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2.1 INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetism describes the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Nearly
everyone, at some time or another, has had the opportunity to play with magnets. Most of
us are acquainted with bar magnets or those thin magnets that usually end up on
refrigerators. These magnets are known as permanent magnets. Although permanent
magnets receive a lot of exposure, we use and depend on electromagnets much more in
our everyday lives. Electromagnetism is essentially the foundation for all of electrical
engineering. We use electromagnets to generate electricity, store memory on our
computers, generate pictures on a television screen, diagnose illnesses, and in just about
every other aspect of our lives that depends on electricity. Electromagnetism is the key to
the operation of a large number of electrical devices used in home as well as industry.
Transformers, motors, generators, circuit breakers and relays are some examples of
widely used electromagnetic devices.
Electromagnetism works on the principle that an electric current through a wire generates
a magnetic field. Whenever electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field
is produced in the space surrounding the conductor. This magnetic field is the same force
that makes metal objects stick to permanent magnets. In a bar magnet, the magnetic field
runs from the north to the south pole. In a wire, the magnetic field forms around the wire.
If we wrap that wire around a metal object, we can often magnetize that object. In this
way, we can create an electromagnet.
In this unit, we will discuss about electromagnetism and study the relationship that exists
between electric current and magnetic flux. Magnetic circuit provides path for magnetic
flux and it is the basis of electromagnetism. We shall study about various types of
magnetic circuits which may be series or parallel.
37
Electrical The way in which electric current magnetizes a magnetic material will be discussed in
magnetization curve or B-H curve. The magnetization curve caused by an increasing
current is not the same when the current decreases and this phenomenon is called
magnetic hysteresis and this will also be discussed.
A current carrying coil has self inductance which is a property by which it can store
energy. The inductance between two coils is called mutual inductance. We shall elaborate
on these with examples. When two coils are coupled together, flux in one coil is linked
with the other. The coefficient of coupling between two coils gives idea about the degree
of this linking. We shall study about it.
When two coils are mutually coupled, their emfs may be aiding or opposing and it is
determined by dot convention which will be illustrated.
Two current carrying coils may be connected in series or parallel. Series and parallel
connection may again be aiding or opposing. We shall study about them in details.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain what is meant by a magnetic circuit and understand the
magnetization curve. You should be able to write the equations for a series
magnetic circuit made of different materials and also having air-gap in it,
• differentiate between parallel and series-parallel magnetic circuit,
• write the emf equation for a current carrying coil and find the self-
inductance,
• determine the relationship between self-inductance, mutual inductance and
co-efficient of coupling, and
• determine the effective inductance for inductors coupled in series and
inductors coupled in parallel, each with aiding and opposing combination.
Reluctance (S)
It is the property of a material which opposes the passage of magnetic flux in it.
l
Reluctance S = AT/Wb . . . (2.4)
μ0 μ r A
From Eq. (2.3),
m.m.f
Flux =
reluctance
NI
or, φ= Wb . . . (2.5)
S
Permeance
It is the reciprocal of reluctance and its unit is AT/Wb.
Example 2.1
A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel ring of relative permeability
900, having a mean circumference of 40mm and cross-sectional area of 50 mm2. If
a current of 25A is passed through the coil, find (a) m.m.f, (b) reluctance of the
ring, and (c) flux.
Solution
(a) Coil m.m.f = NI AT = 300 × 25 = 7500 AT.
l 40 × 10− 3
(b) Reluctance of the ring = =
μ0 μ r A 4π × 10− 7 × 900 × 50 × 10− 6
= 0.707 ×106 AT/Wb.
m.m.f 7500
(c) Flux = = = 10.6 m Wb .
reluctance 0.707 × 106
2.0
Steel Casting
1.8
1.4
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
H in AT/m
l1 l2 l3 l
= + + + a . . . (2.6)
μ0 μ r1 A1 μ0 μ r 2 A2 μ 0 μ r 3 A3 μ 0 Ag
Example 2.2
A ring is composed of three sections. The cross-sectional area is 0.001 m2 for each
section. The mean lengths of each section are la = 0.3 m, lb = 0.2m, lc = 0.1 m. An
air-gap length of 0.1 mm is cut in the ring. Relative permeabilities for sections a, b,
c are 5000, 1000 and 10000 respectively. Flux in the air gap is 7.5 × 10− 4 Wb and
the coil has 100 turns. Find (a) Total m.m.f, and (b) exciting current.
