INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL

MACHINE

ECE 3303
 Chapter One
1. Magnet and Electromagnetic Principles
Magnet is a material which produces a magnetic field.
Magnetic field is invisible & responsible for the most notable
property of a magnet.
Notable Properties of a magnet are:
It has a force that pulls ferromagnetic materials such as iron
It has a force that attracts or repels other magnets.
Magnets are categorized in to two main groups. They are:
1) Permanent magnet
2) Electromagnet(Man-made)
 1.1) Permanent magnet
 Permanent magnet is an object made from a material that
is magnetized and creates its own persistent magnetic field.
They are found in a natural state in two main types:
Magnetite also called "iron oxide", (Fe3O4) &
Lodestone also called "leading stone“.

Materials that can be magnetized (& strongly attracted to a

magnet) are called ferromagnetic material.
 These include iron, nickel, cobalt etc
Permanent magnets are made from "hard"
ferromagnetic materials.
During the manufacture of Permanent magnets,
ferromagnetic materials are subjected to special
processing in a powerful magnetic field.
1.1.1) MAGNETIC FIELDS
1.1.1.1) Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Figure 1.1 Magnetic field pattern near a magnet

Some important properties of magnetic lines of force
are described bellow:
Magnetic lines of force are directed from north to south pole.
They are continuous.
They enter or leave a magnetic surface at right angles.
 They cannot cross each other.
Magnetic lines of force in the same direction tend to repel each other.
They tend to be as short as possible.
They occupy three-dimensional space extending to infinity.
Magnetism plays an important role in Electrical

Engineering because without it components such as

Relays, solenoids, inductors, chokes, coils, loudspeakers

Motors, generators, transformers, and electricity meters

etc, would not work.

All electromagnetic devices make use of magnetic fields

in their operation. These magnetic fields may be produced

by permanent magnets or electromagnets.

 1.2) Electromagnetism
For most practical applications natural magnet’s
magnetism is very low. This is the reason why
artificial magnet (electromagnetism) has been
produced.
 Most applications of magnetism involve magnetic effects due
to electric currents. This is known as Electromagnet.

 Oersted found that “if electric current was flow through a

conductor, the conductor produced a magnetic field around that
conductor”.
An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire
wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic materials
like steel.

Magnetic fields in electromagnet are created by

AC or DC sources

The magnetic field exists when we have

electric current.
 1.2.2. Magnetic Field Produced by Current-Carrying
Conductor (Electromagnetism):

Field or flux
line

Current-carrying
conductor

Figure 1.2 Direction of magnetic field Figure 1.3 Ampere’s right hand rule
around a current-carrying conductor. showing the direction of field
Ampere's right-hand rule : If we grasp the conductor with our
right hand, the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, & our
fingers will point in the direction of magnetic field.
To determine the direction of the magnetic field in a cylindrical
coil of many turns with right hand is by grasp the coil with our right
hand as follow;
with the fingers pointing in the direction of current &
the thumb will point in the direction flux & north pole.

Figure 1.4 Magnetic field direction of solenoid by right hand rule.

 1.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC RELATIONSHIPS

1) Magnetic Flux
Overall strength of a magnet measured by total magnetic
flux.
Magnetic flux- number of magnetic field lines passing
through an area.
symbol - 𝛷(phi)
 unit - Weber (Wb).
2. Magnetic Lines of Force- is the "quantity of magnetism"
which exists in a magnetic field.

3. Magnetic Flux Density

A more useful measure of the magnetic effect is the magnetic

flux density, which is the magnetic flux per unit cross-sectional
area.
Φ
B= 1.1
A

Where; B = magnetic flux density, T

Φ = magnetic flux, Wb
A = area through which Φ penetrates perpendicularly, m2
EXAMPLE 1: The total magnetic flux out of a cylindrical
permanent magnet is found to be 0.032 mWb. If the magnet has
a circular cross section and a diameter of 1 cm, what is the
magnetic flux density at the end of the magnet?

Solution
𝛷= 0.032 x 10-3 Wb
πD 2 π(0.01) 2
A= = = 78.53 × 10 − 6 m 2
4 4
Φ 0.032 × 10 −3
B= = − 6
= 0.407 T
A 78.53 × 10
This magnetic flux density exists only at the immediate end of the
magnet. As we move away from the end of the magnet, the
magnetic flux density decreases.
 4. Magnetomotive Force(MMF):

MMF is the ability of a coil to produce magnetic flux.

It is represented by a symbol of Fm.

Magnetic flux- proportional to the products of amperes & turns.

Fm = NI 1.2

where Fm = magnetomotive force (MMF), At

N = number of turns of coil
I = excitation current in coil, A
MMF in magnetic circuit is analogous to EMF in electrical circuit.
EXAMPLE 2: The coil in figure 1.5 has 1000 turns. The mean diameter d
of the cross section is 1 cm. The total magnetic flux in the toroid is
3µWb when there is an excitation current of 10 mA in the coil.
A) What is the magnetic flux when the current is increased to 20 mA?
B) What is the magnetic flux density when the current is 20 mA?

Figure 1.5: Toroid coil

 Solution
If we double the current to 20 mA. then

Fm = NI = 1000 × 20 × 10 −3 = 20At

and Φ must double to 6 µWb.

•For a toroid. the magnetic flux is assumed to be uniform across the
interior cross-sectional area of the coil.

Φ 6 × 10 −6
B= = = 76 mT
A ( π / 4)(1 × 10 − 2 )2
 5. Magnetic Reluctance
Reluctance- ratio of MMF to magnetic flux.
Fm
= ℜm 1.3
Φ

where Fm = NI , is the MMF, At

Φ = magnetic flux, Wb
ℜm= reluctance of the magnetic circuit. At/Wb

Fm = ℜmΦ
𝛷 is directly proportional to the MMF.
Equation 1.3 represents Ohm's law of magnetic circuits.
Proportionality factor (ℜm) is called reluctance of magnetic
circuit.
Reluctance of a homogeneous magnetic element(circuit)
may be expressed in terms of its physical dimensions and
magnetic property as follows:

l
ℜm = 1.4
μA

where ℜm = reluctance of the magnetic circuit, At/Wb

l = average length of the magnetic path, m
A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic path, m2
µ = µ0×µr , absolute permeability of the magnetic path, H/m
EXAMPLE 3: In Figure 1.5 we assume that the magnetic flux is practically
uniform in the cross-sectional area of the toroid. The mean path length
is 0.314 m and the cross-sectional area through which the flux exists is
78.5 x 10-6 m2. Calculate the number of ampere-turns required to set up
magnetic flux of 1 Wb.
Solution
The reluctance of the homogeneous magnetic element or circuit is
l 0.314 9
ℜm = = − −
= 3. 18 × 10 At / Wb
μA 4π × 10 × 78.5 × 10
7 6
F = ℜmΦ = 3.18 × 109 ×1.0 = 3.18 ×109 At
We may conclude that the path reluctance is very high.
It is comparatively difficult to establish a large magnetic flux in air.
When we need high flux densities, it becomes necessary to use
materials having high values of permeability for large portions of the
magnetic paths.
 6. Magnetic Field Intensity
Magnetic field intensity is the magnetomotive force gradient
per unit length of magnetic circuit. Its symbol is H.
Fm 1.5
H=
l
The unit is ampere-turns per meter (At/m). The former name for
magnetic field intensity is magnetizing force.
More ampere-turns (MMF) are required to set up the same
magnetic flux in magnetic circuits of air than in iron of
similar configuration. Hence the magnetic field intensity for the
air path is much larger than for the iron path.
 7. Magnetization (B-H) Curve
Magnetization curve- nonlinear relationship between B and H.
B increases almost linearly with an increase in the H up to
the knee of the magnetization curve.
Beyond the knee, a continued increase in H results in a
relatively small increase in B.

Figure 1.6 Typical Magnetization curves.

When ferromagnetic materials experience only a slight
increase in magnetic flux density for a relatively large increase
in magnetic field intensity, the materials are said to be
saturated.
8. Hysteresis

Figure 1.7 Hysteresis loop

 sample
Hysteresis is the name given to the "lagging" of flux density (B)
behind the magnetizing force (H) when a specimen of ferromagnetic
material is taken through a cycle of magnetization.

