Chapter One

Electromagnetic Principles
Introduction
 Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical
or/and electromagnetic device used today in industry, research &
development, or home appliance.
e.g. Generators, Motors, Transformers, circuit breakers,
Televisions, Computers, and Telephones…….etc.

 All these devices make use of magnetic fields in their operation.

 Magnetic fields may be produced by
1. Permanent magnets or
2. Electromagnets
that are created by electrical current (AC or DC) flowing
within conductor.
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Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
 Magnetic field lines are directed from north to south
outside a magnet, there is a magnetic field within the bar; the
direction of the field is south to north.

 They are continuous.

 Enter or leave a magnetic surface at right angles.
 cannot cross each other.
 The same direction tend to repel each other.
 Tend to be as short path as possible.
an easy magnetic path (e.g., through iron), they will prefer this to a more
difficult path-through air

 Occupy three-dimensional space extending (theoretically) to

infinity.
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Magnetic Fields

Figure: Magnetic field pattern near a magnet

Figure: Magnetic field distortion

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Magnetic Field Produced by Current-Carrying Conductor
 A magnetic field is always associated with a current-carrying conductor
1. The magnetic field is strongest perpendicular to the current direction.
 indicates current flowing into the page
 shows for current coming out of the page,

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Figure 1.3Direction of magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor .
2. The magnetic field is always tangent to the direction of current flow.
We can trace a path around the conductor so that continuous magnetic lines of
force surround the con­ductor.

3. If we reverse the direction of current flow, the

direction of the magnetic field also changes.

4. The field is strongest near the wire and decreases as we move farther
from it.

5. If we look at a single current-carrying conductor end on, Then dot and

cross symbols, respectively, represent the head and tail of the
conductor arrow.

6. If we grasp the conductor with our right hand,

the thumb pointing in the direction of the current,
our fingers will point in the same direction as the north pole of
the compass ( the magnetic field).
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 This method of determining the directions of current flow in a conductor
and the surrounding lines of force is called Am­pere's right-hand rule

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Figure 1.4 Ampere’s right hand
 Practical Magnetic Circuits
 If we construct a coil of many turns (number of turns, N),
we can increase the magnetic field strength very greatly.

 We can also increase the magnetic field strength by increasing

the magnitude of current (I) in the coil.

 Thus we see that the magnetic field strength is proportional

to both the number of turns (N) and the current (I).
 A cylindrical coil closely wound with a large number of turns
of insulated wire is called solenoid .

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 Cont.….

Figure: Magnetic field inside a long solenoid

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 Electromagnetic Relationships

1. Magnetic Lines of Force

 The "quantity of magnetism" which exists in a magnetic
field is the magnetic line of force, or the magnetic flux.

 In the SI system magnetic flux is measured in units called

webers, abbreviated Wb, and its symbol is .

 The weber is defined in terms of an induced voltage,

electromagnetic induction.

 We will consider flux to be analogous to current in

electric circuits.
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2. Magnetic Flux Density
 is the magnetic flux per unit cross-sectional area.
 The total magnetic flux that comes out of the magnet is not
uniformly distributed. the magnetic flux density increases as we
approach closer to the end of the magnet.
 The magnetic flux density inside the magnet is uniformly
constant.
 Magnetic flux density is measured in units of tesla (T) and is
given the symbol B.
 One tesla is equal to 1 weber of magnetic flux per square
meter of area.

B
A
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Example 1.1 The total magnetic flux out of a cylindrical
permanent magnet is found to be 0.032 mWb. If the magnet has a
circular cross section and a diameter of 1 cm, what is the magnetic
flux density at the end of the magnet?
Solution

The total flux = 0.032 x 10-3 Wb,

The cross-sectional area of magnet:

D 2 (0.01) 2
A   78.53  10 6 m 2
4 4
The magnetic flux density
3
 0.032  10
B   0. 407 T
A 78.53  10 6
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3. Magnetomotive Force
 An increase in the magnitude of current in a coil or a single
conductor results in an increase in the magnetic flux.
 If the number of turns in a coil are increased (with the current
remaining constant), there is an increase in magnetic flux.
 Therefore, the magnetic flux is proportional to the products of
amperes and turns.
 This ability of a coil to produce magnetic flux is called the
Magnetomotive force MMF, has the units of ampere-turns (At) and the
symbol Fm.

Fm  NI
 Magnetomotive force in the magnetic circuit is analogous to
electromotive force in an electric circuit.
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Example 1.2 The coil in Figure 1.7 has 1000 turns wound on a cardboard
toroid. The mean (or average) diameter D of the toroid is 10 cm, and the
cross section is 1 cm. The total magnetic flux in the toroid is 3Wb when
there is an excitation current of 10 mA in the coil.
(a) What is the magnetic flux when the current is increased to 20 mA?
(b)What is the magnetic flux density within the coil when the current is 20
mA?

