INTRODUCTION TO

MACHINERY PRINCIPLES
Chapter2
Electric Machines and Transformers

› An electric machine is a device that can convert either mechanical

energy to electric energy or electric energy to mechanical energy.
› Such a device is called a generator when it converts mechanical
energy to electric energy.
› The device is called a motor when it converts electric energy to
mechanical energy.
› Since an electric machine can convert power in either direction,
such a machine can be used as either a generator or a motor.
Thus, all motors and generators can be used to convert energy
from one form to another, using the action of a magnetic field.
Electric Machines and Transformers

› A transformer is a device that converts ac electric energy at one

voltage level to ac electric energy at another voltage level.
› Transformers operate on the same principles as generators and
motors.

› Energy is converted from one form to another in motors,

generators, and transformers by the action of magnetic fields.
These are the four basic principles that describe how magnetic
fields are used in these devices:
The Magnetic Field
› Ampere’s law is the basic law that governs the production of a
magnetic field:
 
∮ 𝐻 .𝑑𝑙=𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡
 
where H is the magnetic field intensity produced
by current . Current i is measured in amperes and
H in ampere-turns per meter

Figure 2.1 shows a rectangular core having a winding of

N turns of wire wrapped on one leg of the core. If the
core is made of ferromagnetic material (such as iron),
most of the magnetic field produced by the current will
remain inside the core.

Ampere’s law becomes  𝐻 𝑙 𝑐 =𝑁𝑖

The Magnetic Field
The magnetic field intensity H is a measure of the “effort” that the
current is putting out to establish a magnetic field.
The material of the core affects the strength of the magnetic field
flux produced in the core.
The magnetic field intensity H is linked with the resulting magnetic
flux density B within the material by
  𝜇 𝑁𝑖
𝐵=𝜇 𝐻 =
𝑙𝑐
Thus, the total flux in the core in Fig. 2.1 is
  A

where A is the cross-sectional area of the core.

Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
 The permeability of ferromagnetic materials is up to 6000 times
higher than the permeability of free space.
 The permeability of ferromagnetic materials is not constant.
The magnetic permeability is defined by the equation : 𝐵=𝜇𝐻
Figure 2.2a illustrates the variation of the flux produced in the core
versus the magnetomotive force.
This graph is known as the saturation curve or magnetization curve.
At first, a slight increase in the current (magnetomotive force) results
in a significant increase in the flux.
However, at a certain point, a further increase in current results in
no change in the flux. The region where the curve is flat is called the
saturation region.
The core has become saturated. The region where the flux changes
rapidly is called the unsaturated region. The transition region
between the unsaturated region and the saturated region is called
the knee of the curve.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
The slope of flux-density versus the magnetizing intensity curve
(Fig. 2.2c) is by definition the permeability of the core at that
magnetizing intensity.
The curve shows that in the unsaturated region the permeability
is high and almost constant.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
›   2.1 lists the characteristics of soft magnetic materials including
Table
the Curie temperature (or Curie point) . Above this temperature a
ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic (weakly magnetized).

Permalloy,
  supermendur, and other nickel alloys have a relative
permeability greater than. Only a few materials have this high
permeability over a limited range of operation.
The highest permeability ratio of good and poor magnetic materials
over a typical operating range is .
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

TC
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
 If an alternating current is applied to the core, the flux in the core
will follow path ab (Fig. 2.4b).
 WhenT the current drops, the flux follows a different path from the
C

one it took when the current increased.

 When the current decreases, the flux follows path bcd. When the
current increases again, the flux follows path deb.
 Path bcdeb shown in Fig. 2.4 is called a hysteresis loop
 The flux does not return to zero when the magnetomotive force is
removed.
 a magnetic field remains in the core. The magnetic field is known
as the residual flux in the core.
 A magnetomotive force must be applied to the core in the
opposite direction to return the flux to zero, is called the coercive
magnetomotive force
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

TC
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

TC
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
To understand the cause of hysteresis, it is necessary to know the structure of the
metal. There are many small regions within the metal called domains. The magnetic
fields of all
T the atoms in each domain are pointing in the same direction.
C

Thus, each domain within the metal acts as a small permanent magnet. These tiny
domains are oriented randomly within the material. This is the reason that a piece of
iron does not have a resultant flux.

When an external magnetic field is applied to the block of iron, all the domains will line
up in the direction of the field. This switching to align all the fields increases the
magnetic flux in the iron. This is the reason why iron has a much higher permeability
than air.
 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
When all the atoms and domains of the iron line up with the external field, a further
increase in the magnetomotive force will not be able to increase the flux. At this point,
the iron hasT become saturated with flux. The core has reached the saturation region of
C

the magnetization curve.

The cause of hysteresis is that when the external magnetic field is removed, the
domains do not become completely random again. This is so because energy is
required to turn the atoms in the domains. Originally, the external magnetic field
provided energy to align the domains. When the field is removed, there is no source of
energy to rotate the domains. The piece of iron has now become a permanent magnet.
.
Some of the domains will remain aligned until an external source of energy is supplied
to change them. A large mechanical shock and heating are examples of external energy
that can change the alignment of the domains. This is the reason why permanent
magnets lose their magnetism when hit with a hammer or heated.
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

TC
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
Energy is lost in all iron cores due to the fact that energy is required to turn the
domains. The energy required to reorient the domains during each cycle of the
alternating
C T current is called the hysteresis loss in the iron core. The area enclosed

in the hysteresis loop is directly proportional to the energy lost in a given ac cycle
(Fig. 2.4).

Based on Faraday’s law, a flux changing with time induces a voltage within a
ferromagnetic core in a similar manner as it would in a wire wrapped around the
core. These voltages can generate swirls of current inside the core. They are similar
to the eddies seen at the edges of a river. They are called eddy currents. Energy is
dissipated by these flowing eddy currents. Eddy current losses are proportional to
the length of the paths they follow within the core.
The eddy current losses have the following characteristics:
● They are proportional to the square of the lamination thickness.
● They are inversely proportional to the electrical resistivity of the material.
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

TC