Forced labour

Forced labour, or unfree labour, is any work

relation, especially in modern or early modern
history, in which people are employed against
their will with the threat of destitution, detention,
or violence, including death or other forms of
extreme hardship to either themselves or members
of their families.[note 1]

Unfree labour includes all forms of slavery, penal

labour, and the corresponding institutions, such as
debt slavery, serfdom, corvée and labour camps.

Definition Clergy on forced labour, by Ivan Vladimirov (Soviet

Russia, 1919)
Many forms of unfree labour are also covered by
the term forced labour, which is defined by the
International Labour Organization (ILO) as all involuntary work or service exacted under the menace of a
penalty.[1]

However, under the ILO Forced Labour Convention of 1930, the term forced or compulsory labour does
not include:[2]

"any work or service exacted in virtue of compulsory military service laws for work of a purely
military character;"
"any work or service which forms part of the normal civic obligations of the citizens of a fully
self-governing country;"
"any work or service exacted from any person as a consequence of a conviction in a court of
law, provided that the said work or service is carried out under the supervision and control of
a public authority and that the said person is not hired to or placed at the disposal of private
individuals, companies or associations (requiring that prison farms no longer do convict
leasing)";
"any work or service exacted in cases of emergency, that is to say, in the event of war, of a
calamity or threatened calamity, such as fire, flood, famine, earthquake, violent epidemic or
epizootic diseases, invasion by: animal, insect or vegetable pests, and in general any
circumstance that would endanger the existence or the well-being of the whole or part of the
population";

Payment for unfree labour

If payment occurs, it may be in one or more of the following forms:

The payment does not exceed subsistence or barely exceeds it;

The payment is in goods which are not desirable and/or cannot be exchanged or are difficult
to exchange; or
 The payment wholly or mostly consists of cancellation of
a debt or liability that was itself coerced, or belongs to
someone else.
Unfree labour is often more easily instituted and enforced on
migrant workers, who have travelled far from their homelands and
who are easily identified because of their physical, ethnic, linguistic,
or cultural differences from the general population, since they are
unable or unlikely to report their conditions to the authorities.[3] Convict labourers in Australia in the
early 19th century

Modern day unfree labour

Unfree labour re-emerged as an issue in the debate about rural development during the years following the
end of the Second World War, when a political concern of Keynesian theory was not just economic
reconstruction (mainly in Europe and Asia) but also planning (in developing "Third World" nations). A
crucial aspect of the ensuing discussion concerned the extent to which different relational forms constituted
obstacles to capitalist development, and why.

During the 1960s and 1970s, unfree labour was regarded as incompatible with capitalist accumulation, and
thus an obstacle to economic growth, an interpretation advanced by exponents of the then-dominant semi-
feudal thesis. From the 1980s onwards, however, another and very different Marxist view emerged, arguing
that evidence from Latin America and India suggested agribusiness enterprises, commercial farmers and rich
peasants reproduced, introduced or reintroduced unfree relations.

However, recent contributions to this debate have attempted to exclude Marxism from the discussion. These
contributions maintain that, because Marxist theory failed to understand the centrality of unfreedom to
modern capitalism, a new explanation of this link is needed. This claim has been questioned by Tom Brass
(2014), ‘Debating Capitalist Dynamics and Unfree Labour: A Missing Link?’, The Journal of Development
Studies, 50:4, 570–82. He argues that many of these new characteristics are in fact no different from those
identified earlier by Marxist theory and that the exclusion of the latter approach from the debate is thus
unwarranted.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that at least 12.3 million people are victims of forced
labour worldwide; of these, 9.8 million are exploited by private agents and more than 2.4 million are
trafficked. Another 2.5 million are forced to work by the state or by rebel military groups.[4][5] From an
international law perspective, countries that allow forced labour are violating international labour standards
as set forth in the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (C105), one of the fundamental conventions of
the ILO.[6]

According to the ILO Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL), global profits from
forced trafficked labour exploited by private agents are estimated at US$44,3 billion per year. About 70% of
this value (US$31.6 billion) come from trafficked victims. At least the half of this sum (more than US$15
billion) comes from industrialized countries.[7]