Figure 1.7 Toroid coil.

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Solution
(a) If we double the current to 20 mA. then
3
Fm  NI  1000  20  10  20At

and  must double to 6 Wb

(b) For a toroid. the magnetic flux is assumed to be uniform

across the interior cross-sectional area of the coil.

 6  10 6
B  2 2
 76 mT
A ( / 4)(110 )

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4. Magnetic Reluctance
 Analogous to resistance in an electric circuit
 The magnetic flux is directly proportional to the
magnetomotive force. Is ratio of MMF to magnetic flux:

Fm
 m Fm   m 

 This equation represents Ohm's law of magnetic circuits.
 The reluctance of the magnetic circuit depends on the material
properties of the mag­netic circuit.
 The reluctance of a homogeneous magnetic circuit may be
expressed in terms of its physical dimensions and magnetic
property as follows:
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 Cont….
l
m 
μA
where m = reluctance of the magnetic circuit, At/Wb
l = average or mean length of the magnetic path, m
A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic path, m2
 = 0r , absolute (total) permeability of the magnetic path,
H/m
r = permeability of the reluctance material
0 = permeability of free space

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 Permeability is the magnetic property that determines the
characteristics of mag­netic materials and nonmagnetic
materials.
 The permeability of free space and nonmagnetic materials
has the following symbol and constant value in SI units:
7
 0  4  10 H / m
 The total permeability of magnetic materials is much greater
than that of air.
 The reluctance of magnetic materials is much lower than that
of air or nonmagnetic materials.
 Permeability in magnetic circuits is somewhat analogous to
conductivity in electric circuits

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Example 1.3 In Figure 1.7 we assume that the magnetic flux is
practically uniform in the cross-sectional area of the toroid. The
mean path length is 0.314 m and the cross-sectional area through
which the flux exists is 78.5 x 10-6 m2. Cal­culate the number of
ampere-turns required to set up magnetic flux of 1 Wb.
Solution
The reluctance of the homogeneous magnetic circuit is

l 0.314 9
m    7  6
 3.18  10 At / Wb
μA 4   10  78.5  10

F = m = 3.18  109 1.0 = 3.18 109 At

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5. Magnetic Field Intensity
 is the magnetomotive force gradient per unit length of
magnetic circuit, magnetizing force.
 Its symbol is H and the unit is ampere-turns per meter (At/m).
Fm
H=
l
Hl = NI
 is one form of Ampere's circuital law applied to a simple magnetic circuit.
 Magnetic field intensity in magnetic circuits is anal­ogous to potential or
voltage gradient in electric circuits.
Example: In the toroid of Figure 1.7, a magnetomotive force of 10 At acts
along the mean path of 0.314 m. The magnetic field intensity is

NI 10
H= = = 31.8At / m
l 0.314
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 Fringing and Leakage Flux
In a series magnetic circuit containing an air gap, there is a tendency for the air­gap flux
to spread out (i.e., to create a bulge) as shown in Figure 1.10. This spreading effect,
termed fringing, reduces the net flux density in the air gap.
It is that flux in a magnetic circuit which is not useful or effective. Since a large amount
of leakage flux requires a greater magnetomotive force.
 Magnetic Core (Iron) Losses
It will be shown later that the magnetic flux within the armature of DC machines
changes direction as rotation occurs past the magnetic field poles. This change in
direction of the armature magnetic flux is effectively an alternating flux. This results in
core losses, Magnetic core losses consist of hysteresis losses and eddy-current losses.
Fringing
flux

Useful
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Magnetic Circuits
 A useful relationship for magnetic circuits

 Fm HlA 
B    H B  H 
A m A lA A
 The magnetic flux () and the excitation current (I) are related by:

where the constant is

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 In experimental measurements, the ex­citation current (I) is
varied and the corresponding values of magnetic flux
recorded.
The magnetic flux density (B) is directly dependent on
both permeability () and magnetic field intensity (H).
Only in air or free space is the permeability (0) constant,
and thus a linear relationship between B and H exists.
Ferromagnetic materials in which the absolute
permeability is not a constant but depends on the degree of
magnetization.
Then the calculated values of B and H are plotted on linear
scales as illustrated in Figure 1.8.
Typical magnetization or B-H curves for sheet steel, cast
steel, and cast iron are plotted in Figure 1.8. 22
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Magnetization (B-H) Curve

