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There would be a huge difference in recognition response between Palaeo- lithic African migrant and
inhabited Asians, who had never exposed to Africans and thus much more paternal (African)
mtDNA molecules might had remained active without any damages in Asian egg cells in their
“betw- een-population” mating. It is a loose set of lineages in which each has its own set of SNPs
and the list of SNPs is growing. Paleolithic Age: 2.5 million to 8000 B.C. Ice Age happened during
the Paleolithic Age. In plain English, they are addressing the issue of when, where and how and in
some respects, who developed a. It seems that A0 are the most archaic African lineages, which arose
at least 180,000 ybp and possibly much earlier. Figure 3 shows a comparison of a 97 - nucleotide
human DNA fragment with the respective MSY fragment in chimpan- zee and the DNA fragments
from the whole genome shotgus sequence of gorilla, pongo, and macaque. The incremental
deteriorations are going on at this moment and require biological life forms to make incremental
changes. Additionally, dow th branches after they split from the ? - haplogroup. He teaches Filipino
martial arts when not dabbling in cartoons and animation. Non-African haplogroups clearly did not
descend from hap- In short, Afri ca is home to truly ancient (compared to BT) populations of various
haplogroups designated presently as A. It has also been argued that the first human was similar to a
fish, or a single-celled organism (Dawkins 2012, 50). Swartkrans has provided the largest sample
(more than 126 individuals) of the fossil hominid known as Paranthropus robustus. Answer(s): The
world’s first hominids lived in Africa, and some of the world’s first civilizations developed there as
well. Consequently, aDNA has the potential to contribute to the understandings of migrations.
Equator through middle Great Rift Valley (divergent plate boundary) Most of pop. In other words,
we simply do not know where their ancestors lived, say, 100,000 years ago; we assume that they
lived in Africa, how- ever, it is not enough to determine that “their common ancestor arose in
Africa”. From haplogroup B? No, BT was initially one hap- logroup and haplogroup B split from it.
All our labels at attempted description fall short of any definitive except. A final difficulty in using
genetic sex is that despite genetically it may be typed for a particular sex, phenotypically gender
cannot be determined entirely. Through the analysis of the aDNA of anatomically modern humans,
Neanderthals and Denisovans, a level of admixture was discovered, meaning that there are genes in
modern humans, which originated from these archaic hominins, as shown by figure 2 (Browning et
al. 2018, 53). To truly understand the origins of humans, it is necessary to consider Homo sapiens,
Neanderthals and Denisovans as being the genetic origins. Plato admitted and valued music in its
ethically approved forms; his concern was primarily with the effects of music, and he. Mrs. Rand
University Preparatory School Content adapted from History Alive. Attention to small-scale
communities Insistence on prior detailed knowledge. English 009.V Cultures of American humor
From franklin to fey Swarthmore College Professor Keat Murray Fall 2012. In Europe, it has been
proposed to have arisen around 6256 to 8683 BP in North Balkans and Central Europe, probably at
the same time as the development of dairying (Itan et al. 2009, 7). Figure 6 shows the percentage of
people with lactase persistence in different locations. These cookies will be stored in your browser
only with your consent. On the other hand, the DNA sequences on X-chromosome and autosomes
could be traced back to the era of H. Once we have established that we can rel impanzee MSY
which are either inherited or generally intact in the human Y-chromosome, or which mutate into the
respect- tive SNPs in certain lineages of human male haplogroups, we can try to interpret the diagram
in Figure 1 in terms of the an- cestral nucleotide and acquired SNPs flow. Weakly deleterious
mutations can reach high frequencies in local populations and, thus, may contribute significantly to
genetic variance in disease susceptibility. This is because demographics change throughout time and,
as there is no accurate measure to estimate population, the rate of mutation relies on generalisations
which oposes against the nature of mutations.
While the human brain does come up with different words to describe them, the same theme is being
repeated because. Therefore, African migrants and indigenous inhab- itants in Asia were likely to
show different recognition responses to the partner’s paternal mitochondria in their “between-
population” mating although they were sibling and hybridisable. He specializes in explanatory
graphics that deal with science topics. But if we take the same chart and change the listing of.
Because of the controversy involving the discovery, since many think Watson and Crick would not.