Trafficking
Trafficking is a term to define the recruiting, harbouring, obtaining
and transportation of a person by use of force, fraud, or coercion for
the purpose of subjecting them to involuntary acts, such as acts
related to commercial sexual exploitation (including forced
prostitution) or involuntary labour.[8]

Forms of unfree labour Freedom from forced labour by

country (V-Dem Institute, 2021)

Slavery
The archetypal and best-known form of unfree labour is chattel
slavery, in which individual workers are legally owned throughout
their lives, and may be bought, sold or otherwise exchanged by
owners, while never or rarely receiving any personal benefit from
their labour. Slavery was common in many ancient societies,
including ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia, ancient Greece, Rome,
ancient China, the pre-modern Muslim world, as well as many
societies in Africa and the Americas. Being sold into slavery was a
common fate of populations that were conquered in wars. Perhaps
the most prominent example of chattel slavery was the enslavement
of many millions of black people in Africa, as well as their forced
transportation to the Americas, Asia, or Europe, where their status
Illustration of Native woman panning
as slaves was almost always inherited by their descendants. for gold

The term "slavery" is often applied to situations which do not meet

the above definitions, but which are other, closely related forms of unfree labour, such as debt slavery or
debt-bondage (although not all repayment of debts through labour constitutes unfree labour). Examples are
the Repartimiento system in the Spanish Empire, or the work of Indigenous Australians in northern
Australia on sheep or cattle stations (ranches), from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. In the latter case,
workers were rarely or never paid, and were restricted by regulations and/or police intervention to regions
around their places of work.

In late 16th century Japan, "unfree labour" or slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and
indentured labour persisted alongside the period's penal codes' forced labour. Somewhat later, the Edo
period's penal laws prescribed "non-free labour" for the immediate families of executed criminals in Article
17 of the Gotōke reijō (Tokugawa House Laws), but the practice never became common. The 1711 Gotōke
reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes that were promulgated between 1597 and 1696.[9]

According to Kevin Bales in Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy (1999), there are
now an estimated 27 million slaves in the world.[10][11]

Blackbirding
Blackbirding involves kidnapping or trickery to transport people to another country or far away from home,
to work as a slave or low-paid involuntary worker. In some cases, workers were returned home after a
period of time.

Serfdom
Serfdom bonds labourers to the land they farm, typically in a feudal society. Serfs typically have no legal
right to leave, change employers, or seek paid work, though depending on economic conditions many did
so anyway. Unlike chattel slaves, they typically cannot be sold separately from the land, and have rights
such as the military protection of the lord.

Truck system
A truck system, in the specific sense in which the term is used by labour historians, refers to an unpopular or
even exploitative form of payment associated with small, isolated and/or rural communities, in which
workers or self-employed small producers are paid in either: goods, a form of payment known as truck
wages, or tokens, private currency ("scrip") or direct credit, to be used at a company store, owned by their
employers. A specific kind of truck system, in which credit advances are made against future work, is
known in the U.S. as debt bondage.

Many scholars have suggested that employers use such systems to exploit workers and/or indebt them. This
could occur, for example, if employers were able to pay workers with goods which had a market value
below the level of subsistence, or by selling items to workers at inflated prices. Others argue that truck
wages were a convenient way for isolated communities, such as during the early colonial settlement of
North America, to operate when official currency was scarce.[12]

By the early 20th century, truck systems were widely seen, in industrialized countries, as exploitative;
perhaps the most well-known example of this view was a 1947 U.S. hit song "Sixteen Tons". Many
countries have Truck Act legislation that outlaws truck systems and requires payment in cash.