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 The nonlinear relationship between magnetic flux density B (teslas) and
magnetic field intensity H (ampere-turns per meter).
 When ferromagnetic materials ex­perience only a slight increase in
magnetic flux density for a relatively large increase in magnetic field
intensity, the materials are said to be saturated.
 Magnetic saturation is based on the theory that magnetic ma­terials are
composed of very many tiny magnets (magnetic domains) that are ran­
domly positioned when the material is totally demagnetized.
 Upon application of a magnetizing force (H), the tiny magnets will tend to align
themselves in the direction of this force.
 In the lower part of the magnetizing curve, the alignment of the randomly positioned
tiny magnets increases proportionately to the magnetic field intensity until the knee of
the curve is reached.
 Beyond the knee of the curve, fewer tiny magnets remain to be aligned, and therefore
large increases in the magnetic field intensity result in only small increases in
magnetic flux density.
 When there are no more tiny magnets to be aligned, the ferromagnetic
material is completely saturated.
 In the saturation region of the curve, the magnetic flux density increases
linearly with magnetic field intensity, just as it does for free space or
nonmagnetic
12/06/2022 materials. 24
Relative Permeability
 The absolute permeability is the ratio of the mag­netic flux density to
the corresponding magnetic field intensity:
B

H
 Thus we can obtain the values of absolute permeability of
ferromagnetic materials from the magnetization (B-H) curves.
 If we wish to compare the permeability of magnetic materials with
that of air, we may use the relative permeability r, which is defined
by the equation 
r 
0
Where  = absolute permeability of the material. H/m
0 = 410-7H/m = permeability of free space
r = relative permeability
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Example 1.4 Calculate the absolute and relative permeability of cast steel
operating at magnetic flux densities of 0.7 T and 1.0 T.
Solution
From the saturation curve for cast steel, the values of H are 400 At/m and 800
At/m. respectively.
The absolute permeability are:
For 0.7 T: B 0.7
   1.75  103 H / m or T / At / m
H 400
For 1.0 T: B 1.0
   1.25  10 3 H / m
H 800
The relative permeabilities are
For 0.7 T:  1.75  103
r    7
 1392.61
0 4  10
For 1.0 T:  1.25  103
r    7
 994.72
0 4  10
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Series and Parallel Magnet Circuits
1. Series Circuits
 A series magnetic circuit contains magnetic flux, which is
common throughout the series magnetic elements.
 These series magnetic elements may consist of composite sectors
of ferromagnetic materials of different lengths and cross-sectional
areas, and of air gaps.
2. Parallel Circuits
 Parallel magnetic circuits are defined by the number of paths that
the magnetic flux may follow.
 Any of these paths or branches may consist of composite sectors
of magnetic materials, including air gaps

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 Series Magnetic Circuits

1

+
NI ag
-

Figure 1.9 Iron-core toroid with air gap and the equivalent Magnetic circuit;
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 Kirchhoff's voltage law applied to equivalent magnetic circuits.

Fm   miron    mag 
 we can calculate the MMF drop for the iron

Fmiron  H iron l iron At

 Calculation of MMF for the Air Gap

 Finally, the general MMF-drop equation for series magnetic

circuits is mod­ified for calculation purposes to the following
form:

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 Reluctance for air gap,

 To calculate the ampere turns for the air gap, the following gene­
ral procedure may be followed:

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Example 1.5 Illustrates the method of solution for a simple one-
material series circuit. The circuit of Figure 1.11 is a magnetic core
made of cast steel. A coil of N=550 turns is wound on it. For a flux of
560 Wb, calculate the necessary current, neglecting any fringing
effects. The cross-sectional area A is constant.

Figure 1.11 Magnetic circuit for Example 1.5

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Given Data N = 550 turns  =560 10-6 Wb
l1 = 20 cm = 20 10-2 m
l2 = 12 cm = 12 10-2 m
A = 4 cm2 = 4 10-4 m2

Solution
560  106
B  140  10 2  1.4T
4  10  4
From the B-H curve of Figure 1.7
For B = 1.4 T, H = 2200 At/m.
The average or mean length of the magnetic path is:
L=20 + 12 + 20 + 12 cm = 64 = 0.64 m.
Therefore, the current I is:
Hl=NI=20000.64 At
2200  0.64
I  2.56 A
550
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Example 1.6 The magnetic frame shown in Figure 1.12 is built
up of iron of square cross-section, 3 cm side. Each air gap is 2
mm wide. Each of the coils is wound with 1000 turns and the
exciting current is 1.0 A. The relative permeability of part A and
part B may be taken as 1000 and 1200 respectively.
Calculate the following:
(i) reluctance of part A,
(ii) reluctance of part B,­
(iii) reluctance of two air gaps,
(iv) total reluctance of the complete magnetic circuit,
(v) the mmf,
(vi) total flux, and
(vii) flux density. Leakage and fringing may be neg­lected.
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12/06/2022 Figure 1.12 magnetic circuit of example 34
Solution
Figure 1.12 shows the given magnetic frame consisting of two iron parts A
and B separated by two air gaps of 2 mm each. Dotted line shows the mean
magnetic circuit set up in this frame, when the coils wound over it carries
current. The magnetic circuit consists of four portions connected in series,
i.e.
(i) magnetic flux path in part B,
(ii) magnetic flux path in air gap,
(iii) magnetic flux path in part A and
(iv) flux path in air gap.
Hence the total reluctance of this magnetic circuit will be equal to the sum of
the reluctances of these four parts calculated separately.
Reluctance offered by a magnetic path is given by,
lg