The First Humans. Theories on prehistory and early man constantly change as new evidence comes
to light. - Louis Leakey, British paleoanthropologist. Paleolithic Age. Paleolithic Age earliest period
of prehistory. Molecular clocks are needed for this study to take place. This means that the actual
time to their common ancestor is significantly higher than 81,550 ybp. Some farmers follow the five
golden rules of the tropics Keep soil covered Use minimal or no tillage Use mulch to provide
nutrients to the soil Maximize biomass production Maximize biodiversity. This is looking at the link
between attitudes and behaviour. Animal Connection. Humans share many traits with animals We
are most similar to apes Same 206 bones All but 3 of 650 muscles the same DNA is 98% the same
Same blood types. The main exhibition hall has a bewildering array of interactive educational
displays, including of course, life-size models of our human ancestors, based on the fossil finds
around the site. Distance Based Phylogeny Neighbor Joining Algorithm Additive Phylogeny Least
Squares Distance Phylogeny UPGMA Character Based Phylogeny Small Parsimony Problem. How
does the environment impact the way people live. In 1987, a crucial observation was made by Cann
et al., who examined the human mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA) diversity of globally dispersed
populations. One need only look at the manner in which people are themselves named to see a. Early
Discoveries. Stages of Early Human Development. Fossils, or the rocks containing fossils can be
dated using radioisotopes. And similar to the required behavior of so very many test. By this I mean
they will cheat, steal or use (what they believe to be) performance enhancing drugs to improve
memory. It is a chart listing types of emotions deduced from an. Forty-six bearers of A1b1 and its
downstream subclades currently live in England, Ireland, Scotland, Italy, Algeria, Turkey, Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia, Tunisia (one), Chad (one), South Africa (one), the US. INTRODUCTION Evidence
has accumulated that the Homo lineage origi- nally appeared in Africa, followed by its successful
glo- bal expansion. However, most of these records have neither definitely refuted nor supported one
of the models for or against the origin of H. Since haplogroups A and BT diverged from the same ? -
haplogroup ( Figure 1 ), this does not mean that the younger lineage descended from the older. It is
based on tests collected by the FTDNA Haplogroup A Project. The timescale on the vertical axis
shows thousands of years from the common ancestors of the haplogroups and subclades. First
species of Homo, Homo habilis, evolved in Africa around 2 million years ago. Mid 1800s: Africa was
divided into various kingdoms.
Chapter Introduction Section 1 The Rise of Islam Section 2 Islamic Empires Section 3 Muslim Ways
of Life Reading Review Chapter Assessment. Gold and Salt were the heart of trade in West Africa.
The conditions for the Great Depression helped to set the stage for a new world war Several nations
came to believe that democratic governments were too weak to solve problems. They turned to
dictators in hopes of having their problems solved. Evaluate schema theory with reference to research
studies What is schema theory. These are basic questions that we all ask. You Cuz. Humans did not
evolve from Apes You are descended from your mother and father. Therefore, these results clearly
suggest that the current Asians would be the offspring of the hybrids resulting from the mating
between migrated Africans and indigenous Asian in- habitants. Let us move to the main subject of
this study, namely, what the Y-chromosome nucleotides and SNPs show about the con- nection
between haplogroup BT and haplogroup A. Answer(s): The world’s first hominids lived in Africa,
and some of the world’s first civilizations developed there as well. Another way of arriving at the
most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) is using the permutation method described in Klyosov
(2009). Show replies gcmem 6 years ago Please bear in mind that (as per description) some related
interactive whiteboard files that I created could not be attached due to incompatible file type with
TES site- these do contain the stages you suggest. If the appearance of different numerically
identified ideas is related to developmental changes. Our first article also set forth a time frame for
the origin of haplogroups A and B—the first (partly) African and the second the origin of seem-
ingly non-African, which later migrated to Africa. This essay will therefore critically assess the
contribution and potential of aDNA analysis to increase our understanding of both the origins and
migrations of Homo sapiens, and discuss how aDNA does not necessarily provide the answers.
Those SNPs, of course, cannot be found among bearers of haplogroups A and A0. Mr. Salvas
Central HS. The First Humans. Theories on prehistory and early man constantly change as new
evidence comes to light. - Louis Leakey, British paleoanthropologist. John Metzler, PhD African
Studies Center Michigan State University. The reliance on controls to be able to use molecular clocks
shows that aDNA in conjunction with phylogenetic trees is simply not viable, accordingly the
potential and contribution of these studies is limited. But opting out of some of these cookies may
affect your browsing experience. Some may try to provide an illustration of their thoughts by usage.
