermore, McTaggart et al.
1954 V. MCTAGGART ET AL.

(2020) propose that if children are able to manage their emotions they are supporting the effective
expression of emotion and behaviour.
Social competence is a child’s ability to engage appropriately in social interactions. Krasnor (2007)
proposes three levels of social competence: Theoretical (interpersonal interactions); Index (domains
of self and other interactions); and Skills (precedence of ones needs). The most widely used social
competencies in pre-school children include compliance with rules, interpersonal skills, negotiating
skills, and pro-social behaviours (Sette et al., 2015). Dispositions such as co-operation, helpfulness,
communication skills, and an ability to solve conflicts have also been highlighted as beneficial to
social competency progression (Woolf, Page, & Viney, 2019; You, Hong-Juan, Mei-chen, & Jing-
Jing, 2019).
Emotional socialization, of young children is suggested by Bailey, Denham, and Curby (2013) to
differ by the gender of the child; most research arguing this distinction utilizes samples of parents
and children. Russell et al. (2016) report that, parents encountered fewer socio-emotional problems
in girls in pre-school, but teacher assessments showed the opposite. King (2020) explain that there is
evidence of differential emotion socialization by child gender. While it has been acknowledged in the
literature that boys and girls are both competent at expressing emotions, many researchers highlight
that social competence is usually more developed in girls compared to boys within the early years
(Denham et al., 2009; Thayer, 2012; Vahedi, Farrokhi, & Farajain, 2012). Indeed, Masnjak (2017)
reported a statistically significant gender difference regarding social and emotional development,
with girls scoring higher levels of social and emotional development than boys. Chaplin and Aldo
(2014) reported that girls tend to express more positive emotions and internalizing emotions (e.g.
anxiety and sympathy) than boys, and boys portrayed more externalizing emotions such as anger
during difficult social situations. Ahn and Stifter (2006) found that girls smiled twice as many
times during a care-giving scenario than boys, but boys exhibited more excitement than girls.
Thayer (2012) suggests that external influences such as interactions with and the expectations of
adults, may influence how boys and girls react to certain social situations. For example, many
boys tend to be more physically active and engage in risky play which may instigate more aggressive
behavioural expressions towards peers. Whereas, many girls engage more in dyadic play than boys
which may influence their level of expression of emotions. Finally, Goldstein (2015) highlights that
the situational contexts in which emotional behaviour is measured must be accounted for, as
gender differences in children’s early emotion regulation may be elicited due to stressful events
or other external factors.
The importance of valuing the abilities of children’s social and emotional development has been
documented by several researchers (Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Shanker & Hopkins,
2019). These abilities have been deemed as fundamental, for reframing the pedagogical practices
used in supporting children to self-regulate in ways that promote rather than constrict growth. Sup-
porting social and emotional abilities can provide an appropriate scaffolding that supports a transition
towards holistic development (Shonkoff & Garner, 2012). In this paper, we focus on social and
emotional competency development as it may relate to gender differences. Several studies have uti-
lized assessments whereby the scales are focused on the variables of either social (Coplan, Ooi, Xiao, &
Rose-Krasnor, 2018; Kwon et al., 2012) or emotional development (Chaplin & Aldo, 2014; Veijalainen,
Jyrki, & Minna, 2021). In addition, studies by Dahlberg, Fält, Ghaderi, Sarkadi, and Salari (2020), Elber-
ling et al. (2010), Hall et al. (2019) and Russell, Rodgers, and Ford (2013) have used measures such as the
SDQ (in isolation) to measure social and emotional development. While this scale is highly reliable,
many of the aspects of emotional abilities regarding regulation cannot be accounted for by this
measurement. Previous studies (Maguire, Niens, McCann, & Connolly, 2016; West et al., 2020) have
used multi assessments that have focused on gender differences that exist regarding social and
emotional development. However, these studies do not focus on the pre-school aged child. There
remains a lack of research on the abilities as well as difficulties that are expressed by pre-school
aged boys and girls. This study addresses this gap by using the SDQ and ERQ assessments for recording
pre-school children’s social and emotional abilities and difficulties.
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 1955

3. Method
A purposive sampling technique was used to select five settings from the registered list available
within the Donegal County Childcare Committee Database (N=4817). Five settings were selected,
the sample comprised of 100 pre-school children. In order to achieve proportional representation,
the sample consisted of 54 boys and 46 girls. The 5 settings selected for this study represent a com-
bination of community-based settings and private settings. To participate in this study, the child had
to be registered in the pre-school year and have no official diagnosis classified in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–5). It was also required that the child was not repeating
their pre-school year. All the settings in this study are similar in terms of planning, opening hours,
qualifications of staff, number of children and environmental influences.
Initial contact was made with managers of the settings through phone calls. Parental and prac-
titioner consent was obtained. Ethical approval was granted by our Institute Research Ethics Commit-
tee prior to the commencement of the study. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. All
identifiers were removed prior to reporting. The questionnaires were completed by practitioners at
the start of the year (October) and again at the end of term 3 (March). In selecting the most appropriate
measure for addressing children’s social and emotional competencies, a comprehensive review of
social and emotional assessments was conducted. Subscales of each measure were reviewed to ident-
ify which aspect of social and emotional development was examined. The Strengths and Difficulties
Questionnaire (SDQ), and an Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) were selected as they
measure areas specifically relating to social and emotional competence, and can be easily understood
and completed in a relatively short period of time.
Measure 1: This ERQ questionnaire links to Shanker’s (2017) five domain model of emotional regu-
lation. The five dimensions of emotional regulation are (i) Matching energy level to the demand of a
task or situation; (ii) monitoring and managing emotions; (iii) focusing attention; ignoring distrac-
tions; formulating a goal and adjust one’s behaviour; (iv) understanding and engaging in social inter-
actions and to co-regulating; and (v) connecting with and caring about others. The ERQ consists of 15
questions relating to children’s ability to emotionally regulate, which is one of the three significant
abilities responsible for emotional competence. All 15 items on the questionnaire are rated from 1 to
3 (1 being ‘not true’ and 3 being ‘certainly true’). The maximum score achievable is 45 and the
minimum is 15. A higher score indicates better emotional regulation. The ERQ has good internal con-
sistency with a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient reported of 0.90. In the current study, the Cronbach’s
Alpha coefficient was 0.95.
Measure 2: The SDQ (Goodman, 1997) was utilized to measures pre-school children’s social and
emotional competencies. It consists of 25 items which link to five scales: (1) Emotional Symptoms;
(2) Conduct Problems; (3) Hyperactivity/Inattention; (4) Peer Relationship Problems; and (5) Pro-
social Behaviour. The two main scores that are generated from the questionnaire are first, the
Total Difficulties Score (sum of all the scales except the pro-social scale) and second, the Pro-
social Score (children’s positive social competencies). All items are scored between 0 (not true)
and 2 (certainly true). The SDQ total problems score ranges between 0 and 40 and covers four
domains: emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity and peer problems. There is also
a pro-social behaviour subscale that is not included in the total problems score. A higher score indi-
cates more problematic symptoms and behaviours. Scores were considered ‘abnormal’ if they were:
total ≥ 16, conduct problems ≥ 4, hyperactivity ≥ 7, pro-social behaviour ≤ 4, peer problems ≥ 5,
emotional symptoms ≥ 6 (Goodman, 1997). The SDQ has good internal consistency with a Cron-
bach’s Alpha coefficient of .73. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient in this study was .73.