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0  r A 35
(i) Reluctance for part A, lA
A 
0  r A

AA = 3  3 = 9 cm2 = 9  10-4 m2.

lA = 20  (1.5+1.5) = 17 cm = 0.17m
r = 1000 for part A
 0  4  107
lB
(ii) Reluctance of part B,  B 
0  r A B

AB = 9  10-4 m2
lB = 17 + 8.5 + 8.5 = 34 cm = 0.34 m
r = 1200 7of part B
 0  4  10

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(iii) Reluctance of air gaps, lg
i) ag 
0 A
lag = 2 + 2 = 4 mm = 0.004 m. 0.004
ag 
4  10  7  9  10  4
Aag = 9  10-4 m2
 353.5  10 4 At / Wb
 0  4  107

(iv) Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,

   A   B  ag
 15.03  25.04  353.5  104
 393.57  10 4 At / Wb

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(V) The magnetomotive force produced by two coils on iron part B, each
having 1000 turns and carrying a current of 1 A
F = NI
= (2  1000)  1
= 2000 At.

(Vi) Total flux

NI
F = Flux  Reluctance 

2000

393.57  10  4
(Vii) Flux density,
 5.08  10  4 Wb

B
A
5.08  10  4
  0.564 Wb / m 2 [Tesla ]
9  10  4
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Example 1.7 An electromagnet is of the form and dimensions as shown in
Figure 1.13. It is made of iron of square section 4 cm side. A flux of 1.1 mWb
is required in the air gap. Neglecting leakage and fringing, calculate the
number of ampere turns required. Take the relative permeability to be 2000 at
this flux density.

Figure 1.13 magnetic circuit of example

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Solution
The magnetic circuit of the electro­magnet shown in Figure 1.13 is completed by
four parts connected in series, viz. (i) iron portion C (ii) air gap, (iii) iron portion
D, and (iv) air gap.
Total ampere turns required for this magnetic circuit,
FT= FC + Fag + FD + Fag
FT  FC  FD  2Fag

Ampere turns required for iron portion C

Flux,  = 1.1  10-3 Wb
Cross-sectional area, A = 4  4 = 16 cm2 = 1610-4 m2
Flux density,

Relative permeability of iron = 2000

Thus ampere turns per meter of flux path length,
B
H
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0  r 40
 lC = 25 cm = 0.25 m
FC = HC lC = 272  0.25 = 68 At.
The materials for portions C and D are the same. Section is also the same
Thus ampere turns per meter of flux path length, HD = HC = H = 272 At/m.
lD = 30 cm = 0.3 m
FD = H  lD = 272  0.3 = 82 At.
Ampere turns required for air gap,

Ampere turns required for two air gaps:

= 2  1094 = 2188 At
Total ampere turns required,
F = 68+ 82+ 2188 = 2318 At
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T 41
Parallel Magnetic Circuits

 There are NI ampere-turns on the center leg.

 The flux that is produced by the MMF in the center leg exists in the center
leg and then divides into two parts, one going in the path afe and the other in
the path bcd.
 If we assume for simplicity that afe = bcd, the flux is distributed evenly
between the two paths.
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 afe bcd
ma mb

ag

mf + mc

-
g
me md

 Now we can say that the amount of flux entering a junction is

equal to the amount of flux leaving the junction.

g = afe + bcd
Where g = flux in portion g
afe = flux in portion afe

12/06/2022 bcd = flux in portion bcd 43
 Thus the MMF drop around afe must be equal to the MMF drop
around bcd. This can be stated more precisely as

Hala + Hflf + Hele = Hblb + Hclc +

Hdld

The actual MMF existing between X and Y is the driving force NI

minus the drop Hglg in path g. Then we can write

(NI - Hglg) = Hala + Hflf + Hele = Hblb + Hclc + Hdld

NI - mgg = bcd (mb + mc + md ) = afe (ma + mf + me )

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Example 1.8 In Figure 1-14a, the following dimensions apply:
lg = lf = lc = 12 cm
la = lb = le = ld = 14 cm
Aa = Ab = Ac = Ad = Ae = A = 1 cm2
Ag = 3 cm2
The material is sheet steel. The flux density in the center leg is 0.9 T.
Calculate the MMF required to produce this flux density.
Solution
The total flux in the center leg is

= 0.9 * (3  10-4)= 2.7  10-4 Wb.