Mandatory services due to social status

Corvée
Though most closely associated with Medieval Europe, governments throughout human history have
imposed regular short stints of unpaid labour upon lower social classes. These might be annual obligations
of a few weeks or something similarly regular that lasted for the labourer's entire working life. As the
system developed in the Philippines and elsewhere, the labourer could pay an appropriate fee and be
exempted from the obligation.[13]

Vetti-chakiri
A form of forced labour in which peasants and members of lower castes were required to work for free
existed in India before independence. This form of labour was known by several names, including veth,
vethi, vetti-chakiri and begar .[14][15]

Penal labour

Labour camps
Another historically significant example of forced labour was that
of political prisoners, people from conquered or occupied countries,
members of persecuted minorities, and prisoners of war, especially
during the 20th century. The best-known example of this are the
concentration camp system run by Nazi Germany in Europe during
World War II, the Gulag camps[16] run by the Soviet Union,[17]
and the forced labour used by the military of the Empire of Japan,
especially during the Pacific War (such as the Burma Railway). Jewish forced laborers during the
Roughly 4,000,000 German POWs were used as "reparations Holocaust in Mogilev, Russia, July
1941.
labour" by the Allies for several years after the German surrender;
this was permitted under the Third Geneva Convention provided
they were accorded proper treatment.[18] China's laogai ("labour
reform") system and North Korea's kwalliso camps are current
examples.

About 12 million forced labourers, most of whom were Poles and

Soviet citizens (Ost-Arbeiter) were employed in the German war
economy inside Nazi Germany.[19][20] More than 2000 German
companies profited from slave labour during the Nazi era, including
Daimler, Deutsche Bank, Siemens, Volkswagen, Hoechst, Dresdner Political prisoners eating lunch at a
Gulag, 1955.
Bank, Krupp, Allianz, BASF, Bayer, BMW, and Degussa.[21][22]
In particular, Germany's Jewish population was subject to slave
labour prior to their extermination.[23]

In Asia, according to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, Mark Peattie, Toru Kubo, and
Mitsuyoshi Himeta, more than 10 million Chinese were mobilized by the Japanese army and enslaved by
the Kōa-in for slave labour in Manchukuo and north China.[24] The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that
in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual labourer") were forced to work by the
Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in
South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.[25]
Also, 6.87 million Koreans were forcefully put into slave labor during 1939~1945 in both Japan and
Japanese occupied Korea.[26]

Kerja rodi (Heerendiensten), was the term for forced labour in Indonesia under Dutch colonial rule.
The Khmer Rouge attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities and forcing
the urban population ("New People") into agricultural communes. The entire population was forced to
become farmers in labour camps.

Prison labour
Convict or prison labour is another classic form of unfree labour.
The forced labour of convicts has often been regarded with lack of
sympathy, because of the social stigma attached to people regarded
as common criminals.

Three British colonies in Australia – New South Wales, Van

Diemen's Land and Western Australia – are examples of the state
use of convict labour. Australia received thousands of convict
labourers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries who were given American prisoner "chain gang"
sentences for crimes ranging from those now considered to be labourers, 2006. Notice the shackles
minor misdemeanors to such serious offences as murder, rape and on the feet of the prisoners.
incest. A considerable number of Irish convicts were sentenced to
transportation for treason while fighting against British rule in
Ireland.

More than 165,000 convicts were transported to Australian colonies from 1788 to 1868.[27] Most British or
Irish convicts who were sentenced to transportation, however, completed their sentences in British jails and
were not transported at all.

It is estimated that in the last 50 years more than 50 million people have been sent to Chinese laogai
camps.[28]

Indentured and bonded labour

A more common form in modern society is indenture, or bonded labour, under which workers sign
contracts to work for a specific period of time, for which they are paid only with accommodation and
sustenance, or these essentials in addition to limited benefits such as cancellation of a debt, or transportation
to a desired country.

Contemporary illegal forced labour

While historically unfree labour was frequently sanctioned by law, in the present day most unfree labour
now revolves around illegal control rather than legal ownership, as all countries have made slavery
illegal.[29]

Permitted exceptions of unfree labour

As mentioned above, there are several exceptions of unfree or forced labour recognized by the International
Labour Organization:

Civil conscription
Some countries practice forms of civil conscription for different major occupational groups or inhabitants
under different denominations like civil conscription, civil mobilization, political mobilization etc. This
obligatory services on the one hand has been implemented due to long-lasting labour strikes, during
wartimes or economic crisis, to provide basic services like medical care, food supply or supply of the
defence industry. On the other hand, this service can be obligatory to provide recurring and inevitable
services to the population, like fire services, due to lack of volunteers.

