THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT / TEORIEË VAN

ONTWIKKELING

Dr Jantjie Xaba
Sociology 212
Lecture 6 & 7
 OUTCOMES / UITKOMS
The following learning objectives applies to this lecture: / Die volgende leerdoelwitte is
van toepassing op hierdie lesing:
▪ Understand how countries develop - the four major theories of development. /
Verstaan hoe lande ontwikkel - vier hoofteorieë van ontwikkeling.
▪ Analyze the similarities and differences between the modernization and
dependency theories of development. / Ontleed die ooreenkomste en verskille
tussen die modernisering- en afhanklikheidsteorieë van ontwikkeling.
▪ Evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. / Evalueer hul sterk- en swakpunte.
▪ Apply these theories to real-world examples of development efforts in different parts
of the world. /Pas hierdie teorieë toe op werklike voorbeelde van
ontwikkelingspogings in verskillende dele van die wêreld.
 READINGS / LEESWERK
Regan, C.(ed) (2012). 80:20 Development in an
Unequal World, Pretoria: Ireland & UNISA
Press.
Swanepoel, H., and De Beer, F. (1997).
Introduction to Development Studies. South
Africa: International Thomson Publishing.
Reyes, G.E. (2001). Four Main Theories of
Development: Modernization, Dependency,
World- Systems, and Globalization, Nómadas.
Revista Crítica de Ciencias Sociales y
Jurídicas, Vol 4:1- 16.
THEORY OF MODERNIZATION / TEORIE VAN
MODERNISERING (REYES, 2001)
▪ 3 main historical elements advanced the inception of the modernization theory after WWII.
/ 3 hoof historiese elemente het die begin van die moderniseringsteorie na die Tweede
Wêreldoorlog bevorder.
1. The rise of the USA as a superpower after WWII
2. The spread of a United World Communist Movement
3. The disintegration of European colonial empires in Asia, Africa and Latin America, giving birth
to many new nation-states in the Third World.
▪ Coleman stresses three main features of modern societies: / Coleman beklemtoon drie
hoofkenmerke van moderne samelewings:
a) Differentiation
of political structure;
b) Secularization of political culture -with the ethos of equality-, which
c) Enhances the capacity of a society’s political system
Key message – progress requires economic, political and social systems as developed
by the First World. “Do what we did and become like us!” / Sleutelboodskap –
vooruitgang vereis ekonomiese, politieke en sosiale stelsels soos ontwikkel deur die Eerste
Wêreld. “Doen wat ons gedoen het en word soos ons!”
MODERNIZATION AS A DEVELOPMENT THEORY: (BRIEFLY) /
MODERNISERING AS ‘N ONTWIKKELINGSTEORIE: (KORTLIKS)

The major assumptions are: / Die belangrikste aannames is:

a) … homogenizing process, in this sense, we can say that modernization produces
tendencies toward convergence among societies,
b) … is a Europeanization or Americanisation process; in the modernization literature,
there is an attitude of complacency toward Western Europe and the United States,
c) … is an irreversible process, once started modernization cannot be stopped.
d) … is a systematic process.
e) … is a transformative process; and
f) … is an imminent process due to its systematic and transformative nature, which builds
change into the social system.
… THE WESTERN CAPITALISTIC DREAM FOR DEVELOPMENT IN
THE 3RD WORLD / … DIE WESTERSE KAPITALISTIESE DROOM VIR
ONTWIKKELING IN DIE 3DE WÊRELD (SWANEPOEL & DE BEER)
▪ Development as modernization emphasizes the process of social change which is required
▪ to produce economic advancement;
▪ examines changes in social, psychological and political processes;
▪ how to develop wealth-oriented behaviour and values in individuals;
▪ profit-seeking rather than subsistence and self-sufficiency, and
▪ shift from commodity to human approach with investment in education and skill training

▪ Progress is seen as universal and inevitable and driven by a particular logic that directed European
development:
▪ Requirement of modern values (i.e. Achievement, universalism, self-orientation, specificity and effective
neutrality) [Parsons]
▪ Need for specialisation and differentiation of tasks (Durkheim)
▪ Rationality that overcomes superstition and fatalism of traditional society
▪ Rational bureaucracies that realise greater efficiency (Weber)
ROSTOWIAN MODEL
ROSTOWIAN MODEL

Phase 1: Traditional societies

▪ Existing social structures, values and norms are
unable to cope with a changing society
(population growth, free market economy
etc.)