The flux divides into two parts,
The left-hand path through afe and the right-hand path through bcd.
afe= bcd = 2.7  10-4 Wb / 2 = 1.35  10-4 Wb
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The flux density in path g is Bg = 0.9 T and therefore Hg = 320 At/m
from B-H curve
The flux density in section a is

and therefore from the B-H curve

Ba= 1.35 T that Ha = 950 At/m

Ha = Hb = Hc =Hd =He= Hf

Therefore,
NI = Hglg + Ha (la + lf + le )
= 320  12  10-2 + 950 ( 14 + 12 + 14 )  10-2
12/06/2022
= 38.4 + 380 = 418.4 At 46
Example 1.9 We can add one more degree of complexity to the circuit of Figure
1.14a. In Figure 1.15 we cut an air gap in the center leg, and the air gap is 1.5 mm
wide. All other dimensions remain unchanged and the flux density in the center leg
is still 0.9 T. Find the number of ampere-turns on the center leg required to
produce this flux density.

Figure 1.15 Parallel magnetic circuit with air gap.

12/06/2022 47
Solution
We can still use the equivalent-circuit concept as shown in Figure 1.14b, the
only difference being that NI is now in series with two reluctances in the
center path, the air gap and the steel in leg g.
(NI) - (MMF drop in air gap) - (MMF drop in section g )
= MMF drop in section (b + c + d)
= MMF drop in section (a + f + e)
In the center leg, the flux density is still fixed at 0.9 T. Therefore.
Bg = 0.9 T
The MMF drop per unit length in the center steel section is still H g = 320
At/m, as before. Therefore,
MMF drop in leg g = 320 (12 - 0.15)  10 -2 = 37.92 At

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 The MMF drop across the air gap is found from
The MMF drop across the gap

Hgap lgap= 7.16 105 1. 5 10-3 = 1.074103 At

Noting that the MMF drop across the path afe is still 380 At, as before,
NI  (37.92 + 1074) = 380 At
NI = 1491.91 At
By adding a very small air gap, the MMF required has increased by a
factor of 3.57. This is because the reluctance of the air is so high and the
reluctance of unsaturated steel is very low. This. in turn, is the reason why
the largest part of a magnetic circuit is usually in iron and only a small
portion is in air.

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Electromagnetic Induction
 The relationship between magnetism and electricity.
 A conductor carrying a current I is surrounded all along its length by a magnetic
field, the lines of magnetic flux being concentric circles in planes at right angles to
the conductor.
 This phenomenon of a magnetic field being associated with a current carrying
conductor lead to the question whether the converse of the above is possible, i.e.
can a magnetic field generate a current?
 Michael Faraday, on 29 Aug. 1831, succeeded in generating an electric current
with the aid of magnetic flux.
 From his experiments, Faraday concluded that a current was generated in a coil
so long as the lines of force bearing through the conductor changed.
 The current thus generated is called the induced current and the emf that
gives rise to this induced current is called the induced emf.
 This phenomenon of generating an induced current in a closed circuit by
changing the magnetic field through it, is called electromagnetic induction.
12/06/2022 50
Figure 1.16 shows a coil connected to a galvanometer G.

S S

S
G G N G N

12/06/2022 51
 When the magnet was kept inside the coil nothing happened as
shown in Figure 1.16 (a).

 But when the north pole of the magnet was inserted in the coil as
shown in Figure 1.16 (b), the galvanometer pointer was deflected
momentarily on one side and the direction of current was found to be
anticlockwise.

 When the magnet was withdrawn as shown in Figure 1.16 (c), the
pointer of the galvanometer deflect on the other side and the
direction of current was found to be clockwise.

 Similar results were obtained when the south pole of the magnet was
inserted or withdrawn, but the direction of current in this case was
reverse to that obtained with the North Pole.

12/06/2022 52
Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
 Faraday's first law:
States that whenever the magnetic flux associated or linked
with a closed circuit is changed, or alternatively, when a conductor
cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in the circuit
resulting in an induced current. This emf is induced so long as
the magnetic flux changes.
 Faraday's second law:
States that the magnitude of the induced emf generated in a coil is
directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.

The operation of electrical equipment like motors, generators,

transformers, etc. is mainly based upon the laws formulated by Faraday.

12/06/2022 53
 The change of flux as discussed in the Faraday's laws can be produced in
two different ways:
(i) By the motion of the conductor or the coil in a magnetic field, i.e. the
magnetic field is stationary and the moving conductors cut across it.
The emf generated in this way is normally called dynamically
induced emf;
(ii) By changing the current (either increasing or decreasing) in a circuit.
thereby changing the flux linked with stationary conductors, i.e. the
conductors or coils remain stationary and the flux link­ing these
conductors is changed. The emf is termed statically induced emf.
 Statically induced emf can be further subdivided into
(a) self-induced emf and (b) mutually induced emf.
 The concept of dynamically induced emf gave rise to the development of
generators,
 whereas statically induced emf was helpful in developing transformers.
12/06/2022 54
Direction of Induced emf
 The direction of induced emf can be determined by two methods namely:

a) Fleming's right hand rule and

b) Lenz's law.
 In case of dynamically induced emf,
Fleming's right hand rule is used to obtain the direction of induced emf
 whereas statically induced emf
Lenz's law is normally used to fix the direction of statically induced emf.

