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Psychology of Language

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Table of Contents «««««««««««««««««««««««««««.. i,ii
I. Introduction........................................................................................................................... 1

English as a Second/Foreign Language .................................................................................. 1

Native and Non-Native English Speaking Teachers .............................................................. 1
ESL ±EFL Students ................................................................................................................ 2
Common European Framework of Reference For All languages (CEFR) ............................. 5
A Summary ............................................................................................................................ 6
II. Linguistics in General and the English Language «««««««««««««..«7

/LQJXLVWLFV'LVFLSOLQHV««««««««««««««««««««««««««.. 7

3KRQHWLFV«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««.. 7

6\QWD[««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« 8

0RUSKRORJ\««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««2

6HPDQWLFV«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««3

2UWKRJUDSK\««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««4

Generative LinguistiFV««««««««««««««««««««««««««5

Cognitive Linguistics ««««««««««««««««««««««««««6

0HQWDO0DS««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««7

Applied Linguistics «««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Synthetic and Analaytic LaQJXDJHV«««««««««««««««««««««

Collocation and False FriHQGV«««««««««««««««««««««««1

,,,3V\FKROLQJXLVWLFV7KHRUHWLFDO%DFNJURXQGDQG5HVHDUFK««««««««..«4

Psycholinguistics ModelV«««««««««««««««««««««««««4

Language AcquisitioQ««««««««««««««««««««««««««5

6SHHFK$FWV««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««6

,QWHUODQJXDJH«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««29

Research Findings in PsycholingXLVWLFV«««««««««««««««««««29

IV. Sociolinguistics: Theory and Research ««««««««««««««««««1

'LJORVVLD«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««1

'LDOHFWV««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««3

5HVHDUFK)LQGLQJVLQ6RFLROLQJXLVWLFV««««««««««««««««««««3
ŝ

V. Common Research Methods in Linguistics ««««««««««««««««5

Research Techniques in LinguiVWLFV««««««««««««««««««««5

VI. Intercultural (Cross-Cultural) Psychology ««««««««««««««««0

:KDWLV&XOWXUH"««««««««««««««««««««««««««««0

Learning and Teaching CXOWXUH«««««««««««««««««««««««0

Cross-Cultural PsycholoJ\««««««««««««««««««««««««1

Cultural Intelligence Quotient &4 ««««««««««««««««««««3

Cross-FXOWXUDO5HVHDUFK)LQGLQJV««««««««««««««««««««««5

VII. Some Psychological Variables Relevant to Intercultural Competence ««««48

([WUDYHUVLRQ««««««««««««««««««««««««««««48

Opennes to ExperienFH««««««««««««««««««««««««««49

Social Self-esteeP««««««««««««««««««««««««««««49

Social and /or Emotional Intelligence ««««««««««««««««««««. 50

VIII. Communicology: The Skill and Science of Social Interactions ««««« 53

Models of Communication vs. IntHUDFWLRQ««««««««««««««««««3

Four Maxims of Communication «««««««««««««««««««««« 54

IX. The Role of English in Intercultural Communication and Competence «««6

Teaching English for Intercultural &RPPXQLFDWLRQ«««««««««««««««57

7KH,VVXHRI7HOOLQJ³<RX´LQ(QJOLVKLQ D3ROLWHPDQQHU««««««««««««58

English Proficiency IndH[««««««««««««««««««««««««59

X. Putting in a Nutshell: Can democracy, Capitalism, Education and Globalisation

3HUVLVW:LWKRXW(QJOLVK««««««««««««««««««««««««««61

English Within International relations and Economics «««««««««««««1

English as a Global LangXDJH«««««««««««««««««««««««1

English for Academic PurpRVHV««««««««««««««««««««««2

The Future of Global English and English for 6SHFLILF3XUSRVHV«««««««««4

References «««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« 65-72

ŝŝ

 INTRODUCTION: ENGLISH AS A SECOND/FOREIGN
LANGUAGE

To keep pace with the global development in education, economy, business,

informatics, social networking and similar phenomena, everyone should be aware
that this is not possible without being able to competently communicate in English.
Thus, English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) plays an important role
nowadays.

Native and non-native English-speaking teachers (NESTs and NNESTs)

However, there are lots of challenges which English teachers and students are having
to face. Teaching English as a mother tongue is not the same as teaching it within the
frame of ESL or EFL. Teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) is a
complex process in which teacher should be: a person with an adequate professional
qualification, a person who is truly aware of the cultural background of his/her
students, and someone who knows how to use scientifically based and practically
justified techniques of teaching. According to Fareh (2010), teachers in ESL/EFL
classroom: create and manage interaction in such a classroom; can enhance students'
levels of motivation; modify and shape the curriculum in accordance with the
''educational reality''; make learning more meaningful; diagnose various problems and
provide suggestiong for their resolution; can support textbooks and are able to handle
their shortcomings as well. Chen and Goh (2010) identified two main clusters of
problems (challenges) that ESL/EFL teachers encounter ± external constraints (large
class sizes, lack of teaching resources...) and internal constraints (low self-efficacy,
insufficient and inadequate pedagogical knowledge...).

Two groups of teachers are identified with regard to the notion that they are native
(NESTs) or non-native English speakers (NNESTs or non-NESTs). According to
Medgyes (1999), NNESTs are characterized by the fact that English is their foreign
or second language (1), their students are monolingual groups of English learners (2),
they work in an EFL/ESL setting (3), and the fact that they speak the same native
ϭ

language as their students (4). There are several assumptions associated with NEST
and NNEST groups of teachers (Medgyes, 1994):

1. NESTs and NNESTs differ with regard to their English language proficiency.
2. The discrepancy in their English language proficiency accounts for most of the
differences in their teaching behaviors.
3. Hence, these groups of teachers differ in terms of their teaching behaviors.
4. They could be almost equally successful teachers from their own point of views.

There is a fact that is called the linguistic handicap in non-native English teachers.
Despite that, these group of teachers could compensate it by further education in the
field of the English language teaching, by interacting with native speakers of this
language, and by using available teaching resources and materials that are written by
the scholars whose mother tongue is English. Of course, NNESTs should be aware of
the differences between them and NESTs and try to get closer to their qualities.
Medgyes (1999) listed several differences between NESTs and NNESTs in greater
details: the use of real vs. ''bookish'' language; using English more vs. less
confidently; focusing on meaning, fluency, oral skills, language in use, and colloquial
registers vs. focusing on grammar rules, accuracy, print word, form, and formal
registers; teaching items in context vs. isolation; tolerating vs. correcting/punishing
errors; supplying more vs. less cultural information; setting fewer/more tests; using a
variety of materials vs. a single textbook; favor group/pair work vs. frontal work;
preferring free vs. controlled activities; using a more flexible vs. guided approach;
having far-fetched vs. real expectations, and so on. As can be noticed, NESTs are
more spontaneous, tolerant and casual than NNESTs. On the contrary, NNESTs are
more cautious, rigid and committed to the process of teaching and ESL/EFL students'
academic performance.

ESL/EFL students

ESL/EFL students have to be (preferably intrinsically) motivated to learn English, to

use it and to improve it in every occasion, situation, or context that should be
perceived by them as an opportunity to master it. Some of the main challenges for

Ϯ

these kind of students are the following: learning how to spell different words,
acquiring English accent, understanding English interlocutors when they speak fast,
understanding various vernaculars, reducing the level of speaking anxiety, figuring
out that some part of English cannot be literally translated into their mother tongue,
and speaking/writing English automatically (i.e. proficiently).

There are plenty of studies on determinants of ESL/EFL academic success. Zin and
Rafik-Galea (2010) investigated the impact of Malay ESL students' anxiety levels on
their academic reading performance. They stated that academic performance in ESL
learning is highly influenced by students' English reading skills. These researchers
applied the Foreign language reading anxiety scale (FLRAS) along with the
Cognitive interference questionnaire (CIQ). They got a positive and weak but
statistically significant coefficient of correlation which indicated that reading anixety
is associated with cognitive interference in students. These two variables were in a
moderate and positive relationship with reading comprehension test. Thus, anxiety
was an important factor to the academic performance of ESL students.

$\GR÷DQ   FDUULHG RXW D UHVHDUFK LQWR WKH UHODWLRQVKLS RI SHUVRQDOLW\ WUDLWV
(extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to
experience) and basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness)
with final English grades of Turkish students. This study showed that neuroticism
was in negative correlation with final grades whereas the other four personality traits
were positively associated with students' final grades. The level of satisfaction of all
three psychological needs was in a strong, positive relationship with students' final
English grades. Therefore, it is important that students are emotionally stable,
extraverted, agreeable, conscientious and flexible persons in order to succeed in
English courses. In addition, their needs shoud be met. In other words, ESL/EFL
should have a sense of self-worth (self-respect), personal freedom, and enough space
and time to be connected with other students.

As for motivation of ESL/EFL students, Williams and Burden (1997) provided a

framework of factors that influence the level of motivation in second/foreign

ϯ

language learning process. These authors divided relevant factors into the following
two categories:

a) Internal factors (perceived value of activity, intrinsic interest of activity, self-

concept, mastery, sense of agency, attitudes toward language learning in general,
other affective states, gender, and developmental stage and age) and
b) External factors (significant others, the nature of interaction with significant
others, the learning environment and the broader context).

Speaking of the internal factors in greater details, it can be stated: feelings of

competence, anxiety, arousal of curiosity, personal relevance, intrinsic value
attributed to an activity, locus of control, realistic personal awareness, self-efficacy,
strengths and weaknesses in skills that are required, personal judgements and
definitions of success/failure, and so on. Taking into account the group of external
factors, significant others are parents, peers (classmates), and teachers. The nature of
interaction with them is defined by the ratio of rewards and punishments where
feedback and mediated learning experiences are included. Main factors related to the
''learning landscape'' are resources, comfort, size of classes, time of day, and school
ethical rules. As for the broader context that can influence education, there are wider
family networks (aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins...), cultural norms, social
attitudes and expectations, as well as the local and state educational system (Williams
& Burden, 1997).

$QRWKHU WKHRULVW '|UQ\HL   OLVWHG FRPSRQHQWV RI IRUHLJQ (in our case, the
English) language learning motivation. In fact, these are levels or domains that
influence motivational level of ESL/EFL students:

a) Learner's level (need for achievement, self-confidence, perceived L2 competence,

foreign language use anxiety...);
b) Learning situation level (course-specific, teacher-specific, and group-specific
motivational components: interest in English course, satisfaction with it, relevance
and expectancy related to English course, authority type of teacher, task presentation,

ϰ

feedback quality, modelling, goal-orientedness, group cohesion, classroom goal
structure, and norm and reward system);
c) Language level (integrative and instrumental motivational subsystems).

Intelligence is also one of the chief determinants of ESL/EFL performance. Hemmati

and Sadeghi (2015) investigated the English language achievements within the
multiple intelligences framework. To be more specific, these authors were interested
in relationships of naturalistic, musical, existential, logical, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, visual, kinesthetic, and verbal intelligence with EFL students'
performance. The only statistically significant correlation was that between verbal
intelligence levels and students' performances. Thus, students who were more
verbally intelligent had higher English course achievements compared to those whose
level of verbal intelligence was below the average. Additionally, the result for total
(general) intelligence almost reached the significance level of .05. Besides, Gardner's
Multiple intelligence theory can be applied into the second/foreign language
classroom. It is useful for understanding learners' diversity, considering the
possibility of teachability of intelligences and for designing frames of foreign
language teaching (Morgan & Fonseca, 2004).

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR)

Within the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR or

CEFRL) several levels of (in our context, English) language knowledge, skills, and
competences were proposed: ''basic user'' ± level A (beginner ± A1 and elementary
knowledge and skills ± A2), ''independent user'' ± level B (intermediate ± B1 and
upper intermediate ± B2) and ''proficient user'' ± level C (advanced ± C1 and
mastery/proficiency ± C2). A ''basic user'' can communicate some elementary
demands, requests, thoughts and emotions. S/he can also express her/his basic ideas
in familiar contexts (in family, at working place, school, public transport, restaurant,
shopping mall...). An ''independent user'' can express her/him in various contexts
pretty good and by using correct grammar forms as well as proper vocabulary. A
''proficient user'' is very good at unfamiliar topics as well. S/he can deal with
cognitively or academically demanding topics and materials.
ϱ

A summary

Second or foreign (in our case, English) language acquisition process includes three
major related components/elements (Kearney, 1984):
a) Linguistics (the main locus is language itself);
b) Psycholinguistics (the principal locus is the mind of learners);
c) Sociolinguistics (the chief locus is the social context or background of learners).