The relationship between B and H is represented by the curve “oa” in

fig 1.7 & it is the normal magnetization curve.

If the value of H is now decreased, the trace of B is higher than oa

and follows the curve ab until H is reduced to zero. Thus when H
reaches zero, there is a residual flux density referred to as
remnant flux density (ob).
To reduce B to zero, a negative field strength oc must be
applied. The magnetic field intensity OC required to wipe out
the residual magnetism ob is called coercive force. As H is
further increased in the negative direction, the specimen
becomes magnetized with the opposite polarity as shown by
the curve cd.
If H is varied backwards from -H to +H, the flux density curve follows a
path defa, which is similar to the curve abcd.
The closed loop abcdef traced out is called the hysteresis
loop.
The term remnant flux density Br is also called retentivity and
the term coercive force is often called coercivity.
 9. Permeability
Permeability is the magnetic property that determines the
characteristics of magnetic materials and nonmagnetic materials.
The permeability of free space and nonmagnetic materials has
the following symbol and constant value

−7
µ 0 = 4π × 10 H / m

The value of permeability varies with the degree of

magnetization of the magnetic material and, of course, the type
of material.
Permeability in magnetic circuits is somewhat analogous to
conductivity in electric circuits.
 9.1. Relative Permeability
Absolute permeability -ratio of the magnetic flux density to the
corresponding magnetic field intensity:
B
µ= 1.6
H
If we wish to compare the permeability of magnetic materials with
that of air, we may use the term relative permeability (µr )
µ
µr = 1.7
µ0
Where µ = absolute permeability of the material. H/m
µ0 = 4π×10-7H/m = permeability of free space
µr = relative permeability
EXAMPLE 4: Calculate the absolute and relative permeabilities of
cast steel operating at magnetic flux densities of 0.7 T and 1.0 T. Use
the magnitization curve in fig 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Typical Magnitizations curves.

 Solution
From the magnitization curve in fig 1.6 for cast steel, the values of H
are 400 At/m and 800 At/m. respectively. The absolute
permeabilities are:
For 0.7 T: µ = B = 0.7 = 1.75 × 10−3 H / m or T / At / m
H 400
B 1.0
For 1.0 T: µ= = = 1.25 × 10− 3 H / m
H 800
The relative permeabilities are
−3
For 0.7 T: µ r = µ 1 .75 × 10
= −
= 1392.61
µ0 4 π × 10 7

µ 1.25 × 10−3
For 1.0 T: µ r = = −
= 994.72
µ0 4 π × 10 7

Cast steel has at least 1000 times more ability to set up magnetic flux lines
than nonmagnetic materials.
 2. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
2.1. Electric Circuit Analogs
In our discussion so far, we note the following analogous
relationships between magnetic quantities and electric
quantities:
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit

E (volts) Fm (NI ampere-turns)

I (amperes) φ (webers)
R (ohms) ℜm (ampere-turns/weber)
1
ρ = (conductvity) µ (Permeability) (henries/meter)
σ
We can draw useful electrical analogs for the solution of
magnetic circuit problems.
In a magnetic circuit driving force is the magnetomotive
force, the output is the magnetic flux, and opposition to
establishing the flux is the reluctance.
 2.2. Series Magnetic Circuit
A series magnetic circuit contains magnetic flux which is
common throughout the series magnetic elements.
These series magnetic elements may consist of composite
sectors of ferromagnetic materials (different lengths and
cross-sectional areas) and air gaps.
The simplest series magnetic circuit would be of a toroid of
homogeneous material and the steel core of a transformer.
More complex series circuits contain air gaps .
 I Rl

+ Rag
+
E NI
-
-

(b) Analogous electric (c) analogous magnetic

a) Magnetic circuit circuit circuit
Figure 1.8: Iron-core toroid with air gap

According to Kirchhoff's voltage law to magnetic circuits:

MMF must overcome the magnetic potential drops of the two series
reluctances.
Fm = ℜ miron φ + ℜ mag φ 1.8
 Fm
Hence we can calculate the MMF drop for iron from :
H =
l

Fmiron = H iron l iron [Amper-turns] 1.9

Finally, the general MMF-drop equation for series magnetic

circuits is modified for calculation purposes to the following
form:
l ag φ
Fm = H iron l iron + 1.10
µ 0 A ag
EXAMPLE 5: The circuit of Figure 1.9 is a magnetic core made of cast
steel. A coil of N turns is wound on it. For a flux of 560 µWb, calculate
the necessary current, neglecting any fringing (edging) effects. The
cross-sectional area A is constant.

N = 550 turns
l1 = 20 cm = 20 ×10-2 m
l2 = 12 cm = 12 ×10-2 m
A = 4 cm2 = 4 ×10-4 m2

Figure 1.9 Magnetic circuit

 Solution

φ =560 ×10-6 Wb

560 × 10−6
B= = 140 × 10− 2 = 1.4T
4 × 10− 4

For from the B-H curve

lmean path .
Therefore,

2200 × 0.64
I = = 2.56 A
550
EXAMPLE6: Figure 1.10 is built up of iron of square cross-section, 3 cm
side. Each air gap is 2 mm wide. Each of the coils is wound with 1000
turns and the exciting current is 1A. The relative permeability of part A
and part B may be taken as 1000 and 1200 respectively. Calculate:
(i) reluctance of part A, (ii) reluctance of part B, (iii) reluctance of two
air gaps,
(iv) total reluctance of the complete magnetic circuit,
(v) the mmf, (vi) total flux, and (vii) flux density. Leakage and fringing
may be neglected.
17 cm PART A

I 2 mm

N N
10 cm

PART B

20 cm

Figure 1.10: Series magnetic circuit

Solution
lg
i) Reluctance offered by a magnetic path is given by, ℜ =
µ0 µ r A

lA
Reluctance for part A, ℜA =
µ0 µ r A

Cross-sectional area of part A, AA = 3 × 3 = 9 cm2 = 9 × 10-4 m2.

lA = 20 − (1.5+1.5) = 17 cm = 0.17m

µr for part A = 1000. Thus reluctance of part A,

0.17
ℜA =
4π × 10 − 7 × 1000 × 9 × 10 − 4
= 15.03 × 10 4 At / Wb
 lB
ii. Reluctance of part B, ℜ B =
µ0 µ r A B

Cross-sectional area of part B, AB = 9 × 10-4 m2.

Relative permeability µr , of part B = 1200
Length of mean path of flux in part B,
lB = 17 + 8.5 + 8.5 = 34 cm = 0.34 m
0.34
Thus reluctance of part B, ℜ B =
4π × 10 − 7 × 1200 × 9 × 10 − 4
= 25.04 × 10 4 At / Wb
lg
iii) Reluctance of air gaps, ℜag =
µ0 A
Length of two air gaps, lag = 2 + 2 = 4 mm = 0.004 m.
Hence reluctance of two air gaps, 0.004
ℜag =
4π × 10 − 7 × 9 × 10 − 4
= 353.5 × 10 4 At / Wb

iv) Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,

ℜ = ℜ A + ℜ B + ℜag
= (15.03 + 25.04 + 353.5) × 10 4
= 393.57 × 10 4 At / Wb

v) The magnetomotive force produced by two coils on iron part B,

each having 1000 turns and carrying a current of 1 A
= (2 × 1000) × 1
= 2000 At.  (mmf = NI)
vi) As per Ohm's law for magnetic circuits, mmf = Flux × Reluctance
NI
φ=
ℜ
2000
=
393.57 × 10 − 4
= 5.08 × 10 − 4 Wb
vii) Flux density,
φ
B=
A
−4
5.08 × 10 2
= = 0.564 Wb / m [Tesla ]
−4
9 × 10
 2.3. Parallel Magnetic Circuit
Parallel magnetic circuits are defined by the number of paths
that the magnetic flux may follow.
Figure 1.10a shows a parallel magnetic circuit.

Iafe Ibcd

Rg
Rf Rc
+ +
- -
Re Ig Rd

a) Magnetic circuit (b) equivalent magnetic circuit (c) analogous electric circuit
Figure 1-11 Magnetic circuit with center leg
The flux that is produced by the MMF in the center leg divides
into two parts, one going in the path afe and the other in the
path bcd.