12/06/2022 55
(a) Fleming's Right Hand Rule:
 Stretch the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right hand in three
mutually perpendicular directions as shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17 direction of induced emf

 If the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic flux,
 the thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the
magnetic field, then
 the middle finger represents the direction of the induced emf.
12/06/2022 56
 (b) Lenz's Law:
 which states: "the direction of the induced emf is always such that it tends
to set up a current opposing the change of flux responsible for producing
that emf’’.

S S

S
G G N G N

 According to Lenz's law, the direction of this induced current generated in the
coil should be such that the motion of the magnet is opposed, which is possible
only when the upper end of the coil behaves as a north pole.
12/06/2022 57
Magnitude of Induced Emf in a Coil
 Let a coil consist of N number of turns over it.
Assume that the flux through the coil changes from its initial value
1 to 2 in an interval t sec.
Initial value of' flux linkages = N1
Value of flux linkages after t s = N2
Change of flux linkages in time t s = N1 N2
 Now as per Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, induced emf in the
above coil due to a change of flux is given by,

 The instantaneous value of emf induced in the coil can be represented as,
d d
e   (N) e   N
dt dt
 The negative sign signifies that the induced emf generates a cur­rent tending to oppose the increase of
flux through the coil. The relation expressed by the above equation can be called Faraday's law.
12/06/2022 58
Dynamically Induced emf
 Dynamically induced emf is produced by the movement of the conductor in a
magnetic field. Figure 1.18 shows a uniform magnetic field of flux density B tesla,
in which the conductor is moving in the direction shown and cuts the flux at right
angles.

Figure 1.18 Dynamically induced emf

l = length of the conductor in meter cutting the field.

v = velocity of motion of conductor in m/s
12/06/2022 dx = distance 59
Then area swept by the moving conductor, A = l dx
Hence change in flux, d = B  l dx Wb
when the conductor moves a distance dx in time dt,
The dynamically induced emf is the rate of change of flux linkages, i.e.

12/06/2022 60
Statically Induced emf
 Statically induced emf can be further classified as
(i) Self-induced emf and (ii) Mutual induced emf.
(i) Self-induced emf
 Any electrical circuit in which the change of current is accompanied
by the change of flux, and therefore by an induced emf, is said to be
inductive or to possess self inductance.
 Thus the property of the coil which enables to induce an emf in it
whenever the current changes is called self-induction.
 Consider a coil of N turns carrying a current of I amperes and let  be
the resulting flux linking the coil.
 The magnetic flux forms complete loops as shown in Figure 1.19.

12/06/2022 61
Figure 1.19 Self-induced emf

 Now if the current flowing in the coil is changed, then the number of lines
flux linking the coil also changes (N) .
 As such emf is induced in the coil according to Faraday's laws of
electromagnetic induction.
 This emf is termed as statically self-induced emf or the emf of self-
induction.
 The phenomenon of self-induction is felt only when the current is
changing, either increasing or decreasing.
12/06/2022 62
 As per Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, this induced
emf is given by,

 The coil in question is wound on an iron core, whose permeability is

cons­tant. Thus flux is proportional to the current through the coil, i.e.
 
 I  cons tan t  I
I I
Rate of change of flux = Rate of change of current .

 
e   N    rate of change of current
I
N
L henry
I
12/06/2022 63
 The term i.e. flux linkages/ampere is denoted by a symbol L.
is called the self-inductance of the coil or the
coefficient of self-induction and

N
L henry
I
 The negative sign indicates that it is an emf opposing the change, i.e.
if the current is increasing/ decreasing.
 It also indicates that the energy is being absorbed from the electric
circuit and stored as magnetic energy in the coil.
 The coefficient of self-induction L of the circuit is thus defined as the
magnetic flux linked with the coil when a unit current flows through
it. It is also numerically equal to the induced emf due to unit rate of
change of current in the coil. The practical unit of inductance is henry.

12/06/2022 64
(ii) Mutually Induced emf
 The phenomenon of generation of induced emf in a circuit by changing
the current in a neighboring circuit is called mutual induction.
 Consider two coils P and S such that P is connected to a cell through switch K
and S to a galvanometer as shown in Figure 1.20.