Temporary civil conscription

Between December 1943 and March 1948 young men in the United Kingdom, the so-called Bevin Boys,
had been conscripted for the work in coal mines.[30] In Belgium in 1964,[31] in Portugal[32] and in Greece
from 2010 to 2014 due to the severe economic crisis,[33][34] a system of civil mobilization was implemented
to provide public services as a national interest.

Recurring civil conscription

In Switzerland in most communities for all inhabitants, no matter if they are Swiss or not, it is mandatory to
join the so-called Militia Fire Brigades, as well as the obligatory service in Swiss civil defence and
protection force. Conscripts in Singapore are providing the personnel of the country's fire service as part of
the national service in the Civil Defence Force. In Austria and Germany citizens have to join a compulsory
fire brigade if a volunteer fire service can not be provided, due to lack of volunteers. In 2018 this regulation
is executed only in a handful of communities in Germany and currently none in Austria.[35][36][37]

Conscription for military service and security forces

Beside the conscription for military services, some countries draft citizens for paramilitary or security forces,
like internal troops, border guards or police forces. While sometimes paid, conscripts are not free to decline
enlistment. Draft dodging or desertion are often met with severe punishment. Even in countries which
prohibit other forms of unfree labour, conscription is generally justified as being necessary in the national
interest and therefore is one of the five exceptions to the Forced Labour Convention, signed by the most
countries in the world.[38]

Mandatory community service

Community services
Community service is a non-paying job performed by one person or a group of people for the benefit of
their community or its institutions. Community service is distinct from volunteering, since it is not always
performed on a voluntary basis. Although personal benefits may be realized, it may be performed for a
variety of reasons including citizenship requirements, a substitution of criminal justice sanctions,
requirements of a school or class, and requisites for the receipt of certain benefits.

De facto obligatory community work

During the Cold War in some communist countries like Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic
or the Soviet Union the originally voluntary work on Saturday for the community called Subbotnik,
Voskresnik or Akce Z became de facto obligatory for the members of a community.

Hand and hitch-up services

In some Austrian and German states it is feasible for communities to draft citizens for public services, called
hand and hitch-up services. This mandatory service is still executed to maintain the infrastructure of small
communities.[39][40]

International conventions
ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) (http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORM
LEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C029)
ILO Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) (http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/e
n/f?p=1000:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C105)
ILO Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) (http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:1
2100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C138)
 Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) (http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Professio
nalInterest/Pages/ChildLabour.aspx)

See also
Coolie Trade
Construction soldier
Critique of work
Debt bondage
Exploitation
Forced labor in Germany during World War II
Forced labor of Germans after World War II
Involuntary servitude
Indentured servitude
Labor army
Labor battalion
Labor trafficking in the United States
List of concentration and internment camps
NKVD labor columns
Refusal of work
SAP-FL, the ILO Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour
Sexual slavery
Shanghaiing
Sweatshop
Trafficking in human beings
Trafficking of children
Wage slavery
Workfare
Workhouse

Notes
1. forced labour under German rule during World War II through Service du travail obligatoire of
Vichy France

