AC magnetization

(Hysteresis and eddy current losses)

When a magnetic material undergoes

cyclic magnetization (AC), two kinds of
power losses occur in it; Hysteresis loss
(Ph) and eddy current loss (Pe) which
known together as core losses (Pc)

The loss appears as a heat in the core,

and it is important in determining
heating, temperature rise and efficiency.
 Residual Flux Density & Coercive Force
➢ Consider the coil shown, which surrounds a magnetic material
formed in the shape of a ring. A current source, connected to the coil,
produces a current whose value and direction can be changed.
➢ Starting from zero, we gradually increase I, so that H and B increase.
This increase traces out curve oa in Figure. The flux density reaches a
value Bm for a magnetic field intensity Hm .
 Residual Flux Density & Coercive Force

➢ If the current is now gradually reduced to zero, the flux density B

does not follow the original curve but moves along a curve ab situated
above oa. Why?
 Residual Flux Density & Coercive Force

The magnetic domains are oriented

randomly before applying external The magnetic domains are aligned
magnetic field in the presence of external magnetic
field
 Residual Flux Density & Coercive Force

➢When the applied field is removed, the domains leaving residual alignment,
This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
➢Consequently, when H is reduced to zero, a substantial flux density remains.
It is called residual flux density Br .
 Residual Flux Density & Coercive Force

➢ If we wish to eliminate this residual

flux, we have to reverse the current in the
coil and gradually increase H in the
opposite direction. As we do so, we move
along curve bc. The magnetic domains
gradually change their previous
orientation until the flux density becomes
zero at point c. The magnetic field
intensity required to reduce the flux to
zero is called coercive force Hc.

➢ In reducing the flux density from Br to

zero, we also have to provide energy.
This energy is used to overcome the
frictional resistance of the magnetic
domains as they oppose the change in
orientation. The energy supplied is
dissipated as heat in the material.
 Hysteresis Loop
➢ Transformers and most electric
motors operate on alternating current.
In such devices the flux in the iron
changes continuously both in value and
direction. The magnetic domains are
therefore oriented first in one direction,
then the other, at a rate that depends
upon the frequency.
➢ Thus, if the flux has a frequency of
50-Hz, the domains describe a
complete cycle every 1/50 of a second,
passing successively through peak flux a a
densities + Bm and – Bm as the peak AC current
magnetic field intensity alternates
between + Hm and – Hm. o b e
➢If we plot the flux density B as a
function of H, we obtain a closed curve
d
called hysteresis loop.
 Hysteresis Loop
➢In describing a hysteresis loop, the
flux moves successively from + Bm ,
+Br , 0, - Bm , -Br , 0, and + Bm ,
corresponding respectively to points
a, b, c, d, e, f, and a. The magnetic
material absorbs energy during each
cycle and this energy is dissipated as
heat. The amount of heat released
per cycle (expressed in Joule/m3) is
equal to the area of the hysteresis
loop (T. A/m).
a a
➢ To reduce hysteresis losses, we AC current
select magnetic materials that have a
narrow hysteresis loop, such as the o b e
grain-oriented silicon steel used in
the cores of alternating-current
transformers. d
 Eddy Currents

➢ Consider an ac flux Φ that links a rectangular-shaped conductor as

shown in Figure. According to Faraday's law, an ac voltage E1 is induced
across its terminals.

➢ If the conductor is short-circuited, a substantial alternating current I1 will

flow, causing the conductor to heat up.
 Eddy Currents

➢If a second conductor is placed inside the first, a smaller voltage is induced
because it links a smaller flux. Consequently, the short-circuit current I2 is less than I1
and so, too, is the power dissipated in this loop. The figure shows four such
concentric loops carrying currents I1, I2, I3, and I4. The currents are progressively
smaller as the area of the loops surrounding the flux decreases.
Due to the Lenz's law, the eddy currents flow in such a
way as to oppose the increasing flux.
➢ If the ac flux passes through a
solid metal plate as shown. It is
basically equivalent to a densely
packed set of rectangular
conductors touching each other.
Currents swirl back and forth inside
the plate, following the paths
shown in the figure.
➢ These so-called eddy- currents
can be very large, due to the low
resistance of the plate.
Consequently, a metal plate that is
penetrated by an ac flux can
become very hot.
➢The flux Φ shown is assumed to
be increasing. As a result, due to
the Lenz's law, the eddy currents
flow in such a way as to oppose the
increasing flux.
 Eddy Currents in a Stationary Iron Core