The origins of both Mitochondrial Eve and Adam are estimated to be out of Africa, as the genetics
are more divergent in Africa than elsewhere, supporting the claim of “Out of Africa” (Vigilant et al.
1991, 253). It is clear that the contribution of aDNA is that not only is it able to identify the species
of Homo sapiens, but also provide answers as to where it originates from. Tucson. Author of The
Musical Symbol: A Study of the Philosophic Theory of Music.) With respect to ideas being related to
a numerical value (that does not include attributes of vibration as a structural dimension), which
provides. History - the story of mankind - is divided into two time periods. The first of these is the
identification of genetic sex. In: Stonimski, P., Borst, P. and At- tardi, G., Eds., Mitochondrial genes.
Mr. Salvas Central HS. The First Humans. Theories on prehistory and early man constantly change as
new evidence comes to light. - Louis Leakey, British paleoanthropologist. But by about 1-million
years ago, Paranthropus was extinct. Therefore, the male offspri ng, including a current Asian male,
would not necessarily be the direct descendant of a replaced African, but would be the hybrid
offspring possessing the mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal DNA sequences of African origin,
together with Asian X-chr- omosomal and autosomal DNA sequences. The whole area (470 km2) is
under private ownership, and most of the excavation sites are not accessible to the general public.
This diagram shows the most recent common ancestors (TMRCAs) of H. In as much as this is well
known to many, the understanding.
In: Stonimski, P., Borst, P. and At- tardi, G., Eds., Mitochondrial genes. As opposed to the popular
belief, all of these observations suggest that paternal mtDNA inheritance occurs widely in the animal
kingdom. These elements should certainly be reconsidered before conducting future investigations
into aDNA, lest we continue to provide data with inaccuracies and increase misrepresentative
interpretations of individuals regarding sex demographic versus potential complex gender social
constructs. Primate Evolution Cladogram Domain: EUKARYA Kingdom: ANIMALIA Phyla:
CHORDATA Subphyla: VERTEBRATA Class: MAMMALIA Subclass: EUTHERIA Order:
PRIMATA Suborder: ARTHROPOIDEA Family: HOMINIDAE Genus: HOMO Species: SAPIENS
Hominid Evolution The human branch of the primate tree is only a few million years old. The Out-
of-Africa hypothesis has never been proved; our research suggests that it is incorrect with respect to
anatomically modern humans. As shown by figure 3, sex of offspring and genus origin yields a
complex and extensive genetic lineage that ultimately obscures the culminated admixture. Essential
Question. Why did early humans move from place to place. Main Idea Mountains and seas
influenced the growth and development of ancient Greek civilizations. A. The Geography of Greece.
The Out-of-Africa hy- pothesis needed the figures, and they seem to have been pro- vided without
justification. What the comparison really indicate is that hemoglobin is a bad choice and has nothing
to tell us about attributes, or indeed tells us a lie. To be able to show the limitations of aDNA
research in relation to migration case studies of lactase persistence, the populating of America, and
the process of Neolithization will be used to illustrate the points. Consequently, it is apparent that
arguments using Mitochondrial Eve to locate the origin of Homo sapiens are inaccurate, and thus the
potential of aDNA to understand the origin is simply too unreliable. Thus, using aDNA shows that
Homo sapiens originate from Africa. Curren e FTDNA Haplogroup A Project (as origin unknown).