P S G
K

 When the switch K is closed suddenly to start current in the coil P, the galvanometer gives a sudden
"kick" in one direction. Now when K is opened, the galvanometer again shows a deflec­tion but in the
opposite direction. The above observations indicate clearly that an induced current is set up in the
coil S when the current is changed in the coil P, though the coil S is not connected physically to coil
12/06/2022 65
P.
 Two coils possessing this property are said to have mutual inductance
(M)
 The unit of mutual inductance is also henry.
 Two coils are said to possess a mutual inductance of 1 henry when
current changing at the rate of l ampere per second in one coil induces
an emf of 1 volt in the other.

Let 1 be the flux in coil P due to current I flowing in it and

2 the flux induce in S due to flux 1 in coil P.
2
K 2  K1
1

 I  cons tan t
I
2 K1
2  I 2   current
I I
12/06/2022 66
 When current is changed at a certain rate, 2 also changes at the
same rate. Thus,

 According to Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction the

emf induced in S is given by,

K1
eS  N 2   rate of change of current
I
K1 di
eS  N 2  
I dt
N 2 K1 N 2 2 flux linkage of coil S
M  
I I current in coil P
12/06/2022 67
 The constant M in the above equation , which is equal to the flux linkages of
coil S per ampere of current in coil P, is called the coefficient of mutual
induction or mutual inductance.
 Hence the coefficient of mutual induction is defined as the number of lines
of force passing through the secondary coil S when unit current changes in
the primary coil P. It is also numerically equal to the induced emf in one
circuit due to a unit rate of change of current in the other circuit.

12/06/2022 68
Inductance
 Inductors store energy in a magnetic field.
 Consider a coil of wire carrying some current creating a magnetic field
within the coil. As shown in Figure 1.21, if the coil has an air core, the
flux can pretty much go where it wants to, which leads to the possibility
that much of the flux will not link all of the turns of the coil.

12/06/2022 Figure 1.21 A coil with an air core will have considerable leakage flux. 69
 To help guide the flux through the coil, so that flux leakage is minimized,
the coil might be wrapped around a ferromagnetic bar or ferromagnetic
core as shown in Figure 1.22.
 The lower reluctance path provided by the ferromagnetic material also
greatly increases the flux . We can easily analyze the magnetic circuit in
which the coil is wrapped around the ferromagnetic core in Figure 1.22(a).


N

i
e _
+
Figure 1.22 Flux can be increased and leakage reduced by wrapping the coils around a ferromagnetic material that
provides a lower reluctance path. The flux will be much higher using the core (a) rather than the rod (b).
12/06/2022 70
 Assume that all of the flux stays within the low-reluctance pathway
provided by the core, and apply:

 From Faraday’s law , changes in magnetic flux create a voltage e, called

the electromotive force (emf), across the coil equal to

 where inductance L has been introduced and defined as

12/06/2022 71
 If there are no losses in the connecting wires between the source
voltage and the coil, then

e=v
and we have the final defining relationship for an inductor:

di
vL
dt
 Inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance .
 The reluctance of a flux path through air is much greater than the
reluctance if it passes through a ferromagnetic material.
 That tells us if we want a large inductance, the flux needs to pass
through materials with high permeability (not air).

12/06/2022 72
Example 1.10
Inductance of a Core-and-Coil. Find the inductance of a core with effective
length l = 0.1 m, cross-sectional area A = 0.001 m2, and relative permeability
μr somewhere between 15,000 and 25,000. It is wrapped with N = 10 turns of
wire. What is the range of inductance for the core? Solution
When the core’s permeability is 15,000
times that of free space, it is
μcore = μrμ0 = 15,000 × 4π × 10−7 = 0.01885 Wb/At-m
l 0.1
So its reluctance is     5305 At / Wb
 core A 0.01885  0.001
and its inductance is N2 102
L   0.0188 H  18.8 mH
 5305
Similarly, when the relative permeability is 25,000 the inductance is
N 2 N 2 r  0 A 102  25,000  4  10 7  0.001
L  
 l 0.1
12/06/2022  0.0314 H  31.4 mH 73
Example 1.11 An Air Gap to Minimize Inductance Uncertainty. Suppose
the core of Example 1.10 is built with a 0.001 m air gap. Find the range of
inductances when the core’s relative permeability varies between 15,000 and
25,000.

