LEGO® Optics

Projects in Optical and Laser Science with LEGO®

Copyright © 2014 by Grady Koch, all rights reserved.

First, a few comments from my attorney:

LEGO® is a trademark of the LEGO® Group of companies which does not endorse, sponsor, or
authorize this book.

The information in this book is written and published on an “As Is” basis, without warranty. While
every precaution has been taken in preparation of this book, the author has no liability to any person
or entity with respect to any loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by
the information contained within this book.
 Contents

Introduction
In Which The Author Ponders Wave-Particle Duality and Interlocking Plastic
Bricks.

Chapter 1: Lenses
In Which Mr. Sherlock Holmes Builds a Simulated Death Ray to Confound
Ruffians and Scoundrels.

Chapter 2: Custom-Color LED Light Bricks

In Which Miss Irene Adler Creates Color Choices to Appeal to Feminine
Sensibilities.

Chapter 3: The LEGO® Laser

In Which Professor James Moriarty Revels in the Delights of Quantum
Physics.

Chapter 4: Mirrors
In Which The Lascar Adds Flittering Lights to his Opium Den.

Chapter 5: Optomechanics
In Which Miss Mary Morstan Plays Croquet with Photons.

Chapter 6: The Michelson Interferometer

In Which Sir Henry Baskerville Probes the Luminiferous Aether.

Chapter 7: LEGO® Holography

In Which Dr. John Watson Paints Fantastical Portraits with Interferograms.
 Introduction

As an engineer and tinkerer, I have had over the years of my life several instances of techno-
revelation. One of the first was at a very young age, when I wanted to recreate a set from the
television show Hoganʼs Heroes. In this show there are prison barracks over a hidden network of
underground tunnels, with entrance to the secret underground disguised in a bunk bed. Toy soldiers
were ready to stand in for Colonel Hogan and his heroes, but the barracks room proved unsatisfactory
when made from a shoe box. I turned to LEGO® bricks to solve the problem, and came to the
realization that one can build most anything out of these bricks. The model proposed on the box the
LEGO® come in is a fine thing, but really the building possibilities are wide open. And so came a
childhood of houses, cars, and battle scenes all made out of LEGO®.
Another revelatory experience came in the early 1980s as a high school student when I first
encountered a laser. In those days, lasers were not nearly as common as today where lasers scan
everything at the grocery store and laser pointers are less than $10. The laser I was entranced with
back in the 20th Century was a helium-neon gas laser that my older brother was using for his Masterʼs
degree research. The output from that laser was a red jewel to me, sparkling and shimmering.
Then as a student at Virginia Tech, my love affair with lasers solidified when I made a
hologram--it was of a golf ball. Even though I knew in detail the physics of how holography worked,
when that holographic plate came out of developing solution and a trick 3-dimensional image of a
golf ball bloomed into existence, I was stunned.
A couple happy decades went by, making a living working with lasers. One day a component
failed on the eve of departing for an expensive and high-profile field experiment. Scrambling onto the
internet to get this thing fixed, I was dismayed to find that critical electronic parts had become
obsolete and I would have to redesign a circuit for modern parts, make a new printed circuit board,
etc. This would require many days to get back on track. As desperation and a desire to spend
evenings watching stupid TV shows are the parents of innovation, it occurred to me that I could
replace the function of the broken device with a LEGO® contraption solidified with a few judicious
drops of Krazy Glue®. The device worked, the project schedule was saved, and I had time for stupid
TV in the evening. But I also re-discovered my childhood idea that anything can be made out of these
bricks--even high-tech creations taking advantage of the wave nature of light.
And so, as is described in the following pages, I took a trip exploring concepts and devices in
optics built from LEGO®. While LEGO® doesnʼt specifically make optical components like mirrors,
lasers, or beam splitters, a few LEGO® bricks can serve as optical elements. For example, I did find
that the minifigure magnifying lens is actually of decent optical quality. I tried using some LEGO®
bricks that were factory made with reflective coatings, such as the 25th anniversary chrome-plated 2
x 4 Brick, as mirrors but found that the coatings arenʼt flat enough to serve well. In the realm of
experiments with optics, LEGO® bricks best serve as a means to hold and manipulate optical
elements. This mechanical aspect is often what keeps optical concepts from being implemented by the
hobbyist or student. The combination of various optical elements with the mechanical precision
LEGO® bricks allowed for implementation of rather complex inventions.
 I took the approach of a purist and used only LEGO® components. Some of the bricks need
modification, such as drilling holes, but this is kept to a minimum. A couple of excellent on-line
resources are widely made use of in the following chapters including:

Bricklink (bricklink.com), which is a marketplace for LEGO® down to individual bricks and parts.
Some of the parts I use are obscure, but can readily be found on Bricklink and delivered in the mail at
low cost. Bricklink identifies individual parts with a number, which are referenced throughout the
text.

Bricksmith (bricksmith.sourceforge.net), which is a graphical layout program for LEGO® creations.

Step-by-step building instructions are given in diagrams, with various pieces drawn in different
colors. This color scheme was chosen so that individual parts are easier to see. The choice of color
is up to the builder for the actual implementation. I mostly used black and gray in my building.

I have found that the most effective way to learn new skills is to build with an end goal in
mind. This end goal often involves a twisting path, requiring new tools and techniques. The pursuit of
an optical experiment, as we will see, can involve elements of electronics, mechanical engineering,
machine shop practice, and whatever else it takes to get it done. These perhaps-unexpected design
elements are explained in the following chapters.
Since this book is meant to be a series of building projects, the emphasis is on practical
instruction with just enough science background to understand what is going on. But after the project
is built, there is a “How It Works” section to give a little more explanation of the science and math
behind the project. The adult fan of LEGO® or adult hacker/hobbyist will hopefully find this book
worthwhile, as the characteristics of these types of people (which I share) compelled me to write this
book. But in considering a younger age group, the “How It Works” section is set at a level of a
science/math-interested high school student. A background in algebra, trigonometry, and introductory
physics is presumed. The building skill to recreate the inventions of this book is also of a high school
student, though a middle school student could work through the inventions with adult help. Some of
the machine shop type procedures may especially need adult help, such as using a drill, tapping a
hole, or soldering connections. Appropriate machine shop safety practices are needed when working
with these tools. The laser developed in Chapter 3 and used in following chapters also needs some
attention to safety. As an alternative to machining parts, I can be reached at
fireflytechnologies@aol.com for purchasing pre-machined parts.
Aside from its building and technical capability, LEGO® should be used for imaginative fun.
In this spirit, characters from Sir Arthur Conan Doyleʼs stories of Sherlock Holmes are involved in
the construction projects.
 Chapter 1: Lenses
In Which Mr. Sherlock Holmes Builds a Simulated Death Ray to Confound Ruffians and Scoundrels

A lens is a curved piece of glass or transparent plastic used to bend the direction of light rays.
All sorts of tricks can be accomplished with this light ray bending, such as magnifying images or
correcting faulty eyesight. The key parameter to describing a lens is its focal length, which is the
distance at which incoming straight-line light waves are focused to a point as shown in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1: The focal length of a lens.

The LEGO® minifigure magnifying glass

(part number 30152c01 or as part of the Minifigure
Series 5 Detective) is actually a working lens. A
laboratory technique for quickly estimating the focal
length of a lens is to hold the lens facing an
overhead desk lamp or ceiling light fixture. The
focal length of the lens is found where the image of
the light fixture comes to a focus on a piece of
paper. In Figure 1-2, the Great Detective is finding
his focal length from a desk lamp. The overhead
desk lamp in my experiment is made up of many
light emitting diodes (LEDs) arranged in a sort of
flower pattern. At the lensʼ focal length this flower-
like pattern is imaged onto the paper.

Figure 1-2: Mr. Holmes determines the focal length of his

lens from an overhead desk lamp.
Figure 1-3: Using the minifig lens to collimate the output from an LED light brick in (left) Bricksmith layout and (right) with Mr. Holmes
in practice.

This focal length experiment can also be run backwards. If a lens is placed at about a focal
length away from a point light source, a beam will be projected that holds its shape for a long
distance. In the optics lab the projected beam is said to be “collimated” or “minimally divergent”.
For a hands-on experiment, the LED light brick (part number 54930c01 in red or 54930c02 in
yellow) can be used as a light source, as shown in Figure 1-3. A minifig can be used to hold and
position the lens, with some care needed to center the lens to be in line with the LED, as well as
making the distance between the light and lens to be a focal length away. The minifigure can be leaned
and arms adjusted while looking at the projected beam. The idea here is to make the projected beam
spot size small a long distance away. Figure 1-4 shows the beam as it hits a wall 2 feet away.
All sorts of fun can be imagined
with our new “death ray.” In Figure 1-5,
the Great Detective is seen giving the
what-for to a villain. Or, in Figure 1-6,
we have a new weapon system for the
Alien Defense Unit to protect the future of
the human race. The collimated LED of
the light brick has many similarities to the
laser of Chapter 3. But whereas the laser
of Chapter 3 can be a danger to peopleʼs
eyes and should not be used by kids, the
LED beam here is not such a safety
hazard. So without the danger to eyes, we
can also use the LED beam as a cat toy--
cats are intrigued by the spot of light
projected onto a wall.

Figure 1-4: The beam 2-feet away from the setup of Figure 1-3 creates a
spot of 3/4-inch. The dim ring around the central beam is from the edge of
the lens. A good alignment of the lens with the light source will show when
the bright beam is centered within the dimmer ring.

Figure 1-5: Mr. Holmes lights up a night-time prowler.

Figure 1-6: Helping out the Alien Defense Unit.

 Step-by-Step Assembly of the Simulated Death Ray

Step 1: A 2 x 4 (3020) Plate is attached to a 6 x 8 Plate (3036).

Step 2: Adding a little thickness with another 2 x 4 Plate (3020).

Step 3: Now for the light brick (54930c01)

Step 4: A minifig is adjusted to hold the lens (30152c01) in the right position.

Step 5: A 1 x 2 Brick (3004) can be used behind the light brick to keep the light switch on. Just remember to take it off when done,
otherwise the light brick’s battery will run down.

How Lenses Work

Lenses work by taking advantage of the fact that the speed of light changes in different
materials. Light travels slower in glass than it does in air or the vacuum of space. Light actually
travels the fastest in the vacuum of space and is the baseline reference for comparing to other
materials. Air barely slows down the speed of light, and the speed is practically the same in air or
vacuum. But in glass or water light is considerably slowed. The ratio by which the speed of light is
reduced in some material compared to the vacuum of space is called the “index of refraction”, usually
given the symbol “n”. A typical value for n in ordinary glass is 1.3, indicating that light travels 1.3
times faster in air than in glass. This difference in speed will bend a light ray going from vacuum or
glass, or vice-versa, in a process called “refraction.” The exact nature of refraction is described by
an equation known as “Snellʼs Law”:

Figure 1-7: A light ray, drawn as a red line, will be bent in traveling between two different media.

where n is the index of refraction in medium 1 or 2 and θ is the angle of the light ray in medium 1 or
2. θ is measured from an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the interface of the two media where
the light ray hits, as shown in Figure 1-7. If Snellʼs Law is solved for θ2:

it can be seen that θ2 will be smaller than θ1 if n2 is larger than n1. In other words, the light ray will
be bent into a smaller angle going from air into glass. Refraction is easy to find in everyday life with,
for example, the arrangement of Figure 1-8 of a technic brick lowered into a beaker of water.
To make a lens the interface of the air-to-glass transition is curved, as in Figure 1-9. With this
curved interface the light rays coming from an object can be bent to all come together to form an
image. The characteristics of imaging with a lens are described by a relationship called the “thin lens
equation”:
Figure 1-8: A long technic brick lowered into a beaker of water shows the effects of refraction when viewed from the side. The brick
appears to bend at the interface between the air and water. The curved water volume in the beaker also acts as a lens to magnify the
image of the part of the brick submerged in the water.

Figure 1-9: A lens is shaped so that rays (drawn as red lines) from an object are made to come to a focus to make an image. Lenses can
be shaped different ways to accomplish this--the shape shown here is called “planoconvex”.
Figure 1-10: The distance (di) as which an image will form depends on the object distance (do) and the focal length of the lens.

where, as diagrammed in Figure 1-10, do is the distance from the object to the lens, di is the distance
from the image to the lens, and f is the focal length of the lens. So, as described earlier in this chapter,
the focal length is the key to the behavior of a lens. It can be noted from Figure 1-10 that the image
from a lens can be made smaller, as well as larger, than the object depending on where the object is
placed in relation to the lensʼ focal length. Also, the image created in the arrangement of Figure 1-10
is upside down. The lens in the human eye likewise produces an upside down image on the retina of
the eye--processing done in the brain flips the image over again.
To create the collimated beam shape of the simulated death ray built earlier in the chapter, the
image distance di is made to occur at an infinite distance away. Mathematically expressed in the thin
lens equation,

knocking out the term in the equation involving the image distance. The thin lens equation is reduced
to do = f. This means in the practical sense that to collimate the beam from the LED, that the object
distance should be made the same as the focal length. In other words, the LED should be placed a
focal length away from the lens, which is what was done in setting up the simulated death ray.

Literary Notes on Sherlock Holmes Stories

The author of the Sherlock Holmes stories, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, was a remarkable writer
for three great achievements:

• He nurtured the new literary form of detective fiction. While Sir Arthur may not have invented
detective fiction--Edgar Allan Poe and Emile Gaboriau wrote earlier stories with characters using
rationalizing investigative techniques--he certainly brought the genre to its potential and popularity.
Cultivating a new literary form is no small achievement. Most storytelling enjoyed today was
invented thousands of year ago with formulas for adventure, romance, comedy, and tragedy. Book
sellers and movie theaters today are loaded with stories that are a repackaging of Homerʼs action-
adventure tales or the plays of Euripides dating back to ancient Greece. But there was something new
with the advent of detective fiction. Scientific methods were being used to solve problems. And a
hero used his mind to fight, rather than brawn (though Holmes was not shy about the occasional need
to bust heads with his Bartitsu fighting style).

• Sir Arthur knew how to create characters. Sherlock Holmes today is an iconic figure, imitated
countless times. So many retellings and imitations have been made that some features of the imitations
are better known than the authentic original. For example, the original Sherlock Holmes never said
“Elementary, my dear Watson.” This quote came from a much later film adaptation of the original
writings. Also, the original Sherlock Holmes was never described as specifically wearing a
deerstalker hat. The Great Detectiveʼs clients, friends, and enemies are entertaining as well, and
several are brought back in the chapters of this book.