Taking into account previous considerations, the process of learning English as a

foreign language can be shown as it was displayed in the diagram below (Figure 1).

Figure 1. A diagram of the process of learning foreign language

As indicated (Figure 1), the student should be motivated to learn English and this
process can be facilitated by high levels of verbal intelligence. Students should also
make invidividual efforts in order to succeed. Teachers' professional skills are that
what matters, as well. Finally, there are learner's and teacher's cultural background
along with English/American cultural specificity that influence the process of
learning English.

ϲ

 LINGUISTICS IN GENERAL AND THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Linguistics is the scientific study of language meaning, form and its usage in different
social contexts and for various purposes. Main branches of linguistics are: phonetics,
phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics, orthography, generative linguistics,
cognitive linguistics, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Psycholinguistics and
sociolinguistics will be explained later, because there are two chapters that cover
them in details. Additionally, applied linguistics is a term that can refer to various
subfields of linguistics.

Linguistics disciplines

Phonetics
It is a subfield of linguistics that is concerned with how sounds are produced (in the
speech organs), transmitted to others and perceived by others (Vikner, 1986). There
are four improtant phenomena studied by scholars who are interested in phonetics:
aspiration, stops, voicing and air mechanism in general. Based on the way of
producing sounds, they can be divided into four groups: fricatives, affricates, laterals,
and nasals. Regarding points of articulation (i.e. spots where the airstream is impeded
or stopped), consonants can be divided into the following groups (Bickford & Floyd,
2006):
a) Alveolar (''t'' and ''d'')
b) Velar (''k'' and ''g'')
c) Bilabial (''p'' and ''b'')
d) Labiodental (''f'' and ''v'')
e) Interdental (''th'' as in ''then'')
f) Palatal (''s'' and ''z'')
g) Uvular (''r'' produced with the uvula which is in the back of the vocal system)

Similar, but not quite the same discipline, namely phonology, studies the function of
sounds when they come in groups (i.e. in relation to each other). For example,

ϳ

phonology deals with minimal pairs (e.g. ''pat'' vs. ''cat'', which are two phonemes that
differ only in a segment of a sound sequence).

Syntax

It is a linguistic subdiscipline that studies the structure of sentences. It includes: noun,

adjective, verb, adverb, and preposition phrases; subjects; direct and indirect objects;
modifiers; predicative and oblique complements; auxiliary, passive and relative
clause constructions, etc. (Kim & Sells, 2007). Languages can be classified into
several categories based on the following features of syntax: subject/agent (S), verb
(V), and object (O). For example, English is a SVO language because grammatically
correct sentences written in this language are:

John (S) is feeding (V) his dog (O).

My parents (S) are (V) managers (O).

My brother (S) likes (V) his job (O).

On the other hand, grammatically incorrect sentences are1:

*Tom (S) football (O) plays (V).

*Plays (V) the piano (O) Emily (S).

*Maths (O) study (V) my students (S).

There are some other SVO languages: Bosnian, Croatian, Estonian, French, Italian,
Serbian, Spanish... There is also a group of SOV languages: Japanese, Latin, Korean,
Turkish (with a few exceptions)... , and a group of VOS, VSO, OSV and OVS
languages. Some of the languages allow two or more combinations of these features
(e.g. Finnish, German, Hungarian and Russian).

Syntax also deals with types of sentences in a language. For instance, there are four
types of sentences in English language with regard to their structure: simple (subject
+ predicate), compound (two independent/complete sentences joined by a coordinate


1
Stars were used for indicating ungrammaticality of these sentences.
ϴ

conjunction), complex (one independent sentence and one dependent/subordinate
clause, with a conjunctive adverb or without subject or predicate), and compound-
complex sentences (two or more indenpedent sentences and two or more dependent
clauses). Two examples of simple sentences are ''He is late'' and ''Barbara and John
are going to write their English exams''. Some examples of compound sentences are:
''Mary submitted her essay, but she missed the deadline'', ''He missed the train, so he
has to walk to his job'', and ''Mrs. Robert is in a hurry, and she does not have enough
time to pick up her children.'' Two examples of complex sentences are ''Because they
are going to have a baby, they save their money'' and ''Whenever I want to speak in
the class, my teacher tells me to be quiet.'' Taking into account compound-complex
sentences, we can illustrate them by the following two examples ''Although I don't
like to study, I studied French yesterday, and I put a lot of efforts to master it'' and
''My girlfriend wanted to go on a party, but I was so tired, which was perceived by
her as laziness.''

Regarding their contents, aim, and purpose, English sentences can be divided into:
interrogative, declarative, imperative, exclamatory and conditional sentences (Table
1).

Table 1. Types of sentences in the English language

Types of sentence Examples

What's the weather like?
Interrogative
<RX¶YH already spoken with them, have you?
She is a very good worker that can complete almost every task.
Declarative This is the city of great opportunities where toursits can see lots of
astonishing monuments.
Brush your teeth!
Imperative
Take a bath!
Wow, it is amazing!
Exclamatory
Oh, my God, I really want it so much!
f If you add three and four, you get seven. (zero conditional)
Conditional f If I go there, I will never come back. (first conditional)
If I were you, I would ask her to go out with me. (second conditional)

ϵ

 If she had written to him, she would have been in a relationship
with him (third conditional).

Language could be analyzed at many levels. The lowest level is represented by

phonemes. Next, there are morphemes, words, phrases and sentences. The highest
level is discourse (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). For instance, if we want to decode
the passage: ''My students rarely use English textbooks. They want to listen to
English lessons instead. Therefore, I should encourage them to read English
textbooks also.'', we have to perceive a string of phonemes first (e.g. [m] + [aj] + [s] +
[t] + [j] + [u] + [d] + [n] + [ts] « 7KHQZHVKRXOG identify all morphemes ³P\¶¶
³VWXGHQW¶¶³V¶¶³UDUH´³O\¶¶ 1H[WZHKDYHWRLGHQWLI\ the words used in
this passage (''my'' + ''students'' + ''rarely'' + ''use'' + ''English'' + ...). Then, we
organize words in a way so they form phrases (''My students'' + ''rarely use English
textbooks'' + ''They'' + ...). Almost lastly, we perceive the whole sentences (''My
students rarely use English textbooks.'' + ''They want to listen to English lessons
instead''). Finally, the discourse (the whole passage) is perceived and decoded (''My
students (...) to read English textbooks also.''). This is the point where syntax (along
with morphology) as a discipline of linguistics and cognitive psychology (more
precisely, psychology of perception) overlap.

There is also a syntactic topic, called the hierarchy of phrases in sentences, within
which noun and verb phrases (NP and VB, respectively) can be found. Noun phrases
(NP) consist of a noun (or two or more of them) and all relevant descriptors of it
(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). Some of them are: ''a blue sweater'', ''an extraordinary
tale'', ''a white, small dog'', and ''a totally different world''. Verb phrases (predicates)
consist of a verb and some auxiliary elements (prepositions, adverbs, prepositions...).
For instance, ''is eating'', ''are swimming'', ''stayed at home'', and ''tried to do so'', are
all verb phrases. A noun phrase can be incorporated into a verb phrase. The example
is ''learns a difficult lesson'' (''a difficult lesson'' Ù determiner + adjective + noun).
Thus, ''a difficult lesson'' is a noun phrase and ''learns a difficult lesson'' (VB) is
positioned higher in this phrase-hierarchy. There are prepositional phrases (PP), as
well. Some examples are: ''by the cat'', ''from the country'', ''to the university'', ''in the
ϭϬ

picture'', and ''of the group''. If we say or write: ''of the chemical compound'', a noun
phrase (''chemical compound'' Ù adjective + noun) takes place within a prepositional
phrase. The hierarchy of phrases in sentences is illustrated in Figure 2 and 3.

Figure 2. The hierarchy of phrases in the sentence: ''Andy successfully passed the final exam.''

As can be seen (Figure 2), there are two noun phrases (''Andy'' and ''the final exam'')
and a verb phrase (''successfully passed the final exam'') in the first sentence (S1).
One of the noun phrases was incorporated into the verb phrase along with an adverb
(''successfully'') and a verb (''passed''). There is also a determiner (D) ''the'', an adverb
(ADV) ''successfully'', and an adjective ''final''. ''V'' stands for a verb (''passed'') and
''N'' stands for nouns (''Andy'' and ''exam'').

Next figure (Fig. 3) shows the same sentence (labeled as ''S2'') expressed in a passive
voice (''The final exam was passed successfully by Andy.''). The noun phrase (''the
final exam'') and the verb phrase (''was passed successfully by Andy'') are at the same
horizontal line in the hierarchy of phrases. The first phrase includes a determiner
(''the''), an adjective (''final''), and a noun (''exam''). The verb phrase consists of two
verbs (the verb ''to be'' in the past tense and the verb the past participle of the verb
''pass''), an adverb (''successfully''), and a preposition phrase (PP). The preposition
phrase includes a preposition (''by'') and a noun (''Andy''). Hence, these sentences are
grammatically different; however, their meaning is the same.

ϭϭ

Figure 3. The hierarchy of phrases in the sentence: ''The final exam was passed successfully by
Andy.''

Morphology

It is the study of series of sounds or letters that are somehow meaningful.

Morphologists divide words into functional parts. If we add prefix, suffix, or affix to
a particular word, we can change its meaning at certain degree (e.g. by comparing:
''weight'', ''overweight'', and ''underweight''; ''famous'' and ''infamous''; ''take'' and
''undertake'', etc.). We can also transform nouns to adjectives, adjectives to adverbs,
nouns to verbs, verbs to adjectives, etc (Table 2).

Table 2. Making nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs

NNoun Adjective Adverb Verb

care(fulness) careful carefully to care
reason(ing) reasonable reasonably to reason
revolution revolutionary revolutionarily to revolutionize
brightness bright brightly to brighten
dogma dogmatic dogmatically to dogmatize
legitimacy legitimate legitimately to legitimize

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 significance significant significantly to signify
empathy empathic empathically to empathize

Semantics

It is concerned with the meaning of words, mostly with the conceptual/conventional

one, and usually not with the associative one (Yule, 1996). In other words, the main
field of interest in this discipline is denotative meaning, as opposed to connotative
meaning. Denotative meaning is the true meaning of a word represented by its
definition. For example, ''chair'' is a piece of furniture that is used for sitting and can
be usually found around the table. This is the denotative meaning of ''chair''. On the
other hand, ''chair'' could mean: a person who is the leader of a department, college,
conference, committee, organization... It is one of the connotative meanings of this
word. It is also about synonymy (''continue'' = ''keep on''; ''work'' = ''job''; ''go'' =
''walk''), antonymy (''high'' vs. ''low''; ''good'' vs. ''bad''; ''smart/clever'' vs. ''stupid'';
''adequate'' vs. ''inadequate''), and hyponymy (i.e. hierarchical relations, e.g.: ''plant''
and ''rose''; ''animal'' and ''lion''; ''science'' and ''physics''; ''language'' and
''Portuguese'').

A special topic in English language linguistics is that of phrasal (multi-part) verbs.

This class of verbs can be studied in both morphology and semantics. They include a
verb and a particle (e.g. put off = postpone, delay; ''put'' ± verb and ''off'' ± particle).
More examples are given in Table 3 below.

Table 3. Some phrasal verbs and their meanings

Phrasal verb Meaning

come about to happen
come along to arrive or appear
come apart to break into pieces
come back to return
come by to pass
go down to sink, to fall
go over to think and discuss (something) carefully from its beginning to the end

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 go with to happen as a result (of something)
run down to criticize
run into to meet, bump into, rush into
run to to have enough money (for something)
run over/through to check (something)

As can be noticed (Table 3), a particle (about, along, down, over, with, into, to...)
changes the meaning of the main verb (come, go, run).

Orthography

It includes: spelling, hyphenation, capitalization and punctuation. For example, some

of the words in British English are spelled differently compared to the same words in
American English, as can be seen in Table 4.