Solution The reluctance of the ferromagnetic portion of the core when its
relative permeability is 15,000 is

l core 0.099
core    5252 At / Wb
 core A 15,000  4  10  7  0.001
12/06/2022 74
And the air gap reluctance is
l ag 0.001
ag    795.775 At / Wb
0A 7
4  10  0.001
So the total reluctance of the series path consisting or core and air gap is
Total = 5252 + 795,775 = 801,027 At/Wb
And the inductance is
N2 102
L   0.0001248 H  0.1248 mH
 801,027
When the core’s relative permeability is 25,000, its reluctance is
l core 0.099
core    3151 At / Wb
 7
 core A 25,000  4  10  0.001

And the new total inductance is

N2 102
L   0.0001251 H  0.1251 mH
 3151  795,775
12/06/2022 75
Energy Stored In Magnetic Field
 Consider a coil having a constant inductance of L Henry, in which the
current increases by di in dt seconds, then induced emf in the coil , e
becomes
di
e  L
dt
 The applied voltage must balance the voltage drop across resistor R and
neutralize the above induced emf, thus,
di
V  iR  L
dt
Multiplying throughout by i.dt

where, Vidt is the energy supplied by the source in time dt, i2 R dt the energy
dissipated in the form of heat, Li di the energy absorbed by the inductance of
the coil in building up the magnetic field
12/06/2022 76
Thus energy absorbed by the magnetic field during the time dt second

= Li di
Hence total energy absorbed by the magnetic field when the current
increases from zero to I amperes.
I
  Lidi
0
I
 L  idi
0

1 2
 LI J
2
1 2
Energy stored in Magnetic field  LI
2
12/06/2022 77
 Energy Stored in Magnetic Field in Terms of Volume of Field
N
Self inductance of the coil, L 
I

1 N 2
Thus energy stored  I
2 I
1
 N I J
2
Total ampere turns on the coil, NI = Hl

1
Also flux,   BA Thus energy stored  Hl  BA
2
1
 BH  l  A 
2
But A  1 = volume of the magnetic field
12/06/2022 78
 1
Hence energy stored  BH  volume of the field 
2
1
Energy stored/cubic meter  BH
2

Since B   0 r H

1
Energy stored/cubic meter   0 r H 2
2
1 B2
Energy stored/cubic meter 
2  0 r

12/06/2022 79
Electromagnetic Forces
 By the interaction of magnetic fields produced in electromagnetic
devices, me­chanical forces are developed which may do useful
work.
 Electromagnetic forces fall into two general classifications:
(1)The magnetic tractive force, and
(2) The force on a conductor.
 There are many examples of forces acting in electromagnetic fields.
Example:
• An electromagnet used to separate ferrous from nonferrous material,
• the deflection of an electron beam in a cathode-ray tube
• the action of an electric motor is a third.
• the attraction of an armature to an electromagnet, such as in relays,
contactors, and lift magnets.
12/06/2022 80
Lifting Power of Magnet (Magnetic Tractive Force)
We will consider the forces of attraction acting in an air gap between
parallel surfaces.

Figure 1.24 lifting power of magnet

 let F be the force in Newton between the poles of the magnets and the pole
cross-sectional area A in square meter having a flux density of B tesla. If the
upper pole is pulled through a small distance x against the force F, then
12/06/2022 81
 Work done = F*x J
 Work done as given by above equation is equal to the increase in energy
stored in the magnetic field.
 Energy stored per cubic meter of magnetic field

1 2
1 B
 BH 
2 2  0 r

If the field is in air, r = 1

 Additional volume of magnetic field (V) = Ax m3 , Thus increase in

energy stored in the magnetic field

1 B2 A
 x
2 0
12/06/2022 82
 2
1B A
Fx  x
2 0

Pull in Kg wt

B2 A
F kg wt
9.81  2 0

12/06/2022 83
Example 1.12 Let us calculate the current required to lift a large cast-iron
plate using the electromagnet of Figure 1.25. We will assume that since the
magnet and the plate are both rough surfaces, we have an equivalent air gap
of about 1.5 mm. The plate has a mass of 400 kg.

12/06/2022 Figure 1.25 Lifting electromagnet for Example 1.8. 84

Solution
The force required to lift the magnet is
Total force = 2  force per pole
B2 A B2 A
 2  newtons ( N )
2 0 0

The force weight is F = ma = 400 x 9.80 = 3920 N

Therefore,

B 2 ( 0.10  0.20 ) A
3920 
4  10 7

12/06/2022 85
Solution
Then from the magnetic circuit,

12/06/2022 86
Example 1.13 A solenoid 80 cm in length and 8 cm in diameter has 4000
turns uniformly wound over it. Calculate (i) the inductance and (ii) the energy
stored in the magnetic field when a current of 2 A flows in the solenoid.
Solution
N
Inductance of the solenoid is given by, L 
I

Flux,

Inductance,

12/06/2022 87
Force on a Conductor
 Ampere demonstrated in 1820 that there is a magnetic field associated
with a conductor carrying current.
 When placed in a transverse magnetic field, this conductor experiences a
force (F) that is proportional to
(a)the strength of the magnetic field (B) ,
(b)the magnitude of current in the conductor (I), and
(c)the length (l) of the conductor in perpendicular to, the
magnetic field.

F=BlI newtons

 In SI units, the electro­magnetic force developed on the conductor

carrying current in a magnetic field B is given by
12/06/2022 88