φg = φafe + φbcd 1.11

Where φg = flux in portion g

φafe = flux in portion afe
φbcd = flux in portion bcd

The MMF drop around afe must be equal to the MMF drop
around bcd. This can be stated more precisely as:

Hala + Hflf + Hele = Hblb + Hclc + Hdld 1.12

The drop in MMF around either path afe or bcd must also be equal
to the MMF drop along path g. But g also has an "active source," the
NI ampere-turns of the coil. The actual MMF existing between X and
Y is the driving force NI minus the drop Hglg in path g. Then we can
write

(NI - Hglg) = Hala + Hflf + Hele 1.13

= Hblb + Hclc + Hdld
For Figure 1.11b we may write
NI - ℜmgφg = φbcd (ℜmb + ℜmc + ℜmd ) 1.14

= φafe (ℜma + ℜmf + ℜme )

and in Figure 1.11c we may write
E - RgIg = Ibcd (Rb + Rc + Rd ) 1.15

= Iafe (Ra + Rf + Re )
EXAMPLE 7: In Figure 1.12, the following dimensions apply:
lg = lf = lc = 12 cm
la = lb = le = ld = 14 cm
Aa = Ab = Ac = Ad = Ae = Af = 1 cm2
Ag = 3 cm2
The material is sheet steel. The flux density in the center leg is 0.9 T.
Calculate the MMF required to produce this flux density.

Figure 1.12: Magnetic circuit with center leg & equivalent magnetic circuit
Solution
The total flux in the center leg is 0.9 × 3 × 10-4 = 2.7 × 10-4 Wb. The flux
divides into two parts, the left-hand path through afe and the right-hand
path through bcd. The flux density in path g is Bg = 0.9 T and therefore
Hg = 320 At/m. The flux density in section a is

−4
2.7 × 10
Ba = −4
= 1. 35 T
2 × 1 × 10
and therefore
Ha = 950 At/rn
Ha = Hb = Hc =Hd =He= Hf
Therefore,
NI = Hglg + Ha (la + lf + le )
= 320 × 12 × 10-2 + 950 ( 14 + 12 + 14 ) × 10-2
= 38.4 + 380 = 418.4 At
EXAMPLE 8: In Figure 1.12 we cut an air gap in the center leg, and
the air gap is 1.5 mm wide. All other dimensions remain
unchanged and the flux density in the center leg is still 0.9 T.
Find the number of ampere-turns on the center leg required to
produce this flux density.
Solution
NI is now in series with two reluctances in the center path, the air
gap and the steel in leg g.
(NI) - (MMF drop in air gap) - (MMF drop in section g )
= MMF drop in section b + c + d
= MMF drop in section a + f + e
In the center leg, the flux density is still fixed at 0.9 T. Therefore.
Bg = 0.9 T
H in the center steel section is still, Hg = 320 At/m, as before.
Therefore, MMF drop in leg g = 320 (12 - 0.15) × 10 -2 = 37.92 At
The MMF drop across the air gap is found from
Fmgap = Hgaplgap
For air: µ = µ0 = 4π×10-7 Wb/(At/m) or H/m
Therefore, 0.9 5
H gap = −7
= 7. 16 × 10 At / m
4π × 10

Figure 1.13: Parallel magnetic circuit with air gap.

The MMF drop across the gap
Hgap lgap= 7.16 ×105 ×1. 5 ×10-3 = 1.074×103 At

MMF drop across the path afe is still 380 At, as before,
NI − (37.92 + 1074) = 380 At
NI = 1491.91 At
 Inductance:
From Faraday’s law , changes in magnetic flux create a voltage e, called
the electromotive force (emf), across the coil equal to
dφ
e = N 1.16
dt

Substituting (1.3) into (1.16) gives

d  Ni  N 2 di di
e=N  = =L
dt  ℜ  ℜ dt dt

where inductance L has been introduced and defined as Inductance,

N2
L = heneries
ℜ
 CHAPTER TWO
2. TRANSFORMERS

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy
from one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through the
medium of magnetic field without a change in the frequency.

Primary winding - electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains &
Secondary winding - circuit which delivers electrical energy to the load.

If the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the
secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a
step-up transformer.
When the secondary winding has less turns than the primary windings then the
secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and the transformer is called
step down transformer.

Note: A step-up transformer can be used as a step-down

transformer, in which the secondary of step-up transformer
becomes the primary of the step-down transformer.

Actually a transformer can be termed a step-up or step-down

transformer only after it has been put into service.
The most important tasks performed by transformers are:-
Changing voltage and current levels
Matching source and load impedances for maximum power transfer
in electronic and control circuit &
Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another )

Voltage stepped up for transmission over long distances at

very low losses and its voltage stepped down again for final
use.
 2.2. Transformer Construction

The two most common and basic designs of transformer construction

core-type Transformer &

Shell-type Transformer.

In core form transformer - primary and secondary windings are wound

outside and surround the core ring.

In shell type transformer - the primary and secondary windings pass

inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell around the

windings.
Figure 2.1: Core-type & shell-type transformer construction
 Figure 2.2: Transformer Core Lamination Types
Core-type transformer core is forming from
two “L” stampings or
“U" stampings with "I" end closing stampings.

Shell-type transformer core is forming from

"E" stampings with "I" end closing stampings
 2.3. PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION

V1 P N1 N2 S

Figure 2.3: Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

The basic components of a transformer are the core, the primary winding
N1, and the secondary winding N2. The action of a transformer is based on
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
If N1 is connected to alternating voltage source(V1), then alternating
current I1 starts flowing through N1.
The alternating mmf(N1I1) produces alternating flux φ.
The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary and E2 in secondary
If a load is connected across the secondary, load current starts flowing.
Animates & Figs\1.1 How Transformers Work.FLV
 2.4. Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is assumed to have:
•An infinitely permeable core with no losses,
•Lossless electrical windings, and
•No leakage fluxes.

Figure 2.4: Schematic diagram of 1-𝛷 core- type ideal transformer

Let sinusoidal variation of flux φ be expressed as
Where; φm is maximum magnetic flux in Weber,
φ = φm Sin ωt ω = 2πf is the angular frequency in rad/sec &
f is the supply frequency [ Hz].
The emf e1 in volt, induced in the primary of N1 turns by the
alternating flux is given by
dφ
e 1 = − N1
dt
= − N1ωφm Cos ω t
π
= N1ωφm sin( ωt − )
2
The direction of e1 is such as to produce a current that gives
rise to a flux which opposes the flux change d𝛷/dt (Lenz’s law).
 π
Its maximum value, E1max occurs when Sin ωt −  is equal to 1.
 2
E1m = N1ωφm
 π
and e = E1m sin ωt − 
1
 2
∴ The RMS value of the induced emf E1 in the primary winding is
E1m 2π
E1 = = fN1ωφm
2 2
= 2 πfN1φm
2.1
= 4.44 fN1φm
Since the primary winding resistance is negligible hence e1, at every
instant, must be equal and opposite of V1. That is,
dφ
v1 = − e1 = − N1
dt
or V1 = − E1
Similarly, the voltage, e2, induced in the secondary is given by
dφ
e2 = − N 2 = − N 2 ωφm cos ωt
dt
π
= N 2 ωφ s in ( ω t − )
2
π
= E m 2 sin ( ω t − )
2
∴ Rms value of emf E2 induced in secondary winding is given by
E2m
E2 = = 2πfN 2 φm
2
= 4.44 fN 2 φm 2.2

2.4.1. Voltage Transformation Ratio

From Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), we get
E1 N1
= =k 2.3
E2 N 2
The ratio is known as voltage transformation ratio.
If N2 > N1 i.e. K<1, then the tranr is called step-up transformer.
If N2 < N1 i.e. K>1, then the tranr is called step-down tranr.
Again in an ideal transformer:
Input VA = Output VA I1 V2 1
= = 2.4
and
V1I1 = V2 I 2 I2 V1 k
 If an impedance Z2 is connected to the secondary, the
impedance Z1 seen at the primary satisfies
2.5