This opens a new window, so when you are finished, just close the Google Earth page and you will
be straight back here to continue browsing other world heritage sites around Africa. The view raised
in this paper would open a new research field of biological in- teractions, particularly in “between-
population” repro- duction in the human past. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Prof. D. Clark-
Walker (The Australian National University) and Dr. A. Thorne (The Australian Nati onal University)
for their critical reading of the manuscript, and valuable suggestions and conversations. The earliest
ancestral fossil found so far is Sahelanthropus tchadensis found in Chad in 2001 and dated at about
7-million years old. It is a chart listing types of emotions deduced from an. The results of our
analysis of haplotypes, conserved es, and SNPs suggest that there is no reason to believe that non-
Africans (haplogroup BT and its downstream haplogroups) descended from haplogroups A0, A1a, or
other African hap- logroups. The movement of animals and varieties of crops do not necessarily
mean the movement of people. In this study, an attempt was made to integrate the interdisciplinary
information obtained in the research fields, not only anthropology and mito- chondrial genetics but
also other areas, such as devel- opmental biology, ecology and social sciences. Distance Based
Phylogeny Neighbor Joining Algorithm Additive Phylogeny Least Squares Distance Phylogeny
UPGMA Character Based Phylogeny Small Parsimony Problem. Figure 3 shows a comparison of a
97 - nucleotide human DNA fragment with the respective MSY fragment in chimpan- zee and the
DNA fragments from the whole genome shotgus sequence of gorilla, pongo, and macaque. This fits
the numbers which are commonly cited by geneticists, e.g. 5.6 - 8.3 million years ago (Green et al.,
2010) or 3.9 - 5.9 million years ago (Sun et al., 2011), or the figures of 6 and 5 - 7 million years ago,
given in the preceding section of this paper. The dating of the genesis of clothing by understanding
the evolution of clothing lice, however, implies that Homo Sapiens wore clothes at least about
70,000-40,000 years before the earliest migrations out of Africa to colder latitudes. Another way of
arriving at the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) is using the permutation method described in
Klyosov (2009). Primates Large brain:body ratio Forward-directed eyes Flexible hands Arms that
can fully rotate Anthropoids diurnal primates Homonoids lack tail Divided into lesser apes and great
apes (size) Homonids all humans. However the potential of aDNA for understanding the origin of
Homo sapiens will always be limited. Fortunately, I liked to read as well as roll up my sleeves. Write
a review Update existing review Submit review Cancel It's good to leave some feedback.
However, the problem would be resolved if the two had a common ancestor who lived 160,000 ybp.
Main Idea Mountains and seas influenced the growth and development of ancient Greek
civilizations. A. The Geography of Greece. The common assertion that “anatomically modern hu-
mans came out of Africa some 70,000 years ago” has never been convincingly calculated or
determined otherwise; our research suggests that it is incorrect. Study of how genes and proteins
evolve and how are organisms related based on their DNA sequence Molecular evolution therefore is
the determination and comparative study of DNA and deduced amino acid sequences. Ruthless
people rose to power in the 1920’s and 1930’s Some Europeans resented terms of Treaty of Versailles
Germans had to take full responsibility of WWI. Those three principal MSY lineages are very
different in terms of their Y-chromosomes, however, they are brought much closer together by
maternal part of their DNA, so their resulting genome is adjusted with every new generation. Emile
Zuckerkandl, Classification and Human Evolution, 1963 Gaylord Simpson vs. The following are
short passages about music, emotion and number relationships that have relevance for those who are
applicably receptive to. Essential Question. Why did early humans move from place to place. This
date is in agreement with dates obtained in genome studies. Finding this ancestor requires the tracing
of all modern DNA to “Mitochondrial Eve” and “Y Chromosome Adam”, and this is the approach
upon which many studies have been based (Ke et al. 2001; Pakendorf and Stoneking 2005). Their
“Out-of-Africa” model is based on the assumption that mtDNA inheri- tance is simply maternal.
Research included articles on growth and development, cranio-facial, and post-cranial morphology,
and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).Images from additional research on Neandertals are. Distance
Based Phylogeny Neighbor Joining Algorithm Additive Phylogeny Least Squares Distance
Phylogeny UPGMA Character Based Phylogeny Small Parsimony Problem. It seems that A1a split
from the ? - haplogroup between 160,000 and 60,000 ybp, and eventually ended up in Africa,
Europe, Asia (see above). Table 2 lists SNPs which belong to the A0 lineages; those nucleotides are
retained ancestral in the ? - haplogroup. For the most part, I also overlooked information pertaining
to chapter. Therefore, these results clearly suggest that the current Asians would be the offspring of
the hybrids resulting from the mating between migrated Africans and indigenous Asian in- habitants.