4. Results
Descriptive statistics, cross tabulations, Independent T-Tests, MANOVAs and Multiple Linear
Regressions are presented. A sequential process was completed twice for the SDQ and ERQ.
1956 V. MCTAGGART ET AL.

Further analysis was then conducted to examine relationships between variables, levels of social
and emotional competencies, with a focus on gender differences. The gender distribution of chil-
dren was 54 males and 46 females. The mean age of the children at the beginning of the pre-
school year was 3.92 (sd .392) and at the end of term three it was 4.42 (sd .393). The ten pre-
school practitioners were all female. Seven (70%) were aged between 25 and 30 years, and
three (30%) were aged between 35 and 45 years. There was a variety in the level of type of qua-
lification held by the practitioners.

4.1. Gender and social and emotional competencies

The initial focus of this paper is on the emotional regulation abilities (see Table 1). Two remaining
abilities (emotional expression and emotional understanding) were evaluated within the SDQ. The
score for each of the scales within the SDQ are divided into three bands ‘normal’; borderline’; and
‘abnormal’ (Goodman, 1997).
Table 1 reveals that 11 out of the 15 emotional regulation scores had a statistically significant
difference between pre and post intervals. Next, Figure 1 displays the frequency and gender distri-
bution of the children’s most common difficulties and abilities at the beginning and end of term
three of the pre-school year. There are 5 out of the 15 emotional regulations reported in Figure 1
regarding abilities and difficulties. The 5 regulations in Figure 1 had the highest reported frequency
of children regarding abilities and difficulties at both time scales.
The descriptive statistics in Figure 1 labelled ‘pre’ relate to the beginning of the pre-school year. In
relation to the ‘pre’ results, Figure 1 reports that, out of the 15% of pre-school children who had
difficulty putting the needs of others before their own, 9% were boys and 6% were girls. In reviewing
the 15% of pre-school children who were not able to resolve problems with other children on his/her
own, 8% were boys and 7% were girls. In regards to the abilities children expressed, the results high-
light that, within the 84% of pre-school children that were able to follow routines, 43% were boys
and 41% were girls. Out of the 70% of children that were able to engage in an activity or play for
a sustained period of time, 34% were boys and 36% were girls.
The descriptive statistics in Figure 1 labelled ‘post’ relate to the end of term three of the pre-
school year. At the end of term three, the ‘post’ results in Figure 1 illustrates that, 6% of children
expressed difficulties with not being ‘able to resolve problems on his/her own’. Out of these 6% of
children, 3% were boys and 3% girls. Figure 1 also reports two prominent abilities at the end of
term three. The first ability related to being ‘able to follow routines’ and out of the 89% of pre-

Figure 1. Pre and post emotional regulation difficulties and abilities at the beginning and end of term three of the pre-school
year.
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 1957

Table 1. Emotional regulation scores pre and post intervals.

Type III sum of Mean Partial Eta
Source Dependent variable squares df square F Sig. squared
Testing Able to maintain focus 1.135 1 1.135 3.101 .080 .016
Able to express needs and feelings 3.418 1 3.418 9.885 .002 .049
appropriately
Able to put the needs of others before their 7.183 1 7.183 19.722 .000 .093
own
Able to stop and calm down when frustrated 2.529 1 2.529 7.658 .006 .038
or upset
Able to understand other people’s feelings 3.242 1 3.242 10.295 .002 .051
Able to share materials 1.583 1 1.583 5.035 .026 .026
Able to engage in an activity or play for a 1.297 1 1.297 5.600 .019 .028
sustained period of time
Able to complete one task before moving to 2.895 1 2.895 9.518 .002 .047
another
Able to try different courses of action when 2.903 1 2.903 8.208 .005 .041
initial plans don’t work
Able to follow routines .042 1 .042 .231 .631 .001
Able to listen to others point of view 2.807 1 2.807 8.607 .004 .043
Able to initiate social interactions in a positive 2.514 1 2.514 8.641 .004 .043
way
Able to provide help to others 2.923 1 2.923 9.279 .003 .046
Able to listen to stories without being 3.841 1 3.841 12.713 .000 .062
distracted
Able to resolve problems with other children 4.831 1 4.831 11.441 .001 .056
on his/her own
Gender Able to maintain focus .319 1 .319 .872 .352 .005
Able to express needs and feelings .037 1 .037 .106 .745 .001
appropriately
Able to put the needs of others before their 2.782 1 2.782 7.638 .006 .038
own
Able to stop and calm down when frustrated .713 1 .713 2.158 .143 .011
or upset
Able to understand other people’s feelings .608 1 .608 1.930 .166 .010
Able to share materials .889 1 .889 2.828 .094 .015
Able to engage in an activity or play for a .147 1 .147 .637 .426 .003
sustained period of time
Able to complete one task before moving to .306 1 .306 1.007 .317 .005
another
Able to try different courses of action when .234 1 .234 .660 .417 .003
initial plans don’t work
Able to follow routines .113 1 .113 .615 .434 .003
Able to listen to others point of view .980 1 .980 3.005 .085 .015
Able to initiate social interactions in a positive .257 1 .257 .883 .349 .005
way
Able to provide help to others .014 1 .014 .045 .832 .000
Able to listen to stories without being .400 1 .400 1.323 .251 .007
distracted
Able to resolve problems with other children .783 1 .783 1.855 .175 .010
on his/her own