Solution
Reluctance of section a of ring
la 0.3
Sa = = −
= 47746.37 AT/Wb
μ0 μ ra A 4π × 10 × 5000 × 0.001
7
Reluctance of air-gap
lg 0.1 × 10− 3
Sg = = = 79577.73 AT/Wb
μ0 A 4π × 10− 7 × 0.001
Total Reluctance
S = Sa + Sb + Sc + S g = 294436.4 AT/Wb
41
Electrical
2.5 PARALLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Parallel magnetic circuit consists of two parallel magnetic paths acted upon by the same
m.m.f. as shown in Figure 2.5. Here ACB and ADB are the two magnetic paths acted
upon by the same m.m.f. Each magnetic path has an average length of 2 (l1 + l2).
l1 l1
A
Φ/2 Φ/2
l2 D Φ C l2
B
Figure 2.5 : Parallel Magnetic Circuit
Example 2.3
For the magnetic circuit shown in Figure 2.6 the flux in the right limb is
0.48 m Wb and the number of turns wound on the central limb is 1000. Calculate
(a) flux in the central limb, and (b) the current required.
The magnetiSation curve for the core is given as below :
Figure 2.6
Solution
Area of cross-section in side limbs = 4 × 3 =12 cm2
Area of cross-section in core = 4 × 3 = 12 cm2
Flux in side limbs = 0.48 m Wb
0.48 × 10− 3
Flux density in side limbs = −4
= 0.4 Wb/m 2
12 × 10
Figure 2.7
Φ/2 A Φ/2
Φ
Airgap
C
D
Example 2.4
Figure 2.9 shows an electromagnet made of cast steel has a coil of 500 turns
wound on the central limb. The cross-sectional area of the outer limbs and central
limb are 2.5 cm2 and 6 cm2 respectively. Determine the current that the coil should
carry to produce a flux of 0.6 m Wb in the air-gap. The magnetization curve for
cast steel is as given below :
Flux Density 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.2
B (Wb/m2)
H (AT/m) 300 540 650 900 1150
43
Electrical
Figure 2.9
Solution
There are two equal parallel paths ACDE and AGE.
Flux density in either parallel path is half of that in the central path as flux divides
into two equal parts at point A.
Total m.m.f required for the whole electromagnet = m.m.f required for path
EF + m.m.f required for the air-gap + m.m.f required for either of the two parallel
paths, say path ACDE.
0.6 × 10− 3
Flux density in the central limb and air-gap = −4
= 1 Wb/m2 .
6 × 10
Corresponding value of H found from the given data = 900 AT/m.
So, AT for central limb = 900 × 25 ×10− 2 = 225 AT
B 0.6 × 10− 3
H in the air-gap = = = 477.46 AT/m
μ0 4π × 10− 7
So, AT required for air-gap = 477.46 × 0.8 ×10− 2 = 3.82 AT.
Flux density in the path ACDE is 0.5 Wb/m2 and corresponding H is 540 AT/m.
So, AT required for path ACDE = 540 × 100 × 10− 2 = 540 AT
Total AT required = 225 + 3.82 + 540 = 768.82
768.82
Current required = = 1.54 Amp .
