4.

1 Magnetic Hysteresis

It may be defined as the lagging of magnetization or magnetic flux density (B) due to induction behind
the magnetizing force (H). Alternatively, it may be defined as that quality of a magnetic substance, due to
which energy is dissipated in it, on the reversal of its magnetism.

Let us take an unmagnified bar of iron AB and magnetize it by placing it within the field of a solenoid as
shown Fig. 4.1. The magnetic field produced by the solenoid is given by the expression

NI
H=
l (4.1)

Where I is the amount of current through the coil of N turns and l is the length of the coil.

The field H produced by the solenoid is called the magnetizing force. The value of H can be increased or
decreased by increasing or decreasing current I through the coil. Let H be increased in steps from zero up
to a certain maximum value and the corresponding values of flux density (B) be noted. If we plot the
relation between H and B, a curve like OA, as shown in Fig. 4.1, is obtained. The material becomes
magnetically saturated for H = OM and the corresponding flux density reaches to its maximum value Bmax.

Fig. 4.1

If H is now decreased gradually (by decreasing solenoid current I), flux density B will not decrease along
AO, as might be expected, but will decrease less rapidly along AC. When H is zero, B is not but has a
definite value Br = OC in Fig. 4.1. It means that on removing the magnetizing force H, the iron bar is not
completely demagnetized. This value of B (= OC) measures the magnetic retentivity or remaining
magnetism in the material and is measured by the residual flux density Br when H=0.

To demagnetize the iron bar, we have to apply the magnetizing force in the reverse direction. When H is
reversed (by reversing current through the solenoid), then B is reduced to zero at point D where H = OD.
This value of H required to wipe off residual magnetism is known as coercive force (Hc) and is a measure
of the magnetic coercivity of the material i.e. its ‘tenacity’ with which it holds on to its magnetism.
If, after the magnetization has been reduced to zero, value of H is further increased in the ‘negative’ i.e.
reversed direction, the iron bar again reaches a state of magnetic saturation, represented by point L. By
taking H back from its value corresponding to negative saturation, (= OL) to its value for positive
saturation (= OM), a similar curve EFGA is obtained. If we again start from G, the same curve
GACDEFG is obtained once again. It is seen that B always lag behind H. The two never attain zero value
simultaneously. This lagging of B behind H is given the name ‘hystereis’ which literally means ‘to lag
behind’. The closed loop ACDEFGA which is obtained when iron bar is taken through one complete cycle
of magnetization is known as ‘magnetic hysteresis loop’. This magnetic hysteresis loop is a characteristic
of a particular magnetic material.

4.2 Problem solving techniques

Problem 4.1:

The hysteresis loop of a sample of sheet steel subjected to a maximum flux density of 1.3 Wb/m 2 has an
area of 93 cm2, the scales being 1cm = 0.1 Wb/m 2 and 1cm = 50 AT/m. Calculate the hysteresis loss in
watts when 1500 cm3 of the same material is subjected to an alternating flux density of 1.3 Wb/m 2 peak
value of a frequency of 65 Hz.

Solution:

Step1: Hysteresis loss is given by Loss = area of B/H loop in cm2 (** important unit in cm2)

Step2: Unit of hysteresis loss is in J/m 3/cycle. This means if we multiply the hysteresis loss with volume
and number of cycles (e.g. 50Hz, etc.), we will get the total loss.

Step3: Given, 1cm (y) = 0.1 Wb/m2 and 1cm (x) = 50 AT/m. Loop area (xy)= 93 cm2. So, loss in the loop
area is 0.1 × 50 × 93 = 465 J/m3/cycle

Step4: Also, given Volume = 1500 cm3 = 15 × 10−4 m3 ; No. of cycles/second = 65

Step5: Total hysteresis loss in J/s (watts) is Wh=465 × 15 × 10−4 × 65 = 45.3 W

Problem 4.2

The hysteresis loop for a certain magnetic material is drawn to the following scales: 1cm = 200 AT/m and
1cm = 0.1 Wb/m2. The area of the loop is 48cm 2. Assuming the density of the material to be 7.8 × 103
kg/m3, calculate the hysteresis loss in watt/kg at 50 Hz.

Hint: Volume of 1 kg of material = mass/density

Ans: 6.15 W/kg.

4.3 Eddy Current Loss

When an alternating magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material an e.m.f. is induced in the material
itself according to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. Since the magnetic material is a
conducting material, these e.m.f.s circulates currents within the body of the material. These circulating
currents are called Eddy Currents (Dictionary: A circular movement or flow causing a small whirlpool).
They will occur when the conductor experiences a changing magnetic field.