school children that were able to follow routines, 47% were boys and 42% were girls. The second
ability related to ‘being able to express needs and feelings appropriately’. Within the 85% of chil-
dren that were able to express their needs and feelings appropriately, 44% were boys and 41%
girls.
A MANOVA was conducted to ascertain any significant gender differences regarding the chil-
dren’s emotional regulation scores at the beginning and end of the pre-school year. Multivariate
Tests results can be seen in Table 2.
The results reported in Table 2 reveal no significant differences in gender regarding the total
emotional regulation scores at pre and post intervals, F = 1.046, p = 0.411. The ‘Tests of Between-Sub-
jects Effects’ were also examined and they displayed no significant differences.
1958 V. MCTAGGART ET AL.

4.2. Distribution of gender within the strengths and difficulties scales

First, we examined the distribution of the pre-school children within each of the subscales of the SDQ
at the beginning and end of term three of the pre-school year. The results are categorized into
groups as follows: normal, borderline and abnormal. First, we examine peer problems. The analysis
highlights that within the normal band for ‘peer problems’ at the beginning of the pre-school year
44% were boys and 36% were girls. The borderline and abnormal categories were evenly distributed
with 6% boys and the girls classed as borderline and 4% classed as abnormal. By the end of term
three, the normal band showed an increase for both boys and girls whereby 48% were boys and
43% were girls. The borderline scale documented 1% boys and 2% girls, while the abnormal category
had 5% boys and 1% girls.
Second, we examined hyperactivity. The data highlights that within the normal band for ‘hyper-
activity’ at the beginning of the pre-school year 48% were boys and 42% were girls. The borderline
results displayed 2% boys and 1% girls, while the abnormal category had 4% boys and 3% girls. By
the end of term three, the normal band showed an increase for both boys and girls whereby 52%
were boys and 45% were girls. The borderline scale documented 1% boys and 0% girls, while the
abnormal category had 1% boys and 1% girls.
Third, we examined emotional problems. The data highlights that within the normal band for
‘emotional problems’ at the beginning of the pre-school year 53% were boys and 45% were girls.
The borderline category has 0% boys and 1% girls and the abnormal category reported 1% boys
and 0% girls. By the end of term three, the normal band showed a decrease for boys with 50%
and girls remained at 45%. There was no boys or girls reported within the borderline category
and the abnormal category increased to 4% for boys and 1% for girls.
Fourth, we examined conduct problems. The data highlights that within the normal band for
‘conduct problems’ at the beginning of the pre-school year 41% were boys and 40% were girls.
The borderline category had 6% boys and 4% girls, while the abnormal category had 7% boys
and 2% girls. By the end of term three, the normal band showed an increase for boys with 47% in
the normal category and the girls remained at 40%. The borderline scale decreased for boys to
3% and girls to 1%. The abnormal category decreased for boys to 4% and increased to 5% for girls.
Fifth, we examined the total problems. The data highlights that within the normal band for the
‘Total Problems scale’ at the beginning of the pre-school year 42% were boys and 38% were girls.
The borderline category had 8% boys and 6% girls, while the abnormal category had 4% boys
and 2% girls. By the end of term three, the normal band showed an increase for boys and
girls, with 49% boys and 44% girls in the normal category. The borderline scale decreased for
boys to 4% and girls to 2%. The abnormal category decreased for boys and girls with 1% for
boys and zero for girls.
Sixth and finally, we examined the Prosocial Scale. The data highlights that within the normal
band for the ‘Prosocial scale at the beginning of the pre-school year 20% were boys and 23%
were girls. The borderline category was evenly distributed with 11% boys and 11% girls, while the
abnormal category had 23% boys and 12% girls. By the end of term three, the normal band
showed an increase for boys and girls, with 35% boys and 40% girls in the normal category. The

Table 2. Multivariate tests on ERQ and gender.

Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig. PESq
Gender Pillai’s Trace .081 1.046b 15.000 178.000 .411 .081
Wilks’ Lambda .919 1.046b 15.000 178.000 .411 .081
Hotelling’s Trace .088 1.046b 15.000 178.000 .411 .081
Roy’s Largest Root .088 1.046b 15.000 178.000 .411 .081
Testing * Gender Pillai’s Trace .036 .444b 15.000 178.000 .964 .036
Wilks’ Lambda .964 .444b 15.000 178.000 .964 .036
Hotelling’s Trace .037 .444b 15.000 178.000 .964 .036
Roy’s Largest Root .037 .444b 15.000 178.000 .964 .036
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 1959

borderline scale decreased for boys to 7% and girls to 4%. The abnormal category decreased for boys
to 12% and girls to 4%.
A review of the frequencies in relation to the above gender distribution results indicate that boys
and girls had the same percentage within the abnormal bands regarding the peer problems scale at
the beginning of the pre-school year and the hyperactivity scale at the end of term three. The
remaining scales with the exception of the conduct problem scale reported that boys had the
highest percentage within the abnormal bands in comparison to girls at both intervals.
A MANOVA was conducted to ascertain significant gender differences regarding the children’s
subscales at pre and post intervals regarding gender.
Results from Table 3 reveal that there was no significant difference between gender and the SDQ
subscales, F=1.581, p = 0.167. While the girls had a higher percentage within the normal band, and a
lower percentage in the abnormal band in comparison to boys, they were not statistically significant.