500
SAQ 3
A magnetic circuit made of wrought iron is shown in Figure 2.10. The central limb
has a cross-sectional area of 8 cm2 and each side of the limb has a cross-sectional
area of 5 cm2. Calculate the ampere turns required to produce a flux of 1 m Wb in
the central limb. The magnetization of wrought iron is given by :
Flux Density (Wb/m2) 1.00 1.25
Magnetic Field (AT/m) 200 500
C A
5cm2
1mm
F
G
15cm
D E
8cm2
Figure 2.10
44
Electro Magnetism
2.6 MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
You have seen in the plot of Figure 2.3 that if you want to magnetize a magnetic
material, you need to apply a magnetizing force by a current flow through the coil. When
you increase magnetic field intensity H from zero to a certain maximum value by
increasing current I, the flux density B also increases and reaches saturation as shown by
plot OA in Figure 2.11. The material becomes magnetically saturated for H = OM and has
a corresponding maximum flux density of Bmax in it. If you now decrease H from its
maximum value to zero by decreasing the current I, the flux density B will not decrease
along AO, but will decrease less rapidly along AC. When H is zero, B is not zero but has
a definite value OC. This means that even on removing the magnetizing force H, the
magnetic material does not lose its magnetism completely and this is called residual
magnetism.
If we want to demagnetize the electromagnet, we shall have to apply magnetizing force
in the reverse direction. When we reverse the current through the coil, then B becomes
zero at point D where H = OD.
If the value of H is further increased in the negative direction, the magnetic material
again reaches magnetic saturation, but in negative direction. Now by taking H back from
its value corresponding to negative saturation (OL) to its value for positive saturation
(OM), a similar curve EFGA is obtained once again.
You must be observing from the Figure 2.11 that B always lags behind H. The
magnetization curves for increasing and decreasing H are not the same and this
phenomenon is called hysteresis. The loop traced out by the magnetization curve is
known as hysteresis loop.
φ N μ0 μ r A
So, = . . . (2.10)
i l
From Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10) we now obtain
N μ0 μ r A N 2 μ A
L= = . . . (2.11)
l l
where μ = μ0 μ r
SAQ 4
(a) A coil of 150 turns is linked with a flux of 0.01 Wb when carrying a current
of 10 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil. If the current is uniformly
reversed in 0.01 sec, calculate the induced e.m.f.
(b) An iron rod 2 cm in diameter and 20 cm long is bent into a closed ring and
is wound with 3000 turns of wire. It is found that when a current of 0.5 A is
passed through this coil, the flux density in the coil is 0.5 Wb/m2. Assuming
that all the flux is linked with every turn of the coil, find (a) the B/H ratio for
iron, (b) the inductance of the coil, and (c) the voltage that would be
developed across the coil if the current through the coil is interrupted and
the flux in the iron falls to 10% of its former value in 0.001 sec?
Coil 1 Coil 2
N1 Turns N1 Turns
The induced voltage e2 produced in coil 2 causes alternating current i2 to flow in coil 2.
Current i2 produces an alternating flux Φ2 in coil 2. Out of flux Φ2, a portion Φ22
completes its path around the coil. The other portion Φ21 is linked with coil 1 and it
produces an induced e.m.f given by
d φ21 di
N1 = M 21 2 . . . (2.18)
dt dt
So, from Eq. (2.18), we get,
d φ21
M 21 = N1 . . . (2.19)
di2
If the flux and current are having a linear relationship which we assume to be true,
Eq. (2.17) and Eq. (2.19) can be written as
φ12
M12 = N 2 . . . (2.20)
i1
47
Electrical φ21
and M 21 = N1 . . . (2.21)
i2
Assuming that the permeability of the mutual flux path is constant, we have
M 12 = M 21 = M
Example 2.5
A flux of 0.5 m Wb is produced by coil A of 600 turns wound on a ring with a
current of 2 A in it. Calculate (a) self inductance of coil A, (b) the e.m.f induced in
coil A when a current of 6 A flowing through it is switched off, assuming the
current to fall to zero in 2 millisecond, and (c) the mutual inductance between the
coils, if a second coil B of 400 turns is uniformly wound over the first coil A.