• He knew how to capture the feel of an era. Reading a Holmes story is so immersive as to almost be
transported in time to Victorian England. The imagery Sir Arthur creates captures the language,
culture, and custom of the day, giving a vivid experience of the British Empire at its zenith. The recent
Steampunk aesthetic is reminiscent of Sir Arthurʼs writing, with elements of Victorian culture,
scientific reasoning, and high technology. Itʼs a fun combination, so I borrowed it for this book.
Sherlock Holmes and lasers--letʼs go!
 Parts List for Chapter 1

LEGO® Bricks
 Chapter 2: Custom-Color LED Light Bricks
In Which Miss Irene Adler Creates Color Choices to Appeal to Feminine Sensibilities

We met the light emitting diode (LED) light brick in Chapter 1 as a source for the simulated
death ray. LEGO® light bricks come in two color choices: red or orange-yellow, as shown in Figure
2-1. Red and yellow may be a fine choice if youʼre an alumni of University of Southern California,
but what is to be done if another color is desired?
Light emitting diode elements come in all sorts of colors, especially since technology
developments that came about in the early 2000s. Maybe ladies like Miss Adler would like pink or
purple, so in this chapter we are going to make light bricks in custom colors. Letʼs go for pink and
purple.

Figure 2-1: Miss Adler would like color choices beyond red or yellow.

The first action is to pick out an LED, keeping in mind there are a few technical subtleties to
consider. A few of my favorite sources for LEDs are lighthouseleds.com, jameco.com, digikey.com,
and mouser.com, where interesting colors can be found for about 50-cents apiece. LEDs of different
colors perform differently in how bright they are. Red, yellow, and green can be quite bright and last
a long time on a battery. Blue, pink, and purple will appear dimmer. Part of the reason for the
difference in brightness among colors is that the technology used to make LEDs results in less
efficient operation toward the blue end of the color spectrum. But the other part of the reason is in the
way human vision works--if multiple light
sources of different colors but the same
output levels are observed with the eye,
some colors will look dimmer (but really
arenʼt). Human vision is the most
sensitive to green light, so the green LED
in the color line-up will look brightest.
Actual brightness of an LED is described
by a number in candela, usually in
millicandela (abbreviated as “mcd” in the
LEDʼs description at a WWW site or
store). While brighter, the higher the mcd
value of an LED the faster it will drain a
battery. But even the “super-bright” LEDs
of thousands of mcd will last many hours
of constantly-on operation. The batteries
Figure 2-2: Miss Adler takes delivery of a new LED. One of the wire leads
inside the light brick (called LR-41) can on the LED is longer--this indicates the positive connection.
be replaced as needed and found at a
Radio Shack store.

Figure 2-3: It’s tool time! This chapter requires a size-0 Phillips screwdriver, tweezers, and diagonal cutters. I like angled tweezers, but
straight ones will work fine.
Aside from color and brightness, the important thing to pick out is the physical size. LEDs
come in all sorts of confusing shapes--the kind to buy, shown in Figure 2-2, is a configuration called
“3-mm” or “T1”. A raw LED comes with long wire leads for applications that might need such a long
length. This long length will be bent and trimmed later in this chapter. But before any work is done on
the wires, itʼs vital to notice that one wire lead on the raw LED is longer that the other. This is to
indicate which end of the LED is positive (the long lead) and which is negative. Like many electrical
components, LEDs are sensitive to the direction of the electrical current going through them. So we
have to keep track of the positive and negative connections. Some LEDs, but not all, also indicate the
positive and negative connections with a flat notch in the otherwise round plastic base. This flat spot
marks the negative end of the LED. And then thereʼs the polarity of the battery to keep track of, but
this comes later.
To modify the light brick a few tools are needed, shown in Figure 2-3. All three of these tools
can be bought at Radio Shack or at one of the on-line stores where the LEDs were purchased. Another
tool option adopted by the fashionable optics technician is to carry a multi-tool oriented for
electronics work--my favorite is the Victorinix Cybertool. To disassemble the light brick use the
screwdriver to remove the little black screw in the base of the brick, as shown in Figure 2-4. Opening
the brick, Figure 2-5, reveals the guts of the device. Note in this view the orientation of the batteries--
the positive end of each battery is toward the bottom of the brick. The switch will readily fall out
with the cover now removed, so letʼs take it out and set it aside. To get the LED loose the batteries
have to be removed by prying them out with tweezers. With the batteries removed, the LED can be
plucked out with tweezers. So in Figure 2-6, all of the components have been removed and set aside.
The leads of the LED are seen to be bent at a right angle. To insert the new LED, the next task is to
duplicate the bends in the leads of the old LED. The old LED serves as a sort of template for the
bends to make in the new LED. Figure 2-7 shows the four bends (two on each lead) to make. Itʼs
critical as shown in step one to get the positive lead in the correct orientation. In step one the new
LED and old LED are held at the same time. The positive lead (the longer of the two leads) is
positioned away from the old LED and bent to a right angle to match the same shape of the old LED.
Then in step 2 this same lead is bent downward. The negative lead is given the same bends but as a
mirror image of the positive lead. Picking up the old LED again, Figure 2-8, will show how much
length of the new LEDʼs leads should be trimmed off with diagonal cutters.

Figure 2-4: The light brick held shut by a Phillips head screw on the bottom of the brick.
Figure 2-5: The inside of the light brick. We’re going to change out the LED.

Figure 2-6: The disassembled light brick.

Figure 2-7: Four bends are made to the new LED to match the configuration of the old LED. At Step 1 the longer lead (the positive end)
of the new LED is being bent.

With the new LED bent and

trimmed to match the shape of the original
LED, the light brick can be put back
together to match Figure 2-5. The LED
should be put back in first, in which it is
held within the notches of the plastic
brick. Then the batteries can be put back
in, taking care to match the correct + and -
orientations. As can be seen in Figure 2-
5, each battery is placed with the + end
toward the bottom of the brick. The
switch goes back in with the tab
downward to fit within the slot of the
plastic brick. After screwing the base Figure 2-8: Diagonal cutters are used to trim off the
back on, itʼs time to press the switch and length of the newly-bent leads.
enjoy the new color. If the LED doesnʼt
come on, then a battery was likely not placed in the correct orientation. In Figure 2-9 we have Miss
Adler pleased with her pink and purple creation.

Figure 2-9: Ahh! Pink and purple!

How Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Work

Fundamentally, light is created when an electron loses energy. As diagrammed in Figure 2-10,
electrons can occupy various discrete energy levels. The electron can be moved into a higher energy
level by a push from heat or electrical current. When the electron drops from a high energy state to a
low energy state, the energy lost is converted into a photon of light. The relationship between energy
levels and the wavelength of light emitted is expressed by an equation called “Planckʼs Relation”:

where ΔE is the difference in energy levels that the electron jumped down, h is Planckʼs constant
(with a value of 6.63 x 10-34 J s), c is the speed of light, and λ is the wavelength of the light photon
that is emitted.
Figure 2-10: If an electron relaxes from a high energy level to low energy level, the energy lost is converted into a photon of light.

In a standard light bulb there are vast numbers of electrons cascading down from many energy
level transitions. This riot of jumping electrons, swarming like popcorn in a microwave oven, creates
all the colors that make up white light. Things are more orderly, though, in a light emitting diode.
Jumping electrons are channeled into a single energy transition sort of like a kidʼs slide on a
playground, diagrammed in Figure 2-11. This orderly transition results in a single wavelength output,
and since all the energy is directed into a single transition the LED is efficient in use of electrical
energy.

Figure 2-11: In an LED, electrons are sent through a loop that drops electrons across an energy level transition. A battery pumps
electrons back around to the higher energy level.

To create the energy transition slide, an LED is made by joining together two pieces of
semiconductor materials: as shown in Figure 2-12 these two materials are called “n type” and “p
type.” A semiconductor is a material such as silicon, germanium, or gallium arsenide, that has
electrical properties in between those of a conductor and an insulator. Semiconductors can be
modified to make them more or less conductive. The n-type material is selected so that is has an
excess of electrons that are free to roam around. The p-type material has a deficit of electrons and is
eager to host electrons. By joining these two materials together in an arrangement called a “pn
junction,” a transition in energy levels is created at the interface of the junction. Light is created as
electrons travel into the interface and lose their energy. The pn junction is actually tiny--it canʼt be
seen inside the LED device that is bought from a store. The connecting wires and framework to hold
the pn junction are bigger than the pn junction itself.
The output from an LED is of one color, but there are ways to create the full spectrum of
white light from LEDs. Such white light LEDs are becoming common, replacing old-fashioned
incandescent light bulbs, because LEDs are efficient with electrical power. There are two ways to get
white light from LEDs. One way is to combine a red, green, and blue LED together. Different
combinations of the intensity of red, green, and blue can be used to create white light (or any desired
color). The second way to create white light from an LED is to use a short wavelength output, such as
blue, to excite a fluorescent coating inside a bulb. The chemical that makes up the fluorescent coating
glows white when hit with blue light.

Figure 2-12: A light emitting diode is built by joining blocks of n-type and p-type semiconductors. At the interface of the two materials,
electrons fall in energy to create light. When connected to a battery, electrons are pushed from the n-type side toward the p-type side. At
the transition from n-type to p-type the electrons lose energy. This energy is converted into light.

Literary Notes on Sherlock Holmes Stories

 The character Irene Adler appeared in the short story A Scandal In Bohemia, in which
Sherlock Holmes is hired to steal a photograph showing Miss Adler with the King of Bohemia. The
king wants the photograph back, since it may cause a scandal. The quest to steal the photograph
becomes a contest of wits, which Miss Adler wins. Though beaten, Mr. Holmes canʼt help but admire
the skill of his adversary.
 Parts List for Chapter 2

LEGO® Bricks

non-LEGO® Components
LED (size 3mm, T1)

Tools
Phillips screwdriver (size 0)
tweezers
diagonal cutters
 Chapter 3: The LEGO® Laser
In Which Professor James Moriarty Revels in the Delights of Quantum Physics

Safety Warnings

This chapter involves a few hazards to be aware of:

1. Lasers can be a visual hazard. The laser built here is about the same power as a commonly
encountered laser pointer. This shouldnʼt be too comforting, though, since people do
idiotic things with laser pointers. Most of this idiocy involves someone intentionally
pointing a laser at someone else. While the laser beam from the power levels being talked
about here wonʼt necessarily damage someoneʼs eyes permanently, it can give someone
temporary blindness, distraction, or disorientation. Such a distraction can cause an
accident, especially for a driver, athlete, pilot, construction worker, etc. Also, since lasers
are often attached to guns for sighting purposes, people might be alarmed if they are
unexpectedly illuminated with a laser. Aside from being responsible with pointing the
laser, other guidelines include:
a. donʼt intentionally stare into a laser.
b. beware of shining a laser onto a mirror or reflective surface, since the beam can go
in an unexpected direction.
c. donʼt let kids play with a laser.
d. donʼt view a laser beam with a magnifying lens, binoculars, microscope, telescope,
or other optical instruments. The intensity of the beam can be focused and create a
possible hazard of permanent vision loss.
e. attach a warning label to the laser, so people are aware there is a potential hazard.
Later in this chapter, weʼll see that a warning label sticker is included when the
laser is purchased. Lasers are classified by hazard in numbers 1-4, with 1 the least
hazard and 4 the most hazard. At the 1-5 mW output power level used in this
chapter, the laser will be a Class 2 or 3.

2. Drilling and cutting can cause injury. Weʼll be drilling holes into bricks and cutting things
with tools. Usual tool safety is needed such as wearing safety glasses, avoiding cutting
oneself, and not holding things in the hand when drilling. Safety glasses are essential to
protect against flying debris.

3. Soldering can cause skin burns or start fires.

Selecting a Laser Module

The type of laser to use is a diode laser. These are quite small devices, yet capable of
producing bright beams. Diode lasers have become common, being used in CD and DVD players.
Laser pointers are also built from diode lasers. Given the low cost of laser pointers, itʼs tempting to
use a pointer for LEGO® experiments. But this idea has a few problems. First, the activation switch
on the laser pointer involves moving or shaking the whole laser. Even a small amount of motion will
ruin some of the experiments described in this book. We need a laser with a switch away from the
light output and a solid mount for the whole laser device. Second, the batteries in a laser pointer
wonʼt last long at all. Laser pointers are meant to be used sparingly for seconds at a time to quickly
point as some feature in a presentation. If left on constantly for many minutes, the batteries in a laser
pointer will drain. We need a laser source that can be run for a long time. Third, the optical quality of
the lens in a laser pointer is not good. Following experiments in this book use the properties of laser
light (called “spatial coherence” or “wavefront quality”) that are ruined by the cheap lens typically
put into a laser pointer.
Just the laser device can be purchased for a few dollars. But what weʼre after is called a
“diode laser module,” which includes the laser itself along with a current control circuit and a
collimating lens. This collimating lens is the same idea as used in Chapter 1 with an LED. Just as for
an LED, without a collimating lens the light from a laser diode would be spread out to a rapidly
diverging beam that is of little use for many applications (although the holography of Chapter 7 uses a
diverging beam). So manufacturers offer the option of the laser packaged with a collimating lens,
which is needed for projects in Chapters 4, 5, and 6. Other considerations for choosing a diode laser
module are:

output power is the intensity of the laser output, measured in milliwatts (abbreviated “mW” in
catalogs and web sites). The output power should be kept below 5-mW to keep the brightness of the
beam safe for the eyes.

wavelength is the scientific way of describing color. Human vision works from wavelengths of
purple at 400-nanometers (abbreviated “nm”) to red at 700-nm. Diode lasers are least expensive at
red colors of 630-nm to 670-nm, with 670-nm usually being a little less expensive. But 630-nm is
easier for the eye to see, so itʼs worth the little extra money to buy the lower wavelength at 630-nm.
The next most common wavelength is green at 532-nm. The 532-nm laser is not a straightforward
diode laser, but a diode laser pumping a neodymium solid-state laser. This added complexity
significantly bumps up the price of the green laser compared to a red laser. Other color choices can
be found in orange and yellow laser modules, but the cost goes up even more. Aside from the
coolness factor and perceived higher brightness of green, thereʼs not much to justify the added cost of
colors other than red. So in this chapter, red it is.

package size diode laser modules are generally cylindrical. To install the module into a LEGO®
brick the diameter of this cylinder becomes important--the larger the diameter the harder it will be to
work with. I used a module with a diameter of 0.4-inches that worked out OK. Any larger might be a
problem to work with.

operating voltage and current these are the properties of the electrical power going into the module.
Most laser modules use between 3-volts (abbreviated “V”) and 6-V. A little complication that is
worked out in this chapter is that the standard voltage from LEGO® battery boxes is 9-V, which
doesnʼt match the need of the laser diode module. But this problem will be solved, along with
matching the current needed by the laser diode module. One aspect of the current used by the laser
module is the amount of battery life--the higher the current, the shorter the battery life.