5. Discussion
The overall results show that both boys and girls were able to decrease their expressions of difficul-
ties and increase their abilities within the pre-school year. The expressions of difficulties recorded in
both scales indicates that boys show more improvements than girls. In particular, boys displayed
higher improvements between the two-time scales in the four domains measured in the SDQ and
the two domains within the ERQ. Similar findings regarding the emotional competency improve-
ment of boys and girls have been documented by Clarke et al. (2015) and Toivainen, Papageorgiou,
Tosto, and Kovas (2017). Our results show that at the beginning of the pre-school year, boys
expressed more emotional regulation difficulties than girls. Similar findings are reported by Belsky
and Beaver (2011) and Chaplin and Aldao (2014) who report that, boys express more externalizing
difficult behaviours than girls. Within our study, 9% of boys were reported as having difficulty with
being ‘able to put the needs of others before their own’ in comparison to 6% of the girls. The second
regulation skill which both boys and girls were reported as having the most difficulty with was not
being ‘able to resolve problems with other children on his/her own’. Boys had a 1% increase in this
difficulty in comparison to girls. Both of these skills relate to committed compliance, which is
reported by Kochanska, Coy, and Murray (2001) as a child’s appropriate actions irrespective of an
adult’s presence. Committed compliance is necessary in order for a child to independently
engage with voluntary, thoughtful adaptive and effective self-regulation. Our results suggest that
boys would have more difficulty in committed compliance than girls when they enter the pre-
school year. This finding is also consistent with research proposing that practitioners find boys
behaviour more challenging to control than girls (Skiba et al., 2014). These results highlight the
importance of pre-schools using circle time to collectively create positive rules for peer engagement,
and empathy related awareness. Similar to the strategies highlighted by Suárez-Orozco, Onaga, and
de Lardemelle (2010) our results also highlight the importance of teaching and using effective age-
appropriate conflict resolution strategies from the beginning of the term to encourage indepen-
dence in resolving difficulties.

Table 3. Multivariate tests on SDQ/Gender and settings.

Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig. PESq
Gender Pillai’s Trace .040 1.581b 5.000 188.000 .167 .040
Wilks’ Lambda .960 1.581b 5.000 188.000 .167 .040
Hotelling’s Trace .042 1.581b 5.000 188.000 .167 .040
Roy’s Largest Root .042 1.581b 5.000 188.000 .167 .040
Gender * Testing Pillai’s Trace .016 .608b 5.000 188.000 .694 .016
Wilks’ Lambda .984 .608b 5.000 188.000 .694 .016
Hotelling’s Trace .016 .608b 5.000 188.000 .694 .016
Roy’s Largest Root .016 .608b 5.000 188.000 .694 .016
1960 V. MCTAGGART ET AL.

Emotional regulation abilities were evenly distributed between boys and girls at the beginning of
the pre-school year, yet their frequencies regarding competency levels differed. At the beginning of
the pre-school year, both boys and girls had scored higher within the ERQ abilities of being ‘able to
follow routines’ and being ‘able to engage in an activity or play for a sustained period of time’ in
comparison to any other ERQ ability. Within these abilities, the gender distribution was evenly dis-
persed. There was a 2% increase for boys in being ‘able to follow routines’, while girls had a 2%
increase regarding being ‘able to engage in an activity or play for a sustained period of time’.
Both boys and girls displayed more abilities regarding specific subskills that relate to instructions
and engagement in activities. In particular, boys were reported as having more abilities in tasks
related to instruction, while girls showed more abilities in tasks that were related to independent
thinking. Similar findings have been reported by Ring et al. (2016) who report that girls were
more competent than boys in areas of independence, maturity and organizational skills. Our
results would suggest that boys and girls can show differing levels of competencies within the
specific subskills of emotional regulation. This finding supports the use of different pedagogical tech-
niques and a wide array of play based experiences to encourage and extend emotional regulation for
boys and girls according to their level of competency.
By the end of term three, the level of difficulties expressed by boys and girls decreased overall.
Three percent of boys and girls continued to show difficulty with ‘not being able to resolve pro-
blems’. This skill of being ‘able to resolve problems with other children on his/her own’ was the
only skill (out of 15 skills) noted by practitioners as the main area of difficulty for the pre-school chil-
dren at the end of term three. Similar findings are reported by Coplan et al. (2018) and Maguire et al.
(2016). This finding highlights the importance of providing both boys and girls with opportunities to
engage in activities which encourage problem-solving (with support and encouragement from prac-
titioners). In addition, we would highlight the importance of transition statements.
The emotional regulation abilities increased for boys and girls by the end of term three of the pre-
school year. Practitioners reported the boys as having higher proficiencies than the girls at the end of
term three. In terms of competency progression between both intervals, boys scored higher in two of
the emotional regulation skills. The results of our study indicate a slightly higher improvement of 3%
for the boys in comparison to the girls between both intervals. Boys had a 4% increase in the ability
of ‘being able to follow routines’ in comparison to the girls who had a 1% increase. In addition, the
difficulty of not being ‘able to resolve problems with other children on his/her own’ decreased by 5%
for boys and 4% for girls. The boy’s emotional regulation improved more positively within the dur-
ation of the pre-school year in comparison to girls in certain emotional regulation subskills. This high-
lights the importance of assessing improvements throughout the duration of the pre-school year to
determine when improvements may be transpiring. Additionally, in light of this finding and in
support of Vygotsky’s (1987) theory of peer learning, it would also be helpful to encourage
gender-balanced activities within the duration of the pre-school year. This, in turn, may enable
boys and girls to share ideas and learn from each other’s particular strengths.
In this study, boys displayed higher abilities in most SDQ scales related to emotional competen-
cies in comparison to girls. Indeed, more boys were reported within the ‘normal’ band for four out of
the six scales at both time intervals. The two other scales regarding ‘conduct problems’ and the ‘pro-
social scale’ had more girls reported in the normal band at the beginning of the pre-school year.
Specifically, the conduct problems scale had 1% more girls at the beginning of the pre-school
year, however at the end of term three, there was 7% more boys than girls in the normal band.
Additionally, the Pro-Social scale was the only scale which had more girls than boys within the
normal band at both time intervals. Similar findings are reported by Russell et al. (2016). At the begin-
ning of the pre-school year, 23% of girls were noted in the normal category in comparison to 20% of
boys. In addition, at the end of term three, 40% of girls were recorded in the normal band in com-
parison to 35% of boys. The boys scored higher in the ‘normal scale’ for ‘peer problems’; ‘hyperac-
tivity’; ‘emotional problems’; and ‘total problems’. Out of these specific scales, the ‘peer problems’
scale and the ‘emotional problem’ scale were reported as the two scales which had the largest
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 1961