Solution
di 0.15 × (6 − 0)
(b) e=L = = 450 V
dt 2 × 10− 3
φ2
L2 = N 2 . . . (2.23)
i2
Let Φ1 be the total flux produced by current i1 in coil 1 and Φ12 be the part of Φ1 that is
linked with coil 2.
Let φ12 = k1 φ1
Similarly, let Φ2 be the total flux produced by current i2 in coil 2 and Φ21 be the part of Φ2
that is linked with coil1.
Let φ21 = k2 φ2
k1 k2 N1 N 2 φ1 φ2 ⎛N φ ⎞⎛N φ ⎞
M2 = = k1 k2 ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ = k1 k2 L1 L2
i1 i2 ⎝ i1 ⎠ ⎝ i2 ⎠
∴ M = k1 k2 L1 L2 = k L1 L2 . . . (2.26)
where ∴ k = k1 k2
So, From Eq. (2.26), we obtain,
M
k= . . . (2.27)
L1 L2
N2 μ A
Self inductance L=
l
N12 μ A
∴ L1 =
l
N 22 μ A
∴ L2 =
l
L2 N 22
=
L1 N12
N12 (600)2
∴ L1 = L2 = 0.227 = 0.028 H
N 22 (1700) 2
Mutual Inductance
M =k L1 L2 = 0.625 0.028 × 0.227 = 0.05 H
SAQ 5
The coefficient of coupling between two coils is 0.75. There are 250 turns in
coil 1. The total flux of coil 1 is 0.4 m Wb when the current in this coil is 3 A.
When current in coil1 is changed from 3 A to zero linearly in 3 milliseconds, the
voltage induced in coil 2 is 70 V. Calculate L1, L2, M and N2.
49
Electrical
2.10 DOT CONVENTION
In a circuit, the e.m.f induced due to mutual inductance may be aiding or opposing the
e.m.f induced due to self inductance. In order to determine the nature of mutually
induced e.m.f, dot convention is useful. With the help of this dot convention, we can
know about the sign of mutually induced e.m.f as illustrated in Figure 2.13.
M Negative
di di di di
or, e = − L1 − L2 − 2M = − ( L1 + L2 + 2M ) . . . (2.32)
dt dt dt dt
If L is the equivalent inductance of the coil, then we can write
di
e=−L . . . (2.33)
dt
From Eqs. (2.32) and (2.33), we get
di di
or, −L = − ( L1 + L2 + 2M )
dt dt
or, L = L1 + L2 + 2 M . . . (2.34)
di di di di
e = − L1 − L2 + 2M = − ( L1 + L2 − 2M ) . . . (2.39)
dt dt dt dt
If L is the equivalent inductance of the combination, then we can write
di
e=−L . . . (2.40)
dt
51
Electrical From Eqs (.2.39) and (2.40), we get
di di
−L = − ( L1 + L2 − 2M )
dt dt
or, L = L1 + L2 − 2 M . . . (2.41)
Example 2.7
Two coils with a coefficient of coupling of 0.6 between them are connected in
series so as to magnetize (i) in the same direction, and (ii) in the opposite direction.
The corresponding values of equivalent inductance are obtained as
1.8 H for (i) and 0.8 H for (ii). Find the self inductance of the two coils and the
mutual inductance between them.
