OC and SC Test on single phase transformer

Transformer Losses

Transformers, like all devices, are not perfect. While ideal transformers do not have losses, real
transformers have power losses. A transformer's output power is always slightly less than the
transformer's input power. These power losses end up as heat that must be removed from the
transformer.

Resistive Loss (copper loss)

Resistive loss, or I2R loss, or copper loss, is the power loss in a transformer caused by the
resistance of the copper wire used to make the windings. Since higher frequencies cause the
electrons to travel more toward the outer circumference of the conductor (skin effect), electrical
disturbances called harmonics have the effect of reducing the wire size and increasing resistive
loss.

These losses are the same as the power losses in any conductor and are calculated as follows:

P=I2R

where
P = power (in W)
I = current (in A)
R = resistance (in Ω)

For example, if a transformer primary is wound with 100′ of #12 copper wire that carries 15 A,
what is the resistive loss in that coil?

The resistance of #12 copper wire is 1.588 Ω/1000′ at room temperature. Therefore, the
resistance of 100′ of the wire is 0.1588 Ω.

P=I2R=152×0.1588=35.7W

The transformer primary wiring consumes 35.7 W of power that is wasted as heat.
If the transformer is not cooled properly, this heat increases the temperature of the transformer
and the wires. This increased temperature causes an increase in the wire resistance, and the
voltage dropped across the conductor. This loss varies with the current and is always present in
the primary when it is energized. The secondary sees very little loss of this type when unloaded.

Iron Losses

Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss occurs in
the core it is also known as Core loss. Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis and eddy
current loss.

Hysteresis loss

Hysteresis loss is caused by the magnetization and demagnetization of the core as current flows
in the forward and reverse directions. As the magnetizing force (current) increases, the magnetic
flux increases. But when the magnetizing force (current) is decreased, the magnetic flux doesn’t
decrease at the same rate, but less gradually. Therefore, when the magnetizing force reaches
zero, the flux density still has a positive value. In order for the flux density to reach zero, the
magnetizing force must be applied in the negative direction.The relationship between the
magnetizing force, H, and the flux density, B, is shown on a hysteresis curve, or loop. The area
of the hysteresis loop shows the energy required to complete a full cycle of magnetizing and de-
magnetizing, and the area of the loop represents the energy lost during this process.

The equation for hysteresis loss is given as:

Pb = η * Bmaxn * f * V

Pb = hysteresis loss (W)

η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient, depending on material (J/m3)
Bmax = maximum flux density (Wb/m2)
n = Steinmetz exponent, ranges from 1.5 to 2.5, depending on material
f = frequency of magnetic reversals per second (Hz)
V = volume of magnetic material (m3)
Eddy current losses

Eddy current losses are the result of Farady’s law, which states that, “Any change in the
environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage to be induced in the coil, regardless of how the
magnetic change is produced.” Thus, when a motor core is rotated in a magnetic field, a voltage,
or EMF, is induced in the coils. This induced EMF causes circulating currents to flow, referred
to as eddy currents. The power loss caused by these currents is known as eddy current loss.

Motors armature cores use many thin pieces of iron (referred to as “laminations”), rather than a
single piece, because the resistance of individual pieces is higher than the resistance of one, solid
piece. This higher resistance (due to smaller area per piece) reduces eddy currents, and in turn,
eddy current losses. The laminations are insulated from each other with a lacquer coating to
prevent the eddy currents from “jumping” from one lamination to another.

Eddy currents in laminated cores (right) are smaller than those in solid cores (left).
The equation for eddy current loss is given as:

Pe = Ke * Bmax2 * f2 * t2 * V

Pe = eddy current loss (W)

Ke = eddy current constant
B = flux density (Wb/m2)
f = frequency of magnetic reversals per second (Hz)
t = material thickness (m)
V = volume (m3)
Stray Loss
The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of leakage field. The percentage of
these losses is very small as compared to the iron and copper losses so they can be neglected.
Dielectric Loss

Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer that is in the oil of the
transformer, or in the solid insulations. When the oil gets deteriorated or the solid insulation gets
damaged, or its quality decreases, and because of this, the efficiency of the transformer gets
affected.
 Efficiency of Transformer

Electrical machines like transformers are greatly efficient instruments. The full power efficiency
of these transformers differs from 95% to 98.5%. Once a transformer is typically efficient, then
the output, as well as the input, has almost the same value.

Efficiency (η) = (Power Output/Power Input)

Efficiency = ((Power O/P) / (Power O/P + Copper Losses + Core Losses)) × 100%

The efficiency can be as high as 99.7% for great power transformers with very low losses. The
output and input measurements of a transformer are not implemented under loaded conditions as
the wattmeter sensing inevitably suffers errors of 1 – 2%. Therefore, for the purpose of
measuring the efficiency, SC (Short Circuit) and OC (Open Circuit) tests are applied to measure
rated core and winding losses in the transformer. The core losses are based on the transformer
rated voltage, and the copper losses are based on the currents across the transformer primary and
secondary sides.

Expression of Efficiency:

Let

x be the percentage of full or rated load ‘S’ (VA)

cos(θ) be the power coefficient of the load

Pcufl(watts) be the complete load copper loss

Pi (watts) be the core loss.

As copper and iron losses are the main losses in the transformer, only these two forms of losses
are considered while measuring efficiency. Then the efficiency of transformer can be formulated
as:

Where x2Pcufl is the copper loss (Pcu) at any load x percent of a complete load.

The maximum efficiency (ηmax) can be achieved when the variable losses are identical to the
constant losses.
The variation of efficiency with load can be demonstrated by the figure below