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Magnetic Circuit

Magnetism

Magnetism is a characteristic; by nature or imparted by virtue of which a ferromagnetic material

attracts ferro-materials (containing iron) situated within its magnetic field. The substance which
possesses magnetism is called a magnet, having two poles; N-pole and S-pole, and has a
permanent magnetic field around it. Magnetic field is the region within which the magnetic
effect is felt. Magnetic field is due to the presence of magnetic lines of force called magnetic
flux. The unique characteristics of lines of force are:

1. They originate from N-pole and terminate on S-pole.

2. They neither touch nor cross each other.

On atomic scale magnetism is attributed to the uncompensated spinning of electrons about their
own axis within the atomic structure of the material. In permanent magnets a parallel alignment
exists between uncompensated electron spin in the adjacent atoms. Groups of adjacent atoms
with parallel magnetic spins are called domains. Magnetic field is the result of current flow in a
conductor, the direction of which is given by right-hand screw rule. The magnetism created by
virtue of current flow in a conductor is called electromagnetism.

Electromagnet

Electromagnets possess temporary magnetism by virtue of passage of electric current. A simplest

possible electromagnet is created by a passage of electric current through a coil wound on a piece
of ferromagnetic material forming a solenoid (open symmetry) or a toroid (closed symmetry) as
shown in Figure (1).

Figure 1

The electric current I flowing through a winding having N turns produces the necessary MMF
(magneto-motive force) specified as AT (ampere-turns) produces magnetic field intensity H
(magnetizing force, also called MMF gradient) over a mean length l of the magnetic material.
The relationship between AT and H fabricated from Ampere’s Law is:
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NI  Hl

NI
Or H 1
l

Units of H are AT/m. In most cases the magnetic flux density B is important, since it can easily
be measured and worked out. The magnetic flux density is the magnetic flux per unit area of
cross-section and its units are Tesla (T) or Webers/m2 (Wb/m2). The relationship between B and
H is: B  H  0  r H . Where: μ0 is the absolute permeability and is 4π x 10–7 H/m and μr is
the relative permeability and is unity for air and all non-magnetic materials. The relative
permeability for ferro-magnetic materials ranges between 2000 and 6000. Therefore:

NI
B 2
l

The magnetic flux produced (direction is given by right-hand screw rule) as a result of passage of
current passes through the magnetic material that has the tendency of confining this flux within
its domain; limited by its length and cross-sectional area of a closed magnetic path, which gives
rise to reluctance (resistance) given by:

l
 3
A

The reluctance is similar in analogy to the resistance in electric circuit.

Magnetic Circuit
In electric circuit the EMF source E forces a current I to flow in a conductor against the
resistance R offered by the conductor. The governing equation is based on Ohm’s Law:

E  IR

In a magnetic circuit the MMF source (NI) forces the magnetic flux ϕ to pass through a magnetic
material having a reluctance ℜ, so that:

NI   4

The MMF source is analogous to EMF source, the flux is analogous to current and reluctance is
analogous to resistance. Like in electric circuits, there are magnetic paths in series and parallel in
a magnetic circuit, and both voltage and current divider rules are applicable. Most of the
magnetic circuits in electrical machines (except transformers) contains air gap. The magnetic
calculations of gap are important in order to find the EMF induced and production of torque. Air

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gap offer high reluctance compared with magnetic material, such as iron, because the later have
high permeability.

One of the specific applications of magnetic circuit is the calculation of magnetic potential
difference, also called magnetic drop or MMF drop across a section of a magnetic circuit, such as
air gap. It is measured in AT/m, which are the same units for H. This is analogous to voltage
drop per meter of conductor length in electric circuits.

Example 1: An iron toroid having an inner and outer circumferential radius of 90cm and 100cm
respectively with relative permeability of 500 is wound with 200 turns. Calculate the current
required to produce a flux of 0.1 x 10–2 Webers.