Solution
Coefficient of coupling k = 0.6
(a) For magnetization in the same direction,
Equivalent inductance L = L1+ L2 + 2M
or, 1.8 = L1+L2 + 2M . . . (2.42)
(b) For magnetization in the opposite direction,
Equivalent inductance L = L1 + L2 − 2M
or, 0.8 = L1 + L2 − 2M . . . (2.43)
Subtracting Eq. (2.43) from Eq. (2.42), we get
4M = 1
or, M = 0.25 H
Adding Eq. (2.42) and Eq. (2.43), we get
2 (L1 + L2) = 2.6
or, L1 + L2 = 1.3 . . . (2.44)
We know, M =k L1 L2
M2 (0.25) 2
∴ L1 L2 = = = 0.1736 . . . (2.45)
k2 (0.6) 2
SAQ 6
The combined inductance of two coils connected in series is 0.6 H and 0.1 H
depending on the relative directions of the current in the coils. If one of the coils
when isolated has a self-inductance of 0.2 H, calculate (a) mutual inductance, and
(b) coupling coefficient.
52
Electro Magnetism
2.12 INDUCTIVE COUPLING IN PARALLEL
When two inductors are coupled in parallel, the parallel combination may be such that
the mutual inductance existing between them is either aiding or opposing. Let us find the
equivalent inductance of the combination in both these cases.
2.12.1 Parallel Aiding
Figure 2.16 shows two coils coupled in parallel where the fluxes are additive as per dot
convention.
∴ i2 = i − i1 . . . (2.50)
Substituting i2 from Eq. (2.45) in Eq. (2.44), we get
di1 d (i − i1 ) d (i − i1 ) di
L1 +M = L2 +M 1
dt dt dt dt
di1 di di di di di
or, L1 +M − M 1 = L2 − L2 1 + M 1
dt dt dt dt dt dt
di1 di
or, ( L1 + L2 − 2M ) = ( L2 − M ) 1
dt dt
di2 ( L2 − M ) di1
∴ = . . . (2.51)
dt L1 + L2 − 2 M dt
di2 ( L1 − M ) di
Similarly, = . . . (2.52)
dt L1 + L2 − 2M dt
Using Eqs. (2.46) and (2.47) in Eq. (2.42), we obtain
⎛ L2 − M ⎞ di ⎛ L1 − M ) ⎞ di
V = L1 ⎜ ⎟ +M ⎜ ⎟ . . . (2.53)
⎝ L1 + L2 − 2 M ⎠ dt ⎝ L1 + L2 − 2M ⎠ dt
L1 L2 − L1 M + L1 M − M 2 di
or, V = . . . (2.54)
L1 + L2 − 2M dt 53
Electrical
L1 L2 − M 2 di
or, V = . . . (2.55)
L1 + L2 − 2M dt
Let L be the equivalent inductance of the parallel combination, then we can write
di
V =L . . . (2.56)
dt
From Eqs. (2.50) and (2.51), we obtain
di L L − M 2 ⎛ di ⎞
L = 1 2 ⎜ ⎟
dt L1 + L2 − 2M ⎝ dt ⎠
L1 L2 − M 2
∴ L= . . . (2.57)
L1 + L2 − 2M
i1 i2
M
V L1 L2
i2 = i − i1 . . . (2.61)
Substituting i2 from Eq. (2.56) in Eq. (2.55), we get
di1 d (i − i1 ) d (i − i1 ) di
L1 −M = L2 −M 1
dt dt dt dt
di1 di di di di di
or, L1 −M + M 1 = L2 − L2 1 − M 1
dt dt dt dt dt dt
di1 di
or, ( L1 + L2 + 2M ) = ( L2 + M ) 1
dt dt
di1 ( L2 + M ) di
∴ = . . . (2.62)
dt L1 + L2 + 2M dt
54
di2 ( L1 + M ) di Electro Magnetism
Similarly, = . . . (2.63)
dt L1 + L2 + 2 M dt
Using Eqs. (2.57) and (2.58) in Eq. (2.53), we obtain
⎛ L2 + M ⎞ di ⎛ L1 + M ) ⎞ di
V = L1 ⎜ ⎟ −M ⎜ ⎟ . . . (2.64)
⎝ L1 + L2 + 2M ⎠ dt ⎝ L1 + L2 + 2M ⎠ dt
L1 L2 + L1 M − L1 M − M 2 di
or, V = . . . (2.65)
L1 + L2 + 2 M dt
L1 L2 − M 2 di
or, V = . . . (2.66)
L1 + L2 + 2M dt
Let L be the equivalent inductance of the parallel combination, then we can write
di
V =L . . . (2.67)
dt
From Eqs. (2.61) and (2.62), we obtain
di L L − M 2 ⎛ di ⎞
L = 1 2 ⎜ ⎟
dt L1 + L2 + 2M ⎝ dt ⎠
L1 L2 − M 2
∴ L= . . . (2.68)
L1 + L2 + 2M
Example 2.8
Two coils of inductances 4H and 6H are connected in parallel. If their mutual
inductance is 3 H, calculate the equivalent inductance of the combination if
(i) mutual inductance assists the self-inductance, and (ii) mutual inductance
opposes the self-inductance.