Table 4. Differences between British and American English spelling

Difference UK spelling US spelling

e Æ er theatre, centre, litre theater, center, liter
ae Æ e esthetic, aetiology, archaeology asthetic, etiology, archeology
sÆz analyse, analysed, analysing analyze, analyzed, analyzing
uÆo colour, behaviour, harbour color, behavior, harbor
Æ ll enrol, fulfil enroll, fulfill
eÆe foetus fetus
Æa grey gray
Æc ønflexion inflection
e, re Æ e, er Manoeuvre maneuver
g Æg Vaggon vvagon
Æk disc disk

Another group of examples includes words that sound similar to each other (i.e.
homonyms): ''their'' vs. ''they're''; ''here'' vs. ''hear''; ''die'' vs. ''dye''; ''dessert'' vs.
''desert''; ''to'' vs. ''too'' vs. ''two''; ''weather'' vs. ''whether'', ''see'' vs. ''sea''; ''know'' vs.
''no''...

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Orthography comprises cases where somebody has to make a distiction between
using comma or semicolon. Semicolon is, for instance, used when we want to
separate two independent clauses that convey similar ideas. It is also used when we
want to connect two long independent clauses with so-called coordinating
conjunctions (so, and, but, or, nor, and yet). We also put a semicolon before the
following words (with which two or more clauses can be linked): ''however'',
''therefore'', ''moreover'', ''for example'', ''consequently'', ''on the contrary'', ''of course'',
''as a result''... They usually come before so-called transitional phrases and are
followed by a comma.

Generative linguistics

It was founded within the frame of structuralism. It postulates that syntax is given a
priori; therefore, it is quite autonomous, apart from other language features (Lakoff,
1991). The most well-known name in this field is that of Noam Chomsky2, who is a
founder of generative/universal grammar. This concept entered linguistics in the
1950s and 1960s and today there are still debates by which it is surrounded. The first
book published on this topic was entitled Syntactic structures (Chomsky, 1957).
According to Chomsky, there are two types of language structure ± deep and
superficial. In other words, although superficially distinct, two sentences can mean
the same thing. Universal grammar (UG) is ''the basic design underlying the
grammars of all human languages''; besides, this term refers to ''the circuitry in
children's brains that allows them to learn the grammar of their parents' language''
(Pinker, 1994, 483). This concept is a part of innatism or innatist theory.

Generative linguistics deals with ''linguistic intuition'' of the native speaker of a

language. However, the approach used within generative linguistics is not intuitive or
subjective. It is, as Chomsky (1957, 234) wrote, ''In fact only a completely objective

Ϯ
Noam Chomsky (1928-) is well known for his groundbraking work in linguistics as well as for his political
attitudes (he criticizes political systems, by providing meaningful and coherent arguments to support his
opinion). Chomsky is a professor emeritus at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and a visiting
professor at other universities such as Cambridge, Colombia, Princeton, UCLA and so on. His books in the
field of linguistics are: Current issues in linguistic theory, Aspects of the theory of syntax, The sound pattern
of English, Knowledge of language, Studies on semantics in generative grammar, Language and mind, etc.
(Retrieved from http://www.biography.com/people/noam-chomsky-37616#professorial-career, November
25, 2016).
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theory in which empathy, prejudices, unanalyzed notions of 'phonetic realism', and so
on, play no part will have any real value as an explanation of 'linguistic intuition' ''.
For example, look at the following two sentences3:

Tasteless red thoughts drink ecstatically.

*Ecstatically drink thoughts red tasteless.

The first sentence is grammatically correct; however, it is meaningless. The second

one is not only meaningless, but grammatically incorrect. This is to say that native
speaker of the English language will never produce (pronounce or write) such two
sentences. Therefore, this is how the linguistic intuition device works. Moreover, we
have an innate program that ''tells'' us how to combine words in a meaningful way.
Due to this phenomenon, Chomsky's theoretical point of view was called the
biolinguistic approach. Furthermore, Chomsky found out some transformational
rules that can be used to convert one sentence to another so they can have the same
meaning. The hierarchy of phrases shown in Figure 2 and 3 are the examples of
sentences that have the same meaning, but different grammar structure. Thus, this
field of linguistics was called transformational grammar.

Cognitive linguistics

It deals with the application of cognitive psychology to linguistics. It includes mental

processes underlying the acquisition, learning, understanding, comprehending, and
speaking a language. It intersects with cognitive psychology and ''language and
thinking processes'' are its subdisciplines. Cognitive linguistics is closely related to
computational theory, structuralist linguistics, philosophy of language,
psycholinguistics and cognitive neuroscience (Marantz, 2005).

One of the most important concepts in cognitive linguistics is the access principle (or
ID principle). According to Evans (2007, 2), it can be defined as follows: ''any
linguistic expression that names or describes a particular element in a given mental


ϯ
Chomsky provided us with the similar example: ''Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. / Furiously sleep
ideas green colorless.'' (Chomsky, 1975)
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space may be employed in order to access an element in a distinct mental space that
is linked to it via a connector''.

Mental map
It is another concept that is considered crucial in cognitive linguistics. It is a mental
representation which helps someone to store, recall, code, and decode various
information, concepts, words, perceptions and images. Two illustrations of this
concept are given in Figures 4 and 5.

Figure 4. An illustration of mental map where its nodes are connected with regard to emotional
significance for a person

As can be noticed (Figure 4), the first one is about someone's childhood and his/her
experiences during this period of life (experiences with siblings, parents,
grandparents, friends, children play, school and teachers). The concepts of ''village''
and ''nature'' were acquired when a person visited his/her grandparents. Additionally,
the concept of ''play'' was learned while interacting with friends in the playground.
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Figure 5. Another illustration of mental map where nodes are mutually connected with regard to
hierarchical relationship between them or some obvious associations

Looking at Figure 5, it can be noticed that ''wild animals'' and ''domestic animals'' are
subordinated categories of a much more broader category of ''animals''. ''Wolf'' and
''bear'' are at a certain degree lower in this hierarchy whereas concepts such as
''freedom'' and ''extinction'' are more abstract.

Applied Linguistics

Within applied linguistics, the following ten problems are of a great interest (Grabe,
2010):

1. Language contact problems (social and cultural interactions, bilingualism,

maintenance...),
2. Language inequality problems (gender, age, class, ethnicity and region),

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3. Language assessment problems (fairness, responsibility, usability, reliability and
validity);
4. Language learning problems (attitudes, expertise, awareness, skills, use, rules,
context, automaticity...);
5. Language teaching problems (practice, training, interaction, understanding,
motivation, outcomes, resources...);
6. Language pathology problems (dyslexia, aphasia, and other physical disabilities);
7. Language and technology problems (assessment, learning, access...);
8. Language planning and policy problems (political factors, ecology of language,
and status, corpus and acquisition planning);
9. Language use problems (registers, dialects, discourse communities, as well as
limited access to services and resources); and
10. Literacy problems (learning issues, orthography development, new scripts, and
resource development).

In essence, all linguistic disciplines can be classified as both theoretical and applied.
If we carry out an empirical study on English syntax or orthography, our study can be
described as a contribution to applied linguistics. At the same time, it contributes to
the theoretical knowledge in these disciplines as well.

Synthetic and analytic languages

A very important topic in linguistics is the classification of languages according to

various criteria. This is called linguistic typology. According to one of the
scientifically proved typologies, languages can be divided into two categories ±
synthetic and analytic (isolating) languages. The first group of languages has a lot of
so-called agglutinative constructions. In other words, synthetic languages are those
which have lots of morphemes per word whereas analytic languages have low
morpheme/word ratio. Some synthetic languages are: English, Finnish, German,
Greek, Italian, Polish, Russian and Turkish. Typical example of a synthetic language
is German. Lots of German words are very long such as ''Aufenthaltserlaubnis'' (=
residence permit), ''3HUV|QOLFKNHLWVSV\FKRORJLH   SHUVRQDOLW\ SV\FKRORJ\ 

ϭϵ

''Aufgabenstellungen'' (= tasks), etc. On the other hand, there is a small number
analytic languages (e.g. Mandarin Chinese and Vietnamese).

In fact, almost all languages are a mixture of synthetic and analytic elements.
However, there is an overbalance of one group of this elements which allows us to
categorize various languages. Robert Millar (2008) claims that these are not two
distinct categories. According to this theorist, we should consider it as a bipolar
continuum, with two extrema ± synthetic and analytic pole. For example, Finnish is
very close to the synthetic pole whereas some little known languages (e.g. Tok Pisin)
are close to the analytic pole. This author puts English close to the analytic pole, as
do some other theorists.

Table 5 shows several examples of synthetic features in the English language

whereas Table 6 shows some examples of analytic features (i.e. words that are not
modified inside, but rather by using pronouns, adjectives and auxiliary verbs) in this
language.

Table 5. Some examples of synthetic elements in English

Word Its elements (morphemes)

indistinguishable in + distinguish + able
misconceptions mis + conception + s
uncommonly un + common + ly
expatriating ex+ patriate + ing
reconciliation re + conciliate + ion
notwithstanding not + with + stand + ing
nevertheless never + the + less
dismembered dis + member + ed
prosocially pro + social + ly

As can be noticed (Table 5), lots of these words are a combination of a prefix (e.g.
''un'', ''mis'' ) + a noun/verb/adjective (e.g. ''member'', ''patriate'') + a suffix (e.g. ''ly'',
''able'').

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Table 6. Some examples of analytic elements in English

Example
She is a very good professor.
Everybody knows him, because he
is a superstar.
It is not necessary to be a worker
who has high qualifications.
It is a house that we can afford.
We want to know where he is now.
Explanation
In order to tell someone that this professor is female,
we use the pronoun ''she''. Thus, we do not need to add a
suffix to the word µ¶teacher¶¶ (in contrast, there is a
gender-specific pair in Spanish: µ¶professor¶¶± professora¶¶
to indicate that she teaches successfully, we use
adjective µ¶good¶¶ along with the adverb µ¶very¶¶.
In order to tell our readers that somebody (he) is a
well-known actor, musician, artist... , the following
words were used: ''everybody knows him''.
unnecessary'' is expressed as ''not'' + ''necessary''
and ''highly-qualified'' is expressed as ''(a worker) who
has high qualifications''
affordable'' is replaced by ''that we can afford''
''his whereabouts'' are replaced by a sequence of
these words: ''where he is''

Looking at Table 6, we can see that the meaning (contents) of a sentence can be
expressed in different way by using pronouns (''we'', ''she'', ''him''...), verbs (to afford),
nouns (''qualifications''...), adjectives (''good''...), and adverbs (''very''...).

Collocation and ''false friends''

Collocation consists of several words that can be placed together. They are common
word combinations automatically known and produced by native speakers of a
language. Collocations are usually different in different languages. For example,
Oxford English dictionary of collocations includes more than 150,000 of them 4 .
Table 7 shows some English collocations and wrongly used combinations of words
related to them.

Table 7. English collocations and some wrong combinations of words

Collocation Wrong combination of words


4
Retrieved from http://www.freecollocation.com/ (October 30, 2016)
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 catch a cold kick a cold
fall asleep get asleep, take asleep, go to asleep
fall in love go in love, get down in love
keep records do records, continue records
have a coffee/dinner/sandwich take a coffee/dinner/sandwich
highly likely/probable hugely/largely likely/probable
strong coffee hard/heavy coffee
heavy traffic/rain strong/hard traffic/rain
terribly sorry much sorry
a big surprise large surprise
to the best of my knowledge on the best of my knowledge

As noticed in Table 7, collocations are not always logical or regular. Hence, students
should pay attention to those which are different in their mother tongues. Learning
collocations helps them to think in whole phrases, and as a result of that, spoken
fluency will be improved.

The issue related to false friends is another tricky topic while learning foreign or
second language. There are the words or phrases that look and sound similarly to
those in somebody's mother tongue. However, they have different meanings (for
some examples, see Table 8).