Example 2.1: A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050
secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 55 cm2. If
the primary winding be connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz single phase
supply. Calculate
(i) the maximum value of flux density in the core and
(ii) the voltage induced in the secondary winding.
 Solution:
i) E1 = 4.44f φm N1 = 4.44f Bm A i N1
Maximum value of flux density in the core,
400
Bm =
4.44 × 50 × 55 × 10 − 4 × 350
= 0.93 T ( Wb / m 2 )
ii) For an ideal transformer,
E1 N1
=
E2 N2

Voltage induced in the secondary winding,

N2
E 2 = E1 ×
N1
1050
= 400 ×
350
= 1200 V
Example 2.2: The required no-load voltage ratio in a single phase 50 Hz,
core type transformer is 6600/500. Find the number of turns in each
winding, if the flux is to be 0.06 Wb.
Solution: No-load voltage of low voltage winding = 500 V
Flux φ= 0.06 Wb
Frequency f = 50Hz

Induced emf in the low voltage winding of the transformer is,

E 2 = 4.44f φm N 2
or 500 = 4.44 × 50 × 0.06 × N 2
Number of turns in high voltage
Number of turns in the low voltage, winding
500
N2 = N1 = N 2 ×
V1
= 38 ×
6600
4.44 × 50 × 0.06 V2 500
= 37.5 ( not possible)
= 501.6 ( not possible)
N2 = 38 N1=502
 Quiz One (10%)
1. A single phase transformer has 300 primary and 900
secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of the
core is 100 cm2. If the primary winding be connected to
a 220 V, 50 Hz single phase supply.
Calculate:
a) The maximum value of flux density (Bm) in the core &
b) The voltage induced (E2) in the secondary winding.
 2.5. Transformer’s Equivalent Circuit
To model a real transformer accurately, we need to account for the following
losses:
1. Copper losses – resistive heating in the windings: I2R.
2. Eddy current losses – resistive heating in the core.
3. Hysteresis losses – energy needed to rearrange magnetic domains in
the core: nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Leakage flux – flux that escapes from the core and flux that passes
through one winding only.

Figure 2.5: Schematic diagram of real transformer

 2.5.1. Exact(complete) equivalent ckt of
real transformer
Cooper losses are modeled by the resistors Rp and Rs.

Figure 2.6: Exact equivalent ckt of real transformer

 Con…d
Since the exact circuit is not very practical, the equivalent circuit
is usually referred to the primary side or the secondary side of
the transformer as shown in figures below.

Equivalent circuit of the

transformer referred to its
primary side.

Equivalent circuit of the

transformer referred to
its secondary side.
 2.5.2. Approximate equivalent ckt of transformer
For many practical
applications, approximate
models of transformers
are used.

Referred to the primary side.

Referred to the secondary side.

Without an excitation branch

referred to the primary side.

The values of components of the

transformer model can be determined
experimentally by an open-circuit test or Without an excitation branch
by a short-circuit test. referred to the secondary side.
 2.6. Transformer Phasor Diagram

Fig. 2.7: Phasor diagram corresponding to exact equivalent ckt of

transformer
 2.7. Voltage regulation and efficiency
2.7.1. Voltage regulation
The transformer’s output voltage varies with the load even if the
input voltage is constant. To compare transformers in this respect,
the quantity called a voltage regulation (VR) is used.

Vs , nl − Vs , fl V p a − Vs , fl
=
VR ⋅100%
= ⋅100% (2.7)
Vs , fl Vs , fl

Where Vs,nl - secondary no load voltages.

Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero.
Vs,fl - secondary full load voltages.
 2.7.2. Transformer efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:

Pout Pout
η = ⋅100% = ⋅100% (2.8)
Pin Pout + Ploss

Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice two

types of losses:
1. Copper (I2R) losses
2. core losses

Since the output power is Pout = Vs I s cos θ s (2.9)

efficiency is η
Vs I s cos θ
=
The transformer ⋅100% (2.10)
PCu + Pcore + Vs I s cos θ
Example 2.3: A single phase transformer working at unity power factor
has an efficiency of 90% at both one half load & at the full load of
500W. Determine the efficiency at 75 % of full load.
Solution: Efficiency of the transformer at full-load = 0.9
Output at full load = 500 W
Let the iron losses of the transformer be = x watts
and the total copper losses at full load be = y watts
Then, the total losses at full load = x + y
Hence,
500
0.9 =
500 + x + y

Or 0.9x + 0.9y = 50 (i)

Efficiency of the transformer at half of full load = 0.9
2
Total copper losses at half of full load = 

1
 ×y =
y
 2  4
Output of the transformer = ½ × 500 = 250 W
 250
Thus, 0.9 =
250 + x + y
4
0.9x + 0.225y = 25 (ii)
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii)
y = 37 W
and x = 18.53 W
i.e. total copper losses at full load = 37 W
Iron losses = 18.53 W
Output of the transformer at 75 percent of full load = 0.75 x 500
= 375 W
Total copper losses at 75 percent of full load
= (0.75)2 x 37
= 20.8 W
Efficiency at 75 percent of full load
375
η at 75% = × 100
375 + 18.53 + 20.8
= 90.5%
2.7.3. Transformer taps and voltage regulation

We assumed before that the transformer turns ratio is a

fixed (constant) for the given transformer.
Frequently, distribution transformers have a series of taps
in the windings to permit small changes in their turns ratio.
 Typically, transformers may have 4 taps in addition to the
nominal setting with spacing of 2.5% of full-load voltage.
Therefore, adjustments up to 5 % above or below the nominal
voltage rating of the transformer are possible.
 Cont…d
Taps allow adjustment of the transformer in the field to
accommodate for local voltage variations.
Sometimes, transformers are used on a power line, whose voltage
varies widely with the load (due to high line impedance, for
instance). Normal loads need fairly constant input voltage
though…
One possible solution to this problem is to use a special
transformer called a tap changing under load transformer or
voltage regulator.
A voltage regulator is build with voltage sensing circuitry that
automatically change the taps to keep the system voltage
constant.
These “self-adjusting” transformers are very common in modern
power systems.
 2.8. Three-Phase Transformers
The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in the world are 3-
phase systems.
The transformers for such circuits can be constructed either as a 3-phase
bank of independent identical transformers (can be replaced independently)
or as a single transformer wound on a single 3-legged core (lighter, cheaper,
more efficient).
 Cont…d

We assume that any single transformer in a 3-phase

transformer (bank) behaves exactly as a single-phase
transformer.
The impedance, voltage regulation, efficiency, and other
calculations for 3-phase transformers are done on a per-
phase basis, using the techniques studied previously for
single-phase transformers.
Four possible connections of 3-phase transformer bank are:
1. Y-Y
2. Y-∆
3. ∆- ∆
4. ∆-Y
 Cont…d
1. Y-Y connection:
The primary voltage on each
phase of the transformer is
(2.11)

The secondary phase voltage is

(2.12)

The overall voltage ratio is

(2.13)
 Cont…d
The Y-Y connection has two very serious problems:
1. If loads on one of the transformer circuits are unbalanced, the
voltages on the phases of the transformer can become
severely unbalanced.
2. The third harmonic issue.

Both problems can be solved by:

1. Solidly ground the neutral of the transformers (especially, the

primary side). The third harmonic will flow in the neutral and a
return path will be established for the unbalanced loads.

2. Add a third ∆-connected winding. A circulating current at the

third harmonic will flow through it suppressing the third
harmonic in other windings.
 Cont…d
2. Y-∆ connection:

The primary voltage on each

phase of the transformer is

(2.14)

The secondary phase voltage is

(2.15)

The overall voltage ratio is

(2.16)
 Cont…d

The Y-∆ connection has no problem with third harmonic

components due to circulating currents in ∆.

It is also more stable to unbalanced loads since the ∆

partially redistributes any unbalance that occurs.