Figure 3-1: The diode laser module will come inside a static control bag. To avoid a problem with static electricity, touch something metal
before opening the bag.

Diode laser modules can be purchased at many places on the WWW, including digikey.com,
newark.com, jameco.com, and mouser.com. The lowest price I saw was about $15, but I doubt the
quality of the device for this cost. I tried two different modules from digikey.com that worked out
well, including part number VLM-635-02-LPA-ND at $49. Production of the electronic devices is a
rapidly shifting landscape with part numbers always changing--the exact part number I used will
likely change soon. Since there can be a vast diversity of laser module sizes and types encountered,
the directions in this chapter are flexible for different devices. When delivered the diode laser
module will come in a static control bag, shown in Figure 3-1. Diode lasers can be destroyed by a
jolt of static electricity, like the shock experienced in the winter time after walking in sock-feet across
carpet. If after this walk you touched the diode laser, the diode laser might be destroyed. The static
control bag prevents this damage when the laser is in storage or transport. Such static damage is a
rare occurrence for the electronics hobbyist and thereʼs not much that can be seriously done to
prevent it without spending a lot of money. There is a little something that can be done in the home to
control static electricity over the cold winter months--use a room humidifier. If you find yourself
picking up a lot of static in your home, then touch something metal (like a doorknob) before working
with the laser diode module. When the completed module is finished and not being used, itʼs a good
idea to keep the completed module in the static control bag. So save the static control bag.

Figure 3-2: The diode laser module comes with a warning sticker to place on whatever enclosure the module will be housed in.

Opening the static control bag to remove the diode laser module, Figure 3-2, shows that it
comes with a sticker to place on the housing into which the diode laser will be used. This sticker is to
inform someone who picks up the device that there may be a hazard involved. The particular laser
module shown in Figure 3-2 has control circuitry sticking out the back, but some devices have this
circuit inside the cylindrical enclosure. The purpose of this circuit, called “automatic power control”,
is to keep the power output of the laser at a constant output level. Otherwise, if the electrical power
to the laser changed, then the output of the laser could get too high (posing a safety hazard or burning
out the laser) or too low (creating a beam too dim to be useful). This circuit also protects the laser in
case the positive/negative connections were accidentally reversed. Without this circuit, and if the
positive/negative connections were reversed, then the laser would be destroyed and $49 wasted. The
collimating lens, much like Mr. Holmesʼ experiment of Chapter 1, controls the divergence of the laser
output to make a nice, narrow beam. Some laser modules have an adjustable lens, so that a focus or
divergence can be set if needed. This adjustable focus feature will be useful in Chapter 7 for making
holograms.

Mounting the Laser Module

The diode laser module has to be held in something to be useful. To incorporate the laser into
LEGO® creations, I used a Technic Gearbox (part number 6588), shown in Figure 3-3. The gearbox
needs some modification to accommodate the laser module, in the form of drilling out the uppermost
center holes. Drilling into plastic can be difficult, with the plastic tending to grab the drill bit, so itʼs
a good idea to anticipate problems and buy several gearboxes for spares. More than one gearbox is
going to be needed anyway to fit the thickness of the laser module--I needed two for the length of the
laser module of Figure 3-2. The drill bit for this job should be less than the diameter of the laser
module. Then to make the hole clean, round, and just the right size a tapered reamer will be used.

Figure 3-3: Professor Moriarty picked a black Technic Gearbox for the laser module mount. These gearboxes are typically used to hold
differential gearing for vehicles, but the placement of holes and hollow lower portion are ideal for the laser module. And at only $1.25
each, “I’ll take four of ‘em,” he says.

The laser module I picked out in Figure 3-2 has a diameter of 0.4-inches, so I used a 5/16-
inch drill bit. I could have bought a larger diameter bit than the 0.3125-inches of the bit I had in my
set of basic bit sizes, but as we will see in a later step the reamer will make quick work of getting to
the 0.4-inches of the laser module size. As shown in Figure 3-4, a hole is drilled in the center of the
three holes in the upper half of the gearbox. Ideally, a drill press would be used to hold the bit straight
and normal to the gearbox hole. But I donʼt have a drill press, and found that a hand drill works OK,
taking care to hold the drill perpendicular to the gear box. The laser module will go through both
sides of the gearbox, so the hole on each side of the gearbox should be drilled. In order to keep both
holes centered with each other, the hole in each side should be drilled from each side. The bad,
alternate way to do it would be to start drilling on one side and keep going to punch through the other
side. Doing this would likely knock off the centering of each hole with respect to the other, because
itʼs difficult to hold the drill straight and perpendicular through both holes. But itʼs easy to go
perpendicular to one hole and stopping once through the one hole. Then flip the gearbox over and
drill the other side.
The hole that results after drilling will probably look messy, not quite round, with bits of
plastic still clinging on. Use of the reamer, shown in Figure 3-5, will both clean up the hole and
enlarge it to just the right size. The reamer is not a common tool, and so is shown in Figure 3-6, in the
package from where I bought it at a Harbor Freight store for $5. Reamers come in different diameter
ranges--the one to use here has an upper diameter of 0.5-inches. The reaming should be done a little
at a time, with frequent comparison of the hole diameter to the diode laser module. The holes (on both
sides) will gradually open up for a snug fit to the cylinder of the diode laser module, as shown in
Figure 3-7. In a later step, the laser module will be glued into place to keep it from moving, but this
step waits until the electrical connections are installed.
Figure 3-4: The drill bit should be carefully held straight and perpendicular. Don’t try holding the gearbox by hand--it will spin out of
control.

Figure 3-5: After drilling the holes, they are cleaned up and widened by twisting a reamer through the holes.
Figure 3-6: The reamer works by 4 cutting edges on a taper that widens a hole as the tool is twisted.

Figure 3-7: A snug fit of the laser module into the gearbox.
Figure 3-8: Two gearboxes are joined together to house the length of the laser module.

For the length of the laser module I selected, and probably for most modules, a lot of the module
hangs out the back of one gearbox. To protect and enclose the entire length of the module, I used two
gearboxes joined together, as shown in Figure 3-8. The second (or third, if it were needed) also needs
to be drilled and reamed. Technic Pins (3673) hold the two gearboxes together for a somewhat secure
joint, which will be supplemented later for more strength and stability. But next, the electrical
connections are done.

Powering the Laser Module

The diode laser module I picked out takes an input voltage of between 3-V to 6-V, and this is
typical of most laser modules. A problem here, though, is that the standard LEGO® electric battery
boxes have an output of 9-V, which is not compatible with the laser module. LEGO® did make a 4.5-
V electric battery box in the 1960s and 1970s, which does have the right voltage. But these old
modules are hard to find and seem to be in bad condition once found, and they are quite large being
based on three C batteries. The more modern, widely-available battery boxes and power supplies are
9-V. This 9-V is a little inconvenient, but can be worked around with a couple dollars in electronic
components. There are a few choices for a 9-V LEGO® battery box. I like the part number 4769c01
Electric 9V Battery Box Small, shown in Figure 3-9, that was produced throughout the 1980s and
1990s. Itʼs simple, small, inexpensive, and commonly available. The more recent Power Functions
battery boxes (like 59510c01) will also work, but are a little more expensive and a little more
complicated in mounting.
To connect the battery box to the laser module, we can modify a wire (part number
5306bcxxx) keeping one end intact (to connect to the battery box and shown in Figure 3-9) and cutting
off the LEGO® connector on the other end. These wire cables come in lengths ranging from 15 studs
long to 378 studs long. The length to select depends on how the laser module will be used. In the
experiments of the following chapters the laser module can be close to the battery box, so to avoid
excess cable to work with, the shorter cables are a good choice. There are two wires in these cables,
one positive and one negative. The wires are in a flat orientation, so itʼs possible to keep track of
which side of the cable is attached to which side of the battery box. In the orientation shown in Figure
3-9, and noting that the cable connector is attached with the wires opposite the switch, the right side
of the box is negative and the left side is positive. So the right-side wire is negative, the left side is
positive.

Figure 3-9: A 9-V battery box (4769c01) with wire cable (5306bc) attached. In the orientation shown the positive connection is on the left
side; negative on the right. The battery should not be installed until all the soldering is done.

While one end of the wire cable is connected to the battery box, the other end has to be
reduced to bare wires in order to connect it to the laser module. So the LEGO® connector on the laser
end is clipped off, as in Figure 3-10a. The two wires are then separated and stripped down to their
aluminum wires. The now bare-wire end of the cable should be threaded through a bottom, side hole
of the rear-most gearbox.
Connecting the battery box output with the laser module input is, unfortunately, not
straightforward. The trouble is that the LEGO® battery box produces a 9-V output, while the laser
diode module needs to get between 3 and 6-V. In order to step down the 9-V from the LEGO® battery
box, we can use a Zener diode. In addition to the Zener diode, a current limiting resistor is needed--
both these components are shown in Figure 3-11 after Professor Moriarty made a trip to Radio Shack.
The circuit to put them together is drawn in Figure 3-12. The useful property of a Zener diode is that
it undergoes a condition of electrical saturation, called “breakdown,” when reverse biased to create a
constant voltage from a higher input voltage. “Reverse bias” is an engineering way to say
“intentionally hooked up backwards.” The voltage from a Zener diode remains constant even if the
input voltage changes or if the load resistance changes. Zener diodes are specified by their
breakdown voltage, current at breakdown, and power handling capability. A good choice for the
Zener diode needed here is a IN4733A having a breakdown voltage of 5.1-V, current of 49-milliamps,
and power capability of 1-watt. If a Zener diode were connected by itself to a power source it would
consume all the electrical current the source could produce, likely burning out the Zener diode. Like
limiting the amount of food given to a pet goldfish, the current has to be limited so that the Zener
diode wonʼt eat its way to self destruction. Hence, a resistor is placed in front of the Zener diode.
Given the current properties of a typical diode laser module, a good selection for the resistor is 47-
ohms, 1/2-watt. Resistors come in strange values (why 47-ohms instead of, say 50?) due to arcane
mathematical trivia involving notions of geometric series and manufacturing tolerances. Be sure to get
the 1/2-watt power rating, as opposed to the also-common 1/4-watt variety. A 1/4-watt resistor used
here could possibly melt and the entire circuit wouldnʼt work.
Figure 3-10: Preparing the end of the wire cable for connection to the laser module involves (A) cutting the cable with diagonal cutters to
the desired overall length of the cable; (B) separating the two sides of the cable, again with diagonal cutters; and (C) stripping the jacket
from the wires to reveal the aluminum stranded wire underneath the jacket. In part (C) of this figure one of the wires has already been
stripped and the second wire is being worked on. Strip each wire to a length of about 1/2-inch of bare wire.
Figure 3-11: Professor Moriarty loves electronics. Here he has a 47-ohm resistor (the larger component with colored bands) and a
IN4733A Zener diode. The Zener diode has a band on one end to mark the cathode end--the end that gets connected to the resistor.
Resistors have no polarity. In other words, it doesn’t matter which end is which of a resistor.

Figure 3-12: Circuit diagram to step down the 9-V from the LEGO® battery box to a suitable voltage for the laser module.

To actually implement the circuit of Figure 3-12, a little soldering has to be done. If you donʼt
know how to solder, there are tutorials on youtube or instructional books at Radio Shack or
jameco.com. The soldering iron and accessories can also be bought at Radio Shack or jameco.com.
Three solder joints need to be made, pictured in Figure 3-13 after the soldering is done and left over
lengths of leads have been cut away. Before soldering, remember to have the wire cable from the
battery brick brought in through a bottom, side hole of the gearbox and to have the two wires from the
laser module routed down through the bottom, back of the gearbox. Later, the soldered joints and
Zener diode circuit will be tucked into the bottom of the gearbox. The three solder joints are:

• three leads consisting of the negative lead from the LEGO® battery box, the black lead of the
laser module, and the anode end of the Zener diode. The anode end of the Zener diode is the
one not with the black band.
• three leads consisting of one end of the resistor, the red lead of the laser module, and the
cathode end of the Zener diode. The cathode end of the Zener diode has a black band around
it.
• two leads consisting of the positive lead from the LEGO® battery box and the other end of the
resistor.
Figure 3-13: Connections made to power up the laser module. Note that the leads and components have been pushed out the bottom,
back of the gearbox for soldering.

Figure 3-14: Greatly useful adhesives for the optics lab are Duco® Cement and sugru®. Duco® is a fluid glue useful for securing optics
to mounts. sugru® is like modeling clay out of the package and easy to form, then it cures into a hard but rubbery texture.

After trimming away the excess lead wires to look like the photo of Figure 3-13, itʼs time to light up
the laser. Put a battery into the LEGO® battery box and turn on the switch to the battery box. Your
reward should be a nice bright beam.

Finishing Touches

With the laser on, the output beam will be seen to be elliptical in shape. I like to have the long
axis of the ellipse straight up and down, and itʼs likely that the laser module will have to be rotated a
little. Partial disassembly of the two gearboxes halves may be necessary to get ahold of the laser
module to rotate it. Once the elliptical beam is oriented to your liking and the gearboxes are pressed
back together, then the laser module should be glued into place to keep it from shifting out of position.
The glue to use for this is called Duco®, showed in Figure 3-14, because it holds tight, but not too
tight. Duco® is easy to remove if an adjustment is needed later. I use, as in Figure 3-15, three drops of
Duco® around the rim of the front of the laser module.

Figure 3-15: A few drops of Duco® will keep the laser from moving.