gender difference within the normal band at the beginning of the pre-school year, whereby 8% more
boys were within the normal band for these scales than the girls. At the end of term three, the Hyper-
activity and Conduct sales had the largest gender difference, with 7% more boys in the normal band
in comparison to the girls. This suggests that boys were more proficient in emotional
competency areas related to understanding and regulating emotions, as well as initiating inter-
actions with peers. Whereas, the girls were more proficient in social competency areas within
their interactions with peers, such as sharing; being kind; helpful; and considerate of their peer’s feel-
ings. Similar findings have been documented by Masnjak (2017) and Barbu, Cabanes, and Maner-
Idrissi (2011).
The results regarding the ‘abnormal’ band and the difficulties boys and girls displayed through
the SDQ will now be discussed. In reviewing all the scales within the SDQ, boys were rated as expres-
sing more difficulties in four out of the six scales as they were recorded in the abnormal band more
than girls. These specific scales relate to ‘peer problems’, ‘emotional problems’, ‘total problems’, and
‘pro-social’. The percentage of boys within the ‘abnormal band’ were only marginally higher than
girls in three of scales previously mentioned, however, the pro-social scale had the largest difference
between girls and boys. In particular, within the ‘abnormal’ band at the beginning of the pre-school
year, there were 23% of boys in comparison to 12% of girls in the abnormal band. In addition, at the
end of term three, there were12% of boys in comparison to 4% of girls in the abnormal band. Both
girls and boys both have difficulty with the pro-social scale. However, boys are reported as having
more difficulty in this domain than girls. Similar findings have been reported by Endrulat et al.
(2010); Veziroglu-Celik and Ibrahim (2020); and Mathieson and Banerjee (2011) who also suggested
that an inability to develop positive pro-social skills can inhibit positive social competence with
peers. Therefore, it is important to enable both boys and girls and to enhance their pro-social
skills within the duration of the pre-school year. This recommendation is supported by Masnjak
(2017) who asserts social development is necessary for the establishment, maintenance, and pro-
gression of socialization with peers which in turns leads to independence and reduces the child’s
dependency on adults. As our findings highlighted a larger gender difference in the pro-social
scale, we would recommend the importance of further research into this domain. This in turn
would provide important information in regard to the particular subskills within the scale, which
may require more support for boys and girls. Further research could identify any significant
gender differences within the subskills of the pro-social scale.
There was a slight increase in the percentage of boys within the ‘Abnormal’ band for the
‘Emotional Problems Scale’ between both intervals. This unforeseen development in the emotional
problems score revealed a slight increase of 3% of boys within the ‘Abnormal’ category between
both intervals. It was apparent that the increase related to the subscales of children being; ‘often
unhappy, downhearted or tearful’ and having ‘many worries and often being worried’. O’Kane
and Hayes (2006) and Turunen (2012) noted that such findings may relate to upcoming transitions
in a child’s life. Children can be anxious about transitioning between environments and the uncer-
tainty that can accompany this transition and this may partially explain this result. This result also
demonstrates the importance of regularly observing all children’s social and emotional competen-
cies and providing effective strategies to support emotional expression.
Overall, our study reveals that there was no statistically significant difference noted between
gender and skills rated within the ERQ and SDQ. However, our results suggest that in relation to
proficiencies, boys showed more abilities in emotional regulation competency areas than girls.
While girls showed more abilities in social competency areas than boys. The levels of exact abilities
that boys and girls showed preferences with differed in both scales. In relation to the level of difficul-
ties, boys were rated as having higher difficulties within both the ERQ and SDQ scales. This shows
that while boys were more proficient in many emotional competency areas, they also engaged in
more externalizing problematic behaviour than girls. Our study also indicates that both boys and
girls shared the same difficulty with their social competencies of interacting with other children in
comparison to their emotional competencies of independently engaging in activities and routines
1962 V. MCTAGGART ET AL.

competently. These findings have also been documented in the literature (Berg, 2011; Humphries,
Keenan, & Wakschlag, 2012).
There is evidence that boys and girls can show different levels of abilities and difficulties at both
time frames and while they may not differ significantly assessments could be used to determine the
levels of competencies and difficulties expressed by both boys and girls. This approach could be
used at the beginning of the pre-school year and would subsequently facilitate practitioners to
tailor the social and emotional learning experiences to the boys and girls within the pre-school
environment. Our findings highlight the importance of planning opportunities at the start of the
pre-school year to encourage progression in competency areas related to empathy; peer engage-
ment; conflict resolution; and emotional regulation for both boys and girls. In addition, gender-
balanced activities should be promoted for peer learning. Therefore, in order to scaffold social
and emotional competency progression, it would be beneficial to set up ‘invitations to play’, ‘con-
versation stations’, and positive social games to encourage positive peer engagement and group
learning. Further research into gender and engagement with such strategies for social and emotional
competencies would be beneficial.