One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is
shifted by 300 with respect to the primary voltage. This can cause problems
when paralleling 3-phase transformers since transformers secondary voltages
must be in-phase to be paralleled. Therefore, we must pay attention to these
shifts.
 Cont…d
3. ∆ -Y connection:
The primary voltage on each
phase of the transformer is

(2.17)

The secondary phase voltage is

(2.18)

The overall voltage ratio is

(2.19)

The same advantages and the same

phase shift as the Y-∆ connection.
 Cont…d
4. ∆ - ∆ connection:
The primary voltage on each
phase of the transformer is

(2.20)

The secondary phase

voltage is
(2.21)

The overall voltage ratio is

(2.22)

No phase shift, no problems with

unbalanced loads or harmonics.
 Three-phase Voltage and Current

Phase Phase
Connection Line Voltage Line Current
Voltage Current

Star VP = VL ÷ √3 VL = √3 × VP IP = IL IL = IP

Delta VP = VL VL = VP IP = IL ÷ √3 IL = √3 × IP
Example 2.4: An 11000/415V, delta-star transformer feeds power to a
30 kW, 415V, 3-phase induction motor having an efficiency of 90% and
full-load pf 0.833. Calculate the transformer rating and phase and line
currents on both high and low voltage sides.
Solution 30
Transformer kVA rating = = 40KVA
0.9 x 0.833
Total load in VA 40,000
Line current on l.v. side of transformer = = = 55.65A
3 x line voltage 3 x 415
.
For star connected l.v. winding, phase current in l.v. winding = line
current on l.v side = 55.65A.
Line current on HV, side of transformer = 40,000 = 2.1A
3 x 11000
For delta connected HV winding, phase current in HV winding:
phase current in = 1 (line current on h.v. side) = 1 x 2.1 = 1.212A
HV winding 3 3
 Chapter Three
3. Three-Phase Induction Machines
3.1. Electromechanical Conversion
Types of electrical Machines
DC Machines AC Machines

Asynchronous (Induction)
DC Gen DC Mot Synchronous Machines
Machines

Electrical Mechanical In electrical system: voltage &

system ELECTRICAL system current are primary quantities.
MACHINES
E, I T, n  In mechanical system: torque

Motor & speed are primary quantities.

Generator The coupling medium
between these different
Figure 3.1 Electromechanical energy
conversion systems is the magnetic field.
 Cont…d

In all types of machines; conversion of energy results from two

electromagnetic phenomena. They are:
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is
induced in the conductor. (Generator Action)
When a current –carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical
force. (Motor action)
 Motor Action

Michael Faraday
Passing a current through a conductor in a fixed magnetic field creates
a force which causes the conductor to move through the field.
The force created by the current known as the Lorentz force acts
between the current carrying conductor and the magnetic field.
The magnitude of the force acting on the conductor is given by:
F = BLI
Where; F - force on the conductor,
L - length of the conductor &
I - current flowing through conductor.
Generator Action
Moving a conductor through a magnetic field, or moving the magnetic field
relative to the conductor, causes a current to flow in the conductor.
The magnitude of the EMF generated in this way is given by:
E = BLv
Where; E - generator EMF &
v is the velocity of the conductor through the field.
Electrical Machines
Majority of electrical machines sold today are still based on the Lorentz force.
Single turn coil carrying electrical current rotates in a magnetic field between
the two poles of a magnet.
 Cont…d

To understand the generator & motor action look the following

video: ..\..\..\Animates & Figs\1. Motor & Generator5.FLV

Operational principle,
of induction machines
construction &
included in this chapter.
characteristic features
 Induction (Asynchronous) Machines
Introduction
§The induction machine is the most rugged and the most widely used machine in
industry.

§It has a stator and a rotor separated each other by an air gap.
..\..\..\Animates & Figs\Figure 3.1x.pptx

§Even though, both stator and rotor winding of induction machine

carry alternating current; AC is supplied only to stator windings.
§Induction machine can operate both as a motor & as a generator.
§However, it is rarely used as a generator, the performance characteristics as a

generator are not satisfactory for most applications. Thus induction machine is
extensively used as a motor in many applications.
§Of all the ac motors the poly-phase induction motor is the one which is
extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives.
IM has the following main advantages & some disadvantages.
Advantages
It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable construction
(especially squirrel cage type).
Its cost is low and it is very reliable.
It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition, no brushes
are needed, hence frictional losses are reduced.
It has a reasonably good power factor.
It requires minimum maintenance.
It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and has not to be
synchronized.
Its starting arrangement is simple especially –for squirrel-cage type motor.

Disadvantage
Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.
Its speed decreases with increase in load.
Its starting torque is somewhat lesser to that of a dc shunt motor.
The induction motor is used in various sizes:
Large three-phase induction motors are used in pumps, fans,
compressors, paper mills, textile mills and so forth.
Small single-phase induction motors are used in many household
appliances such as juice mixers, washing machines & refrigerators.
Two-phase induction motors are used primarily as servomotors in
a control system.
The linear version of the induction machine has been developed
primarily for use in transportation systems.

Three-phase induction motors are the most important ones

and are most widely used in industry.
Constructional Features
An induction motor consists of two main parts:
a) stator &
b) Rotor
Stator:
Stator is composed of laminations of high-grade sheet steel.
Laminations are insulated from each other by means of varnish coating.
Three-phase windings are put in to slots of the stator frame.
Stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply.
It is wound for a definite number of poles, the number of poles being
determined by the requirements of speed.
Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa.
The stator windings, when supplied with 3-phase currents , produce a
magnetic flux which is of constant magnitude but which rotates at
synchronous speed .
This revolving magnetic flux induces an emf in the rotor by mutual
induction.
Stator & Rotor Laminations
Rotor
The rotor also consists of laminated ferromagnetic material, with
slots punched out on the outer surface.
The frequency of the rotor flux is very low; as a result thicker
laminations can be used without excessive iron losses.
Two types of rotor construction is normally used for three phase
induction motor.
•Squirrel-cage rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are
known as squirrel-cage induction motors...\..\..\Animates &
Figs\Fig. 3.1y.pptx
•wound rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are known
as wound motors or slip-ring motors. ..\..\..\Animates &
 Squirrel-Cage Rotor:
Almost 90% of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because of
simplest & most rugged construction.
The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots
for carrying the rotor conductors which are not wires but heavy bars of
copper, aluminum or alloys.
The rotor bars are electrically welded or bolted to two short
circuiting end-rings.
Without the rotor core, the rotor bars and end-rings look like the
cage of a squirrel, hence the name squirrel cage induction motor.
Rotor slots are usually not quit parallel to the shaft but are
purposely give a slight skew.
Slight skew rotor slots are useful in two ways :
The motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum &
Reducing the locking tendency of the rotor
Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM:
 Cage Type Rotor:

Rotor cage
Schematic Diagram

Actual Squirrel cage Rotor

Wound (Slip-Ring) Rotor:
The three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase star-
connected rheostat.
This makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor
circuit during the starting period
for increasing the starting torque
for decreasing starting current and
for changing its speed-torque characteristic.
When running under normal condition , the slip-rings are automatically
short-circuited by means of a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and
connect all the rings together.
Under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short –circuited on

itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.

Cut-away view of wound-rotor IM
Wound/slip -ring rotor:
 Comparison of squirrel cage and wound rotors
The squirrel cage motor has the following advantages as compared with the wound rotor machine

No slip rings, brush gear, short circuiting devices, rotor terminals for starting rheostats are required. The

star delta starter is sufficient for staring.

It has slightly higher efficiency.

It is cheaper and rugged in construction.

It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang and consequently a smaller copper loss.

It has bare end rings, a larger space for fans and thus the cooling conditions are better.

It has smaller rotor overhang leakage which gives a better power factor and greater pull out torque and

overload capacity.

The greatest disadvantage of squirrel cage rotor is that it is not possible to insert resistance in the rotor

circuit for the purpose of increasing the starting torque.

The cage rotor motor has a smaller starting torque and larger starting current as compared with wound

rotor motor.
 Principle Operation of IM:
a) 3-phase supply is feeding to stator windings then a magnetic flux
generated in the stator winding.
b) The flux rotate through the air gap cuts the rotor conductors. (Fig. a)

c) Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary
conductors in rotor slot, an emf is induced in the rotor. (Fig. b)
 Cont…d

Frequency of the induced emf is the same as the supply

frequency.
Since the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor
current is produced.
The rotor starts running in the same direction as that of the flux
and tries to cutch up with the rotating flux. Fig (c)
 SLIP in an Induction Motor
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual
speed Nm of the rotor is known as slip.