Once the Duco® dries, the electrical connections can be tended to. In order to protect the bare
wires, keep them from shorting out, and follow good safety practice to not leave live electrical
circuits exposed I cover all the electronics with sugru®. This process is known in the lab as
“encapsulation” or “potting.” Starting out by making sure that power is not applied to the circuit,
sugru® is wrapped around the electronics as shown in Figure 3-16. When fully encapsulated a lima
bean shaped blob results, as in Figure 3-17, which can be tucked away inside the hollow lower
section of the gear box. Since the sugru® package is open and there is much sugru® left over, a good
use for it is to pack it around the hole in the gearbox where the LEGO® wire cable goes into the
gearbox, as shown in Figure 3-18. This gives what is called in the engineering business “strain
relief,” to avoid the wires from rubbing around or twisting a connection. sugru® comes in different
colors. I used black to match the gearbox, but red, blue, white, and yellow are also possible choices.
Figure 3-16: Starting the encapsulation of the exposed electronics with sugru®.

Figure 3-17: Encapsulation finished, with all the electronic components and bare wire leads covered. Once dried, this sugrustructure gets
tucked away inside the gearbox.
Figure 3-18: Done! The completed diode laser module. Some builders may want to customize the final package, depending on how the
laser will be used. The design I used is described in Steps 1-8 below. Notice the laser hazard warning sticker applied to indicate where
the beam comes out. This warning sticker was included when the laser was purchased, as in Figure 3-2.

With the electronics all encapsulated and tidy, we can think about the final mechanical
configuration for the laser module. At this point we have a small cube, convenient to work into other
designs. For the experiments in the following chapter, though, I added a little structure to the cube to
make it more mechanically stable and provide a space for adding the warning label sticker to point to
the laser output. The final product is shown in Figure 3-18, with Bricksmith step-by-step directions as
a conclusion to this chapter.
 Step-by-Step Assembly of the Laser Module Housing

Step 1: The laser diode module is housed within two gearboxes.

Step 2: Four Technic 3/4 Pins (32002) are placed in the 4 upper side holes of the gearboxes.
Step 3: Two 1 x 4 Technic Bricks with Holes (3701) are attached to the pins to add stability to the structure.

Step 4: Two 1 x 4 Plates (3710) add height to the technic bricks.

Step 5: Two 1 x 6 Tiles (6636) cover the top and provide a flat surface for placement of the laser hazard warning sticker.

Step 6: A 2 x 6 Plate (3795) covers the back half of the top. This plate and the tiles of Step 5 also lend rigidity to the structure.
Step 7: After turning the structure around to face the back side, two Technic 1/2 Pins (4274) are inserted with the long side in.

Step 8: A 4 x 4 Plate (3031) covers the back of the assembly.

How Lasers Work

A clue as to how a laser works is in realizing the word “laser” is an acronym: “Light
Amplification through the Stimulated Emission of Radiation.” The key to laser operation is stimulated
emission, a phenomenon by which light photons can make copies of themselves. As shown in Figure
3-19, to start stimulated emission, an electron has to be excited and held at a high energy level. If a
photon matching the energy level of the excited electron meets the excited electron, the excited
electron drops to produce now two photons that are tightly locked to each other. If many excited
electrons are present, then a chain reaction will be unleashed of a huge number of photons all locked
together.

Figure 3-19: Stimulated emission happens when a photon encounters an electron that is temporarily resting in an energy level that
matches the photon’s energy. At right, when the photon hits the electron, the electron drops energy and produces another photon. These
two photons are locked together in phase, with their peaks and valleys lined up.

This chain reaction is sustained by bouncing photons back and forth between two mirrors, a
setup known as a “resonator.” While many photons are needed inside the resonator to keep the
stimulated emission going, some can be spared for an output with which to do useful things. The
photons to spare are released from the resonator by having one mirror of the resonator purposely
made to be only partially reflecting, as diagrammed in Figure 3-20. To keep the laser going a constant
excitation, called a “pump”, is provided to keep a supply of electrons excited for a source of
continued stimulated emission. In a diode laser, the pump is created by electrical current from a
battery.
Figure 3-20: An essential part of a laser is a resonator, formed by reflecting light back and forth between two mirrors that face each
other. The light beam going toward the right is reflected by a mirror to go leftward to another mirror. The mirror on the right is not fully
reflective, letting some light to leak out of the resonator to create the output laser beam. Note how the three output waves are lined up in
their peaks and valleys. These waves, and many more like them, add together to form one coherent output beam.

The construction of a diode laser is similar to an LED (Figure 2-12), with a pnjunction
creating an area where light is generated. As drawn in Figure 3-21, mirrors are placed at the top and
bottom of the pn-junction to form a resonator. Comparing the laser output of Figure 3-21 to the LED
output of Figure 2-12 illustrates what makes a laser special. An LED produces a spray of
uncorrelated waves--these waves may all be of the same wavelength but their peaks and valleys (or
“phase”) are not lined up. But in a laser all the waves produced are lined up in phase to produce a
long, coherent train of light output. This coherence allows the useful properties of laser light, such as
high brightness, a small size that stays within a narrow beam, and the ability to create interference
effects (which are explored in Chapters 6 and 7).
Figure 3-21: A diode laser has similar construction to an LED, such as in Figure 2-12. For a laser, mirrors are added to create a resonator
for laser action. The output that leaks through the partially reflective mirror is of a long coherent train of light waves, rather than a spray
of randomly oriented waves that come out of an LED.

Literary Notes on Sherlock Holmes Stories

Professor James Moriarty, a criminal adversary of Sherlock Holmes, appears in two stories
including The Adventure of the Final Problem and The Valley of Fear. Professor Moriarty is a
mathematical genius who takes a scientific approach to crime, a sort of reverse of Mr. Holmes
scientific approach to detective work. Now that the Professor has a laser from the work in this
chapter, who knows to what evil he may apply it!
 Parts List for Chapter 3

LEGO® Bricks

non-LEGO® Components
diode laser module (such as Digi-Key part number VLM-635-02-LPA-ND)
Zener diode (1N4733A for above diode laser module)
47-Ω resistor, 1/2-watt
sugru®
Duco® Cement
9-V Battery

Tools
drill
drill bit (diameter less than diode laser module)
reamer
soldering iron and accessories
vice
diagonal cutters
wire strippers
 Chapter 4: Mirrors
In Which The Lascar Adds Flittering Lights to his Opium Den

In this chapter we build a laser light show using the laser of Chapter 3 and a couple of
oscillating mirrors. This will be the perfect display for The Lascar to mesmerize his opium-soaked
patrons. Making the laser spot dance is done by reflecting from a mirror that pivots, as diagrammed in
Figure 4-1. As the mirror pivots, the reflected laser beam spot will move back and forth through a
line. If one mirror is oriented to make a horizontal line, and a second mirror is oriented for a vertical
line, then an interesting 2-dimensional shape will result. Figure 4-2 shows the machine to accomplish
this two-mirror arrangement, with the mirror pivoting motorized. Samples of the resulting beam
patterns are shown in Figure 4-3.
The mirror needed for optics and
laser experiments is not the same sort of
mirror found in the bathroom. While all
mirrors are made by coating a piece of
glass with a thin layer of metal, the
difference is in onto which side of the
glass the metal is coated. A household
mirror is made by coating the back side of
a piece of glass, then painting over the
metal with an opaque layer. So when
looking at yourself in a bathroom mirror,
youʼre looking through a thick layer of
Figure 4-1: If a mirror pivots, the beam reflected from glass before hitting the reflective layer.
it will change direction. So the mirror in the blue Household mirrors are made to be rear-
position will create the beam direction colored blue, surface mirrors for the practical reason of
and the mirror in the red position will create the beam protecting the metal surface that does the
direction colored red. reflecting. Otherwise the mirror would be
easily scratched and tarnished in daily use. The problem with the protective glass over a rear-surface
mirror for laser experiments is that the glass front surface will reflect the laser, just as the rear
surface will. It gets worse in that the two surfaces involved will bounce light around between them.
Figure 4-4 shows the results of reflecting a laser off a bathroom mirror--itʼs a jumbled mess.
Figure 4-2: The Lascar’s laser light show machine.

Figure 4-3: Example patterns projected onto a wall by the laser light show machine. The way the motors move the mirrors creates a
constantly changing pattern.
Figure 4-4: A laser beam reflected from a rear-surface mirror results in multiple spots. Multiple spots of different brightness result from
multiple reflections between the mirror surface and protective glass over the mirror.

Mirrors for the science lab, in contrast, are front-surface mirrors. That is, the metal reflective
surface is coated onto the front of a piece of glass. So the reflection from the mirror is simple: one
surface for one reflection. A front-surface mirror, though, needs careful handling. Dust or oils from
fingertips can ruin the mirror. Latex or nitrile gloves (but not the powder-coated kind) should be worn
when handling a front-surface mirror. In the event a mirror does get dirty, special techniques using
lens tissue and reagent-grade methanol are needed to clean the mirror. The worst treatment for a dirty
front-surface mirror is to go at it with a paper towel and Windex®--this will scratch the mirror.

Selecting Front-Surface Mirrors

Front-surface mirrors are not something to find at the local hardware store, so we have to go
on-line to buy them. My favorite sources for high-quality, yet low price, front surface mirrors are
escooptics.com and thorlabs.com. There are several specifications to understand before buying a
front-surface mirror:

reflective coating: some mirrors for high-performance applications use a sophisticated coating called
a “dielectric”, which is not needed here. Reasonably priced mirrors are made with metallic coatings
of either aluminum, silver, or gold. Using silver or gold may sound like an expensive way to go, until
itʼs understood that the layer of metal is so thin that the amount of precious metal involved is
miniscule. But a silver mirror does cost a little more than an aluminum mirror, and a gold mirror costs
a little more than a silver mirror. The choice of which metal is use depends, for some applications, on
what wavelength is involved. Different metals will reflect better for certain wavelengths. But the
difference in reflectivity for use in the projects in this book among aluminum, silver, and gold is not
significant. So we can choose a metal based on other reasons. Silver has a strike against it because
the silver can eventually tarnish. So among the choice of aluminum and gold, aluminum is more
attractive in terms of cost. So aluminum it is.

size: front-surface mirrors usually come inexpensively in round or square sizes of 1/2, 1, and 2
inches. The larger the mirror, the more expensive the cost. But 1/2-inch can be hard to work with,
being a bit small. And 2-inches is getting too large. The 1-inch size is just right when working with a
laser beam.

flatness: All mirrors look flat to the eye. But in a microscopic view, front-surface mirrors come in
different levels of flatness. Flatness is described in fractions of a wavelength listed as something like
“λ/4,” meaning the difference in depth between a microscopic mountain and a microscopic valley is
less that 1/4 of a wavelength of 632-nanometers. Why 632-nm? The wavelength of 632-nm is from a
helium-neon gas laser that is typically used in laboratory instruments to measure many optical
parameters. λ/4 at 632-nm is a tiny distance. But when working with light, such tiny distances become
important. But for the purposes of this chapter, the properties of light weʼre exploiting donʼt need as
small a number (or the associated expense) as λ/4 flatness. Something like 4-λ (meaning the flatness
is 4 times a wavelength) is fine.

Putting these three considerations together, I selected a 1-inch round aluminum mirror of 4-λ flatness.
Both thorlabs.com and escooptics.com have such mirrors for $13 a piece. The rectangular version is
$1 less, but the round shape fits better into one of the tilting stages as will be seen when the laser light
show machine is built.

The Lascarʼs Laser Show Machine Part 1: The Main Board

The laser show machine is built from three pieces, that will be put together later. The first
piece is the biggest, shown below in step-by-step instructions. I used a black and gray color scheme
for the machine, as in Figure 4-2, but the instructions below have pieces in vivid colors to show what
is added in each step.
Step 1: A 12 x 24 Brick (30072) is raised up by six 2 x 4 Bricks (3001).

Step 2: In blue, a 2 x 2 Plate (3022) and two 1 x 4 Plates (3710) form a base for the motor to be added later.

Step 3: In green, a 1 x 6 Brick (3009), a Slope Brick 45 4 x 2 (3037), and a Slope Brick 18 4 x 2 (30363).
Step 4: In purple, a 1 x 8 Technic Brick with Holes (3702) and a 1 x 4 Technic Brick with Holes (3701) are added.

Step 5: In orange, a 6 long Technic Axle (3706) is put through the end hole of the 1 x 8 Technic Brick with Holes. On one side of the axle
goes a 40-tooth Technic Gear (3649). On the other side of the axle goes a Technic Wedge Belt Wheel (4185). There should be very little
axle protruding through the belt wheel.
Step 6: In light blue, a 3/4 Technic Pin (32002) is inserted into one hole of the Technic Wedge Belt Wheel. On the long side of the pin
goes the end of a 5 x 0.5 Technic Beam (32017). On the other end of the beam goes the short end of 3/4 Technic Pin (32002). The long
end of this pin goes through a Technic Angle Connector #1 (32013). A 6-long Technic Axle goes through an end hole of the 1 x 4
Technic Brick and into the Angle Connector. This device is called an “eccentric”--it converts rotary motion into oscillating linear motion.
If the gear is turned, the 6-long axle will go back and forth in a line.

Step 7: In red, a 24-tooth Technic Gear (3648a) is put onto an Electric Technic Mini-Motor (71427c01). The motor is placed to mesh with
the neighboring 40-tooth gear. This gear arrangement is called “reduction gearing,” so that the speed of the motor is reduced. This way
the eccentric won’t be driven too fast. A reduction gearing also increases torque--the amount of rotational force--that will be applied to
the eccentric. With more torque the eccentric can push more mass.
Step 8: In yellow, a 2 x 4 Brick (3001) is placed to act as a limit to the distance of motion the mirror will pivot. This piece can be adjusted
later to create different laser show patterns. In this diagram, a one stud length of the brick hangs over the edge. Also, a 1 x 4 Plate
(3710) is attached, with a 1 x 2 Technic Brick with Hole (3700). The Technic Brick hole has a Technic Pin with Friction Ridges (2780)
inserted into it. This pin will later be used to anchor a rubber band. Finally, a 2 x 4 Plate (3020) is attached to add a little height for the
next step.

Step 9: In gray, a 2 x 4 Brick (3001) on top of the plate of the previous step. Also, a 2 x 2 Corner Brick (2357) is added to the structure
of the eccentric mechanism to give a little more mechanical rigidity.
Step 10: In white, a 2 x 4 Articulated Hinge (3639 and 3640) is placed. This hinge provides the pivot for Mirror #1.