The eddy-current problem

becomes particularly important
when iron has to carry an ac flux.
This is the case in all ac motors
and transformers. The figure
shows a coil carrying an ac
current that produces an
increasing ac flux in a solid iron
core. Eddy currents are set up as
shown and they flow throughout
the entire length of the core. A
large core could eventually
become red hot (even at a
frequency of 50 Hz) due to these
eddy-current losses.
➢ We can reduce the losses by splitting the core in two along its length, taking
care to insulate the two sections from each other as shown. The voltage
induced in each section is one half of what it was before, with the result that the
eddy currents, and the corresponding losses, are considerably reduced.
➢ If we continue to subdivide the core, we find that the losses decrease
progressively. In practice, the core is composed of stacked laminations, usually a
fraction of a millimeter thick. Furthermore, a small amount of silicon is alloyed with
the steel to increase its resistivity, thereby reducing the losses still more as
shown.
➢ The cores of ac motors and generators are therefore always laminated. A thin
coating of insulation covers each lamination to prevent electrical contact between
them. The stacked laminations are tightly held in place by bolts. For a given iron
core, the eddy-current losses decrease in proportion to the square of the number
of laminations.
 Eddy Current Losses in a Revolving Core
➢ The stationary field in direct-current
motors and generators produces a
constant dc flux. This constant flux
induces eddy currents in the revolving
armature.
➢ To understand how they are induced,
consider a solid cylindrical iron core that
revolves between the poles of a magnet
as shown. As it turns, the core cuts flux
lines and, according to Faraday's law, a
voltage is induced along its length having
the polarities shown. Owing to this
voltage, large eddy currents flow in the
core because its resistance is very low.
These eddy currents produce large I2R
losses which are immediately converted
into heat. The power loss is proportional
to the square of the speed and the
square of the flux density.
 Eddy Current Losses in a Revolving Core

➢ To reduce the eddy-current losses, we

laminate the armature using thin circular
laminations that are insulated from each
other. The laminations are tightly stacked
with the flat side running parallel to the
flux lines.
 Mathematical Expression for Eddy-Current Loss

➢ In practice the iron is used in thin laminations so that the resistance is almost
entirely due to such vertical paths within the section of iron as indicated.

▪ If iron resistivity is ρ, the resistance to

ie is therefore re = 2ρh / l dx

• and the elemental path is linked by a

flux φ = B (2xh)

• producing an emf = dφ/dt.

• Hence loss in path is equal to:

▪ And the loss over the whole section is:

▪ Integrating and dividing by volume (Lhw)

to get the loss per unit volume gives:
➢ It is now clear why iron is laminated if it is to be subjected to alternating
magnetization, the loss being reduced in proportion to (thickness)2.

➢It is economical at 50 Hz for example, to go to the trouble and expense of

dividing the iron into laminations about 0.4 mm thick and insulating them
from one another by means of thin paper or varnish.
➢ For the special case of sinusoidal flux variations, the mean power loss
can be obtained in terms of frequency and maximum flux density.

➢ Let B = Bmax sin ωt, then (dB/dt)2 = (ωBmax cosωt)2.

➢The mean value of cos2 ωt over a cycle is 0.5 so the eddy current loss is:

Pe=(2πf Bmax)2 * 0.5* w2 /12ρ = π2 f 2 B2max w2 / 6 ρ Watts/m3

Pe = K e  B max
2
f 2
W / m3
The stacked laminations are tightly held in place by bolts and
appropriate end-pieces. For a given iron core, the eddy-current losses
decrease in proportion to the square of the number of laminations:

Loss without laminations = π2 f 2 B2max ( n w)2*( lhnw ) / 6 ρ Watts

Loss with laminations = π2 f 2 B2max w2*( lhw )* n / 6 ρ Watts

Where n is the number of laminations.

 Eddy Current Loss
The eddy current loss can be reduced by:
Increasing the resistivity of the core material
Using a laminated core

The eddy current losses can be calculated

Pe = K e  B max
2
f 2
W / m3

Where:
Ke is constant depends on core material and its lamination thicknesses