6. Conclusion
This study investigated gender differences using quantitative measures for rating the children’s
social and emotional competencies. Our analysis of the literature review indicates that many
studies conclude that girls have higher proficiencies in social and emotional competencies than
boys. In contrast, we conclude that there are not significant differences between boys and girls. Sig-
nificantly, in this study, by the end of term three of the pre-school year, boys were rated as having
higher emotional competency proficiencies. In addition, the boys also displayed greater improve-
ments in relation to expressing difficult behaviours. In summary, our study reports that the develop-
ment of understanding and the expression of dispositions within social and emotional competencies
vary in terms of strengths and the challenges encountered by boys and girls. These strengths and
challenges for both boys and girls have been presented and discussed in this paper with a particular
focus on the two-time scales encountered in the pre-school year. Both time scales indicate that pre-
ferences and the intensity of strengths and challenges can also vary for boys and girls throughout
their duration of the pre-school year. Our results provide important information for pre-school prac-
titioners in terms of understanding the capabilities and difficulties that some boys and girls will
express when entering pre-school and during the pre-school year.
In addition, to the implications for practitioners which we presented throughout our discussion,
there are a number of key policy implications. In particular, Early Childhood Educators would need to
consider policy developments within their settings regarding pedagogical techniques applied and
assessments used to observe and promote gender equality for social and emotional competencies.
There is a need to plan appropriate techniques for social and emotional learning, whereby pedago-
gical strategies could be used to encourage both boys and girls to increase their emotional ability
levels in areas of particular difficulty. In an Irish context, the Diversity, Equality and Inclusion
Charter and Guidelines for Early Childhood Care and Education, (Department of Children and
Youth Affairs, DYCA, 2016) specifically focus on areas of supporting gender through highlighting
questions for consideration. These questions within the DCYA (2016, p. 58) should be acknowledged
at the start of the pre-school year and included within the Children’s learning goals. Additionally,
Early Years Educators could mentor student Educators, as well as children on the importance of pro-
moting gender equity when encouraging social and emotional competency development in
practice.
While, the Education Sector has recently seen the implementation of The Gender Equality Matters
(GEM) project, funded from the Rights, Equality and Citizenship (REC) Programme of the European
Union, it primarily focuses on primary education. Therefore, policy makers should consider adopting
a similar approach for the early years sector. This approach would be particularly useful for
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 1963

encouraging an emerging understanding of gender equity around social and emotional competen-
cies. This would assist in a positive transition for boys and girls into primary school. Furthermore, this
approach would assist educators to teach pre-school children, that there should be no expectations
placed on expressing emotions based on gender. This pedagogical approach would also support the
learning outcomes within the ‘Well Being’ and ‘Identity and Belonging’ themes within the Aistear
Curriculum Framework (2009), and ‘Standard 14’ of Siolta, as educators could encourage best prac-
tice around: gender stereotyping; respect; and rights and equality for supporting social and
emotional learning. Subsequently, early years educators and primary school teachers could work
in partnership to promote social and emotional competency development whilst ensuring gender
equity. Finally, under the fourth objective of the ‘First 5’ national government strategy in Ireland
regarding the ‘reform of the Early Learning and Care (ELC) system’, it is encouraging that Educators
are being provided with extra supports such as CPD courses and extra funding (Government of
Ireland, 2021). However, in critique of our findings, it would be imperative that some of these sup-
ports are allocated to CPD courses and resources in the areas of assessing and promoting social and
emotional learning and gender equity within the Early Years sector.
We conclude by acknowledging the limitations with our study. A greater number of respondents,
in additional locations would add additional perspective. In addition, with the time spent in pre-
school increasing (to two years in Ireland) a study over this extended timeframe may provide
additional insights to gender differences. Future studies could explore parental perspectives on chil-
dren’s social and emotional competencies. This would support efforts to understand if development
that children exhibit in the pre-school remain the same in all environments. Finally, future studies
into the pro-social domain from a research observer’s perspective would be helpful to understand
if gender differences exist from an outsider perspective.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes on contributors
Veronica McTaggart is an Assistant Lecturer at the faculty of Science. Her research interests relate to the development
of young children’s social and emotional competencies. Other research interests include: Inclusion of children with
additional needs; effective infant education; and children’s behaviour.
Rosemary McGill is a recently retired lecturer at the faculty of Science. Her research and teaching interests relate to
young children’s social and emotional Intelligence.
Simon Stephens is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Business. His research is based in a range of topics from social and
behavioural science.

ORCID
Veronica McTaggart http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1109-7082
Rosemary McGill http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7230-4706
Simon Stephens http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0322-0888

References
Ahn, H. J., & Stifter, C. (2006). Child care teachers’ response to children’s emotional expression. Early Education and
Development, 17(2), 253–270.
Aistear. (2009). The early childhood curriculum framework. Dublin: The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment.
Bailey, C. S., Denham, S. A., & Curby, T. W. (2013). Questioning as a component of scaffolding in predicting emotion
knowledge in pre-schoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 183(1), 265–279.
Barblett, L., & Maloney, C. (2010). Complexities of assessing social and emotional competence and wellbeing in young
children. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 35(2), 13–18.
1964 V. MCTAGGART ET AL.