Table 8. False friends in English and Bosnian

English English Bosnian false Bosnian true meaning

word Meaning meaning
actually in fact ''aktualno'' 'ustvari''
pretend make believe ''pretendovati'' ''pretvarati se''
sympathetic compassionate VLPSDWLþDQ VDRVMHüDMDQ
chosen in accordance with ''senzibilan'', 'razuman'',
sensible
wisdom ''osjetljiv'' 'svjestan''
traffic vehicles moving on a road 'trafika'' VDREUDüDM
solid firm in shape 'solidan'' þYUVW
physician medicine doctor IL]LþDU OMHNDURSãWHSUDNVH
lecture educational talk lektura'' SUHGDYDQMH  þDV

ϮϮ

 manufactured good, 'komoditet'', 'roba'', ''materijal'', ' '
commodity
raw material 'komotnost'' artikal''
crowd of people,large open area
'gomila ljudi'', ''veliki
Concourse inside or in front of a public 'konkurs''
hol''
ibuilding

Besides, lots of words that sound or look alike really mean the same thing: ''park''
(Bosnian: ''park''; French: ''parc''; Italian: ''parco''), ''institution'' (Bosnian: ''institucija'';
German: ''Institution''), ''university'' (Bosnian: ''univerzitet''; French: ''uQLYHUVLWp 
6SDQLVK XQLYHUVLGDG  ,WDOLDQ XQLYHUVLWj  *HUPDQ 8QLYHUVLWlW  PDULWLPH 
(Bosnian: ''maritimni/a/o''), ''situation'' (Bosnian: ''situacija''; French: ''situation''),
''biology'' (Bosnian: ''biologija''; German: ''Biologie''; French: ''biologie''), etc.

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 PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND
RESEARCH

Psycholinguistics is the field of study where developmental psychology and

linguistics intersect. Its objective is to describe, explain and predict the development
of speech and language. Apart from that, psycholinguistics deals with psychological
(mental) processes connected with language acquisition, comprehension and
production (i.e. its usage in various social contexts).

Psycholinguistics models

There are lots of scientifically-based psycholinguistic models. One of them is Smith's

model (1973) which is called the Single-lexicon model. Its input is, in fact, underlying
representation of the speech of adults. Through the application of the phonological
rules, this imput transforms itself into child's phonemic representation. Further, by
using articulatory instructions, a child produces a specific speech which is, in other
words, the output.

Unlike the previous model, there is the Two-lexicon model, proposed by Menn
(1983). Within this model, there are two types of lexicon ± the input lexicon (a set of
words that can be recognized by the child) and the output lexicon (a set of word
representations that are referred to when child tries to talk about something). Here
adult words directly influence the input lexicon (i.e. recognition store) whereas the
output lexicon (i.e. production store) is influenced by the input lexicon, modified by
reduction rules (Menn, 1983). The very first part of the model includes ''abstracted
underlying forms'' that are connected with input lexicon through true phonological
rules. On the other hand, the relationship between the output lexicon and the output
(i.e. speech) is mediated by production rules and articulatory instructions.

In contrast, Stackhouse and Wells (1997) proposed a model where underlying

(lexical) representation includes: grammatical, phonological, orthographic, semantic
and motoric pieces of information. These ''chunks'' of linguistic body are mutually
Ϯϰ

connected. This model starts with the following three steps: ''peripheral auditory
processing'', ''speech/non-speech discrimination'', and ''phonological recognition'',
while ends up with ''motor planning'' and ''motor execution'' i.e. child's speech
(Stackhouse & Wells, 1997).

Models that were mentioned above are labeled as box-and-arrow models. On the
other hand, there are so-called connectionist models. The latter ones are computer-
based models, where processing units (nodes) are linked with each other in order to
create a network (Baker et al., 2001). Thus, a language can be acquired by activating
nodes, and the speed and quality of acquisition depend on connection strength
between nodes. For instance, there are lexical, semantic, and phonological nodes and
the relationships between them could be labeled as excitation or inhibition (these
relationships, actions, or processes depend on specific words that should be acquired
or learned, specific external and internal stimuli, etc.).

Language acquisition

According to National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders

(NIDCD, 2014), which is a division of U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, language development (acquisition) up to five years of age looks like as
follows:
a) Birth to three months (child reacts to loud sounds, recognizes the voice of its
parents, usually calms down when spoken to, and has a specific way of crying which
is an indicator of different needs to be met).
b) Four to six months (child responds to various changes in the tone of our voice; it
pays attention to music and babbles i.e. produces speech-like sequence of tones; child
laughs and makes gurgling sounds that vary upon different social situations).
c) Seven months to one year (child turns and looks in the direction of sounds which
come from its environment; it continues to bubble and communicates by using
various gestures that make sense; child imitates different speech sounds and can
produce one or two words such as ''mum'', ''dad'', ''hi'', ''no''...).
d) One to two years (child can follow simple commands and enjoy simple songs,
rhymes, and stories; it knows a few parts of the body and can point to them if asked
Ϯϱ

to do so; it can produce simple questions with one or thwo words; child acquires new
words on a pretty regular basis).
e) Two to three years (child can use phrases that consist of two or three words in
order to talk about things or ask for them; it uses sounds such as ''d'', ''t'', ''k'', ''g'', and
''f''; it speaks in a way that its family can understand).
f) Three to four years (child can answer simple questions that begin with: ''Who?'',
''Where'', ''What?'', and ''Why''; it produces sentences with four or more words and
speaks more easily compared to the previous period);
g) Four to five years (child can understand almost everything what is said in school or
at home; it can communicate without effort with adults and other children while
saying most sounds correctly; child can name some letters and numbers; it can use
adult grammar and rhyming words).

As can be noticed, this period is critical for language acquisition of the mother
tongue. However, there are some children that are bilingual or multilingual which
means that they have to acquire two or more languages in parallel.

Speech acts

One of the chief psycholinguistic topics is that of ''speech acts''. Speech acts are the
ways by which we can express our thoughts, demands, emotional states, wishes,
needs and intentions. There are two groups of speech acts ± direct (five subtypes, see
Table 9) and indirect (four subtypes, see Table 10). John Searle (1975a) identified the
following direct speech acts: expressive, directive, representative, commissive, and
declaration/perfomative. He also identified four indirect speech acts used while
expressing: reasons, abilities, desire, and future actions (Searle, 1975b). Indirect
speech acts are less straightforward compared to direct speech acts.

Table 9. Direct speech acts

Speech act Explanation Examples

expressing our psychological A parent: ''Jim, I am really proud of
Expressive states (mood): happiness, you because you have improved your n
sadness, fear, anxiety, anger, English knowledge''.

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 pride, resignation, love,
joyment...
Asking somebody to assist/help
us do something, or to give us a
Directive favor. For this purpose, we can
use more indirect forms of speech, A classmate: ''Jim, help me with my
or just direct demands.
This speech act is used to
Representative transfer one's belief/opinion
that a proposition is true.
Commissives are: contracts,
promises, assurances, pledges,
Commissive
guarantees and other
commitments.
A statement or a group of
statements that result in a new
state of affairs.
Declaration/
In other words, the situation of
Performative
a speaker (doer, addressee)
will be changed due to this
statement.
A child: ''Dad, I am really happy to
hear that.''
An ESL student: ''Mr. Cameron, could
you help me with this vocabulary
exercise, please?''.
homework´
Prof. Cameron³It is important to
teach students how to use their
WH[WERRNV´
An EFL teacher: ''Look, I cannot
provide you with the feedback now,
but I will be able to share it with you
WRPRUURZ´
Prof. Morrisson: ''I know that you had
studied hard for the exam. You only
got 35% of correct answers. You fail.
student cannot continue with his
studies, because it was mandatory to
pass this course).

If we compare the contents of Table 9 and Table 10, it can be noticed that indirect
speech acts are more polite ways to tell somebody to do a particular thing or to
undertake a specific activity.

Table 10. Indirect speech acts

Speech act to express: Explanation Examples

Giving reasons for our requests in I need to tell you that your
Reasons order to make them grades are very low, because
more attainable. you should improve them''.
We use ''can'' and ''could'' not to Can you tell me where to find a
Abilities ask somebody for their abilities, new English instructor?''
but for their willingness to help us.
Desire The phrase ''would be grateful/happy 'I would be grateful if you told

Ϯϳ

 if'' is an effective way of getting
someone to do something for us.
Here ''would'' is used instead
of ³will´ and it is milder than
Future actions
direct speech act (''Show me your
notebook!'').
me how many hours you spend
in studying English.¶¶
'Would you show me your
notebook?''
³Would you answer the last
questLRQ" ´

Indirect speech acts are useful when we want to ask somebody something unpleasant,
which causes discomfort, shame or animosity (i.e. strong hostility). However, if our
interlocutor understands the point and does not like circumlocution, he will behave
like he heard a manipulative utterance. Hence, we should be careful when
pronouncing such kind of phrases (speech acts).

According to Steven Pinker5, M. A. Nowak, and J. J. Lee (2008), indirect speech acts
have the following three purposes: relationship negotiation, plausible deniability, and
serving as a digital medium of indirect and direct communication. Relationship
negotiation is when somebody uses indirect speech because of ambiguity of a
situation. For instance, our friend yawns and holds her/his head down. Somebody can
say: ''Oh, I think that we need some sleep.'' As a result of this utterance, our friend
can stop yawning or s/he can go home for a sleep. An example of plausible
deniability is the situation when someone wants to indirectly suggest somebody an
action. For example, a man wants to have sex with a women whom he met in a night
club. He could say to her: ''Do you want me to show you where the toilet is?'' If she
realizes that this man wants to have sexual intercourse with her, she cannot say: ''He
directly asked me for having sex''. Finally, indirect speech acts are sequences of
words that reveal the true (actual) state of affairs. Therefore, it can serve as a device
that indirectly conveys obvious (direct) perceptions and observations.

Speech acts are a part of pragmatics, a linguistic discipline which deals with
language use for different practical purposes. For example, we use polite phrases in

ϱ
Steven Pinker (1954-) teaches in the Department of Psychology at Harvard University. It is an experimental
psychologist, who tries to make scientifically-based connections between mind, language and human nature
in general. Some of his best known books are: How the mind works, The stuff of thought, The language
instinct, and The blank slate (Retrieved from http://stevenpinker.com/biocv; November 27, 2016).

Ϯϴ

one context (e.g. applying for the scholarship offered by a prestigious university) and
slang in the other (communicating within our family or friends).

Interlanguage

Interlanguage (IL) is a mixture of native language (NL or L1) and target language
(TL or L2) features. It is an important term within second language acquisition
(SLA). In addition, IL consists of the elements that are originally neither a part of NL
nor of TL. According to Susan Gass 6 , J. Behney, and L. Plonsky (2013), this
language (i.e. internalized system) encompasses dynamic and consistent elements
which are nothing but available linguistic data, organized by a learner (student) in a
specific way. These authors reported two terms that are central to the concept of
interlanguage ± fossilization and stabilization. Fossilization means bringing the
learning process to an end by permanently establishing the distance from a target
language. In other words, second language learner would probably never speak as a
native (target) language speaker. The second relevant term is stabilization, which is
used to describe ingrained, firmly fixed linguistic forms utilized by a TL learner. This
concept is used because we do not know with certainty when target language learning
is terminated. Hence, it is recommended discussing on stabilization rather than on
fossilization.

Research Findings in Psycholinguistics

Pollio, Finn, and Custer (2016) examined the meaning and nature of body concepts in
everyday language. The participants of their study were expected to put body-related
terms into several categories. By the means of multidimensional scaling and
clustering, authors then identified five categories of participants' perceptions, actions,
and reflexions related to body. These are: visible/not visible; inside/outside;
instrument and object; vitality and activity; as well as appearance and self-expression.

ϲ
Susan Gass (1943-) is a university professor in the Department of Linguistics at Michigan State University.
Her main field of interest is psycholinguistics (more precisely, second language acquisition ± SLA). Gass
wrote and published lots of books and scientific papers. Some of them are: Varieties of English, Second
language learning data analysis, Interlaguage refusals: A cross-cultural studies of Japanese-English,
Stimulated recall methodology in applied linguistics and L2 research, and Second language teacher manual
(Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0445/abstract; November
28, 2016).
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Therefore, phenomenology and linguistics research revealed that participants think of
their body and describe it in five hypothetical dimensions. According to
phenomenologist, we also use language to describe, understand, and conceptualize
time, world and others (along with the social order).

Rabab'ah (2016) investigated the impact of English communication strategy training

on EFL learners' written and oral English competence. This author compared two
groups (an experimental and a control one). In the experimental one, students were
taught the following communication strategies: paraphrasing (circumlocution), asking
for repetition, confirmation request, guessing, self-repair, clarification request and
appeal for help. The control group was subjected to the standard program of learning
English as a foreign language. The results showed statistically significant difference
in English competences, skills and overall performance in IELTS exam in favor of
the experimental group.