Step 11: In magenta, a 2 x 4 Brick (3001) goes on top of the hinge. A 1 x 4 Technic Brick with Holes (3701) goes on the bottom, back of
the hinge.
Step 12: In black, a 2 x 4 Plate (3020) goes on top of the hinge. A Technic Pin with Friction Ridges (2780) goes into the end hole of the 1
x 4 Technic Brick underneath the hinge. A Small Rubber Band (x151, the official LEGO® rubber band, not just any rubber band) goes
between the Technic Pin on the hinge and to the pin on the corner of the baseplate. This will pull the hinge against the 2 x 4 limit brick of
step 8. The mirror pivots back and forth by the combination of the pull of the rubber band and the push of the eccentric. The force of the
rubber band is called “loading.”

Step 13: In blue, two 2 x 4 Bricks (3001) form a base for the laser.
Step 14: In brown, two more 2 x 4 Bricks (3001) add height for the base of the laser.

Step 15: In azure, two 2 x 4 Plates (3020) give a little more needed height as a base for the laser. A 4 x 10 Brick (6212) goes under the
large board for later attachment of Mirror #2.

The Lascarʼs Laser Show Machine Part 2: Platform for Mirror #1

The next assembly is a simple piece that holds Mirror #1. A front-surface mirror will be
glued onto this part.
Step 1: A 1 x 4 Brick with Studs on Side (30414) has two 2 x 4 Tiles (87079) attached. The smooth surface of the tiles is where the
mirror will be glued. If a need arises to remove the mirror, it can be done by twisting the two tile sections.

Step 2: A 2 x 4 Plate (3020) on the back side of the tiles adds rigidity to the structure.
Step 3: Lay the assembly flat and use Duco® glue (Figure 3-14) to attach a mirror with the reflective side up. I use three points of
Duco® around the circle of the mirror. Let the glue dry overnight.

Assembly and Test: Part 1

Once the Duco® glue has dried on the Mirror #1 mount, it can be attached to the main board.
Mirror Mount #1 attaches to top of the hinge, as shown in Figure 4-5. At this point the LEGO® Laser
from Chapter 3 can also be added, being attached to the pedestal created in Step 15 of the Main
Board. After turning on the laser, a spot should be seen on the mirror, close to the center of the mirror.
To add power to the Mirror #1 motor, I used an Electric 9-V Battery Box 4 x 14 x 4 (2847c0x) as
shown in Figure 4-2. While the LEGO® Laser uses a small battery box, the larger box is better for
driving the motors since it has more battery capacity from its six AA batteries. In addition, the larger
battery box has switches for the polarity of the voltage to drive the motors either clockwise or
counterclockwise. With the laser on and Motor #1 spinning the laser show machine will project a
horizontal line--a sign of good progress, but not so interesting for a laser show display. To make the
laser show exciting we have to add motion in the vertical direction, which is the function of the
Mirror #2 construction.
Figure 4-5: Installation of Mirror #1 and the LEGO® Laser. Notice that a red spot from the laser appears on the mirror surface, near the
center of the mirror. The camera in this view also sees the face of the laser reflected by the mirror. Be careful in such viewing angles to
avoid the laser beam coming right at your eyes.

The Lascarʼs Laser Show Machine Part 3: Mirror #2

Construction of the mechanism for Mirror #2 comes in two parts: Part A and Part B. While
Mirror #1 scans the laser beam horizontally, Mirror #2 scans the beam vertically.

Part A
Step A-1: A 4 x 10 Plate (3030) is attached to a 4 x 4 Locking Turntable (87081c01). The turntable is one stud in from the edge of the
plate.

Step A-2: A 2 x 4 Brick (3001) and two 1 x 2 Bricks (3004) form a base for a motor.
Step A-3: An Electric Technic Mini-Motor (71427c01) is placed on top of the base of Step 2. Two 1 x 2 Locking with Single Finger on
Top Hinge Plates (30383) are also installed.

Step A-4: A Technic Beam 3 x 0.5 Liftarm (6632) is added, along with two 1 x 2 Locking with Dual Fingers on Side Hinge Plates
(60471) .
 Part B

Step B-1: Two 1 x 6 Technic Bricks with Holes (3894) are stacked. Four Technic Pins (3673) are inserted into the lower brick.

Step B-2: Two Technic Cross Block 2 x 2 Splits (41678) are attached to the Technic Pins.

Step B-3: Two Technic Angle Connector #6s (32014) are attached with Technic Axle 2 (3704). The angle connectors are free to pivot
up and down, which will be the source of the mirror tilting.
Step B-4: Two Technic Axle 2s (3704) are placed in the Technic Angle Connectors.

Step B-5: Technic Connectors (Axle/Bush) (32039) go onto the axles.

Step B-6: A Technic Axle 6 (3706) goes through the two technic connectors with one end of the axle flush with the end of the bushing.
Be sure not to push the two connectors toward each other on the axle, otherwise the pivoting action will be inhibited.
Assembly and Test: Part 2

Parts A and B of the Mirror #2 are snapped together, as pictured in Figure 4-6. A mirror is
mounted onto the assembly using sugru® to secure it. A round mirror, as opposed to a square shape, is
better to use here because the round shape will help hold it straight and upright as the sugru® sets. The
motorized pivoting works by the Technic Beam tapping the Technic Axle 6 as the motor rotates. In
Mirror #1 the force of a rubber band was needed to load the mechanism in order to reset the pivoting
motion. For Mirror #2, the loading force is created by the force of gravity. The beam spinning on the
motor kicks the mirror upward; gravity brings the mirror back down.
Now that Mirror #2 Mount is done, it gets attached to the main board as in Figure 4-7. The
base of the turntable gets attached to the pedestal of 4 x 4 studs sticking out from the bottom of the
main board. Turning everything on should project a varying 2-dimensional beam pattern. To center the
beam on Mirror #2, the Mirror #2 mount can be pivoted on the turntable.
The power connections to the motors by cables (5306bc) need attention to polarity. Switching
polarity wonʼt damage anything to the motors, but the best start is to setup the motor polarity on
Mirror #2 so that the beam hits the axle from the bottom. The polarities of either mirror can be
changed to get different beam patterns, as described below.

Changing the Laser Show Pattern

A few things can be adjusted to create different patterns in the laser show. The stop brick in
Step 8 of the main board can be moved, or the 2 x 4 Brick for the stop piece can be changed to a
slope or round piece. The characteristic of the motion for Mirror #1 can also be changed by replacing
the gear attached to the motor of Step 7 of the main board to a 40-tooth gear (also requiring moving
the motor). This will speed up the motion of Mirror #1. Vertical motion can be changed from Mirror
#2 by tilting the mirror on its hinge plates. Finally, the beam scan can be changed by the polarity of
the battery connections to both mirrors.
Figure 4-6: Part B snaps onto the Hinge Plates of Part A. This will cant Part B in an upward angle. In the picture here the turntable base
has been rotated so that it can be seen. The integrated unit will be heavy toward the motor end and want to tip over, so I put a brick
underneath the motor temporarily to level out the structure. This makes it easier to stick the mirror on with a couple blobs of sugru®.

Figure 4-7: The laser show machine is completed by attaching Mirror #2. The turntable is oriented for Mirror #2 to intercept the beam
from Mirror #1.
How Mirrors Work

The behavior of a flat mirror is described by the “Law of Reflection,” which states that the
angle of a light ray reflected from a mirror is the same as the angle of the incident ray. This
relationship is diagrammed in Figure 4-8. The input and reflected rays are referenced to an imaginary
line, called a “normal,” drawn perpendicular to the mirror surface. Expressed mathematically the
Law of Reflection is

where the subscripts “i” and “r” refer to the input and reflected rays. The laser light show in this
chapter is created by varying θi by pivoting the mirror. Another way to look at it is that the normal is
made to vary, so θr varies, creating a moving laser spot position. With two mirrors, a moving spot
position can be made in 2 axes to project complex patterns.

Figure 4-8: The Law of Reflection for a mirror indicates that the reflected beam and input beam keep the same angle relative to the
normal. The normal is drawn as a dashed line.

Though not used in this book, mirrors can also be curved to produce focusing or diverging
effects much like a lens.

Literary Notes on Sherlock Holmes Stories

 The Lascar, who is not named, appears in the story The Man with the Twisted Lip. The
Lascar runs an opium den, where people would go to get high on recreational drugs. This practice,
and The Lascarʼs establishment, were not illegal in Victorian times. A laser light show is perfect to
keep his customers entertained.
 Parts List for Chapter 4
(in addition to parts from Chapter 3)

LEGO® Bricks
non-LEGO® Components
2 front surface mirrors, 1-inch round, (such as Esco Optics part number D502500)
Duco® Cement
sugru®
6 AA batteries
1 9-V battery

Tools
latex or nitrile gloves (not powder coated)
 Chapter 5: Optomechanics
In Which Miss Mary Morstan Plays Croquet with Photons

Optomechanics is a speciality dealing with the combination of optical science and mechanical
engineering. In order to take advantage of the pointing and focusing capabilities of a laser, optics such
as mirrors and lenses often need precise mechanical fixtures to hold and move them. In this chapter
we build such a fixture to tip and tilt a front-surface mirror used to point a laser beam. Our friend
Miss Mary Morstan will use a laser and a pair of new mirror mounts to create a game of 3-
dimensional croquet. Aside from creating an interesting spatial puzzle, this device demonstrates a
fundamental concept used in the optics lab. Over and over again, the task in a professional lab is to
align a set of optics so that they are all centered with each other. The line everything is centered on is
called the “optical axis.” While this axis is seen a lot in textbooks about optics, it is also used in
practice when building optical systems. The trouble is, though, that textbooks never reveal the secret
about creating an optical axis and aligning things in an actual implementation. So now in this chapter,
Miss Mary Morstan will show us how itʼs done.

The Tip-Tilt Mirror Mount

A complete tip-tilt mount is shown in Figure 5-1. Building it involves first modifying a couple
Technic 90-Degree Quarter Circle Liftarms (32249). One modification is to attach a mirror to a
quarter circle liftarm; the other modification is tapping threads into another quarter circle liftarm.
This project makes use of many liftarms with six as a minimum, but spares will likely be needed.
Precision tip and tilt is created by the linear motion of a screw, with a counter force provided by a
rubber band. The tipping and tilting is centered around a tow ball that serves here as a bearing
surface.

Brick Mod #1: Attaching a Mirror to a Quarter Circle Liftarm

Figure 5-2 shows an arrangement to attach the front-surface mirror to a quarter circle liftarm.
In this case, a square mirror works a little better than a round mirror. Care has to be taken not to
scratch or smudge the mirror when handling it. Latex or nitrile gloves should be worn to keep the
mirror clean. Also, when working with the mirror, lay it face down on a piece of lens tissue. The lens
tissue that the mirror came shipped in can be used. Then the quarter circle liftarm can be set onto the
back side of the mirror and positioned before sticking the mirror down with sugru®. The pin holes on
the quarter circle liftarm have to be kept clear of sugru® for a later step, so as shown in Figure 5-2,
pins are temporarily placed into the liftarm to make sure that sugru® doesnʼt get into the holes. Once
the liftarm is situated, sugru® is placed around the quarter circle of the liftarm to bond the mirror to
the liftarm. After the sugru® dries overnight, the mirror/liftarm gets set aside to wait for the rest of the
construction. I put the mirror/liftarm back into the box in which the mirror was shipped to keep it
safe.

Figure 5-1: The tip-tilt mount for precisely adjusting a mirror.

Figure 5-2: The mirror should rest face down on lens tissue for attachment of the quarter circle liftarm. Technic Pins (2780) are placed in
the back of the liftarm for the attachment procedure. These pins will later (Figure 5-6) be moved to the front of the liftarm.

Figure 5-3: Tool time for Chapter 5 includes a 10-32 tap (left), a 5/32 Allen wrench with a ball end for the 10-32 screw cap (middle), and
a tap handle (right).
Brick Mod #2: Tapping Holes into a Quarter Circle Liftarm

The tip-tilt mount works by a screw nudging the position of the mirror. The type of screw to
use should be of a diameter to match the holes that already exist in the quarter circle liftarm and of a
fine pitch (a large number of threads per inch). The finer the pitch of the screw (that is, the more
threads per inch), the more precise the tip-tilt motion will be. It turns out that a #10 screw nicely
matches the opening in the corners of the quarter circle liftarm. And a standard pitch in a #10 screw is
32 threads per inch, which will serve well. My local hardware store offers a 10-32 screw, 1-inch
long, stainless steel, socket head cap for 78-cents each. The project here needs four such screws.

Figure 5-4: Miss Morstan is the proud owner of a new 10-32 tap. We wish her well on her thread-cutting endeavors.

While visiting the hardware store, itʼs also time to pick up a tap, a tap handle, and a 5/32 ball
driver (or Allen wrench) for the 10-32 screw, as shown in Figure 5-3. A tap, shown close up in
Figure 5-4, is a tool for cutting screw threads. Usually to make a screw hole, the hole is first drilled
out to a diameter a little smaller than the tap diameter. The tap is then twisted through the hole to cut
the threads. But in our case, the pre-tap hole is already provided in the opening of the quarter circle
liftarm, so we can just skip to the tapping part. Itʼs best to hold the liftarm in a vice, as shown in
Figure 5-5, for the procedure. I used a purple quarter circle liftarm to distinguish it from the other
parts in the device. When tapping into plastic, itʼs difficult to keep the tap straight and perpendicular
because the plastic tends to twist with the pressure of the tap. Straight and perpendicular is ideal, but
not strictly necessary here--the mechanism will still work if the screw goes in a little crooked. After
cutting the threads and backing out the tap, running the tap through again will remove some of the
plastic bits clinging on from the first run-through of the tap. The screws can now be threaded into the
holes.
Figure 5-4: The tap is first fit snugly into the cross opening of the corner of the quarter circle liftarm. Once the fit is snug, the tap is
twisted to cut threads. The two cross opening at the end of each arm should be tapped. If Miss Morstan is going to supervise like this,
she should really put on safety glasses.

Build #1: Threaded Quarter Circle Liftarm

The quarter circle liftarm that has been tapped needs a few parts added to it, shown in the
following steps.