Sometimes, Ns –Nm is called the slip speed

 Frequency of rotor current
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is
the same as the supply frequency.
But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends
upon the slip-speed.
Let at any slip speed, the frequency of the rotor current be f2.
Then,

Dividing one by the other, we get

 SIMPLE 3-PHASE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IM:

Fig.: 3-phase squirrel cage Rotor Fig.: 3-phase Wound Rotor

IM equivalent circuit model IM equivalent circuit model
 Complete Equivalent Circuit Referred to Stator
R1 X1

I1 Io

' 2
Ic Im

V1 E1 Rc Xm

Pag
The mechanical speed ωmech is related to the synchronous speed by

Where;

The mechanical speed ωmech is related to the synchronous speed by

3
 Thevenin Equivalent circuit of IM:
R1 X1

I1 Io

'
V1 Xm

R''
Pag

Figure : IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit

Rth Xth X2

Vth

Pag

Figure: Thevenin Equivalent circuit of IM

Eample 3.1: A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440
r.p.m. For this motor, calculate the following:
(a) number of poles ;
(b) full-load slip and rotor frequency ;
(c) speed of stator field with respect to (i) stator structure and (ii) rotor structure and
(d) speed of rotor field with respect to (i) rotor structure (ii) stator structure and (iii)
stator field.
120 × f 1
Solution. (a) NS =
P
120 × 50 =
120 × 50
=
1
or 1440 = P 4 poles
P 1440 6
Number of poles must be even and a whole number.
Thus, induction motor must have 4 poles.
(b) 120 × f1 120 × 50
NS = = = 1500 r.p.m.
P 4 Rotor frequency,

N s − N 1500 − 1440 f 2 = Sf1 = 0.04 × 50 = 2 Hz

S= = = 0.04
Ns 1500
 (c) (i) Speed of stator field with respect to stator structure
∴ = N S = 1500rpm
( ii) Speed of stator field w.r.t. revolving rotor structure
= 1500 − 1440 = 60 rpm

(d) (i) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. rotor structure

120 ( rotor frequency )
=
poles
120 × 2
= = 60 r.p.m. = 6.283 rad / s
4
(ii) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. stator structure
=(Mechanical speed of rotor) + (Speed of rotor field w.r.t rotor structure)
= 1440 + 60 =1500 rpm = 150.08 rad/s.
(iii) Since both the stator and rotor fields are rotating at synchronous speed of
1500 rpm with respect to stator structure, speed of rotor field with respect to stator
field is zero. Thus the stator and rotor fields are stationary with respect to each other.
Example 3.2: A properly shunted centre-zero galvanometer is connected in
the rotor circuit of a 6-pole, 50 Hz wound-rotor induction motor. If the
galvanometer makes 90 complete oscillations in one minute, calculate the
rotor speed.
Solution: One complete oscillation of galvanometer corresponds to one cycle
of rotor frequency.
∴Rotor frequency,
90
f 2 = Sf1 = = 1.5 Hz
60
f 2 1.5
or Slip, S = = = 0.03
f1 50
Rotor speed,

120 × 50
N = N S (1 − S) = (1 − 0.03) = 970 r.p.m.
6
Example 3.3: A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor
resistance of 0.024Ω per phase and standstill reactance of 0.6 Ω per
phase. Determine the speed at which the maximum torque is developed.
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.024Ω
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.6Ω

Slip corresponding to maximum torque,

R2 0.024
ST max = = = 0.04
X2 0.6
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,

N = N S (1 − ST max )
120 × 50
= (1 − 0.04 )
4
= 1440 rpm
Example 3.4: A 3φ, 460V, 1740rpm, 60Hz, 4-pole wound-rotor induction
motor has the following parameters per phase:
R1=0.25Ω R2’=0.2Ω
X1=X2’=0.5Ω Xm=30Ω
The rotation losses are 1700 W. with the rotor terminals short-circuited, find
a) i) Starting current when started direct on full-voltage
ii) Starting torque
b) i) Full-load slip
ii) Full-load current
iii) Ratio of starting current to full-load current
iv) Full-load power factor
v) Full-load torque
vi) Internal efficiency and the motor efficiency at full-load
 Solution
460
a) V1 = = 265.6 V / phase
3
At start S=1. The input impedance is

 r2' ' 
jX m  + jx 2 

s
 j30(0.2 + j0.5)
Z1 = r1 + x1 + ' == 0 . 25 + j0 . 5 +
0.2 + j(30.5)
r2
s
(
+ j xm + x 2 '
) = 1.08∠66 Ω

265.6
I st = °
= 245.9 ∠ − 66°A
1.08∠66

2πN s 2π × 1800
ωsyn = = = 188.5 rad / s
60 60
 V1 jX m 266.5 × j 30.0
Vth = = = 261.3V
r1 + j ( xm + x1 ) 0.25 + j 30.5

jX m ( R1 + jX 1 ) j 30( 0.25 + j0.5 )

Z th = = = 0.55∠63.9°Ω
R1 + j( X 1 + X m ) 0.25 + j 30.5
= 0.24 + j0.49 Ω
∴ Rth = 0.24 Ω ; X th = 0.49 Ω

2
3 Vth R2'
Tst = ⋅ .
ω syn ( Rth + R2 ) + ( X th + X 2 ) S
' 2 2

3 261.3 2 0.2
= × × =
188.5 ( 0.24 + 0.2 ) + ( 0.49 + 0.5 )
2 2
1
= 185.2 N .m
b) At full-load Air gap power:
N s − N 1800 − 1740
i) S = = = 0.0333 vi) Pag = Tωsyn = 163.11 × 188.5 = 30,746.2 W
Ns 1800
ii) R2' 0.2 Rotor copper loss:
= = 6.01 Ω P2 = sPag = 0.0333 × 30,746.2 = 1023.9 W
s 0.0333
j30(6.01 + j0.5) Pmech = (1 − s )Pag = (1 − 0.0333)× 30,746.2 = 29,722.3W
Z1 = 0.25 + j0.5 +
6.01 + j(30.5)
= 0.25 + j0.5 + 5.598 + j1.596 Pout = Pmech − Prot = 29 ,722.3 − 1700 = 28 ,022.3 W
= 6.2123∠19.7 Ω Pin = 3V1 I 1 cos θ 1 = 3 × 265.6 × 42.754 × 0.94 = 32 ,022.4 W
265.6
I FL = °
= 42.754 ∠ − 19.7°A
6.2123∠19.7
Pout 28,022.3
I st 245.9 ηmotor = = × 100 = 87.5%
iii) = = 5.75 Pin 32,022.4
I FL 42.754

iv) PF= cos(19.7)=0.94 lagging ηint ernal = ( 1 − s ) = 1 − 0.0333 = 0.967 → 96.7%

3 261.32
v) TFL = × 6.01
188.5 (0.24 + 6.01) + (0.49 + 0.5)
2 2

= 163.11 N.m
Example 3.5: A 3φ, 15 hp, 460V, 4-pole, 60Hz, 1728 rpm
induction motor delivers full output power to a load connected
to its shaft. The windage and friction loss of the motor is 750 W.
Determine the
a) Mechanical power developed.
b) Air gap power
c) Rotor copper loss.
 Solution
a) Full-load shaft power, Pshaft = 15 × 746 = 11,190 W
Mechanical power developed, Pmech = Pshaft + Pf&w
= 11,190 + 750 = 11,940 W

120 × f 120 × 60
b) Synchronous speed, Ns = = = 1800 rpm
P 4
Ns − N 1800 − 1728
Slip, S = = = 0.04
Ns 1800

Pmech 11,940
Air gap power, Pag = = = 12 ,437.5 W
1 − S 1 − 0.04

c) Rotor copper loss, P2 = SPag = 0.04 × 12 ,437.5 = 497.5 W

 Assignment One [13%]

1) Describe (Explain) the way how control the speed of

an induction machine by using the following basic speed
control methods of an induction motor. [5-10pages]
i. By changing the number of poles
ii. By varying the line (input) frequency.
iii. By varying the input voltage
iv.By varying the rotor resistance
 CHAPTER FOUR
4. DC MACHINES
4.1) CONSTRUCTION..\..\..\Animates & Figs\DC machine constraction.pptx
The dc machines used for industrial applications have
essentially three major parts:
A) Field system (Stator)
B) Armature (Rotor) &
C) Commutator
 A) Field (Stator) System
Field system is located on the stator.
It is designated for producing magnetic flux and, therefore,
provides the necessary excitation for operation of machine.
The stator of dc machines consists of
1.Frame (Yoke)
2.Main Poles &
3.Inter-poles
 The stator of a dc machines consists of a frame or yoke,
and poles (main & inter poles), which support the field
windings.
1.Frame (Yoke)
Frame or yoke is a part of a magnetic circuit & serves as

mechanical support for entire assembly.