Erdocia, Zawiszewski, and Laka (2014) carried out a research into the first (L1) and
second (L2) language processing with regard to ''subject-object-verb'' (SVO or
canonical) and ''object-subject-verb'' (OSV or non-canonical) scheme. Their findings
point out to faster processing of the SVO scheme (typical for participants' L1)
compared to OSV scheme (a structural feature of their L2). In addition, these authors
got differences between electrophysiological indicators of processing patterns when
native and non-native speakers were compared. In other words, the speed and the
pattern of neural processes were different.

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 SOCIOLINGUISTICS: THEORY AND RESEARCH

Sociolinguistics is concerned with the study of various dialects (both sociolects and
regional dialects), vernaculars, genderlects (i.e. gender differences in understanding
and using language), and some other ways of language use in social interactions. A
definition offered by Radford and his colleagues (2009, 14) states that
''sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language use and the
structure of society''. Another definition is given in the book Sociolinguistics (in the
chapter entitled The social study of language): [It is] ''the field that studies the
relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social
structures in which the users of language live'' (Spolsky, 1998, 3).

According to Bernard Spolsky (1998), whose definition was already mentioned, this
lintguistic discipline covers the following topics:
a) The ethnography of speaking and the structure of conversation.
b) Locating variations in speech (degrees of formality; styles of speech patterns;
regionally or socially located dialects; special varieties /registers and jargons/ that are
used in particular profession; as well as gender, slang and social stratification).
c) Bilingual speakers (language socialization, problems that bilingual speakers face
and switching between two languages in a single conversation).
d) Societal multilingualism (historical and political perspective; language conflict;
cross-linguistic contact; language shift and maintenance; social relations; ethnic
identity; language rights; and diglossia).
e) Sociolinguistics applied to some controversial social issues (language education,
planning, and policy, English imperialism/hegemony; normativism; and
prescriptivism).

Diglossia

It is a coexistence of two languages in a particular speech (or social, territorial)

community. For example, there are two main languages in India ± Hindi (because it

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comprises of lots of languages, dialects, and varieties, it can be considered as an
''umbrella'' of Indian speech) and English. Another example includes Belgium, where
three official languages exist: German, Dutch, and French.

Bernstein (1971) proposed the Theory of language code. According to this theoretical
framework, therea are two registers (''codes'') that are used by different social classes:
the restricted one and the elaborated one. Restricted code is widely used by lower
social class and is characterized by short, poorly informative sentences with lots of
personal pronouns. On the contrary, the elaborated code includes more complex
sentences with lots of modifiers. In addition, their contents are more self-explanatory.
This type of language code is used by higher social classes.

Next, females, compared to males, use language more to speak or write about their
family, relationships, and feelings. On the other hand, males use it more for talking
and writing about personal success, business, sport events, as well as concrete,
feasible things (Newman et al., 2008). Moreover, females use more emphatic words
or phrases (e.g. ''Oh, that's very, very nice coat!'', ''Oh, my God, this was
awesome!''...). Males speak less about their feelings, expectations, fantasy and
relationships with intimate partners or their family members.

Sociolinguists also examine phenomena such as the usage of different words for the
same concept. The example is ''soda''. Depending on where the American English
speakers come from, ''soda'' could be: ''carbonated water'', ''pop'', ''soda water'',
''tonic'', ''soda pop'', and ''carbonated drink''. Another example is the phrase ''waiting
in queue'' (British English usage), along with ''standing/waiting in line'' (American
English usage). In New York, there is a variation of the latter phrase. It is:
''standing/waiting on line''.

Some of the most interesting phenomena for sociolinguists is creole language. It

originates from the encounter of two or more groups of people with different cultural,
national, religious, or ethnic background. They live together at some places and
regions (mostly in border areas) and they, as time passes by, developed a combination
of their languages with a specific vocabulary and grammar rules. Another socio-

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linguistic phenomenon is pidgin language which is mostly used by immigrants. For
example, immigrants who came to the USA try to speak English with the accent of
their own native tongue and/or with using words which are known to them through
their mother tongue (i.e. these which sound similarly to some words of American
English).

Dialects

In other words, dialects, regional specificities of language are manners of

pronunciation typical for the citizens who live in a certain region of a
country/continent/area. An example is North America. According to Labov, Ash and
Boberg (2006) while referring to their book The atlas of North American English,
there are several language patterns (i.e. dialects) in this continent, linked to the
following regions: the North, Canada (Canadian English), New England, New York
City and the Mid-Atlantic states, the South (including Hispanic English), the
Midland, and the West.

Research findings in sociolinguistics

Macaulay (2002) carried out a comparative study of urban speech in two towns in
Scotland (Ayr and Glasgow). He examined the frequency of derivative adverbs in ±ly
(e.g. automatically, entirely, actually, really, badly, clearly, happily, literally...). The
results showed that Ayr's middle-class members had higher frequency of these
adverbs in their speech, compared to lower-class members. Similar effect was found
in the Glasgow subsample: middle-class members outperformed the members of
working-class. Morevoer, data were analyzed with regard to participants' gender:
boys, compared to girls, use this kind of adverbs more frequently. This researcher
also analyzed the frequency of use of dead and pure in adolescents (such as in the
sentence ''This is pure embarrassing'' and ''This is dead embarrassing''). The findings
revealed that adolescents in the middle-class outperformed those in working-class
regarding the frequence of use of both words. Participants from the working class
used pure more and dead less than participants from the middle-class. In addition,
girls used these two words more frequently compared to boys (Macaulay, 2002).
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Another group of findings is related to the use of just (e.g. ''Oh, it's just out of this
world''). Within the middle-class, adults use just less frequently than adolescents.
Boys use it more frequently than girls; however man and women (adults) use it
almost equally. On the other hand, within the working-class, women and girls use just
more frequently than men and boys.

These results can be explained referring to the restrictive code (i.e. the use of
relatively simple adverbs and adjectives in a context of communication where we
expect to be understood without saying lots of words, names, specific explanations or
determiners). Restrictive code is opposed to the public language (i.e. the elaborated
code), which is more precise, specific and understandable.

Xia (2013) conducted a study where gender differences were examined. He identified
four aspects of language use within which gender differences were found to be
statistically significant: pronunciation, intonation, vocabulary, and syntax. According
to this study, almost 2/3 of men pronounce the suffix ±ing in a wrong way. On the
RWKHU KDQG RQO\ ó RI ZRPHQ GR VR :RPHQ WHQG WR VSHDN LQ D KLJK-pitch voice,
because there is an influence of emotional state that is usually instable in women.
Women use a specific feminine vocabulary (''color words''; lots of adjectives and
adverbs that are related to emotions; a lot of diminutives; and first person plural
pronoun, compared to men who usually use first and second person singular
pronoun). Females also use tag questions more frequently than men whereas men
tend to use imperative sentences.

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 COMMON RESEARCH METHODS IN LINGUISTICS

Contemporary linguistics is neither based on philosophy or hermeneutics nor on the

qualitative research. It mostly relies upon the quantitative research methodology. In
other words, it is an evidence- and empirically-based discipline. Of course, there are
some qualitative menthods, but present-day linguistics attempts to make them as
objective, valid and reliable as it can.

Research techniques in linguistics

The first technique is doing interviews with ESL/EFL students and teachers as well as
with native speakers of a language. Interviews should be as structured as possible.
This means that the interviewer has to prepare a list of questions that will be posed to
each interlocutor in the same order. The interviewer should carefully take notes or
record the conversation. By using interview transcripts, we can do the content
analysis, which is another technique widely used in linguistics. For example, an
English learner could be asked the following questions:

1. What is the hardest English domain for you (grammar, writing, listening, or
speaking)?
2. How many years have you been studying English (less than a year, 1-2 years, 3-5
years, 6-10 years, or more than 10 years)?
3. Do you like to watch English films and/or TV series without subtitles?
4. How often do you communicate in English (every day, once a week, twice a week,
once a month, twice a month, once a year, two or three times a year, never) outside
the classroom?
5. Have you ever visited a foreign country where you had an opportunity to speak in
English?
6. In your opinion, what can be done to improve the quality of English classes in your
school/university?

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According to Morgan (1993), content analysis a quantitative (statistical) analysis of
qualitative data. One should decide the list of keywords and codes to be used in this
kind of analysis in advance. It is highly recommended that there should be not only
one estimator, but for example three or more of them. This is because of the
objectivity issues. The researcher can also conduct a content analysis based on
written language forms (i.e. Facebook messaging, SMS texting, suicidal notes,
literary works, lyrics, etc.).

The third one is experiment. It is usually used in phonetics and cognitive linguistics
where the most popular approach is the psychophysicological research. It
encompasses both independent and dependent variable(s). By conducting
experimental research, we are able to examine the causal relationship between them
while controlling or excluding the impact of some other variables. In order to
determine the causality effect between two variables, three preconditions should be
met:
a) Two variables are in statistically significant correlation with each other;
b) One of them should precede the other one (the first one is called ''the cause'' or
independent/input variable and the second one is called ''the consequence'' or
dependent/output variable);
c) We should examine the impact of other relevant variables on the independent and
dependent one; and control or exclude it.

Within an experimental design, we can compare two or more groups of participants

in two or more variables and in two or more time periods. Because linguistics is a
social science, we usually use quasi-experimental designs, where two or more groups
are not equally exposed to a set of external variables (i.e. internal and external
influences, stimuli, and experiences). For example, the English language learners and
their performance can be compared to English native speakers and their performance.
Then, the statistical significance of the difference between their average results will
be tested. Another example are gender differences. We can compare males and
females in English writing and listening activities. We can also examine the
difference in English listening between children and adults who learn it as a foreign

ϯϲ

language). These examples include independent samples (English learners and
English native speakers; males and females; children and adults). Next, the grades
(performance) of English learners on midterm and final exam could be compared to
each other, as well. The last example included dependent samples because there is the
same group of English learners tested in two time (measuring) points.

Two commonly used statistical techniques within (quasi) experimental design are t-
test and analysis of variance (ANOVA). T-test could be performed for independent
samples and dependent samples (so-called dependent or paired-samples t-test). It is
used to test the difference between two groups of participants (e.g. boys and girls;
English and French teachers; high school and university students). ANOVA is
performed when we want to compare two or more groups of participants. ANOVA is
also used to examine the influence of more than one independent variable (e.g.
gender and marital status; age, socioeconomic status, and level of education) onto a
dependent variables (e.g. participants' scores on TOEFL).

The fourth technique includes various psychologically-designed instruments (scales,

inventories, check lists...) that are, in fact, self-report measures. For example, one can
examine English speaking (oral) anxiety by applying Likert's scale which is shown to
be a valid and reliable measure of this hypothetical construct. Another example is
shown in Figure 6 below.

Figure 6. An example of Likert's five-point scale

Ranking methods are also psychologically-designed instruments. Participants are

asked to rank several components, domains, difficulties, shortcomings, advantages,
ϯϳ

opportunities, etc. within the process of learning English. For example, they can
attribute numbers from one to seven (one = the most important domain; seven = the
less important domain) to the following seven English language aspects:

1. Reading additional learning materials (e.g. short stories and poems in English)
2. Speaking English with native speakers
3. Listening to English music and short conversations
4. Writing essays in English
5. Learning complex grammar structures
6. Translating English texts into students' mother tongue
7. Learning phrases used in academic English writing.

These instruments should be validated on a representative sample, preferably by

using one of the probabilistic sampling methods. In other words, their psychometric
properties should be examined. They are reliability (internal consistency and test-
retest reliability) and validity. Validity can be divided into three categories: content
validity (is the chosen set of items good indicator of a hypothetical construct that is
going to be measured?), criterion validity (are the results on a scale, inventory, test...
significantly related to other similar constructs?) and construct (factor) validity (is the
latent structure of our instrument same or similar to the structure proposed by the
author of this instrument?). Besides, there is another type of validity ± face validity
(to what extent is the object of measurement obvious for our participants?). An
instruments should also be designed to make distiction between different groups of
participants with regard to a certain variable of interest. For example, if an author
creates a scale that measures instrinsic motivation for learning English, this scale
should make a difference between students who have low, average and high level of
this domain-specific motivation. This instrument feature is called discriminative
power or property.