Step 1: The modified Quarter Circle Liftarm has a Technic Axle Towball (2736) inserted into its corner.
Step 2: A pair of Technic Axle 3 with Stops (6587) are placed through the liftarm.

Step 3: Technic Bushings 1/2 Smooth with Axle Hole (4265c) secure the axles in place. A small rubber band goes around each of the
bushings--see Figure 5-1.

Build #2: The Post

The post provides a structure to hold the pivoting parts and to raise the mirror up in height.
Building the post consists of 5 steps:
Step 1: A Technic Brick 1 x 6 with Holes (3894) gets Technic Pins with Friction Ridges (2780) placed on the ends and Technic Pins Long
with Friction Ridges (6558) in the center three holes.

Step 2: A Technic Brick 1 x 6 with Holes (3894) fits over the pins.

Step 3: Two Technic Beams 2 x 4 Liftarm Bent 90 (32140) are attached.

Step 4: Technic Axle Pins (3749) go into the bent beams, along with a Technic Pin (2780).

Step 5: A quarter circle liftarm (3302, the same part used in the brick mods above) is added to give rigidity to the structure. Two 2 x 3
Bricks (3002) add height.

Assembly of the Tip-Tilt Mount

With the mods and builds done, itʼs time to put everything together. To start, the the threaded
quarter circle liftarm goes onto the post, as shown in Figure 5-5. Before assembling this step, make
sure the rubber bands havenʼt fallen off. The quarter circle liftarm with the mirror is next attached by
rubber bands stretched over the protruding Technic Pins, as pictured in Figure 5-6.
Figure 5-5: The quarter circle liftarm (modified to accept 10-32 screws) gets pressed into the post. Two Small Rubber Bands (x151) will
hang loose in this step. The two 10-32 screws should be rotated in so that they stick out about as far as the tow ball. It’s important that
the attachment points by the Technic Axle 3 with Stops are pressed firmly into the post.

Figure 5-6: The quarter circle liftarm with mirror attached is held in place against the assembly of Figure 5-5. Everything is held together
by stretching two rubber bands over the pins protruding out near the mirror. Note the use of gloves for this procedure to keep the mirror
clean. The Technic Pins (2780) have been moved to the front side of the liftarm, as opposed to the back side of Figure 5-2.

The Croquet Playing Field

The laser module from Chapter 3 combined with two tip-tilt mounts creates a game of laser
croquet. The playing field for the game is diagrammed in 5 steps below. The large area of the
baseplate will be used again in the setup of Chapter 6.

Step 1: Two 12 x 24 Bricks (30072) are joined together by 2 x 6 Plates (3795).

Step 2: Stands are made from 2 x 2 x 2 Cones (3942) and 4H Antennas (3957).
Step 3: 1 x 1 Vertical Clips (60897) are attached to the antennas.

Step 4: 1 x 2 Technic Bricks with Holes (3700) are attached to the clips to provide target holes for the croquet puzzle. A 4 x 4 Locking
Turntable (87081c01) is also added for the laser module to go on. Be sure to use the locking turntable, not the free-spinning version.
Step 5: A pair of 2 x 4 Bricks (3001) and a pair of 2 x 4 Plates (3020) give added height for the laser module. Tip-tilt stages go where the
white tiles are shown.

The final setup with the laser module and tip-tilt stages is shown in Figure 5-7. The laser
module is rotated on the turntable to project the beam at a 45-degree angle to the grid of brick studs.
The reflection from Mirror #1 will set the beam onto a path to Mirror #2. The game becomes to align
the beam through the target holes by tipping and tilting the mirrors. In order to turn the screws for
adjustment, twisting the screws with fingers can nudge the mirrors too hard and knock everything out
of position. To avoid this complication, the ball end of the Allen wrench (Figure 5-3) should be used
to turn the screws. As the adjustment of Mirror #1 is occurring the beam from Mirror #1 may go off of
the area of Mirror #2. If this happens Mirror Mount #2 should be moved to intercept the beam.
Figure 5-7: Layout of the croquet puzzle. The objective is to bring the laser beam through both target holes. Miss Morstan exclaims, “The
game is afoot!”

How Alignment Works: The Solution to the Puzzle

The key to the puzzle, referring to Figure 5-7, is to use Mirror #1 to align the beam through
Target #1 and Mirror #2 to align through Target #2. The 1-to-1 and 2-to-2 adjustment has to be
repeated many times in order to get the laser beam through both holes. That is, when Mirror #1 is first
adjusted to bring the beam through Target #1, the beam will probably be way off on Target #2. The
large adjustment needed at Mirror #2 will probably make the beam way off on Target #1, appearing
to have undone the adjustment made for Target #1. But by repeating the procedure the error in the
alignment will be gradually reduced. The adjustments needed will get smaller and smaller with each
iteration of 1-to-1 and 2-to-2. Eventually, the beam can be made to go exactly through both targets. A
situation may arise in the adjustment procedure in which the beam goes off the area of Mirror #2.
When this happens, the Mirror #2 tip/tilt mount should picked up and repositioned so the beam is
again on the mirror surface.

Literary Notes on Sherlock Holmes Stories

 A running comedic element in Sherlock Holmes stories is his friend Dr. Watsonʼs eye for the
ladies. Dr. Watson is frequently commenting on the beauty of women who consult with Mr. Holmes.
Dr. Watson is especially taken with Miss Mary Morstan in the novel The Sign of Four. At the end of
the novel Dr. Watson proposes marriage to Miss Morstan--she accepts. Miss Morstanʼs occupation is
a governess, so she takes interest in games like croquet that will entertain children.
 Parts List for Chapter 5
(in addition to parts from Chapter 3)

LEGO® Bricks

non-LEGO® Components
2 front surface mirrors, 1-inch square (such as Thorlabs part number ME1S-G01)
4 10-32, 1-inch long socket head cap screws
Duco® Cement
sugru®

Tools
10-32 tap
tap handle
5/32 Allen wrench
latex or nitrile gloves (not powder coated)
 Chapter 6: The Michelson Interferometer
In Which Sir Henry Baskerville Probes the Luminiferous Aether

In this chapter we build a Michelson interferometer, a device that uses the properties of laser
light to detect very small motions and vibrations. This device works by the interference of light
waves, in which light waves are manipulated to interact with each other. For example, if two light
waves are lined up in an arrangement like Figure 6-1, the the light can be made to disappear--this is
called “interference.” Interference is not seen commonly in everyday experience because most light
sources such as a light bulb or the sun produce a spray of waves of different wavelengths into all
directions with short trains of waves in random phases. In all this mess, a few light waves interfering
with each other go unnoticed. But the light from a laser is a different story. Laser light is called
“coherent,” meaning its output is one wavelength into a fixed direction, with long trains of waves.
Laser output can readily made to show interference.
This chapter also recreates a famous experiment in the history of science. In the 19th Century
the nature of light was not fully understood. Light was suspected of being a wave of some sort, but the
question persisted as to what these waves ride through. People thought there must be some sort of
invisible substance in space that light waves travel through--this invisible substance was called
“luminiferous aether.” In the 1880s two scientists, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley, came up
with an experiment to investigate the luminiferous aether. Their idea was that the earth is moving
though the aether as it orbits the sun, which should create a sort of wind in one direction but not in the
perpendicular direction. If a device could be made that detects changes in the speed of light, then the
speed should be seen to change if the light rays are parallel or perpendicular to the aether wind. This
device is the interferometer. In the 1880s there were no lasers, so Michelson and Morley had to go
through a lot of trouble for a light source involving a sodium lamp and filters. The result of the
Michelson-Morley experiment was a negative outcome--there was no evidence for the existence of
luminiferous aether. It turns out that light waves travel through nothing, just barren empty space. This
idea led to much scientific and philosophical insight, such as Einsteinʼs theories of relativity.

Figure 6-1: Two light waves (one drawn as a solid line and the other drawn as a dashed line) can extinguish each other if they line up just
right. The peak of one wave is canceled by being in the valley of another wave. Two light waves can also reinforce each other if the
peaks and valleys are lined up with each other.

In addition, the Michelson-Morley experiment created an immensely useful tool, found today
is high-tech inventions for medical diagnostics, atmospheric measurements, and telecommunications.
So now weʼll build the LEGO® version, with the assistance of Sir Henry Baskerville.
The Beamsplitter

To create interference we need

two light beams to work with. A laser
generates one beam, which can be split
into two parts to form the interferometer.
The optical component to split a laser
beam has the obvious name of a
“beamsplitter,” shown in Figure 6-2.
Beamsplitters work by being a purposely
imperfect mirror. That is, the mirror
coating is made to only partially work.
Some of the incident light reflects from
the beamsplitter coating, while some goes
through the coating. Beamsplitters are
described by how much light they reflect
and how much is transmitted through. A
50/50 beamsplitter, which is the kind we
Figure 6-2: Sir Henry Baskerville inspects a 50/50 beamsplitter. This
want, reflects 50% and transmits 50%.
beamsplitter reflects half of the light incident on it and transmits the other Thorlabs (thorlabs.com) has a good
half. Hence, Sir Henry can see both his reflection and the lens tissue quality beamsplitter for $35 in part
underneath the beam splitter. number EBS1 of a 1-inch diameter.
Beamsplitters are typically thin (3-mm thick in the one Sir Henry bought) and can be broken if
handled roughly. Also, whatever holds the beamsplitter should not block much of the area because a
laser beam will be going through the optic at an angle. So to hold the beam splitter, Sir Henry used
Duco® to attach it to a 1 x 4 Technic Brick with Holes (3701) as in Figure 6-3. The attachment should
be rigid since itʼs going to be used in an interferometer for detecting vibrations--I glued it on both
back and front. As in Figure 6-3, I glued it first on the front, let the Duco® dry, then flipped it over and
dropped glue into the holes of the brick. Gravity will settle the drop of Duco® where itʼs needed
against the beamsplitter and walls of the hole. The beamsplitter should be left facedown as the Duco®
dries over many hours.
Figure 6-3: Three drops of Duco® are placed at the bottom rim of the beamsplitter to attach it to a 1 x 4 Technic Brick with Holes
(3701). Another 1 x 4 Brick (in light grey color here) keeps the beamsplitter level.

Figure 6-4: After the front-side Duco® is dry, the backside is fixed down by a drop of Duco® in each of the three technic holes. The
beamsplitter, now facedown, should rest against lens tissue to avoid scratching the beamsplitter surface.

Layout of the Michelson Interferometer

With the beamsplitter ready, the interferometer can be setup using the laser module of Chapter
3, the tip/tilt front-surface mirrors of Chapter 5, and the lens of Chapter 1. The layout of the device is
shown in Figure 6-5, and a photograph of the LEGO® implementation is shown in Figure 6-6. The
beamsplitter, now set on a 4 x 4 Locking Turntable (87081c01), creates two beams that are reflected
back onto themselves with a mirror on each of the two arms of the interferometer. These retro-
reflections are combined together as they pass again through the beamsplitter. So we see here that a
beamsplitter can also act as a beam combiner. The two aligned beams (the blue lines in Figure 6-5)
are interfering with each other, but the spot size of the laser beam makes the interference pattern
difficult to see. In order to enlarge the beam a lens is used, held by a minifigure as was done in
Chapter 1. Aligning the interferometer can be a little complicated, but not too bad after understanding
how the tip/tilt mounts work from Chapter 5. Going through step by step:
Figure 6-5: An overhead view of the Michelson interferometer layout shows how the laser beams are split and realigned together. The
red lines indicate the incident beam onto the mirrors; blue lines are the mirror reflections.

Figure 6-6: The LEGO® implementation of the interferometer has Mr. Sherlock Holmes of Chapter 1 making a cameo appearance.

Step 1: The Base Plate

The base plate is made from two 12 x 24 Bricks (30072, the same used in Chapter 5) held
together by a couple plates (3795, in purple in Figure 6-7). A pedestal (in blue and yellow) for the
laser module is added, along with a 4 x 4 Locking Turntable (87081c01, in green). Be sure to use the
locking turntable, not the free-spinning version.

Figure 6-7: The interferometer layout begins with a baseplate, shown here in multi-color schematic. I used black and grey pieces for the
actual build. The tip/tilt mounts of Chapter 5 go in places marked by white rectangles.

Step 2: Mirror # 1

The first optics to add are the laser module, beamsplitter, and Mirror #1 as shown in Figure
6-8. The beamsplitter should be rotated on its turntable such that itʼs at a 45-degree angle to the laser
beam. Mirror #1 next gets set into place and adjusted in tip/tilt so that the reflection from the mirror
goes close to, but not exactly into, the aperture from which the laser is emitted. This retro-reflection
alignment is shown in Figure 6-9. The reason for not aligning exactly back into the laser aperture is
that a feedback mechanism will be setup if the alignment were perfect that would drive the laser
output unstable. This feedback wonʼt destroy anything, but the wavelength stability needed for an
interferometer would be ruined. So to avoid feedback, the retro-reflection alignment is purposely
made imperfect. In Figure 6-9 the alignment is done so that the retro-reflection is off to one side, but it
doesnʼt matter if the offset is to the side or vertically. As the beam reflected from Mirror #1 is going
back toward the laser, part of the reflected beam will bounce off the beamsplitter. The reflected spot
can be viewed on a wall, as is done in Figure 6-8.
Figure 6-8: The beamsplitter should be rotated such that the reflection from Mirror #1 goes at a right angle to the line between the laser
and Mirror #1.

Figure 6-9: Another view of Figure 6-8 to show the spot reflected from Mirror #1 adjusted to almost go back into the laser aperture.

Step 3: Mirror # 2

Mirror #2 gets placed, as per the white rectangle in Figure 6-7, to intercept the reflection of
the laser beam from the beamsplitter. The reflection from Mirror #2 will appear on the wall
somewhere near the reflection from Mirror #1. These two spots are shown in Figure 6-10. The tip/tilt
of Mirror #2, adjusted by the screws in the mount, is set to direct the reflection from Mirror #2 so that
it exactly overlaps the reflection from Mirror #1. This adjustment will be sensitive and difficult to
accomplish turning the adjustment screws with fingers, so the Allen wrench should be used for fine
adjustment.

Figure 6-10: With the installation of Mirror #2, a 2nd spot will appear from the reflection of Mirror #2. These two spots should be
overlapped exactly onto each other by adjusting the screws of Mirror #2.