Barbu, S., Cabanes, G., & Maner-Idrissi, G. (2011). Boys and girls on the playground: Sex differences in social development
are not stable across early childhood. PLOS ONE, 6 (1), e16407. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016407
Belsky, J., & Beaver, K. M. (2011). Cumulative-genetic plasticity, parenting and adolescent self-regulation. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 619–626.
Berg, B. (2011). The effects of parenting styles on a preschool aged child’s social emotional development. Research Paper,
University of Wisconsin-Stout.
Cadima, J., Aguiar, C., & Barata, M. (2018). Process quality in Portuguese preschool classrooms serving children at-risk of
poverty and social exclusion and children with disabilities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 45(1), 93–105.
Campbell, S. B., Denham, S. A., Howarth, G. Z., Jones, S. M., Whittaker, V. J., Williford, A. P., … Yudron, M. (2016).
Commentary on the review of measures: Conceptualization critique and recommendations. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 45(1), 19–41.
Catherine, N., & Schonert-Reichl, K. (2011). Children’s perceptions and comforting strategies to infant crying: Relations to
age, sex, and empathy-related responding. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29(3), 524–551.
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldo, A. (2014). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analysis review.
Psychology Bulletin, 139(4), 735–765.
Clarke, A. T., Marshall, S. A., Mautone, J. A., Soffer, S. L., Jones, H. A., Ostigan, T. E.…Patterson, A., (2015). Parent attend-
ance and homework adherence predict response to a family–school intervention for children With ADHD. Journal of
Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44(1), 58–67.
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges
and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75(1), 317–333.
Coplan, R. J., Ooi, L. L., Xiao, B., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (2018). Assessment and implications of social withdrawal in early child-
hood: A first look at social avoidance. Social Development, 27(1), 125–139.
Dahlberg, A., Fält, E., Ghaderi, A., Sarkadi, A., & Salari, R. (2020). Swedish norms for the strengths and difficulties ques-
tionnaire for children 3–5 years rated by parents and preschool teachers. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 61,
253–261.
Denham, S. A., Wyatt, T. M., Bassett, H. H., Echeverria, P., & Knox, S. (2009). Assessing social-emotional development in
children from a longitudinal perspective. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 63(1), 37–52.
Dennis, T. A., & Kelemen, D. A. (2009). Preschool children’s views on emotion regulation: Functional associations and
implications for social-emotional adjustment. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 33(3), 243–252.
Department of Children and Youth Affairs. (2014). National policy framework for children & young people (2014-2020),
April. Dublin: Department of Children and Youth Affairs. Retrieved from www.dcya.ie
Department of Children and Youth Affairs. (2016). Diversity, equality and inclusion charter and guidelines for early child-
hood care and education. Retrieved from http://aim.gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Diversity-Equality-and-
Inclusion-Charter-and-Guidelines-for-Early-Childhood-Care-Education.pdf
Domitrovich, C. E., Cortes, R. C., & Greenberg, M. (2007). Improving young children’s social and emotional competence: A
randomized trial of the preschool PATHS curriculum. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 28(2), 67–91.
Durlak, J. A., Domitrovich, C. E., & Gullotta, T. P. (2015). Handbook of social and emotional learning; research and practice.
New York: Guildford Press.
Eisenberg, N., Sadovsky, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Losoya, S. H., Valiente, C. A.…Shepard, S. A, (2005). The relations of
problem behavior status to children’s negative emotionality, effortful control, and impulsivity: Concurrent relations
and prediction of change. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 193–121.
Elberling, H., Linneberg, A., Olsen, E. M., Goodman, R., Skovgaard, A. M, . (2010). The prevalence of SDQ-measured mental
health problems at age 5–7 years and identification of predictors from birth to preschool age in a Danish birth
cohort: The Copenhagen child cohort 2000. European Child Adolescence Psychiatry, 19, 725–735.
Endrulat, N. R., Tom, K., Ravitch, K., Wesley, K., & Merrell, K. W. (2010). Gender differences in positive social emotional func-
tioning. Eugene: University of Oregon. Retrieved from http://strongkids.uoregon.edu/SEARS/genderdifferences2010.
pdf
Fabes, R. A., Hanish, L. D., Martin, C. L., Moss, A., & Reesing, A. (2012). The effects of young children’s affiliations with
prosocial peers on subsequent emotionality in peer interactions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 30
(4), 569–585.
Goldstein, S. (2015). Gender differences in children’s emotion regulation from pre-school to school age (Thesis). University
of Michigan.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. Bantam Books.
Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 38(1), 581–586.
Gordon, R., Sheridan, K., Bates, J., de Souza, S., & Pradzinski, A. (2020). Child care arrangements and gender: A national
portrait of preschool-aged children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 53(1), 40–49.
Government of Ireland. (2021). First 5, A whole-of-Government strategy for babies, young children and their families 2019-
2028. Dublin: Government Publications.
Hall, C. L., Guo, B., Valentine, A. Z., Groom, M. J., Daley, D., Sayal, K., & Hollis, C. (2019). The validity of the Strengths and
Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for children with ADHD symptoms. PloS one, 14(6), e0218518.
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 1965