Psychological scales, questionnaires, and inventories are suitable for correlational

studies. By using them, we can determine the magnitude and direction of the
relationship between two or more variables. If we want to examine the predictive
power of a set of variables, we use multiple regression analysis (MRA). These
ϯϴ

variables are called predictors (e.g. working habits, general intelligence and level of
motivation) while the variable that we want to predict is called a criterion variable
(e.g. entrance exam results). In this case, our hypothesis can be formulated as
follows: ''Students' working habits, general intelligence, and their level of motivation
explain a statistically significant portion of variance of their results on the entrance
exam''.

The last one (although there are many other less important linguistic techniques) is
structured observation, within which a researcher investigates a group of people who
speak a language of interest and takes notes in an unbiased and already planned way.
Structured observation is usually defined as the systematic recording and description
of behaviors, artifacts and events in the social setting which is previously chosen for a
particular study (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).

The researcher (i.e. observer) can also become a member of such groups in order to
get a deeper insight in a particular language use. However, there is a problem of
subjectivity and bias, so the researcher should know in advance how to handle it.
Additionally, this kind of researcher should have at least basic knowledge of
sociology, social psychology, anthropology and ethnology.

ϯϵ

 INTERCULTURAL (CROSS-CULTURAL) PSYCHOLOGY

What is culture?

The word ''culture'' comes from the Latin verb cultivare which means ''to cultivate''. It
is the antonym of ''nature'', because nature alludes to rawness, coarse state and
spontaneity. Culture is a set of (folk) customs, norms, standards, common behavioral
patterns, attitudes, aspirations and values. Culture is not the same as nation or ethnic
group. Nations/ethnic groups have their own cultures; however, there are nations that
share the same culture. Damen (1987) listed six important characteristics of culture in
general:
1. Cultural patterns change across time.
2. Culture is learned (thus, it is not inherited).
3. Culture is a universal fact (or state) of human life.
4. Culture and language are interactive i.e. closely related to each other.
5. Culture functions as a filtering device between the broad range of stimuli in
environment and culture's bearers (we are those that possess or bear our own culture).
6. Our culture provides us with sets of selected, unique and interrelated blueprints for
living. In addition, there are accompanying sets of beliefs and values which serve to
support these blueprints.

Learning and teaching culture

According to this author, culture learning can be regarded as the fifth dimension in
the language classroom (Damen, 1987). This kind of learning is an inseparable part of
our socialization and education. This is due to the fact that we have to acquire
primary customs typical for our culture in order to be socially accepted, respected and
regarded as ''normal'' person. People who extremely deviate from their cultural
surroundings are usually considered ''crazy'', ''mentally ill'', or ''socially maladjusted''.

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The association between culture and language is represented by the following five
key ideas which were given in Teaching and learning languages: A guide (Scarino &
Liddicoat, 2009):
a) Cultural framework plays a central role in ways meanings are interpreted.
b) Culture is in its essence related to language.
c) Culture can be seen as both information and practices.
d) Every culture is characterized by diversity and variablity.
e) ''The intercultural'' is a process which is beyond the idea of ''knowing a culture'';
thus, it is not the same as ''culture''.

Culture can be studied within anthropology, ethnology, linguistics, psychology,

sociology, politics, economics, history and archaeology. Therefore, cultural studies
are multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary fields that probably will never be exhausted.

There are four approaches to teaching culture (Liddicoat, 2005). A teacher can
highlight the importance of (1) artefacts and institutions, (2) facts, (3) practices, and
(4) processess within culture. If a teacher combines teaching cultural facts, artefacts,
and institutions, this is called the static approach to cultural context and learning. If
s/he wants to teach cultural processes, artefacts, and institutions, this is, in the same,
the static approach to content and dynamic approach to learning. Next, if teacher
wants to focus on processes and practices, this is called the dynamic approach (i.e.
active engagement with some practices of a certain cultural group). Lastly, teachers
who want to combine cultural facts and practices are guided by the static approach to
learning and dynamic approach to content. Hence, there are static and dynamic
processess, as well as learning- and content-related approaches.

Cross-cultural psychology

Berry, Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen (2002) defined cross-cultural psychology in the
following way: it is the scientific study of variations in human behavior that can be
attributed to and influenced by cultural context. Two other psychological disciplines
greatly overlap with cross-cultural psychology. They are cultural and indigenous
psychology. According to Jahoda (1992), cross-cultural research commenced when

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people from one culture (guided by their specific customs, standards, values and
beliefs) started to observe and pay attention to another culture(s) in search of
similarities and dissimilarities between foreign and their own culture. Accordingly,
layman's perception of foreign cultures are impregnated by lots of stereotypes,
prejudice and generalizations. Hence, one of the objectives of scientific approach is
to objectively examine other cultures while minimizing these stereotypes and
negative, biased perceptions.

However, Patricia M. Greenfield (2000) made a distinction between cross-cultural,

cultural, and indigenous psychology. According to her point of view, cross-cultural
psychology regards culture as an antecedent variable of human perceptions and
behavior. This psychological discipline uses well-established psychological methods
and research techniques. In contrast, cultural psychology deals with culture and
individual subjects as they are indistinguishable entities. Greenfield (2000)
highlighted the importance of intercultural comparisons within the field of cross-
cultural psychology; on the other hand, the importance of investigating, describing
and explaining the nature and process of a specific culture within the frame of
cultural psychology.

In addition, she perceives the branch of indigenous psychology as Hwang (1998) did:
this is a field that deals with transforming informal folk theories into psychological
(that is, scientific) theories and models. Compared to cultural psychology, indigenous
psychology goes one step further and utilizes more strict methods borrowed from
cross-cultural psychology (Greenfield, 2000).

There are three main concepts that should be taken into account while discussing on
cross-cultural differences and similarities:

a) absolutism (the assumption that a personality trait, emotion, behavioral pattern, etc.
is in its nature and expression the same in every cultural context);
b) relativism (our all behavior is influenced by our specific cultural background);
c) universalism (every psychological trait, function, or process is basically the same;
however, the culture moderates and modifies it in certain way and to some extent).

ϰϮ

Cultural Intelligence Quotient (CQ)

One of the relatively new topics in cross-cultural or intercultural psychology is

cultural competence or intelligence (CQ, the abbreviation for cultural quotient).
Cultural intelligence is about managing and functioning effectively in diverse cultural
contexts (Schmidt & Hunter, 2000). It comprises abilities or skills that are required
for commencing the communication among people with different cultural, religious,
ethnic and racial background in order to meet a certain goal, need or just to maintain
the communication.

Ang et al. (2007) conceptualized this construct as a multidimensional one. It

encompasses four dimensions: cognitive, metacognitive, behavioral and motivational
CQ. Cognitive CQ is based on the knowledge of conventions, practices and norms in
different cultures. Metacognitive CQ is one's cultural awareness and consciousness of
cultural cues while interacting with people who have different cultural backgrounds.
Behavioral CQ is, in fact, one's capability to exhibit appropriate nonverbal and verbal
behavior during the interaction with people who came from different cultures (Ang,
Van Dyne, & Koh, 2006). Finally, motivational CQ is a prerequisite of cross-cultural
effectiveness and confidence. To be more specific, motivational CQ is person's
capability to direct her/his energy and attention toward learning about variuos
cultures and functioning in situations where cultural differences are obvious. The
concept of cultural intelligence is operationalized as Cultural quotient scale (CQS,
Ang et al., 2007), with four subscales that correspond to the four dimensions of this
hypothetical construct. This instrument consists of 20 items given on a 7-point Likert
scale (1 ± ''strongly disagree'' to 7 ± ''strongly agree''). Here are some examples of its
items: ''I know the marriage systems of other cultures'' and ''I know the arts and crafts
of other cultures'' (cognitive CQ); ''I adjust to my cultural knowledge as I interact
with people from a culture that is unfamiliar to me'' and ''I check the accuracy of my
cultural knowledge as I interact with people from different cultures'' (metacognitive
CQ); ''I alter my facial expressions facial expressions when a cross-cultural

ϰϯ

interaction requires it'' and ''I vary the rate of my speaking when a cross-cultural
situation requires it'' (behavioral CQ); ''I am confident that I can socialize with locals
in a culture that is unfamiliar to me'' and ''I am confident that I can get accustomed to
the shopping conditions in a different culture'' (motivational CQ).

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participants. This study revealed moderate to strong correlations between the
subscales of CQS. Cultural intelligence quotient (CQ) in general was in the strongest
correlation with the metacognitive cultural quotient whereas it was in the weakest
correlation with behavioral cultural quotient. Participants had above-average scores
on the cognitive, motivational, and behavioral cultural quotient subscales and below-
average scores on the metacognitive cultural quotient subscale. The highest scores
were those achieved on the motivational CQ subscale, and the lowest scores were
those achieved on the metacognitive CQ subscale.

Ng, Van Dyne, and Ang (2012) provided a summary of findings related to CQ.
According to their article, cultural intelligence is associated with emotional
intelligence, general cognitive abilities and social intelligences. Some antecedents of
cultural intelligence are: Big Five personality traits (extraversion/introversion,
emotional stability/neuroticism, openness to experience, agreableness and
conscientiousness), international (non)work experience, intercultural contact, virtual
team experience, as well as cross-cultural programs (service learning, study
abroad...). There are four types of outcomes of cultural intelligence (Ng, Van Dyne,
& Ang, 2012):

a) psychological outcomes (interpersonal trust, lower emotional exhaustion, and

cultural adjustment);
b) cognitive outcomes (cross-cultural decision making and judgment as well as lower
perceived cross-border environmental uncertainty);
c) behavioral outcomes (sharing ideas across cultures, interaction with English-
speaking colleagues and cooperative relationship management while negotiationg
something); and

ϰϰ

d) performance outcomes (the emergence of leadership, adaptive performance, job
performance, development of social networks and cross-border leadership
effectiveness).

Cross-cultural research findings

Levine, Norenzayan, and Philbrick (2001) carried out a reseach into cross-cultural
differences in helping strangers in three settings: ''dropped pen'', ''hurt leg'', and
''helping a blind person to walk across the street''. Helping in one of these three
situations was associated with the frequency of helping behavior in the other two
situations. These correlations were low, but statistically significant. The authors of
this study calculated the overall helping index, as an average value of scores obtained
within each of the three mentioned situations. The research took place in 23 countries
all over the world. The results show that the highest values of helping index were
obtained for Brazil (in Rio de Janeiro), Costa Rica (in San Jose), Malawi (in
Lilongwe), India (in Calcutta), and Austria (in Vienna). The countries with lowest
ranks were: Bulgaria (Sofia), Netherlands (Amsterdam), Singapore (Singapore), USA
(New York), and Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur). In addition, population size, walking
speed and the dimension of individualism-collectivism did not have impact on these
results. There is only one factor that influenced the results ± the economic one. In this
research, it was about how much the average income earned in each country allows
its citizens to purchase what they want. If a coutry is richer, its citizens are willing to
provide less help to strangers. The correlation was moderate and statistically
significant.

Lee et al. (2002) conducted an interesting research on the value structure related to
mobile internet usage in Korea and Japan. Their results revealed that mobile internet
was more functionally, emotionally, socially, and monetary valuable to the Japanese,
compared to the Koreans. However, satisfaction with this type of internet is almost
the same in these two samples. In both samples (nations), the emotional value is the
most important quality of mobile internet whereas the monetary value is the less
important quality of it.

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There is a plethora of research conducted to examine linguistic relativity or linguistic
universals in perception and affective meanings of color. An old study, carried out by
Adams and Osgood (1973), included 23 countries. The researchers used the semantic
differential technique in order to take insight into emotional meanings of colors in
different cultures. They got the following findings: black and grey were perceived as
bad; blue, white, and green were perceived as good; red and black seemed strong;
white, grey, and yellow seemed weak; red was perceived as an active color; and black
and grey were perceived as passive colors. In conclusion, there were cross-cultural
similarities (i.e. universals) in feelings associated with different colors.