Solution: First of all we need to find the reluctance for which we require the geometrical
dimensions; area of cross-section and the mean length, which is the mean circumference. The
cross-section area requires diameter of the ring, which is: d = (100 – 90) = 10 cm. From the inner
and outer radius, we can get the mean radius, which is: r = (90 + 100)/2 = 95cm. The mean
circumference is then the mean length of the magnetic path that is:

l  2r  2  95  190 cm or 1.9π m

d 2 100
Area of cross-section is: A    25 cm2 or 25π x 10–4 m2
4 4

l 1.9
Thus reluctance is:     1.21 106 AT/Wb
A 4  10  500  25  104
7

Therefore the current needed to produce the required flux of 0.1 x 10–2 Webers is:

 1.21 106  0.1  102

I   6.05 A
N 200

Example 2: A magnetic circuit shown in the accompanying figure is having a flux of 0.25
Webers confined within magnetic paths with the reluctance: 1  10500AT/Wb,  2  40000
AT/Wb and 3  30000 AT/Wb. If the magnetizing coil is wound with 140 turns of copper
wire, determine: (a) The current in the coil (b) The flux in ℜ2 and ℜ3. (c) The magnetic potential
difference across ℜ3.

Solution: It can be seen from the figure (equivalent electric analogous circuit shown to the right)
that the magnetic circuit is composed of three sections; the two sections with ℜ2 and ℜ3 are in
parallel and the combination is then in series with ℜ1. Therefore according to analogy with
electric circuits, we have:

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 2 3 40000 30000
4    17142.85 AT/Wb
 2  3 40000  30000

And   1   4  10500  17142.85  27642.85 AT/Wb

(a) The current necessary to produce the required flux of 0.25 Webers is:

 27642.85  0.25
I   49.36 A
N 140

(b) The distribution of total flux produced in the parallel combination between ℜ2 and ℜ3 can be
found by applying the current divider rule as applicable in electric circuits that is:

3 30000
2    0.25   0.1701Webers
 2  3 40000  30000

2 40000
And 3    0.25   0.1428Webers
 2  3 40000  30000

(c) The magnetic potential difference F3 across ℜ3 is same as the potential drop across the
parallel combination, so that:

F3  3  3  30000 0.1428  4284. AT

Example 3: A relay shown in the accompanying figure has a coil with 500 turns and the mean
core path is 360mm, and the air gap lengths are 1.5mm each. A flux density of 0.8T is required
to actuate the relay. The core is cast steel for which H is 510AT/m for 0.8T. Neglecting fringing,
find: (a) the current in the coil to achieve the required flux density (b) the relative permeability of
the core (c) the current required to maintain the relay activated with same flux density of 0.8T.

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Solution: The reluctance cannot be determined first for finding the required quantities, since the
mean length of the core is given but area is not known. The complete mean length will comprise
of the core mean length including that of air gaps. Thus: l  (360  2 1.5) 103  363103 m.

(a) The MMF for core material is:

MMF1  H  l  510  360 103  183.6 AT

lg Bl g 0.8  3  103
For air gaps: MMF2    BAg     1910.82 AT
Ag  4  107  1

Therefore: NI  MMF1  MMF2  183.6  1910.82  2094.42 AT

2094.42 2094.42
Thus: I   4.18 A
N 500

(b) The relative permeability of the core material is calculated from:   0  r . That is:

B 0.8
   0.00157
H 510

 0.00157
Therefore: r    1250
 0 4  10 7

(c) When the relay is in activated position, the air gaps are closed and so the mean length is that
of the core only. The MMF is already calculated in part (a), which is 183.6 AT. Therefore:

183.6
I  0.368 A
500

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Example 4: The magnetic system in the accompanying figure has a square cross-section,
comprise of a ferro-magnetic material with relative permeability of 1200 and an air gap. All the
dimensions are in cm. Neglecting fringing; determine (a) air gap flux density (b) the magnetic
field intensity in the air gap.