Earlier, cast iron was used for the construction of yoke but it
has been replaced by cast steel.
This is because cast iron has saturation density of 0.8
Wb/m2 while saturation occurs in cast steel at density of
approximately 1.5 Wb/m2.
 2.Main-Poles
Poles are made of sheet steel laminations
Pole Shoes:- support the field coils placed on the pole body
- spread the total flux over a greater area &
- reduce the air gap reluctance.
The poles are secured to the yoke by means of bolts.

3.Inter-poles
Modern direct current machines are provided with interpoles with
windings on them in order to improve commutation under loaded
conditions to insure sparkles operation of machine.
They are arranged midway between the mains poles and are bolted
to the yoke.
B) Armature
It is the rotating part (rotor) of the dc machine
It is a cylindrical body, which rotates between the magnetic poles.
It is separated from the field system by an air gap.
The armature consists of:
Armature core with slots and
Armature winding accommodated in slots
 C) Commutator
The commutator is mounted on the rotor of a dc
machine and it performs with help of brushes a
mechanical rectification of power from
ac to dc in case of generators and
dc to ac in case of motors.
BRUSHES AND BRUSH HOLDER
Brushes collect the current from the rotating commutator or
to lead the current to it.
Brushes are made up of carbon & graphite, so that while in
contact with the commutator it is not rigid...\..\..\Animates &
Figs\Brush.pptx
Brushes are accommodated in the brush holder.
 4.2) PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR
The basic essential parts of an
electrical generator are:
Magnetic Field &
Conductors
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic
flux, dynamically induced emf is produced
in the conductor. (Faraday’s law).
This emf cause a current to flow if the
conductor is closed.
Fig.4.1: Schematic diagram
of a simple machine
 Right-hand Rule
According to Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction, an emf will
be induced in the rotating coil and is
given by

As l and v are constant for

particular case,
Hence under the given conditions,
the change in the magnitude of
induced emf with time depends upon
the magnetic flux density distribution
under the poles.
The direction of the induced
Emf induced in the coil varies emf in this case can be
with time as a sine function. determined by Fleming’s right
hand rule.
Direction of conductor in a magnetic flux:

Generating of ac voltage
 The 0° position of the coil is defined as in (a) where the
coil sides move parallel to the flux lines.

Figure : AC voltages obtained from above direction of conductor

Basic Principles:
Conductor move parallelly to lines of force  0 electrom. induction.
Conductor move perpendicularly to lines of force max. ele.mag.indu
 4.3) TYPES OF DC Generators
Field winding & Interconnected in various ways
to provide a wide variety of
Armature winding performance characteristics

DC machine work as an electromechanical energy converter

only when its field winding is excited(connected) with direct
current, except for small dc machines using permanent magnet.
According to the method of their field excitation dc
machines are classified into the following groups:
a) separately excited &
b) self excited
 Voltage Build-up Process In Self Excited DC Generator:
If Rf Vs If
Eg
Eag
Field Resistance Line
Ea4

Ea3

Ea2
Ea1
Ear
If1 If2 If3 If4 If5 If Ish
Some residual magnetism must exist in the magnetic circuit of the generator.
Assume that the field circuit is initially disconnected from the armature circuit and
the armature is driven at a certain speed, Ear will appear across the armature
terminals because of the residual magnetism in the machine. If the field circuit is
connected to the armature circuit, a current will flow in the field winding. If the mmf
of this field current aids the residual magnetism, a current If1 will flow in the field
circuit. With If1 following in the field circuit, the generated voltage is but the terminal
voltage is Vt = Ifl RF < Eal.
 4.4) Emf Equation of DC Generator
Eg = emf generated in one of the parallel path
dφ
Average emf generated / conductor = , volt
dt
Flux cut / conductor in one revolution, dφ = φP ,Wb

Number of revolution / second =

N
, sec ond
60
Hence according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Emf generated / conductor = dφ = φPN , volt
dt 60
dφ φPNZ
Emf generated in the armature winding (E): E = = , volt
dt 60a
Where, φ = flux per pole in Weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= Number of slots × Number of conductors per slot
P = Number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature
N= armature rotation in rpm
Reading Assignment:

1. Armature Reaction

2. Commutation

2.1. Methods of improving commutation

 4.5. Characteristics of DC Generators
The behavior of various types of dc generators can be studying by their
characteristics.
The three most important characteristic curves of a dc generator are:
1. Magnetization characteristic or open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) -
shows the relationship between the field current If and the generated
emf Eg at no load and at constant speed.
2. External characteristic-shows the relationship between the terminal
voltage V across the load and the current IL flowing in the external load
circuit.
3. Internal characteristic –shows the relationship between the emf
generated E at load and the armature current Ia.
 1. Magnetization characteristic (O.C.C.)
The emf generated in the armature winding of a dc machine under no
load condition is given by Pφ NZ
Eg =
60 a
P, Z and a are constants for a particular generator, hence at given constant speed
Eg α φ
∴The generated emf is directly proportional to the flux per pole (speed
being constant), which in turns depends upon the field current If
Eg
D
C
OA=Residual emf
(due to residual Magnetism)
B AB- Unsaturated Region
(Straight line)
BC- Knee of the curve
( Operating Region)

CD- Saturated Region

A
O Ish
Figure : Magnetization curve or O.C.C.
 2. External characteristic
It express the relationship between terminal voltage and load
current at a constant speed & with If keeping the same as under the
no load condition.
The shape of this curve depends upon:
1. Armature reaction
2. Voltage drop in armature, main pole & inter pole windings
3. Voltage drop at the brush contact( 0.8 - 1.0V per brush )
VL
I
i. If no loss & Arm. Reaction V=E
II ii. If only Armature Reaction
Curve II: gives to a different scale the
III emf induced in the armature and thus, it
is normally called the internal
ature characteristics of the generator.
r o p in arm
curve III = curve II - Ia Ra
ic d
Ohm

IL / Ia
Figure : External characteristics of separately excited generator
External characteristics clearly indicate that the terminal voltage falls
as load on the generator increase.
 VL II Over-compounded
VL
I

s
I Level (flat) compounded

tic
VNL

ris
II

te

s
ac

tic
ar

tic is r
Ch
III
ris te
te ac

s
n
io

ac ar

III Under-compounded
at

C h
iz
et

Ch al
n

rn
ag

ar
te
M

In
al

IV
rn
te
Ex

Differential compounded

IFL IL

IIL Figure : External characteristics of dc

Figure : External characteristics of compound generator.
series wound generator
Curve I: level-compounded generator
Curve III: is obtained from VL verses the IL. Curve II: over compounded generator
IL is varied by varying the external resistance. Curve III: under compounded generator
curve II=curve III + voltage drop in the Curve IV: differential-compound generator:
armature circuit + brush contact drop series field opposes the shunt field
cumulative compound generator:
Curve I= curve II + armature reaction. series field aids the shunt field
4.6. DC MOTORS
4.6.1. TYPES OF DC MOTORS
1. Series wound
2. shunt wound &
3. compound wound
Important relationships
1. Series wound motor I a = I se = I L
IL
Ise + Eb = VL − I a (Ra + Rse )
Ia
Series Pdrawn = VL ⋅ I L
Winding
Eb VL
Pdev = Eb ⋅ I a

_
Figure : connection diagram of
series-wound motor
2. Shunt wound motor
Important relationships
Ish IL VL
+ I sh =
Field R sh
Rheostat Ia
I L = I sh + I a