Fig. 4.2

A sectional view of the magnetic core is shown in Fig. 4.2. When the changing flux links with the core
itself, it induces e.m.f. in the core which in turns sets up the circulating current called eddy current and
these current in return produces a loss called eddy current loss or (I2R) loss, where I is the value of the
current and R is the resistance of the eddy current path.

If the core is made up of solid iron of larger cross-sectional area, the magnitude of I will be very large and
hence losses will be high. To reduce the eddy current loss mainly there are two methods:

 By reducing the magnitude of the eddy current.

The magnitude of the current can be reduced by splitting the solid core into thin sheets called
laminations, in the plane parallel to the magnetic field. Each lamination is insulated from each
other by a thin layer of coating of varnish or oxide film. By laminating the core, the area of
each section is reduced and hence the induced e.m.f. also reduces. As the area through which
the current is passed is smaller, the resistance of eddy current path increases.

 By using a magnetic material which has got higher resistance to current path but lower
reluctance to magnetic path like silicon steel, ferrite materials.

4.4 Application of eddy currents

As we know that by the effect of eddy current the heat which is produced is not utilized for any useful
work as they are a major source of energy loss in a.c. machines like transformer, generators, and motors
and, therefore, it is known as an eddy current loss.
  However, there are some uses of this eddy current like in induction heating. In the case of
induction heating, an iron shaft is placed as a core of an induction coil. A large amount of heat
is produced at the outermost part of the shaft by the eddy current when the high-frequency
current is passed through the coil. At the centre of the shaft, the amount of the heat reduces.
This is because the outermost periphery of the shaft offers a low resistance path for the eddy
currents. This process is used in automobiles for surface hardening of heavy shafts.
 The effect of eddy current is also used in electrical instruments like in induction type energy
meters for providing braking torque.
 For providing damping torque in permanent magnet moving coil instruments.
 Eddy current instruments are used for detecting cracks in metal parts.
 Used in trains having eddy currents brakes. As the train runs, there is a huge amount of kinetic
energy by virtue of lower frictional loss in rail lines and heavy mass of the train. So it is very
difficult to stop the trin without wasting a large amount of energy. Eddy current loss can solve
this problem by dissipating a large amount of energy by heat.

4.4 Mathematical expression for eddy current loss

It is difficult to determine the eddy current loss from the resistance and current values, but by the
experiments, the eddy current power loss in a magnetic material is given by the equation 4.2.

W e =K e B 2m t 2 f 2 V W (4.2)

Where Ke – co-efficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material

Bm – maximum value of flux density in Wb/m2

t – thickness of lamination in m

f – frequency of reversal of magnetic field (cycles of alternating current) in Hz

V – volume of magnetic material in m3

4.5 Coefficient of Self-induction (L)

The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is defined as the weber-turns per ampere in the coil.

By ‘weber-turns’ is meant the product of flux in webers and the number of turns with which the flux is
linked. In other words, it is the flux-linkages of the coil.

Consider a solenoid having N turns and carrying a current of I amperes. If the flux produced is Φ webers,
NΦ
the weber-turns are NΦ. Hence, weber-turns per ampere are I

NΦ
By definition, L = I (4.4)

The unit of self-induction is henry (H).

 NI
Φ=
Now, we have seen, from a magnetic circuit that
l/ μ0 μ r A

2
μ0 μr AN
L=
We get l (4.5)

4.6 Mutual Inductance

Fig. 4.3

In Fig. 4.3 we can see that any change of current in coil A is always accompanied by the production of
mutually-induced e.m.f. in coil B. Mutual inductance may, therefore, be defined as the ability of one coil
(or circuit) to produce an e.m.f. in a nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil changes.
This action being reciprocal, the second coil can also induce an e.m.f. in the first when current in the
second coil changes. This ability of reciprocal induction is measured in terms of the coefficient of mutual
induction M.

4.7 Coefficient of Mutual Inductance (M)

We will now deduce an expression for coefficient of mutual inductance in terms of the dimensions of the
two coils.

N1 I1
Φ1 =
Flux in the first coil l/μ 0 μr A (4.6)

Where, N1 is the no. of turns of the first coil and I1 is the current through the first coil. Assume the area
and length is fixed in both coils.

Φ1 N1
=
Flux/ampere I 1 l/μ 0 μr A (4.7)

Assuming that whole of this flux (it usually is some percentage of it) is linked with the other coil having
N2 turns, the weber-turns in it due to the flux/ampere in the first coil is given by
 Φ1
M =N 2 ×
I1 (4.8)

Putting the value of (4.7) in (4.8) we get

N2N1 N1 N2
M= =
l/μ 0 μr A R (4.9)

Where R is the reluctance of the magnetic material.