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Unfree+Labour++by+Brass+ISBN) London, England: Frank Cass Publishers. ISBN 978-0-
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Brass, Tom and Marcel Van Der Linden. (1997). Free and Unfree Labour: The Debate
Continues. New York, NY: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-3424-7 (cloth)
Brass, Tom. (2011). Labour Regime Change in the Twenty-First Century: Unfreedom,
Capitalism and Primitive Accumulation. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-20247-4.
Brass, Tom. (2017) Labour Markets, Identities, Controversies: Reviews and Essays, 1982-
2016. Leiden, South Holland: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-32237-0.
Blackburn. (1997). The Making of New World Slavery From the Baroque to the Modern,
1492–1800, London: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-195-2 (paper).
Blackburn, Robin. (1988). The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848. London, England:
Verso Books. ISBN 978-0-86091-188-3 (cloth) -- ISBN 978-0-86091-901-8 (paper).
Hilton, George W. (1960). The Truck System, including a History of the British Truck Acts,
1465-1960. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd. [reprinted by Greenwood Press, London,
1975. ISBN 978-0-837-18130-1]
Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa
Japan. (https://books.google.com/books?id=0YIbNlliRswC&q=hideyoshi+slavery) London,
England: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1301-8
Guijarro Morales, A. El Síndrome de la Abuela Esclava. Pandemia del Siglo XXI (The
Enslaved Grandmother Syndrome: a 21st-century Pandemic). Grupo Editorial Universitario.
Granada, oct 2001. ISBN 978-84-8491-124-1.
Ruhs, Florian: Foreign Workers in the Second World War. The Ordeal of Slovenians in
Germany. (https://web.archive.org/web/20110904185203/http://www.aventinus-online.de/no_
cache/persistent/artikel/8599/), in: aventinus nova Nr. 32 [29.05.2011]
International Labour Organization

ILO Minimum Estimate of Forced Labour in the World. (2005) (http://www.ilo.org/sapfl/Informa

tionresources/ILOPublications/lang--en/docName--WCMS_081913/index.htm)
The Cost of Coercion ILO 2009 (http://www.ilo.org/sapfl/Informationresources/ILOPublication
s/lang--en/docName--WCMS_106268/index.htm)
A global alliance against forced labour (http://www.ilo.org/sapfl/Informationresources/ILOPub
lications/lang--en/docName--WCMS_081882/index.htm)
Operational Indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings 2009 (http://www.ilo.org/sapfl/Informati
onresources/Factsheetsandbrochures/lang--en/docName--WCMS_105023/index.htm)
ILO/SAP-FL
Lists of indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings 2009 (http://www.ilo.org/sapfl/Informationre
sources/Factsheetsandbrochures/lang--en/docName--WCMS_105884/index.htm) ILO/SAP-
FL
Eradication of forced labour—General Survey concerning the Forced Labour Convention,
1930 (No. 29), and the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) (http://www.il
o.org/global/meetings-and-events/WCMS_089199/lang--en/index.htm) — ILO 2007
Forced Labour: Definition, Indicators and Measurement 2004 (http://www.ilo.org/sapfl/Inform
ationresources/ILOPublications/lang--en/docName--WCMS_081991/index.htm) — ILO
Stopping Forced Labour 2001 (http://www.ilo.org/sapfl/Informationresources/ILOPublication
s/lang--en/docName--WCMS_088490/index.htm) — ILO

External links
UN.GIFT (http://www.ungift.org) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121201024907/htt
p://www.ungift.org/) 2012-12-01 at the Wayback Machine — Global Initiative to Fight Human
Trafficking
eliminating Forced Labor (http://www.dol.gov/ilab/issues/forced-labor/) Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20160304203310/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/issues/forced-labor/) 2016-03-04
at the Wayback Machine — Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor
Slavery in the 21st century—BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/slavery/default.s
tm)
Sex trade's reliance on forced labour—BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4532617.st
m)
China's Forced Labour Camps—Laogai Research Foundation (https://web.archive.org/web/
20080514022935/http://www.laogai.org/news/index.php)
The ILO Special Action Programme to combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL) (http://www.ilo.org/sa
pfl/lang--en/index.htm)
Alleging Captive Labor, Foreign Students Walk Out of Work-Study Program at Hershey Plant
(http://www.democracynow.org/2011/9/1/alleging_captive_labor_foreign_students_walk)
Democracy Now!, September 1, 2011.
Migrant Workers as Non-Citizens: The Case against Citizenship as a Social Policy Concept
(http://spe.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/spe/article/download/6686/3686), by Donna Baines
and Nandita Sharma. Studies in Political Economy 69. Autumn 2002, p. 75.
Seafood from Slaves (https://www.ap.org/explore/seafood-from-slaves/) - Associated Press
investigation of the international Pacific fishing fleet, 2015–2016, winner of the 2016 Pulitzer
Prize for Public Service

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