Eb VL
Eb = VL − I a Ra
Shunt
Winding
Pdrawn = VL ⋅ I L

Pdev = Eb ⋅ I a
_
Figure : connection diagram of shunt-wound
motor
 3. Compound wound motor Important relationships
I se = I L
Ish IL
+

Ia Eb + I a Ra V − I se Rse
Ise I sh = = L
Rsh Rsh
Eb VL
Shunt Series I L = I sh + I a
Winding Winding
Eb = V L − I a Ra − I L Rse

_ Pdrawn = VL ⋅ I L
(a) short-shunt compound motor
Ish
Pdev = Eb ⋅ I a
IL Important relationships
+
Ia Ise I a = I se
E + I (R + R se ) V L
Shunt Eb Series VL I sh = b a a =
Winding Winding
R sh R sh
I L = I sh + I L
_
E b = V L − I a (Ra + R se )
(b) long -shunt compound motor
Figure : connection diagram of compound- Pdrel = VL ⋅ I L
wound motor Pdev = Eb ⋅ I a
4.6.2. DIRECTION OF ROTATION
The direction of rotation of a motor can be reversed by:
Reversing current through either armature winding or field coils.
If current through both is reversed, the motor will continue to rotate in the
same direction as before.
2.6.3. BACK EMF
The direction of back emf is opposes the applied voltage.
Since the back emf is induced due to the generator action , the
magnitude of it is given by the generated emf in a generator:
+

φZN P
Ra Eb Eb = × volts,
60 a
V +
Eb
V Ia V = Eb+Ia Ra
-

Figure : Equivalent circuit of a motor Armature

2.6.4. TORQUE EQUATION
The back emf of dc motor is given by E b = V − I a R a
2
Multiplying both sides by Ia, b a
E I = VI a − I a Ra

VIa = Total electrical power supplied to the

Armature of the dc motor
Ia2Ra = power wasted in the armature

EbIa = mechanical power developed

If Ta is the torque in Newton meter developed by the armature of the
motor, running at N revolutions per minute, then Mechanical power
developed, 2πN. Ta
Pmech = watts
60
2πN Ta
E b Ia =
60
(60) E b I a
Torque, Ta = .
2π N
Since back emf,
pφ NZ
Eb =
60.a

60 PΦNZI a PΦ I a Z
Torque, Ta = . = 0.159. [ N .m]
2π 60 a N a
For a particular dc motor; P, Z & a are fixed. Hence,
Ta ∝ φ I a

For dc shunt motor, the flux per pole is practically constant, hence
the torque developed is directly proportion to the armature current,
i.e.
Ta ∝ I a (for dc shunt motor)

For dc series motor, the flux per pole is directly proportional to Ia

hence the torque developed is directly proportion to the square of the
armature current, i.e.
Ta ∝ I a2 (for a dc series motor)
.
. 2.6.5. SPEED EQUATION
Pφ N .Z
Back emf for dc motor is: Eb =
60a
volts

E b = V − Ia R a

Combing the above equations: Pφ N.Z = V − I R

a a
60a
60.a 1
N = (V − I a Ra ). .
PZ φ
P, Z & a are fixed.
=
(V − Ia R a ) = K E b Where K=60a/PZ
Hence N K
φ φ
Speed of dc shunt motor is directly proportional to the back emf:
N ∝ Eb
Speed of dc series motor is inversely proportional to the flux per
pole or the armature current: 1
N ∝
φ
 2.6.6.DC MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
1. Magnetic characteristic
2. Torque-Armature Current Characteristic
3. Speed-Armature Current Characteristic
2.6.6.1. Characteristics of Dc Series Motors:
1. Magnetic characteristic
In case of dc series motors: flux (φ) varies with the variation in line or field or
armature current.
The flux φ increase with the increase in load current, becomes maximum at
saturation point and finally become constant.
2. Torque-Armature Current Characteristics
Ta ∝ φI a
3. Speed-Current Characteristic
E V − Ia R a
Nα b =
φ φ
 T
N, rpm

T, N.m

N
I, A

Figure : Speed- current and Torque-current characteristics

of DC series motors
 2.6.6.2. Characteristics of Dc Shunt Motors:
1. Speed-Current Characteristic
2. Torque- Current Characteristic 3. Speed-Torque Characteristi

N
N, rpm
T, N.m

N, rpm
T

Ia, A

Figure : Speed- current and Torque- T, N.m

current ch/cs of dc shunt motor Figure: Speed-Torque ch/cs

of dc shunt motor
2.6.7. STARTING OF DC MOTOR
The starting current in DC machine is control by using:
Insert an external resistance at start.
Use a low dc terminal voltage (V) at start.

2.6.8. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

V − Ia R a  a  V − Ia R a
N= ⋅  = K r.p.s.
Zφ P φ

The speed can be controlled by varying:

Flux/pole i.e. Flux control
Resistance Ra of the armature circuit i.e. Rheostat Control &
Applied voltage V i.e. Voltage control
 CHAPTER FIVE
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Synchronous machine rotates at a constant speed in steady state.
Ns & Nr in the synchronous machine rotate at synchronous speed.
Synchronous machines are used primarily as generators. In this case
they are called synchronous generators or alternators.
Synchronous generators :large machines generating electrical power
at hydro, nuclear & thermal power stations. It generates about several
hundred MVA.
Synchronous generators are the primary energy conversion devices
of the world's electrical power systems today.
A synchronous machine is a doubly excited
machine. Its rotor poles are excited by a dc current
and its stator windings are connected to the ac supply.
The air gap flux is therefore the resultant of the fluxes
due to both rotor current and stator current.

A synchronous machine with no load is called a

synchronous condenser( synchronous compensators).
It used in power transmission to regulate line voltage ( to
improve power factor in electrical system).
 Parts of Synch.G
1 - collector rings,
2 - brush holders,
3 - pole rotor coil,
4 - pole tip,
5 - stator core,
6 – ventilator,
7 - shaft

Fig. 5.1: Cut–away view of synchronous machines

5.2. Construction Of Three-Phase Synchronous

Machine :
Stator of the three-phase synchronous machine has a three-

phase distributed winding similar to that of the three-phase

induction machine.

Unlike the dc machine, the stator winding is connected to the

ac supply system.
The rotor has a field winding, which carries direct current

from an external dc source through slip rings and brushes.

 Synchronous machines can be broadly divided into two
groups:
High-speed machines with cylindrical (non-salient pole) rotors.
Low-speed machines (salient pole rotors).

Non-salient pole rotor machines:

-have one distributed winding & uniform air gap
-are used in large generators (several hundred megawatts)
-are usually driven by steam turbines
Salient pole rotor machines:
have concentrated windings on the poles & a non uniform air gap.
Hydroelectric power stations are an example
Rated for tens or hundreds of megawatts
Figure 5.2 :(a) salient pole; (b) non-salient pole
 5.3. SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
The voltage induced in phase A of fig. 5.3 is given by
vA = Vm sinωt Where ω =angular velocity of the rotor.
vB = Vm sin ((ω t - 120°) &
vc = Vmsin (ω t + 120°)
f = ω /2π (Hz). Since ω=2 πf.

Fig. 5.3. A-3-phase, round-rotor, synchronous machine.

The speed of rotation of the field, i.e., the synchronous speed ns
is given by

np
f = Where; n is the rotor speed in rpm
120 P is the number of poles

The excitation voltage in rms is

E f = 4.44 fφ f NK w Where
 φf is the flux per pole due to the excitation
Current If
E f ∝ nφ f N is the number of turns in each phase
Kw is the winding factor
 5.3.1. Equivalent Circuit of 3-phase synchronous generator

Fig. 5.5: Full equivalent circuit of a 3-phase synchronous generator.

These three phases can be either Y- or D-connected.

Fig. 5.6: The generator equivalent circuit connected in

(a) Star and (b) Delta.
THE INFINITE BUS­

Figure 5.5: Infinite bus (or grid) system

Connecting a synchronous generator to the infinite bus is known as

paralleling with the infinite bus.
An alternator connected to the infinite bus & infinite bus must have the same.
-Voltage -Frequency
-Phase sequence & -Phase