Yu (2014) noticed that each color can have positive and negative connotations (i.e.
symbolic meanings) in different cultures. These meanings are influenced by
historical, religious, political, linguistic, mythical, and linguistical associations,
experiences, and perceptions. For example, in ancient Rome, red represented fertility
and love. In contrast, it meant something destructive in ancient Egypt (as red can be
associated with blood, sin, sex and murder). Another example is yellow in China (the
meaning: life-giving power, the beginning of something new and strong) and in
Western countries (yellow can be associated with jaundice i.e. with disease and
quarantine). In the Western World, black is usually associated with death, white with
moral purity and surrender, blue with depression, green with youth (along with lack
of life experience), grey with boredom and conservatism; and red with aggression
and sex.

Kline, Horton, and Zhang (2008) examined the difference between American and
East Asian students in communicating love (by caring, trust, honesty, and respect).
East Asian students reported that caring has the greatest importance in expressing
love in marriage. The Americans reported that shopping, preparing food and sports
are main ways of expressing love during the marriage. Unlike them, East Asian
participants express love by talking to their partners (e.g. chatting) and preparing
food together. Both samples (i.e. cultures) underlined the importance of open
discussion and sharing of common experiences with their partners, as well as physical
intimacy, family time and relaxing together. Of course, there are some similarities

ϰϲ

and dissimilarities with regard to love in friendship/marriage and gender of
participants.

ϰϳ

 SOME PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES RELEVANT TO
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

We cannot discuss about (inter) cultural competence without taking into account
some well-established psychological constructs or variables. Those are: extraversion
(vs. introversion), openness to experience (vs. conservatism/conventionality), social
self-esteem, and social/emotional intelligence.

Extraversion

Extraversion is one of the fundamental, broad personality traits that includes the
following qualities: gregariousness, assertiveness, positive emotions, activity,
energetic and enthusiastic personality... (McCrae & John, 1992). Extraverts,
compared to introverts, approach other people more and like to be in parties, to do
collective activities and to belong to various social groups. They have lots of friends
and such kind of people communicate with others a lot. Unlike introverts, extraverted
people are usually more interculturally competent because they have better social and
communication skills.

Fazeli (2012) examined the relationship between extraversion and foreign (i.e.
English) language learning strategies (ELLS) in Iranian students. His study revealed
weak (but statistically significant) and positive correlation between extraversion and
memory, metacognitive as well as social learning strategies. The relationship was not
statistically significant in the case of cognitive, compensation and affective learning
strategies. However, introverts are better in written English when compared with
extraverts. This statement is supported by a study conducted by Boroujeni, Roohani
and Hasanimanesh (2015): introverts outperformed extraverts in almost all aspects of
English writing (vocabulary, mechanics, language and content). Extroverts did better
only in organization of their English writing.

ϰϴ

Openness to experience

Openness to experience is another fundamental personality trait that includes

cognitive exploration and curiosity. People who are open to experience want to get to
know other countries and nations, and they like to taste some food or beverage that
were not tasted and drank before. On the other hand, a person who is not open to
experience are labeled as someone who has conventional or traditional habits and life
in general. It is clear that openness to experience is in positive correlation with
intercultural competence as well as with extraversion.

Oskouei and Ramezani (2011) conducted a research where the relationship between
openness to experience and English learning strategies was investigated. The results
of this study indicated positive and statistically significant correlation of openness to
experience with memory and social strategies used to learn English as a foreign
language (EFL). In addition, their study revealed positive correlation between another
personality trait (emotional stability) and (meta)cognitive strategies used for
facilitating of English learning process.

Social self-esteem

Social self-esteem is one of the domains of the general self-esteem. Self-esteem is a

positive or negative evaluation of one's own self-image or self-concept (Figure 7).

Figure 7. The relationship between self-image and the two levels of self-esteem

There are four types of self-esteem (Figure 8): social self-esteem, collective self-
esteem (a perception of one's own nation or social group somebody belongs to),
physical self-esteem (a perception of one's own physical beauty and strength), and

ϰϵ

academic self-esteem (a perception of one's academic performance along with his/her
abilities to learn, pass exams, and achieve other rewards related to elementary school,
secondary education or tertiary level contexts).

Figure 8. Four types of self-esteem; the general one is on the top of the hierarchy

Social self-esteem is one's belief of his/her self-respect and self-worth while

interacting with others in various social settings. It is related to extraversion and
social intelligence. People with high levels of social self-esteem usually report higher
quality relationships and great quantity of social interactions with closest and other
family members, friends and partners (Denissen et al. , 2008).

The most widely used instrument for measuring social self-esteem is The social self-
esteem inventory (SSEI, Lawson, Marshall, & McGrath, 1979). It comprises of 30
items that adequately represent the contents of this construct. It is a valid and reliable
instrument, according to its authors and other researchers who tested its psychometric
properties.

Social and/or emotional intelligence

Social and/or emotional intelligence is a relatively new psychological concept that

includes the ability to manage social interactions. To be more specific, it is the ability
to understand the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of persons we are surrounded by
and to act appropriately upon the mentioned understanding (Marlowe, 1986). This
kind of intelligence (abbreviated as SI/SQ or EI/EQ) is positively correlated with
intercultural communication sensitivity which is a variable closely linked to
intercultural competence (Dong, Koper, & Collaco, 2008). In fact, emotional
intelligence is a narrower concept compared to social intelligence. According to

ϱϬ

Mayer and Salovey (1997), emotional intelligence can be regarded as a combination
of four sets of abilities:
a) the ability to accurately perceive, appraise and express various emotions;
b) the ability to understand emotions along with having a considerable amount of
emotional knowledge;
c) the ability to access and/or generate thought facilitating feelings; and
d) the ability to regulate these emotions in order to promote not only emotional but
intellectual growth, as well.

Studies showed that emotional intelligence is associated with openness to experience,

extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness DQGVRFLDOVNLOOV 7DNãLü0RKRULü 
Duran, 2009). Thus, it is closely related to personality, motivational, and behavioral
factors that influence our actions, communication, perception and decision making
process.

Emotional intelligence is operationalized in the form of a measure called Emotional

skills and competences questionnaire (ESCQ). It consists of three scales (Takãiü,
2001):
a) The Perceive and understand emotions scale (with 15 items),
b) The Express and label emotions scale (with 14 items), and
c) The Manage and regulate emotions scale (with 16 items).

Beheshtifar and Roasaei (2012), in one of their papers, proposed that social
intelligence can be regarded as a set of the following aspects: attunement (via
listening with full attention and receptivity), primal empathy (paying attention to
others' non-verbal emotional signals and taking their viewpoint); social cognition
(being familiar with the basic principles and ''laws'' related to the social world);
empathy accuracy (understanding feelings, needs, intentions and thoughts of other
people); synchrony (on both verbal and non-verbal level of communication),
influence (one can, to a certain degree, shape and design the direction and outcome of
social interactions), concern (telling others that we care about their needs and
feelings, while behaving accordingly), and self-presentation (we should be able to
present ourselves to others in an effective, positive way).
ϱϭ

According to Herbert A. Marlowe (1986), social intelligence includes the following
five domains: social performance skills, prosocial attitudes, empathetic ability, social
confidence and emotional expressiveness. In other words, ''social intelligence'' is a
multidimensional construct. This author also highlighted the role of social interest
and social self-efficacy (vs. social anxiety) in describing and understanding the
concept of social intelligence. Those who have high levels of extraversion have better
social skills and are expected to have high levels of social/emotional intelligence as
well.

High level of social intelligence can be beneficial for intercultural sensitivity. In other
words, people who are socially intelligent have greater respect for cultural difference.
They also have high levels of interaction enjoyment, engagement, attentiveness and
confidence (i.e. social self-esteem). They are interested in other cultures and they do
not think that their own culture is superior to other cultures. This is because they have
respect for values, beliefs and customs that are typical for other cultures.

Beheshtifar and Roasaei (2012) have found that a lot of aspects of social intelligence
were associated with experienced leadership, positive interpersonal experience and
enhanced social problem-solving abilities. Thus, social intelligence (along with the
emotional one) is an essential part of interpersonal, intergroup and crosscultural
communication.

These concepts are, thus, mutually related and frequently used to examine one's
performance while dealing with distinct social situations of intercultural relevance.

ϱϮ

 COMMUNICOLOGY: THE SKILL AND SCIENCE OF
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS

Communicology is a field of social science which studies a reciprocal relationships

between at least two people or social groups. Calhoun (2011) listed lots of life and
professional domains that are covered by this discipline: mass communication, public
opinions, interpersonal and small group communication, public relations, journalism,
marketing, rhetoric and speech, performance domains (drama and theater), cultural
domain, etc.

Models of communication vs. interaction

The basic, common pattern of communication includes the following: sender(s) of a

piece of information (or message), information (message), channels of
communication (written correspondence, oral conversation, media interface...), and
recipient(s) of it. There should also exist a feedback loop where recipient(s) is/are its
starting point. Communicating is not the same process as informing. Informing is a
process that goes in one direction only (from sender(s) to recipient(s)). For example,
if information is presented on the TV and there is no way to hear the feedback from
the audience, it is the process of informing. However, if public/audience can call this
broadcasting station (channel) up and provide them with their own opinion about the
media contents they presented, it can be labeled as communication.

It seems that communication is a simple process; however, it also depends upon

internal and environmental (external) influences. To put it in other words,
psychological condition of interlocutors (i.e. their cognitive and emotional state), the
distance between sender(s) and recipient(s), their previous knowledge and
communication skills are examples of the factors that matter a lot. Hence, it is not
easy to transmit the original form and contents of a message. This is because the
communication channel which is selected by a sender, recipient or both of them is not
adequate or there is a great difference between sender's and recipient's perception,
apprehension, their thinking processes and viewpoints in general.
ϱϯ

One of the best known models of communication is that of C. E. Shannon (proposed
in the 1940s), which influenced all subsequent models of this process (Al-Fedaghi,
Alsaqa, & Fadel, 2009). In this model, an information source sends message to a
transmitter (encoder). Next, an encoder uses a particular communication channel
(which can be loaded by some amount of noise) in order to transmit the message to a
receiver (decoder). Lastly, a decoder sends this message to a particular destination.

Four maxims of communication

While communicating (i.e. having a conversation) with others, we can be co-

operative and work on mutual understanding. Herbert Paul Grice (1913±1988), in his
essay Logic and conversation, proposed four maxims that should be followed in order
to meet the mentioned aim of communication. These maxims are (Grice, 1975):
a) Maxim of quantity (making our contribution as informative as it is required for the
present purposes of this kind of exchange; without making it more informative than is
required for such a current exchange).
b) Maxim of quality (not saying what we believe to be false or something that lacks
adequate evidence).
c) Maxim of manner (being brief, clear and orderly while avoiding obscurity and
ambiguity).
d) Maxim of relation (making the contributions relevant, i.e. pertinent or compatible
with the current discussion or other type of conversation).

Therefore, if our interlocutor/acquaitance wants us to help him understand a

paragraph written in English, the best way to do so is as follows. We should provide
our interlocutor with some carefully chosen remarks that can facilitate the process of
its understanding (this is in accordance with the maxim of quantity). Thus,
unnecessary information and additional explanations are not recommended. We also
have to share with him the true meaning of some words and to provide him with help
related to grammar structures that we really understand and are familiar with (the
maxim of quality). We (our instructions) have to be clear and brief without
unnecessary prolixity (the maxim of manner). We should also avoid ambiguous
phrases, instructions and suggestions. If we stick to the current topic and purpose of
ϱϰ

this conversation, we can make our remarks and suggestions relevant to it (the maxim
of relation). In this way, we can make a contribution to the conversation and it will
become purposeful.

In order to communicate in a productive and purposeful way, both sides should be

active (attentive) listeners, who mirror non-verbal communication of each other.
Mirroring is automatic reflexion of reactions, gestures and facial expressions. Both
sides should make a contribution to their conversation, but they should not speak
simultaneously and should allow the other side to reflect on what was said, ask
questions, ask for clarifications, etc.

ϱϱ

 THE ROLE OF ENGLISH IN INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION AND COMPETENCE

English plays a crucial role in international relations and intercultural communication

all over the world. Crystal (1995) underlined its impact by illustrating it with three
concentric circles (see Figure 9). The first one (at the core of this diagram) is English
as the first language of its speakers (which is the case in the USA, Great Britain, New
Zealand and Australia). English as a second language is within the second circle of
this diagram (e.g. ESL among the people who live in former English colonies).
Finally, the last circle includes those who learn English as a foreign language (e.g.
Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Spain, Argentina, China, etc.).