Solution
L1 = 4 H L2 = 6 H M=3H
L1 L2 − M 2 4 × 6 − 32
(a) L= = = 3.75 H
L1 + L2 − 2M 4 + 6 − 2 × 3
L1 L2 − M 2 4 × 6 − 32
(b) L= = = 0.9375 H
L1 + L2 + 2 M 4 + 6 + 2 × 3
SAQ 7
A coil of inductance 200 mH is magnetically coupled to another coil of inductance
800 mH. The coefficient of coupling between the coils is 0.5. Calculate the
equivalent inductance of (a) series aiding, (b) series opposing, (c) parallel aiding,
and (d) parallel opposing.
2.13 SUMMARY
In this unit we studied about electromagnetism and the relationship that exists between
electric current and magnetic flux. The way in which electric current magnetizes a
55
Electrical magnetic material was discussed in magnetization curve or B-H curve. In relation to B-H
curve, phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis was also discussed.
Magnetic circuit provides path for magnetic flux and it is the basis of electromagnetism.
Types of magnetic circuits which may be series or parallel were discussed.
A current carrying coil has self inductance and the inductance between two coils is
called mutual inductance. We had elaborate discussion on these with examples. The
coefficient of coupling between two coils determines the degree of linking between their
fluxes and it was studied.
Dot convention determines whether e.m.fs between two mutually coupled coils are aiding
or opposing and this was illustrated with examples.
Series or parallel connection between two current carrying coils was explained. Series
and parallel connection may again be aiding or opposing. We studied about them in
details.
πd2
Diameter d = 2 cm and cross-sectional area A = , φ = B × A.
4
φ
L=N . Substituting the values, we get L = 0.942 H.
i
dφ
Voltage across the coil e = N .
dt
dφ = 90% of the final flux, dt = 0.001 sec and N = 3000. Substituting these
values, we get
e = 424.11 V
SAQ 5
N1 φ1
From L1 = , we get L2 = 33.34 mH.
i1
di1
Voltage induced in coil 2 is e2 = M
dt
e2 = 70V, di1 = 3 A and dt = 3 m sec. Using these values, we get M = 70 mH.
M2
M =k L1 L2 and so L2 = = 0.261 H
k 2 L1
L2 N 22 L2
From the relation = , we get N 2 = N1 and thus obtain N2 = 700.
L1 N12 L1
SAQ 6
L = 0.6 H when flux is additive and L = 0.1 H when flux is subtractive
0.6 = L1 + L2 + 2 M and 0.1 = L1 + L2 − 2 M.
From these equations, subtracting we get M = 0.125 H and adding we have
0.35 = 0.2 + L2
Let L1 = 0.2 H (when isolated), then we get
L2 = 0.15 H
M
Coupling Coefficient k = = 0.72
L1 L2 57
Electrical SAQ 7
From M = k L1 L2 , we get M = 200 mH
L1 L2 − M 2
In parallel aiding L = = 200 mH
L1 + L2 − 2M
L1 L2 − M 2
In parallel opposing L = = 85.71 mH .
L1 + L2 + 2 M
58