Step 4: Diverging the Beam

The last step in the interferometer setup is to put a lens into the beam path, as pictured in
Figure 6-6. The lens can be used from Chapter 1, again with a minifig providing a means to hold and
adjust the lens into position. This step is needed because the small spot seen at the end of Step 3 is
too small to see the effects of interference. To make the beam bigger a focusing lens, viewing the
image far past the focal point, will give a big spot. In the case shown in Figure 6-6, Mr. Holmes had
to stand on a brick to raise up the height of the magnifying glass to center it with the co-aligned laser
beams.

The Interferometric Pattern

 The spot projected onto a wall after building through Step 4 above will show an interference
pattern that looks like a pattern of stripes, with examples shown in Figure 6-11. The bright portions
are where light waves are positively reinforcing each other, and the dark portions are where light
waves are negatively canceling each other. The pattern of stripes is extremely sensitive to vibration.
So if the LEGO® platform is shaking, even just a little, the interference pattern might not appear.

Figure 6-11: Example interferograms seen on a wall about 18-inches away from the interferometer. Different stripe patterns are made
depending on alignment. Each of these patterns is about 3-inches tall.

As Figure 6-11 illustrates, the interference pattern can have a different number and orientation
of stripes (sometimes called “fringes”) created as the angles of the two interfering beams change. The
better the alignment, the fewer fringes occur. If the alignment were made perfect, there would only be
one fringe, with the possibility of the entire spot disappearing under destructive interference. But
perfect alignment is not possible with the inexpensive setup created here, because of the feedback
effect described when Mirror #1 was being aligned. Directing the beam reflected from Mirror #1
perfectly back into the laser would create feedback and instability in the laser. There is a way around
this feedback problem, but it involves an expensive device called a “Faraday isolator”. Instead, weʼll
work with a slightly imperfect fringes, which turn out to be more useful in some respects.
An interesting experiment with the interferometer is to observe the stability of the fringe
pattern. A person has to be perfectly still around the interferometer. In my setup if I talk even softly
the fringe pattern will wobble and shift. If someone is walking in the part of the house near my setup,
the fringe pattern will go crazy. Even having the air conditioning fan blowing in my house stirs up a
shifting pattern. This effect can be used to measure very small motions or vibrations. The distance the
fringe pattern stripes shift is related to how far one of the interferometer mirrors is moving. And the
variation with time of the vibration can be determined. If I put the interferometer on my desk and slap
the desk with my hand, the time for the table to stop vibrating (even though there is no vibration
apparent just by looking at the desktop) can be seen--itʼs a few seconds in my case. Perturbations in
the air can also be studied with the interferometer. If I blow warm breath through the path of the laser
beam, the fringe pattern will shift around.
The wavelength output of the laser also affects the fringe pattern. If the laser is turned off for a
while, then turned back on, the fringe pattern will show an undulating pattern. This occurs because the
laser is heating up after being turned on, which changes the wavelength a little, in turn resulting in a
changing interference pattern. The health of the laser can also be determined by the fringe patterns. If
the laser output is low, from a worn down battery, the fringe patterns may be indistinct or not appear
at all.

The Holography Connection

Interferometry can be thought of as a simple form of holography. The interference patterns of

Figure 6-11 are simple holograms. Holography works by capturing light waves in an interferometric
pattern and providing a means to replay the original light waves. For example, if the patterns of
Figure 6-11 could be captured on photographic film, we would have a basic hologram. It would be a
boring hologram, since the replayed image would simply be of a straight laser beam. We will make
holograms in the next chapter of something more interesting.
The interferometer is also a practical tool for starting holography, since in holography the
platform being used has to be stable. The interferometer serves as a diagnostic tool to determine if the
platform or table to be used is stable enough. Vibrations can ruin a hologram when it is being made.
To determine if a platform is good enough for holography, then the fringe pattern seen from the
interferometer must be stable over the span of a few minutes. The pattern shouldnʼt shift around over
the course of these minutes. In the setup in my home, I learned from watching the interferometer that I
should:

• put the setup on the floor, rather than a desk. My garage floor is best since itʼs built on a concrete
slab, whereas the rest of my house is wood flooring built over a crawl space.

• keep the air conditioning and fans turned off.

• let the laser warm up for at least 2-minutes.

• not talk.

• not walk around or have other people walking around.

How Interference Works

The interferometer works because light is a wave. From a laser the light waves are long
coherent trains that can be made to interfere with each other. As drawn in Figure 6-13 and 6-14, when
two light waves are added together the summed light pattern can be bright or dark. The level of
brightness depends on how the peaks and valleys of the waves line up with each other. If the peaks
and valleys line up exactly as in Figure 6-13, a condition known as being “in phase,” a bright wave of
twice the original height results. As drawn in Figure 6-14 if the peak of one wave lines up with the
valley of another wave, known as being 180-degrees out phase, then all the light is extinguished. A
phase relation somewhere between in-phase and out-of-phase will produce a pattern going from
completely dark, to a little bright, to moderately bright, to very bright. The patterns of Figure 6-11 are
such instances of stripes ranging from completely dark to very bright.

Figure 6-13: When two light waves are in phase, they add together to create a bright beam. This situation is known as “constructive
interference.”
Figure 6-14: When two light waves are 180-degrees out phase, they cancel each other out to create no light. This situation is known as
“destructive interference.”

Literary Notes on Sherlock Holmes Stories

Sir Henry Baskerville is a lead character in one of the four Sherlock Holmes novels, The
Hound of the Baskervilles. Most of Sir Arthur Conan Doyleʼs stories were short stories originally
published in magazines, but the The Hound of the Baskervilles is a longer length book. If a person
were to read only one Sherlock Holmes story, it should probably be The Hound of the Baskervilles.
In this novel Sir Henry is terrorized by an unnaturally glowing, giant dog. Hence, Sir Henry was
interested in this chapter involving luminiferous objects.
 Parts List for Chapter 6
(in addition to parts from Chapters 1, 3, and 5)

LEGO® Bricks

non-LEGO® Components
1 beamsplitter, 50/50 (such as Thorlabs part number EBS1)
Duco® Cement

Tools
5/32 Allen wrench
 Chapter 7: LEGO® Holography
In Which Dr. John Watson Paints Fantastical Portraits with Interferograms

In this chapter Dr. John Watson will create holographic portraits of LEGO® minifigures.
Holography is a wondrous way to store and replay 3-dimensional images. Unlike 2-dimensional
pictures made with cameras, the storage of an image in holography can capture a 3-dimensional view
of an object. If an interferogram is made between a reference laser beam and the reflection from an
object, the objectʼs image can be replayed by passing another reference beam through the
interferogram. The interferogram is the same idea presented in Chapter 6, though the “object” in this
case was simply another laser beam. One challenge in holography is the medium on which to store the
interference pattern. Digital imaging sensors, like silicon arrays commonly used now in cameras,
have no where near enough resolution to capture the interferogram. Old-fashioned photographic film,
using silver halide emulsions, does have enough resolution and has typically been used in holography.
However, there has been a recent technology breakthrough in holographic film using photopolymers
that make the holographic process easier to implement, and this is the technology used here.
Other reasons to use the new photopolymer over silver halide are in safety and convenience.
Silver halide requires the use of development chemicals, which can be hazardous to health and
complicated in disposal. The silver halide approach has some advantages in that it allows for more
options and creativity for the advanced holographer. But for the beginner, photopolymer film is the
better starting point. For those who wish to work with the silver halide approach there are kits, film,
and chemicals available at several sources including intergraf.com, thorlabs.com,
photographersformulary.com, and lambdasys.com. There is one current source for the newer
photopolymer holography film and kits at litiholo.com.

Revisiting the Laser

Holography for artistic and hobby pursuits started in the 1970s, and required for decades after
to use expensive lasers such as helium-neon gas lasers. And to make really good holograms required
an expensive optic called a “spatial filter.” The setups tended to be large, creating difficulty in the
platform on which to put the laser and optics. To solve this problem people built giant tables, sort of
resembling billiard tables with the playing area filled in with many inches deep of sand. All of this
complication, stemming from laser technology, was expensive.
The advent of the red diode laser, like that used in Chapter 3, changed all this. The laser is
now inexpensive. And an attribute of the output beam of a diode laser, compared to gas lasers,
eliminates the need for a spatial filter or external optics. The way to exploit the beam properties
needed from a diode laser module is to take off the collimating lens, so that the beam from the laser
diverges. Most laser applications need a small diameter beam with minimal divergence, which is
why diode laser modules are usually sold with a collimating lens included. But to make holograms a
wide area beam is needed, which can be accomplished simply by using the bare diode laser without a
collimating lens. Most laser modules, like the unit I selected for Chapter 3, donʼt have a means to take
the lens off. But some laser modules have the lens fitted on with a threaded fixture. These laser
modules are usually described as having “adjustable focus.” To be sure on getting a laser module
with a completely removable, not just adjustable, collimating lens a couple sources offer laser
modules that are known to work for holography at intergraf.com and litiholo.com. I bought one from
litiholo.com, shown in Figure 7-1 before mounting. Without the collimating lens, the light from the
laser will be a diverging oval shape. When the diode laser is mounted it should be rotated so that the
larger diameter of the oval is oriented side-to-side.

Figure 7-1: Laser diode module with adjustable/removable collimating lens from Litiholo. The lens housing unscrews from the laser diode.

To hold and power the Litiholo laser module the approach used in Chapter 3 can be used with
two adaptations. These two modifications may or may not be needed for all laser modules, but they
were for the Litiholo laser module I decided to use. First, the small size of the laser module with the
collimating lens removed doesnʼt leave much structure to hold the module inside the gearbox. So
instead of holding the module through the long cylinder of the module, a small hole will be made for
the threaded, small diameter. The larger part of the module will be behind the hole resting up against
a flat surface, as shown in Figure 7-2. Modifying the gearbox starts with opening up the hole in one
side of the gearbox to a rectangular shape with a razor-blade knife, as shown in Figure 7-3. Once the
rectangular hole is open, the matching hole on the front side of the gearbox is drilled out. The drill
should be passed through the rectangular hole to drill the hole through from the rear. This keeps the
inner surface of the round hole smooth, which is desired since the laser module will be pressed up
against this surface. In the case of the Litiholo laser module, I used a 1/4-inch diameter drill bit. Then,
as in Chapter 3, the mounting hole is gradually opened up in diameter with a tapered reamer until a
snug fit for the laser module is made. As was done for the drilling, the reaming should be done
through the rectangular opening, working from the rear of the housing. The laser module, with the
collimating lens removed, get passed through the rectangular opening in the rear of the gearbox to
press the brass base of the laser diode against the inner surface of the front hole. The laser module
should be rotated so that the square circuit board is oriented up and down, as shown in Figure 7-4.
This will create the needed orientation (for the Litiholo laser) of the output laser beam oriented with
the large axis of the oval going side to side. Laser modules different from the Litiholo unit of Figure
7-1 may need a different rotation to get the output beam oval going wide in the horizontal direction.
The rest of the laser module housing can be built as was done in Chapter 3. The final housing
configuration is shown in Figure 7-2.

Figure 7-2: The diode laser module is pressed in through the back of a Technic Gearbox to allow the small diameter of the front of the
module to poke through. As in Chapter 3, the laser module is held in place in its mounting hole by Duco® glue.
Figure 7-3: An upper, center hole of a Technic Gearbox is cut away to create a rectangular opening in the gearbox. The diagram at left
shows a white rectangle of the material to be removed. A knife, as in the photo at right, is used to cut the plastic. This rectangular hole
allows the shape of the laser module’s circuit board to pass through.

The 2nd modification in the approach of Chapter 3 for the holography laser I used was in the
voltage to power the laser module. The Litiholo laser module requires 3-V to function, as opposed to
the 5-V for the laser module of Chapter 3. The 5-V used for the laser module of Chapter 3 could
possibly burn out the Litiholo laser module that needs 3-V. To create a 3-V source, the Zener diode of
Figure 3-12 is changed to a IN5226B that has a 3.3-V breakdown and 500-mW power handling
capability. This Zener diode can be purchased at jameco.com, mouser.com, or digikey.com. The new
circuit diagram appears in Figure 7-5.

Figure 7-4: The top view of the laser module housing shows that the square circuit board is oriented up and down. This results in the
needed laser beam output oval wider in the side-to-side direction.
Figure 7-5: Electrical circuit diagram to power the laser of Figure 7-1 from a 9-V LEGO® power supply.

Holographic Film and the Darkroom

The light-sensitive emulsion onto

which the holograms are made is coated
onto a piece of glass, 2 by 3-inches in
dimension as shown in Figure 7-6, called
a “plate”. Plates are easier to work with
than the possible alternative of a flexible
film. Care must be taken with the plates to
keep them away from light until the
hologram is being made--the plates would
be ruined by exposing them to ordinary
room light. So holograms are made in a
dark room. The room doesnʼt have to be
completely dark, which allows the
holographer to have some light to see
where things are. This work light should
be at a color at which the plate is not
sensitive. Litiholo plates are meant to Figure 7-6: The RRT20 holographic plates from Litiholo measure 2 x 3
work with a red laser, specifically at 635- inches, an ideal size for portraits of minifigures. The plate next to Dr.
nm wavelength. The plates are least Watson has already been used to make a hologram--an unexposed plate
sensitive at the other end of the spectrum, wouldn’t be left like this to room light.
toward blue or violet, so this should be the color of the work light for the darkroom. A blue or purple
LED is ideal for the color and brightness needed for the work light. I used the modified LED light
brick of Chapter 2 in either blue or purple.
In working with the plates itʼs important to note which side of the plate has been coated with
the emulsion. The Litiholo plates I bought all came packaged with the emulsion coating facing up. But
to be sure, the emulsion can be seen by looking (when in the darkroom under blue/purple light) at the
edge of the plate. The coated emulsion side of the plate should face the minifigure object when the
hologram is being made.
The location of the darkroom for making holograms is an important consideration. It should,
of course, be dark. A room in daytime with light coming around the edges of a window shade wonʼt
do. The room should offer a surface (likely the floor) that does not flex or vibrate. The interferometer
of Chapter 6 provides a way to test the holography work surface. If the interferometer doesnʼt show
stable fringes over a time span of many minutes, then the hologram will not turn out well. In my house,
I set the holography setup either on the garage floor or the bathroom floor. But in using the bathroom
floor, I had to turn off the house air conditioning and be totally alone in the house. The air
conditioning fan, people walking around, or sound from a television created too much vibration.