Figure 9. English as L1, L2 (ESL), and a foreign language (EFL)

ϱϲ

However, there is only a tiny difference between ESL and EFL. The government of
lots of countries introduced the English learning and its usage into education,
administration and bureaucracy.

Teaching English for intercultural conmunication

Nemira Macianskiene (2009) wrote a book entitled English for intercultural

communication where she highlighted the following topics and challenges while
communicating in English with people who come from different cultures: culture
shock and how to fight it; the myth of cultural stereotypes; phrases to express
(dis)agreeing and avoiding opinion expression; specific ethnic jokes; lexical
borrowings; politeness; social etiquette; gaining time to think about what is just said
and so on.

Ge (2004) developed a model of intercultural English teaching. This process starts

with meaningful/realistic tasks that lead to pedagogical tasks. Pedagogical tasks are
divided into two categories ± linguistic and intercultural tasks. The first group of
them can produce linguistic competence while the second group may result in
intercultural competence. In this model, linguistic and intercultural competence are
intercorrelated. The pedagogical sequence of this model (approach) starts with
warming up (introducing the background for the various tasks). The next activity is
setting these tasks whereas the subsequent one is solving problems. The last activity
is making comments (both teachers and other students make comments on what was
concluded and learned).

Students who learn English as a second/foreign language can communicate with the
people who also speak English but who are the members of different cultures in the
following ways: by communicating with English speakers (e.g. tourists) in their home
country; by visiting cultural centers of various foreign countries; by communicating
with teachers who came to the country of origin of these students; by interacting with
people through social networks (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram...), Viber and Skype;
or by visiting foreign countries where English is spoken by lots of their citizens. They
will become more self-confident if they frequently use some of these ways of

ϱϳ

communication and, consequently, will improve their level of intercultural
competence.

The issue of telling ''you'' in English in a polite manner

In English, there is no word (to be more specific, a pronoun) for telling someone that
we treat her/him with respect and politeness. We mean it in a sense of ''T-V
distinction''. This term was coined by abbreviating French words ''tu'' and ''vous''
(eng. ''you'' in familiar/informal and formal manner, respectively). The first one
means ''you'' in everyday speech and the second one means ''you'' when we want to
tell someone that s/he is the authority, older than us, or a person of a great respect.
The first word is the 2nd person singular form whereas the second word is the 3 rd
person plural form. There are lots of examples, showed in Table 11 that depict the
simplicity of the English language with regard to the ''T-V distinction'' tradition in
lots of other languages (Italian, Spanish, German, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian).

Table 11. ''T-V distinction'' in various languages

Grammatical Bosnian, Croatian

English Italian Spanish German
Person and Serbian
2nd person
you Tu W~ du ti
singular
'T-V distinction''
you Lei usted [Ud.] Sie Vi
singular
2nd person vosotros (m.)
you Voi ihr vi
Plural vosotras (f.)
'T-V distinction'' ustedes
you Loro Sie Vi
plural [Uds.]

As can be noticed in Table 11, to stress ''politeness'' or formality of ''you'' for a single
person in Italian, we use the 3rd person singular form (''Lei''). In the case of two or
more people, we use the 3rd person plural form (''Loro''). In Spanish, we say ''usted''
and ''ustedes'', respectively. The situation in German is more simple: we say ''Sie''
regardless of the number of persons whom we treat with a great level of respect.
These forms are called Umgangsformen (eng. ''manners''). If we say to somebody
ϱϴ

''du'' it is called duzen, and if we say to her/him ''Sie'', it is known as siezen. In
Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian, we use the 2 nd person plural form (''Vi'') for both
aforementioned cases. In Italian, German, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian, the first
letter of these pronouns is capitalized.

In order to emphasize the politeness in English, we should use the words such as
''Mr.'', ''Professor'', ''Madam'', ''Sir'' etc. , some polite phrases (starting with ''would'',
''could'', ''can''...), along with the pronoun ''you'':

Dear Madam, would you be so kind and tell me the direction...

Professor Roberts, could you give me some advice on how to understand English
idioms?

Mr. Jackson, can you ask your daughter if she wants to go out with me tonight?

Dear Sir, I kindly want to inform you that the meeting will take place in London...

Hence, it is very important to know other cultures and their expressions of politeness.
For example, Italians like to be called ''dottore'' (eng. ''doctor''), ''professore'' (eng.
''Professor'') ''maestro'' (eng. ''teacher'', ''expert''). People from the Balkans region
want us to use formal words such as ''PRãWRYDQLJRVSRGLQH, ...'' (eng. ''Respected Sir,
...''). Last decade, the Balkan nations spontaneously accepted English phrases such as
''Dragi gospodine Popov, ...'' (eng. ''Dear Mr. Popov, ...'') ili ''DraJDJRVSRÿR  HQJ
''Dear Madam'').

English Proficiency Index (EPI)

According to the sixth edition of The world's largest ranking of countries by English
skills7, the highest ranks were attributed to: Netherlands (1), Denmark (2), Sweden
(3), Norway (4), and Finland (5). Some other examples are: Romania (20th), Russia
(34th), Brazil (40th), Pakistan (48th), Turkey (51st), Egypt (55th), and Libya (71st). The
countries are divided into five groups, based on the level of English proficiency of
their citizens:


ϳ
Retrieved from http://www.ef.com/epi/ (November 28, 2016)
ϱϵ

a) Very high proficiency (e.g. Denmark and Sweden; citizens of these countries can
negotiate a contract with a native English speakers, use appropriate/nuanced language
in social situations and read with ease texts written in advanced English)
b) High proficiency (e.g. Austria and Poland; they can make a presentation in English
at their workplace, read English newspapers and understand English TV shows);
c) Moderate proficiency (e.g. Slovakia and Dominican Republic; they can participate
in meetings in one area of expertise where English is spoken, understand English
song lyrics and write professional emails on familiar subjects in English);
d) Low proficiency (e.g. Japan and Russia; their citizens can engage in small talks
with colleagues in English, go to an English-speaking country as toursits while
getting along with their citizens and understand emails written in simple English);
and
e) Very low proficiency (e.g. Panama and Colombia; they can understand simple
signs, give basic instructions to foreign visitors, and introduce themselves by telling
them their own name, age, profession and country of origin).

These results are based on the scores of approximately 950,000 test takers and the
proficiency bands are adjusted to the Common European Framework of Reference
(CEFR). The first level corresponds to B2, the next three levels to B1, and the very
low proficiency to A2.

ϲϬ

 PUTTING IT IN A NUTSHELL: CAN DEMOCRACY,
CAPITALISM, EDUCATION AND GLOBALIZATION PERSIST
WITHOUT ENGLISH?

The answer to this question is ''most likely - not''. English crawled into almost every
core of international relations. If somebody wants to make a good profit, to study
abroad, or to be involved in diplomatic negotiations, it is mandatory that s/he has
some English knowledge and skills.

English within international relations and economics

For example, a democratically literate person who wants to participate in

international relations should be familiar with the meaning of these words:
''egalitarian'', ''human/civil rights'', ''peace conference'', ''cosmopolitan democracy'',
''non-governmental organizations ± NGO'', ''right to a fair trial'', ''sexual orientation'',
''reproductive rights'', ''freedom of conscience and religion'', ''right to life'', ''elective
rights'', etc.

When participating in contemporary (neoliberal) capitalistic system, it is important to

be familiar with the following concepts: ''private property'', ''market economy'',
''neoliberalism'', ''trade unions'', ''authoritarian capitalism'', ''global economy'', ''gross
profit'', ''profit sharing'', ''offshore companies'' and so on. Warschauer (2000) claimed
that English teaching for the purposes of the changing global economy should be
improved in a way that it includes contextualized tasks, critical inquiry and situated
practice.

English as a global language (EGL)

According to Ciprianova and Vanco (2010), English as a global language can enable
inequality reduction between countries of a different economic prosperity. It
facilitates communication between such countries and helps them to make various
deals from which both sides can make a profit. These authors also stated thet English

ϲϭ

learning and use is closely linked to so-called ''international ELT market''. This kind
of ''market'' gives to the Third World countries the opportunity to share their services
and goods with the global market by presenting themselves in the best possible way.
Their native languages are spoken by a limited group of people; therefore, they have
to communicate and make self-presentation in English. Their efforts are and will be
studied within the frame of sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, intercultural
psychology, communicology and psycholinguistics.

However, some other authors and researchers do not share this kind of thinking. For
instance, Tochon (2009) warns us that English can be considered a tool for
persuasion, influence and even a subtle form of modern colonization (i.e. imposing
the Western value system to citizens of less-developed countries). Of course, the truth
is somewhere in between.

Since the Second World War, English became the principal language of science,
telecommunications, and aviation, as well as the main language of intergovernmental
and transnational organizations (Humblet, 1984). Its popularity and usefulness grows
rapidly, so to say, exponentially.

English for academic purposes (EAP) as an example of formal English

One of the requirements of the contemporary educational process is fluency in

English. Lots of universities demand that their future students (especially those who
want to be enroled in PhD studies) should possess one of the recognized certificates
of English knowledge and skills.

English for academic purposes (EAP) is to a certain degree different from the
quotidian, widely-used English. Accordingly, students should be able to spot the
difference between academic words/phrases and those used in everyday speech (i.e.
informal language). Table 12 shows this kind of difference.

Table 12. Some colloquial and academic English words/phrases

Colloquial (informal) English words and phrases English words for academic purposes
Tremendous influence major influence

ϲϮ

 Subjects get better... Subjects' health improved...
there wasn't any evidence... there was no evidence...
a couple of few
a lot of many, several, a great deal of
finally, lastly on the whole, in conclusion
øf provided, on the condition that,
as you can see/notice... as can be seen/noticed...
look into investigate
hard difficult, complicated
big extensive, considerable

EAP is a version of formal English language. It can also be regarded as English for
specific purposes (ESP). EAP includes the use of passive constructions (e.g. ''It was
stated that...''; ''It was concluded...''; ''English is spoken by...''), gerunds (e.g.
''Learning new skills is essential part of ...''; ''Conducting such a research will lead
to...''), and fixed academic phrases (e.g. ''The main aim of this study is to...''; ''The
objective of this research...''; ''The purpose of this paper is...''; ''This article critically
examines...''). In constrast, the use of contractions (''It's...'', ''They can't...''),
metaphors, and idioms should be avoided. Additionally, the following words and
phrases can be used in EAP: ''moreover'', ''therefore'', ''to exemplify,...'',
''consequently,...'', ''in other words,...'', ''as a result,...'', ''nevertheless'', ''on the other
hand,...'', ''besides,...'', ''for instance,...''

The use of hedging words is highly recommended. These words do not imply
certainty. They rather convey ideas that are not definite. Examples are the following:
''might'', ''may'', ''could'', ''probably'', ''looks'', ''seems'', ''appears'', ''should'', ''can'',
''would'', ''perhaps'', ''possibly'', ''presumably'', and ''tends''.

Hernandez and Paredes (2002) pointed out the need to integrate English for specific
academic purposes (ESAP) into mainstream English courses. They also highlighted
another option ± to introduce two parallel courses. The first one is that of general
English (GE) and the other is English for specific academic purposes (ESAP). Of

ϲϯ

course, these new courses should meet students' needs and interests. However, it
seems that students are more interested in GE than in ESAP.

The Future of Global English and English for Specific Purposes

There are several efforts that can determine the future of global English and English
for specific purposes. The first group of them includes publishing scientific, peer-
reviewed journals: Journal of English for Academic Purposes, Journal of Teaching
English for Specific and Academic Purposes, Global English-Oriented Research
Journal (GEORJ), The Journal of English as an International Language, and
International Journal of English Studies.

According to Gray (2002), the rise of transitional corporations have impact on the
spread of English, because their business activities and relations are geographically
dispersed. Internet is the main medium through which English is and will be
promoted. English is an important part of postgraduate education as well, especially
at international universities. Thus, there is a growing demand for teaching this
language and the result of that is widespread of ELT (Alfehaid, 2014). In lots of
countries (e.g. China, Japan, Slovenia, Spain, Germany...), English is already taught
in kindergartens and it became an inevitable component of lifelong education.

ϲϰ

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