Solution: The equivalent electric analogous circuit is shown to the right. The reluctance ℜ1, ℜ2
and ℜ3 correspond to core magnetic paths bafe, bcde and be (excluding air gap) respectively.
The reluctance of air gap is ℜg. Because of difficulty the reluctance on the electric analog are
represented by R instead of ℜ. The mean paths for the magnetic flux are:

l1  bafe  52  52  52  156 cm

l 2  bcde  52  52  52  156 cm

l3  be  52  0.5  51.5 cm and for air gap: l g  0.5 cm

4
The area of cross-section of both iron core and air gap is same: AC  Ag  4  10 cm. The
reluctances of the paths are:

l1 156  10 2
1   2    2.58  106 AT/Wb
 0  r AC 4  10  1200 4  10
7 4

l3 51.5  10 2
3    0.85  106 AT/Wb
 0  r AC 4  10  1200  4  10
7 4

lg 0.5  102
g    9.95  106 AT/Wb
 0  r Ag 4  10  4  10
7 4

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Forming the loop equations according to KVL for fluxes ϕ1 and ϕ2 in the direction as indicated in
the figure, we have:

MMF1  11  (3   g )(1  2 )

Or 5000  13.38 106 1  10.8 106 2 5

And MMF2   22  (3   g )(1  2 )

Or 5000  10.8 106 1  13.38 106 2 6

Solving Eq (5) and Eq (6) for ϕ1 and ϕ2, we have:

1  2  206.7 106 Webers

Air gap flux:  g  1   2  413.4  10 Webers

6

The magnetic flux density in the air gap is:

g 413.4  106
Bg    1.034 T
Ag 4  104

The magnetizing force or magnetic intensity in the air gap is:

Bg 1.034
Hg    0.823  106 AT/m
0 4  10 7

Hysteresis
When a sinusoidal excitation is applied to a coil wound on a ferro-magnetic core, the magnetic
flux density B increases (builds up) with the magnetic field intensity H to a point governed by
the maximum value of sinusoidal excitation at π/2 traced as Oa as shown in Figure (2). When the
excitation start decreasing, reaching 3π/2 of the first cycle, the decrease in flux density does not
traces the previous path but follows a path bcde as shown in Figure (2). This phenomenon is
called hysteresis. When the excitation again increases from 3π/2 onwards to maximum value of
next subsequent cycle, the expected path is efga thus completing a loop called hysteresis loop.
During the decrease of current to zero and hence the magnetizing force H, the flux density holds
at point c on the curve, meaning that the induction lags the magnetizing force. This lagging
tendency of flux density is referred to as hysteresis effect. Hysteresis influences the rate of
response of magnetic flux or magnetization of core to a magnetizing force. The magnitude Oc is

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the residual magnetism at which core is magnetized and is referred to as remanence or

retentivity. The residual magnetism is removed when the cycle reverses corresponding to –Hc,
referred to as coercive force of the core. The coercive force thus refers to the magnetizing force
required to de-magnetize the core.

Figure 2

In actual practice, however, the increase in excitation takes the curve from e via path efg to a new
point a1, a2 etc for the next and subsequent cycles as shown in Figure (3). These points become
closes and closer for the subsequent cycles and ultimately the loop closes becoming the well-
known hysteresis loop.

Figure 3

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Hysteresis Loss
An expenditure of energy is required to carry the iron core through cycle of magnetization. Thus
according to Weber theory of molecular magnetization, this expenditure of energy is due to the
friction of the molecular magnets in changing their directions with change of magnetizing force.
This results in hysteresis loss appearing as heat, and is proportional to the area of the hysteresis
n
loop, which is defined empirically by: K h Bm . Where: Kh is a constant, the value of which is
dependent on the nature of ferro-magnetic material and its volume, and n (called the Steinmetz
exponent) varies between 1.5 and 2.5. For the commonly used silicon steel sheet it is 1.6. The
hysteresis loss increases almost linearly with frequency f. The empirical expression for hysteresis
loss is:

Ph  K h Bm f
n
7

This can also be understood that during the part of excitation cycle some energy flows from the
source to the core and during the other part of excitation cycle, the energy flows back to the
source. However, the energy flow from source is greater than the energy returned to the source;
the net energy is then the hysteresis loss appearing as heat.