Figure 7-7: The photosensitive emulsion is coated onto one side of the plate. This coated side should face the minifigure object when the
hologram is being made. The coating can be seen as a darker layer than the glass of the plate. The coating can also be identified by feel
with a fingernail since it’s raised up from the underlying glass. The plates should only be handled by the edges.

Creating Transmission Holograms

The first hologram to be made is a transmission hologram, meaning the hologram is replayed
by passing a laser beam through the hologram plate. A structure to hold the holographic plate, laser,
and minifigure to be holographed is shown in steps below to create Dr. Watsonʼs holographic studio.
The same setup used to make the hologram is used to replay the hologram.
Step 1: A 12 x 24 Brick (30072) and a 8 x 16 Brick (4204) are joined together with four 2 x 4 Bricks (3001). Also, a 1 x 1 Brick (3005)
goes down to support a piece in Step 2. A 2 x 2 Brick (3003) with a 1 x 1 Round Plate (4073) in one corner forms a pedestal for the
minifigure.

Step 2: In blue, four 2 x 4 Bricks (3001) are added, along with a 1 x 2 45 Slope Brick (3040).
Step 3: In white, a 16-stud long section of Train Track Rail (3228) goes onto the length of 2 x 4 Bricks. This track forms a groove for the
holographic plate to rest into.

Step 4: In purple, two walls are built to form a boundary for the holography studio. This wall, which should be made from black bricks,
will block stray light or reflections and form a good background for viewing the hologram.
Step 5: In black, a Locking Turntable (87081c01) forms a platform for the laser. Be sure to use the locking turntable, not the free-rotating
kind.

The assembled holography studio is shown in Figure 7-8, with a holographic plate placed as
it would be for making the hologram. The plate, of course, doesnʼt actually get installed until the
hologram is going to be made in the darkroom. To secure the plate, three blobs of mounting putty
(poster putty used for school projects) are placed in three contact points. The view through the plate
is how the hologram will look. The minifigure, Miss Mary Morstan in this case, to be holographed is
placed with a foot on the 1 x 1 Round Plate and turned for a good view through the window of the
hologram plate. The laser module is rotated on the turntable so that about 1/3 of the area of the laser
beam illuminates the minifigure and 2/3 strikes the hologram plate. A white card near the minifigure
will help show the distribution of the laser beam, as in Figure 7-9. The holographic pattern captured
on film is created by interference of the part of the laser light reflected from the minifigure and the
part of the laser beam that is directly incident on the holographic plate. Since the hologram is being
made by red light, the minifigure to be holographed should reflect red light well. So a minifigure that
is dressed in red or white is a good choice. Colors of black or blue should be avoided.
Figure 7-8: Dr. Watson has the complete transmission hologram studio ready. Three blobs of poster putty (orange colored in this case)
will keep the holographic plate from moving.

Figure 7-9: The laser should be rotated on its turntable so that the beam lights up both the minifigure and the area of the hologram plate.
A white card can show the area of the laser beam. It’s OK if the laser beam overfills the plate.
Figure 7-10: A fresh holographic plate should be installed only with the laser beam blocked by a black slip of paper. To begin the exposure
of the hologram, the black paper is removed.

With the hologram studio aligned and ready, itʼs time to make the hologram. A checklist will help
ensure everything is at hand before going into the darkroom:

• the hologram studio with the minifigure in place and laser module with a fresh battery installed.
• the holographic plates, still inside their box.
• three blobs of poster putty for securing the plate.
• a purple or blue work light.
• a black slip of paper to block the laser beam.
• a watch to time the length of the exposure.

Once settled in the darkroom with the lights off, house quiet and free from vibration, the first
thing to do is turn on the laser to let it warm up for at least two minutes. The only light, aside from the
laser, that should be on at this point is the blue/purple work light. The following steps should then
proceed:

1. Block the laser beam with a black slip of paper (Figure 7-10).
2. Open the box of holographic plates to remove one. In the box of plates I received, the plates
were packaged with the emulsion side facing up. A white slip of paper separated each plate in
the stack of 10 in the box. Close the box to protect the remaining fresh plates from accidental
exposure.
3. Place the plate into the holding slot of the holography studio with the emulsion side facing the
minifigure.
4. Fix the plate into place with three blobs of poster putty (as in Figure 7-8).
5. Remove the black paper blocking the laser beam to begin the exposure.
6. Donʼt move or talk for 6-minutes. The exposure time may vary for the output level of the laser
used. Some trial-and-error may be needed.
7. After the exposure time, replace the black paper to block the laser beam.
8. DONE! Make sure the fresh, unexposed plates are covered in their box before turning on any
bright room lights.
9. To view the hologram, remove the minifigure subject and unblock the laser beam. The result
should be like Figure 7-11, or in close-up, like Figure 7-12.

Figure 7-11: Dr. Watson and Miss Morstan celebrate the production of their first hologram. Miss Morstan’s image appears behind the
glass plate as if looking at her through a window. A close-up view of the image is in Figure 7-12.
Figure 7-12: A close-up view of the transmission hologram of Figure 7-11. This photograph does not convey, though, the 3-dimensional
aspects of the actual hologram. When viewed in person the image has depth, such as Miss Morstan’s right arm pointing forward. The
image shifts if the viewer moves his point of view.

Figure 7-13: A hologram of Professor Moriarty.

To remove the hologram and prepare for the next one, the plate is simply taken off by picking
off the poster putty. Dr. Watson decided to make another portrait, this time of Professor Moriarty of
Chapter 3, shown in Figure 7-13. I store the holograms wrapped in a sheet of lens paper and kept in a
plastic baggy. To replay the hologram the plate is put back in with the same orientation as when the
hologram was made. The plate may have to be flipped around a couple times to find the right
orientation. Transmission holograms have to be viewed in laser light. In the next setup, a different
kind of hologram will be made that can be viewed in incoherent white light from a flashlight, lamp, or
the sun.

Creating Reflection Holograms

The transmission holograms of Figure 7-12 and 7-13 are viewed by light transmitted through
the holographic plate. A different hologram layout can produce holograms that can be viewed in
ordinary white light--this arrangement is called a reflection hologram. The parts for the reflection
hologram studio are the same as for the transmission hologram, just in a different configuration. This
configuration is diagramed in steps below.

Step 1: The wall built for the transmission hologram setup is kept the same, as is the location of a 1 x 1 Brick (3005), shown in red.
Several 2 x 4 Bricks (3001) are added, shown in blue.
Step 2: In green, an 8 x 12 Brick is moved to the side of the base plate. Also a 1 x 2--2 x 2 Bracket (44728) is added on top of the brick
stack. The minifigure to be holographed will ride on this bracket in a sideways orientation.

Step 3: In brown, 2 x 4 Bricks (3001) are used to join the 8 x 12 Brick to the base plate and form a ledge.
Step 4: In silver, a Locking Turntable (87081c01) and a 1 x 4 45 Slope Brick (3040).

Step 5: In white, a 16-stud long section of Train Track Rail (3228) goes onto the length of 2 x 4 Bricks. This track forms a groove for the
holographic plate to rest into.
Figure 7-14 shows the assembled reflection holography studio, including insertion of a test plate. The
laser beam in this setup goes through the plate to strike the object, so the minifigure subject is behind
the plate in reflection holography. The reference beam is created by the beam that first strikes the
plate; the object beam is the reflection from the minifigure toward the plate.
The laser module has to be rotated into a position best for the hologram. As shown in Figure
7-15, a white card will show where the laser beam is hitting the plate and minifigure subject. The
center of the beam should be aligned on the minifigureʼs face. With the laser beam aligned, itʼs time to
make the hologram. The steps are exactly the same as for the transmission hologram, outlined on
pages 104 to 105, except for the last step of viewing the result. To view the reflection hologram, the
hologram is held as in Figure 7-16 with a bright light source underneath it, such as from a flashlight.
A hologram holder for convenient display on a table or shelf can be made from bricks, as shown in
Figure 7-17 and the steps below.

Figure 7-14: The reflection holography setup uses the same pieces as the transmission holography setup, but in a different arrangement.
The minifigure to be holographed stands sideways for the hologram, which probably gives Miss Morstan a headache.
Figure 7-15: The laser module should be rotated on its turntable so that the center of the beam hits the minifigure’s face. A white slip of
paper is useful for seeing the laser beam.

Figure 7-16: Holographic portrait of Sherlock Holmes seen with a flashlight held under the holographic plate. The color of the hologram
shifts between gold and red with different angles of the flashlight. This photograph unfortunately can’t show the depth of the image or
the varying view through Mr. Holmes’ magnifying lens.
Figure 7-17: A holographic portrait of Miss Mary Morstan is held in a pivoting frame for convenient display. The pivoting action allows
the angle with respect to the light source to be changed for different views and colors of the portrait. Steps for building the frame are
shown below.

Step 1: a Technic 1 x 10 Brick with Holes (2730) and a Technic 1 x 8 Brick with Holes (3702) are placed on a 3 x 3 Plate without
Corners (2450).

Step 2: In blue, another 3 x 3 Plate without Corners (2450) is added.

Step 3: In yellow, another 1 x 10 Technic Brick with Holes (2730) is added.

Step 4: In pink, two 3 x 3 Plate without Corners (2450) are attached.

Step 5: In orange, a 1 x 8 Technic Brick with Holes (3702) and a 1 x 2 Brick (3004) complete a rectangle. At this point a small blob of
poster putty is placed in each corner. The holographic plate is then pressed into the poster putty corners. The top of the plate should go
toward the red and blue 3 x 3 Plates.

Step 6: In sky blue, 3 x 3 Plates without Corners (2450) hold together the top of the frame. Pivot points are added by Technic Axle Pins
(3749) on both sides of the frame.
Step 7: In dark purple, a pair of Technic Beams 3 x 3.8 x 7 Liftarm Bent 45 Double (32009) are attached to the Axle Pins on both sides
of the frame.

Step 8: In yellow, one Technic Axle Pin (3749) and two Technic Pins (3673) are placed in each of the two liftarms.
Step 9: In medium green, Technic Brick 1 x 6 x 1.667 Wing Bricks (2744) are attached to the pins of Step 8.

Step 10: In silver, 1 x 2 Plates (3023) are attached to the wings to create a level mounting surface.
Step 11: In purple, 1 x 2 Tiles (3069) give a finished appearance to the top of the wings. The frame stands on the wings to a baseplate, as
in Figure 7-17.

How Holography Works

As described in Chapter 6, a hologram is an interference pattern recorded onto film. By

shining light of a certain type on or through the interference pattern, an image of the original object
can be replayed. Two types of holograms were made in this chapter: a transmission hologram and a
reflection hologram. The recording and playback of the transmission hologram is diagrammed in
Figures 7-18 and 7-19. The two beams that are creating the interference pattern are the reflection
from the minifig object and the beam directly from the laser. The interference pattern is too complex
and small to see with the eye, but the recording film on the holographic plate can capture it. To replay
the hologram, the original reference beam will interact with the interference pattern on the plate to
create an image for an observer looking through the holographic plate.
The configuration for a reflection hologram is drawn in Figures 7-20 and 7-21. In this case,
the object beam is the part of the beam that goes through the plate to reflect off the minifig. So the
interference is created by a reference beam that hits the holographic plate and the reflection from the
object. The shape of the interference pattern is different for the reflection hologram than for the
transmission hologram. For the reflection hologram the interference forms in sheet layers in the film,
sort of like pages in a book. This layered interference pattern allows the hologram to be replayed
with ordinary white light, rather than a laser beam. With white light hitting the hologram, layers
within the interference pattern will select the wavelengths of light to reform the image, while the other
wavelengths will be passed through the plate. The white light has to come in at a certain angle,
though, for the correct wavelength selection to work.
There are many more geometries to make a hologram--the two techniques in this chapter are
relatively simple. The brightness of a hologram can be made better with split beam techniques, in
which the light from a collimated laser is separated into different beams with a beamsplitter. Full
color holograms can be made by combining a red, blue, and green laser. Beyond using photopolymer,
silver halide holographic film and plates open up possibilities in changing the color, brightness, or
size of holograms.

Figure 7-18: In this view from the top, recording of a transmission hologram is made by the interference pattern created by a reference
beam and the reflection of the object from another beam. The reflection of the object beam is drawn as curved lines.

Figure 7-19: Playback of a transmission hologram is from the interaction of the reference beam with the interference pattern recorded on
the holographic plate. A duplicate of the reflection from the object is made, which the observer’s eye interprets as a recreation of the
original object.
Figure 7-20: Recording of a reflection hologram is made by the interference pattern created by a reference beam and the reflection of
the object from the beam that goes through the plate. The reflection of the object beam is drawn as curved lines.

Figure 7-21: Playback of a reflection hologram is from the interaction of the reference beam with the interference pattern recorded on
the holographic plate. A duplicate of the reflection from the object is made, which the observer’s eye interprets as a recreation of the
original object.

Literary Notes on Sherlock Holmes Stories

Dr. John Watson is Sherlock Holmesʼ friend (possibly his only friend) and partner in crime
solving. Dr. Watson is also the narrator of the Holmes stories. Being a friendly and social fellow, he
enjoys making holographic portraits of people.
 Parts List for Chapter 7
(in addition to parts from Chapter 2)

LEGO® Bricks

non-LEGO® Components
laser diode module with removable lens (such as from Litiholo)
Zener diode (1N5226B for above diode laser module)
47-Ω resistor, 1/2-watt
9-V battery
Duco® Cement
sugru®
photopolymer holographic plates, 2 x 3 inches (such as Litiholo part number RRT20)
poster putty
white slip of paper
black slip of paper
watch or timer

Tools
razor blade knife
drill
drill bit (diameter less than diode laser module)
reamer
soldering iron and accessories
About the Author

By day Grady Koch works as an electro-optical engineer, building laser instruments for applications
in atmospheric science and aviation. By night, he plays with LEGO®. His favorite LEGO® theme is
Lord of the RingsTM. Grady has a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering after studying at Virginia Tech,
University of Illinois, and Old Dominion University. His other writings can be found through Google
Scholar at

http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZNFqxWIAAAAJ&hl=en

Questions about LEGO® Optics, parts, and kits can be addressed to fireflytechnologies@aol.com.