And with this, I direct you to a discussion of this very topic. When you have, let me know and I will
place it on-line giving you full. African Ecosystems: based on latitude and wind patterns. Mr. Salvas
Central HS. The First Humans. Theories on prehistory and early man constantly change as new
evidence comes to light. - Louis Leakey, British paleoanthropologist. Chimpanzee (Y-Chromosome)
NOTE: The chimpanzee Y-Chrom homologous fragments. Use simple linear regression for building
empirical models Estimate the parameters in a linear regression model Determine if the regression
model is an adequate fit to the data. Tucson. Author of The Musical Symbol: A Study of the
Philosophic Theory of Music.) With respect to ideas being related to a numerical value (that does not
include attributes of vibration as a structural dimension), which provides. It is magnificently
presented for public access and education, with state-of-the-art interpretation. We have no indication
of where the common ancestor of the ? - haplogroup lived; he could just as easily have been from
Europe, Asia, or the Middle East, as from Africa. And similar to the required behavior of so very
many test. The two lineages diverged independently from the ? - hap- logroup. Early Discoveries.
Stages of Early Human Development.
No less, as a final comment to this sociological digression, it may be of interest to note that. This is
because of past failure to observe the clear cases of mtDNA recombination in natural populations.
Primates Large brain:body ratio Forward-directed eyes Flexible hands Arms that can fully rotate
Anthropoids diurnal primates Homonoids lack tail Divided into lesser apes and great apes (size)
Homonids all humans. And yet, in reflection (taking place the next day after I wrote the above), I
think that I need to tackle the illustration project myself, even. Emile Zuckerkandl: From the point of
hemoglobin structure, it appears that gorilla is just an abnormal human, or man an abnormal gorilla,
and the two species form actually one continuous population. The first suggests that Homo sapiens
originated principally in one location, Africa, before migrating throughout the globe, whilst the latter
suggests that there was a level of gene flow in different locations from Homo erectus, as shown by
figure 1 (Satta and Takahata 2002, 872). The first of these is the identification of genetic sex. As will
be discussed in the next section, the present meta-analysis shows that ironically, their result together
with chromo- somal DNA sequences can ni cely account for the possi- ble paternal mtDNA
inheritance in the human past. How does the environment impact the way people live. None-the-less,
the following account of the first three chapters (Introduction by Peter Carruthers, Steven Stich,
Michael. In the vast timeline of early hominids spanning millions of years, it is highly likely that
clothing was invented more than once for more than one purpose by various groups of Hominids at
various locations spread from Africa to Eurasia. They were not exactly AMH, and many clearly do
not have modern H. When we compare them at 346 nucleotide sites, they di ffer from each other at
36 loci. Therefore, the premise that haplogroup A almost exclusively resides in Africa, is not accurate,
at least based on data on hand, even if they are clearly not representative. Reading for today. Li and
Graur chapter (PDF on website) Evolutionary EST paper (PDF on website) Page and Holmes pp.
231 - 243. Predictions of neutral theory. Accordingly, it could be possible that the full understanding
of the origins of Homo sapiens will never be fully understood. The ? - haplogroup. Although no
individuals bearing A1 or A1b SNPs are listed in the FTDNA Haplogroup A Project or in the Walk
Through YDNA Project, it can be safely assumed, based on the SNPs patterns, that the ? -
haplogroup includes A1 and A1b subclades. Those also include 2) relatively recent SNPs in the
descendents of th e ? - haplogroup, which (SNPs) have resulted in the 19 principal haplogroups (B to
T) down- stream of the ? - haplogroup. Team taught Biol and CompSci course 7 students: CS
experience: 3 yes, 4 no Bio experience: 5 yes, 2 no Project-based course; no exams. Do all sentient
beings have to have two eyes (despite the claims for a third or mind's eye)? Must all. These are
relatively inaccurate, however, as the absence of Y chromosome can be caused by a female sample,
DNA degradation or an inhibitor in the sample. Marina, Lagos. Murtala Muhammad Cenotaph. Oke
Idanre. Takwa Bay. The Ameri- can Journal of Human Genetics, 90, 347-355. reen, R. E., Krause, J.,
Briggs, A. W., Maricic, Kircher, M., Patterson, N. et Neandertal genome. Click the Speaker button to
listen to the audio again. Later, the Out-of-Africa hypothesis acquired five essen- tial
presuppositions: 1) All haplogroups, from B to T, descended from haplogroup A. 2) The first
anatomically modern human (AMH) came Out- of-Africa around 70,000 years ago. 3) Africa has the
highest genetic diversity. Pragmatism is just a brand of rationalization that may work well in a closed
system, so long as. Weakly deleterious mutations can reach high frequencies in local populations and,
thus, may contribute significantly to genetic variance in disease susceptibility. We believe, however,
that only the A0 lineages represent the “truly African” autochthonous inhabitants (along with the
respective female lineages), and interbreeding with them of incoming lineages of haplogroups A and
B (as well as some lineages of haplogroups E, R1b, etc.), again, with the respective female lineages,
created the very diverse current African population. Besides, as shown above, A0 is significantly
older than the ? - haplogroup. According to Confucius, great music is in harmony with the universe,
restoring order to the physical.