Eddy Current Loss

The cross-section of the core through which the flux density is rapidly changing with time, will
induce a voltage in the path and a current will circulate round that path refers to as eddy current.
Since the core material has a resistance, so that a power loss of the form I2R will result that
appears as heat. This power loss is empirically given by:

Pe  K e Bm f
2 2
8

Loss due to eddy current can be reduced if the core is laminated with insulation between
laminations that for the core. In electrical machines the laminations have thickness between 0.5
to 5mm.

Example 5: The hysteresis loss in silicon steel used in a certain electrical apparatus operating at
its rated voltage of 220 volts and rated frequency of 50Hz is 833 Watts. Determine the hysteresis
loss (a) for the same rated voltage but operated with a frequency of 60Hz (b) operated with 60Hz
frequency with maximum flux density of 1.1 times of its value at 50Hz. Assume n = 1.6.

Solution: The hysteresis loss is dependent on the maximum flux density and frequency for same
rating and same magnetic material. Remember that as long as the voltage remains unchanged, the
flux density will be not change. We have to consider the ratio of the two hysteresis loss
expressions; for 50Hz and for 60Hz. Let Ph1 = 833W at 50Hz.

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 K h Bm n f 2 
(a) Let Ph2 be the loss at 60Hz is, then: Ph 2  Ph1   n 
 K h Bm f1 

f   60 
Ph 2  833  2   833    999.6 W
 f1   50 

(b) When the flux density is increased to 1.1 times that for 50Hz that is 1.1Bm1, then:

 K h Bm 2 n f 2 
Ph 2  Ph1   n 
 K h Bm1 f1 

 (1.1)1.6  60 
Or Ph 2  833  1.6   1164.3 W
 (1)  50 

Magnetization Curve
Magnetization curve is the B-H characteristics of a ferro-magnetic material. If hysteresis loops
are obtained for different excitations, the magnetic intensity will vary from low values to
gradually increasing values, a family of hysteresis loops will be obtained as shown in Figure (4).

Figure 4

The locus of the tip of hysteresis loop when traced will result in the magnetization curve. If an
iron core is magnetized from its initial un-magnetized state, the flux density will follow the
magnetization curve. It is a very useful curve for designing electrical machines and transformers.
The magnetization or B-H curve for some of the most widely used ferro magnetic materials is
shown in Figure (5).
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Figure 5

Example 6: Consider the magnetic relay in Example 3. If the coil current is 4A when the air gap
is 1mm, find the flux density in the air gap.

Solution: Remember that the flux and flux density will be the same in core as well as in the air
gap provided if fringing is not taken into account. This requires load line on magnetization curve
for which the procedure is as follows:

Let lc be the magnetic core’s mean length and lg is the length of air gap, the ampere turns or
MMF necessary is:

Bg
NI  H g l g  H C lC  l g  H C lC
0

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lC NI 0
Or B g  BC    0 HC  9
lg lg

Load line is drawn on the magnetizing B-H curve of the magnetic material, so that on point will
be on the H-axis (maximum magnetizing force) and other point will be on the B-axis (maximum
flux density). Thus in Eq (9) maximum H occurs at B = 0, so that:

NI 500  4
HC    5555.55 AT/m
lC 360  10 3

For maximum B, Hc = 0, so that from Eq (9), we have:

NI 0 500  4  4  107

Bg    1.256 T
lg 2  103

The load line on the magnetization curve is shown in Figure (6), where the operating point P
corresponds to B = 1.08T

Figure 6

Practice Problems

Problem 1

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Problem 2

Problem 3

Problem 4

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Problem 4 Problem 5

Problem 5

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