4.8 Coefficient of Coupling

Consider that, in section 4.7 instead of all the flux from one coil linking with the other, a fraction k1 from
coil A links with coil B in Fig. 4.3, and similarly a fraction k2 from coil B links with coil A.

Then, M, w.r.t. coil B can be given by

N 2 N1
M=k 1 ×
l/μ 0 μr A (4.10)

and, M, w.r.t. coil A can be given by

N1 N2
M =k 2×
l/μ 0 μr A (4.11)

Multiplying both sides of (4.10) and (4.11) we get,

N 2N
1 22
M 2=k 1 k 2 × 2
=k 1 k 2 L1 L2
( l/ μ0 μr A ) (4.12)

2
N
L=
As from (4.5)
l/μ 0 μr A

M
k=
Putting √ k 1 k 2=k , we get
M=k √ L1 L2 , or √ L1 L2 (4.13)

The constant k in (4.13) is called the coefficient of coupling and may be defined as the ratio of mutual
inductance actually present between the two coils to the maximum possible value. If the flux due to one
coil completely links with the other, then value of k is unity. If the flux of one coil does not at all link
with the other, then k = 0. In the first case, when k = 1, coils are said to be tightly coupled and when k =
0, the coils are magnetically isolated from each other.

4.8 Inductance in Series

4.8.1 Additive Flux Linkage

Fig. 4.4

Let the two coils be so joined in series that their fluxes (or m.m.fs) are additive i.e., in the same direction
in Fig. 4.4.

Let M = coefficient of mutual inductance

L1 = coefficient of self-inductance of 1st coil A

L2 = coefficient of self-inductance of 2nd coil B

di
e 1=−L1
Then, self induced e.m.f. in A is dt (4.14)

di
e m=−M
Mutually-induced e.m.f. in A due to change of current in B is dt (4.15)

See that in Fig. 4.4, the mutually induced e.m.f. is in the same direction of self induced e.m.f.

di
e 2=−L2
Similarly, self induced e.m.f. in B is dt (4.16)

di
e m=−M
And mutually-induced e.m.f. in B due to change of current in A is dt (4.17)

See that in Fig. 4.4, the mutually induced e.m.f. is in the same direction of self induced e.m.f.

All have −ve sign, because both self and mutally induced e.m.fs. are in opposition to the applied e.m.f.
di
e t =− L + L +2 M )
So, total induced e.m.f. in the combination is dt ( 1 2 (4.18)
If L is the equivalent inductance of the two series coils, then total induced e.m.f. in that equivalent coil
di
e eq =−L
would have been dt (4.19)

As L.H.S. of (4.18) and (4.19) are same, by equating (4.18) and (4.19), we get

L = L1 + L2 + 2M (4.20)

4.8.2 Subtractive Flux Linkage

Fig. 4.5

Let the two coils be so joined in series that their fluxes (or m.m.fs) are subtractive i.e., in the opposite
direction in Fig. 4.5.

Let M = coefficient of mutual inductance

L1 = coefficient of self-inductance of 1st coil A

L2 = coefficient of self-inductance of 2nd coil B

di
e 1=−L1
Then, self induced e.m.f. in A is dt (4.21)

di
e m =+ M
Mutually-induced e.m.f. in A due to change of current in B is dt (4.22)

See that in Fig. 4.5, the mutually induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction of self induced e.m.f.

di
e 2=−L2
Similarly, self induced e.m.f. in B is dt (4.23)
 di
e m =+ M
And mutually-induced e.m.f. in B due to change of current in A is dt (4.24)

See that in Fig. 4.5, the mutually induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction of self induced e.m.f.

The mutually induced have +ve sign, because mutually induced e.m.fs. are additive to the applied e.m.f.
di
e t =− ( L +L −2 M )
So, total induced e.m.f. in the combination is dt 1 2 (4.25)

If L is the equivalent inductance of the two series coils, then total induced e.m.f. in that equivalent coil
di
e eq =−L
would have been dt (4.26)

As L.H.S. of (4.25) and (4.26) are same, by equating (4.25) and (4.26), we get

L = L1 + L2 – 2M (4.27)

Problem:

Two mutually coupled coils are connected in series as shown in Fig. 4.6. Their self- inductances are L1
and L2, respectively and mutual inductance is M. Find the equivalent inductance of the combination.

Fig. 4.6