As opposed to the popular belief, all of these observations suggest that paternal mtDNA inheritance
occurs widely in the animal kingdom. One of the key assumptions is that ani- mal mtDNA does not
undergo homologous recombina- tion. His DNA has close matches in Cameroon and presumably
belongs to A0, which is positive at SNP V152 (Simms et al., 2011), Four and 5 (both Afri- can-
American) are positive for L896; the former has close matches in Ghana. These leakages would lead
to a heteroplasmic offspring and thereby enhance the opportunity of transmission or re- combination.
A Global Economy. Images. World Almanac. Population. Global warming from fossil fuel burning
and deforestation that enhances the earth’s natural greenhouse effect - it is the trophosphere (lower
atmosphere) that is warmed. Yet, all of cognitive theory, however so named (philosophy, psychology.
Forty-six bearers of A1b1 and its downstream subclades currently live in England, Ireland, Scotland,
Italy, Algeria, Turkey, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia (one), Chad (one), South Africa (one), the US.
Figure 5 shows the current understanding of how these spreads took place. Although the
mitochondria will be inherited in both males and females from the mother, the Y chromosome will
not be typed due to the difficulty in determining its presence as well as the fragility of the long
chains. They were not exactly AMH, and many clearly do not have modern H. However, many of
the newly independent countries face many problems. Problems in 21 st Century Africa. The archaic
lineages (cur- rently summarily designated A0) descend from an ancestor who lived no later than
180,000 years ago, and probably much earlier. The fact that all species utilize the same genetic code
to synthesize proteins argues for a common ancestry to all life on earth. Anthropologists Mary and
Louis Leakey Searched in deep canyons in Tanzania Found stone tools that were evidence of a
people group that had developed early technology. By this I mean they will cheat, steal or use (what
they believe to be) performance enhancing drugs to improve memory. The results of our analysis of
haplotypes, conserved es, and SNPs suggest that there is no reason to believe that non-Africans
(haplogroup BT and its downstream haplogroups) descended from haplogroups A0, A1a, or other
African hap- logroups. Study of how genes and proteins evolve and how are organisms related based
on their DNA sequence Molecular evolution therefore is the determination and comparative study of
DNA and deduced amino acid sequences. Another way of arriving at the most recent common
ancestor (TMRCA) is using the permutation method described in Klyosov (2009). They are just a
few examples, and some may give reference to another number. Music and gymnastics in the correct
balance would constitute the desirable. These are relatively inaccurate, however, as the absence of Y
chromosome can be caused by a female sample, DNA degradation or an inhibitor in the sample.
Presupposition 1 was maintained for many years by the In- ternational Society of Genetic Genealogy
(ISOGG) with the following description: “ The BR haplogroup split off from hap- logroup A 55,000
years before present ( bp ). The Makapans Valley was declared part of the world heritage site in 2005
and is about 300 km from Sterkfontein, near Mokopane in Limpopo Province. This opens a new
window, so when you are finished, just close the Google Earth page and you will be straight back
here to continue browsing other world heritage sites around Africa. A number of authors have argued
that the earliest hominids found in Sub-Saharan Africa had African regional morphological features
(e.g. Habgood, 1989). Subsequent papers gradually began to claim that sub-Saharan hominids had
AMH features. These individuals are also shown as dark-skinned and relatively hairless. Shannon's
theory shows that there exists an encoding that is roughly twice as efficient as the normal one for
this simplified message alphabet. Nucleotides and SNPs in the Y-Chromosomes of Chimpanzee and
Humans Let us follow some mutations in the Y-chromosome from chimpanzee to several principa l
human lineages: A0, A1, A1a, A1b, and the ? - haplogroup (which is close to or identical with BT).
These two hap- lotypes differ from each other by as many as 18 mutations, which translates to
123,000 years between them.