Halle, T. G., & Darling-Churchill, K. E. (2016). Review of measures of social and emotional development. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 45(1), 8–18.
Hendry, C., Farley, A., & Mc Lafferty, E. (2012). Development, growth and repair from conception to Old Age. Nursing
Standard, 26(50), 44–49.
Humphries, M. L., Keenan, K., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2012). Teacher and observer ratings of young African American chil-
dren’s social and emotional competence. Psychology in the Schools, 49(4), 311–327.
King, E. K. (2020). Fostering toddlers’ social emotional competence: Considerations of teachers’ emotion language by
child gender. Early Child Development and Care. doi:10.1080/03004430.2020.1718670
Kochanska, G., Coy, K. C., & Murray, K. T. (2001). The development of self-regulation in the First four years of life. Child
Development, 72, 1091–1111.
Krasnor, L. (2007). The nature of social competence: A theoretical review. Social Development, 6(1), 111–135.
Kwon, K., Kim, E., & Sheridan, S. (2012). A contextual approach to social skills assessment in the peer group: Who Is the
best judge? School Psychology Quarterly, 27(3), 121–133.
Light, S. N., Coan, J. A., Zahn-Waxler, C., Frye, C., Goldsmith, H. H., & Davidson, R. J. (2009). Empathy is associated with
dynamic change in prefrontal brain electrical activity during positive emotion in children. Child Development, 80(4),
1210–1231.
Maguire, L. K., Niens, U., McCann, M., & Connolly, P. (2016). Emotional development among early school-age children:
Gender differences in the role of problem behaviours. Educational Psychology, 36(8), 1408–1428.
Masnjak, M. (2017). Gender differences in social emotional development and physical activity level in preschool children, 8th
Internal Scientific Conference, Opatija, Croatia.
Mathieson, K., & Banerjee, R. (2011). Peer play, emotion understanding, and socio-moral explanation: The role of gender.
British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29(2), 188–196.
Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. J. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development
and emotional intelligence educational implications (pp. 3–34). New York: Basic Books.
McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behav-
ioral regulation and preschoolers’ literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43(2), 947–959.
McCoy, D. C., & Raver, C. C. (2011). Caregiver emotional expressiveness, child emotion regulation, and child Behavior
problems among head start families. Social Development, 20(4), 741–761.
McTaggart, V., McGill, R., & Stephens, S. (2020). Pre-school practitioners perspectives of children’s social and emotional
competencies. International Journal of Early Years Education, 1–19. doi:10.1080/09669760.2020.1865134
Muftuler, T., Davis, E., Buss, C., Solodkin, A., Su, M. Y., Head, K. M., … Sandman, C. A. (2012). Development of white matter
pathways in typically developing preadolescent children. Brain Research, 10(1), 33.
O’Kane, M., & Hayes, N. (2006). The transition to school in Ireland: Views of preschool and primary school teachers.
International Journal of Transitions in Childhood, 2, 4–16.
Payton, J., Weissberg, R. P., Durlak, J. A., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., Schellinger, K. B., & Pachan, M. (2008). The positive
impact of social and emotional learning for kindergarten to eighth-grade students: Findings from three scientific reviews.
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, Chicago.
Ring, E., Mhic Mhathúna, M., Moloney, M., Hayes, N., Breathnach, D., Stafford, P., … Ozonyia, M. (2016). An examination of
concepts of school readiness among parents and educators in Ireland. Department of Children and Youth Affairs.
Russell, G., Rodgers, L. R., & Ford, T. (2013). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire as a predictor of parent-reported
diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. PLoS One, 3(8), 1–12.
Russell, C. G., Taki, S., Laws, R., Azadi, L., Campbell, K. J., Elliott, R., … Denney-Wilson, E. (2016). Effects of parent and child
behaviours on overweight and obesity in infants and young children from disadvantaged backgrounds: Systematic
review with narrative synthesis. BMC Public Health, 16, 151.
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9(1), 185–211.
Schultz, B., Richardson, R., Barber, C., & Wilcox, D. (2011). A preschool pilot study of connecting with others: Lessons for
teaching social emotional competence. Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(2), 143–148.
Sette, S., Baumgartner, E., & MacKinnon, D. (2015). Assessing social competence and behaviour problems in a sample of
Italian pre-schoolers using the social competence and behaviour evaluation scale. Early Education and Development
(SCBE), 26(1), 46–65.
Shanker, S. (2017). Self-regulation, the five domains. Retrieved from https://self-reg.ca/
Shanker, S., & Hopkins, S. (2019). Self-Reg schools: A handbook for educators. London: Pear Publishing.
Shonkoff, J. P., & Garner, A. S. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Paediatrics, 129(1),
232–246.
Skiba, R. J., Chung, C.-G., Trachok, M., Baker, T. L., Sheya, A., & Hughes, R. L. (2014). Parsing disciplinary disproportionality:
Contributions of infraction, student, and school characteristics to Out-of-school suspension and expulsion. American
Educational Research Journal, 51(4), 640–670.
Suárez-Orozco, C., Onaga, M., & de Lardemelle, C. (2010). Promoting Academic engagement among immigrant adoles-
cents through school Family Community collaboration. Professional School Counselling, 14(1). doi:10.1177/
2156759X1001400103
1966 V. MCTAGGART ET AL.

Sylva, K., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B., Sammons, P., Melhuish, E., Elliot, K., … Totsika, V. (2006). Capturing quality in
early childhood through environmental rating scales. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(1), 76–92.
Thayer, S. C. (2012). Early social-emotional competence: Preschool and kindergarten predictors (Dissertation). George
Mason University.
Toivainen, T., Papageorgiou, K. A., Tosto, M. G., & Kovas, Y. (2017). Sex differences in non-verbal and verbal abilities in
childhood and adolescence. Intelligence, 64, 81–88.
Turunen, T. A. (2012). Individual plans for children in transition to pre-school: A case study in one Finnish day-care
centre. Early Child Development & Care, 182(3/4), 315–328.
Vahedi, S., Farrokhi, F., & Farajain, F. (2012). Social competence and behaviour problems in pre-school children. Iranian
Journal of Psychology, 7(3), 126–134.
Veijalainen, J., Jyrki, R., & Minna, H. (2021). Early gender differences in emotional expressions and self-regulation in set-
tings of early childhood education and care. Early Child Development and Care, 191(2), 173–186.
Veziroglu-Celik, M., & Ibrahim, H. (2020). The association between learning behaviours and social competence of Turkish
preschool children. Early Child Development and Care, 190(12), 1844–1854.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In R. W. Rieber & A. S. Carton (Eds.), The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky (Vol.
1, pp. 39–285). New York: Plenum Press.
West, M. R., Pier, L., Fricke, H., Hough, H., Loeb, S., Meyer, R. H., … Rice, A. B. (2020). Trends in student social-emotional
learning: Evidence from the First large-scale panel student survey. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 42(2),
279–303.
Woolf, K., Page, M., & Viney, R. (2019). Assessing professional competence: A critical review of the annual review of com-
petence progression. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 112(6), 236–244.
You, J., Hong-Juan, Y., Mei-chen, H., & Jing-Jing, Z. (2019). Late preterm infants’ social competence, motor development,
and cognition. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 69–80.