Characterised by
▪ subsistence economy – output not
traded or recorded (consumed)
▪ existence of barter
Village in Lesotho. 86% of the resident
▪ high levels of agriculture and labour-
workforce in Lesotho is engaged in intensive agriculture.
subsistence agriculture.
 ROSTOWIAN MODEL CONT …
The use of some capital equipment can help
increase productivity and generate small surpluses
which can be traded.
Phase 2: Preconditions for take-off:
▪ Tradition and ‘other stumbling blocks’
towards westernisation are finally overcome
(rationalisation of society)
▪ Political support that sets economic
development is a high priority
▪ Modern values invade the underdeveloped
society towards a process of westernisation
and acculturation.
▪ An emergence of transport and
infrastructure to support trade
▪ Some growth in savings and investment
 ROSTOWIAN MODEL CONT…

Phase 3: Take off

▪ Rapid economic growth & diffusion of
Western technology to various sectors of
the economy

▪ Technological and entrepreneurial skills

are required to increase GDP
▪ Increasing industrialisation
▪ Further growth in savings and investment
▪ Workers switched from the agricultural
At this stage, industrial growth may be linked to sector to the manufacturing sector.
primary industries. The level of technology required
will be low.
ROSTOWIAN MODEL CONT…

Phase 4: Drive to maturity

▪ Growth becomes self-sustaining –
wealth generation enables further
investment in value-adding industry
and development
▪ The economy begins to diversify
into new areas
▪ Increase in levels of technology
utilised

As the economy matures, technology plays an

increasing role in developing high-value-added
products.
ROSTOWIAN MODEL CONT…

Phase 5: High mass consumption

▪ When formerly poor countries can copy
the lifestyles and consumption patterns
of the industrialised countries.
▪ High output levels
▪ Mass consumption of consumer durables
▪ High proportion of employment in the
service sector

The service industry dominates the economy – banking,

insurance, finance, marketing, entertainment, leisure and
so on.
Pause and think about how you can apply
this theory

How accurate is this model in predicting economic

development and growth in countries around the
world? What about RSA?
CRITIQUE ON MODERNIZATION THEORY
/KRITIEK OP MODERNISERINGSTEORIE
▪ Assumes that all societies evolve from a common starting point (undeveloped) and
transform along a reductionist continuum of economic and social change from
traditional to modern.
▪ Western norms, values and lifestyle are never questioned - need to eliminate
traditional values
▪ Assumes acceptance of external intervention without questioning the motives of the
outsiders in any way.
▪ Progress is mainly economic growth
▪ Development is often seen as unidirectional
▪ Little regard for the integrated nature of development problems
▪ Western materialism & individualism are seen as important goals – the potential of
other knowledge systems is disregarded
 DEPENDENCY THEORY / AFHANKLIKHEIDSTEORIE
(Swanepoel & De Beer)
▪ Modernization paradigm dominated development thought for a long time – and elements
thereof persist today.
▪ Examples of rather successful applications are:
▪ The Marshall Plan: development plan implemented to reconstruct Europe after WWII
▪ The Green Revolution: development plan to dramatically boost food production in the 3rd
world to alleviate poverty.
▪ Aspects of the development problem not addressed by development plans:
▪ Elite (comprador bourgeoise) reaping the benefits of development
▪ High inequality and unemployment
▪ Inequality between countries – although the per capita income of the poor countries rose
substantially, benefits were unequally distributed among countries & among regions & socio-
economic groups
▪ The gap between rich and poor countries & the rich and poor in countries, continued to
grow
 CONT… / VERVOLG…
▪ Coined by Andre Gunder Frank
▪ Proposes that “core” or First World countries actively underdevelop
“peripheral” or Third World countries
▪ Sees the world as a the UoA; capitalism actively underdevelops the 3rd World,
and that underdevelopment occurs through the exploitation of 3rd World
countries by 1st World countries
Key principles defining DT:
▪ The spread of capitalism from 1st World countries had a destructive influence on 3rd
World countries
▪ Development in the core and underdevelopment in the peripheral “were two sides
of the same coin”
▪ Unlike modernization theory, DT argue that it is not possible for countries to develop
“at will” due to unequal power relations
▪ Although the mechanisms by which underdevelopment occurred under traditional
capitalism changed, the basis of it remained “surplus extraction” through the
market (exploitation)
CONT… / VERVOLG…
▪ Main arguments:
▪ Instead of promoting diffusion from the core to the periphery, the
core tends to exploit the periphery in a world-wide system of a
hierarchy of dependence.
▪ The result is a destructive relationship between the core and
periphery which is set within the world capitalist system.
▪ This pattern occurs on international, national and local levels.
▪ This system promotes the underdevelopment and exploitation of poor
areas through unequal terms of trade and other similar measures.
 FEATURES OF THE DEPENDENCY THEORY /
KENMERKE VAN DIE AFHANKLIKHEIDSTEORIE
▪ Development has political economy.
✓ The interplay between political and economic factors as an explanation of how industrialized countries keep
poor countries poor.

▪ Underdevelopment is viewed as a historical process.

✓ The historical process of Western industrialization has had a global impact, creating a global economic system =
dominant core and dependent periphery.

▪ Looks at external variables

✓ Critical of modernization with its internal focus when explaining underdevelopment.

▪ Emphasis on the clash of interest between the middle class and the working class – revolution is
required to break with the capitalist system.
✓ This contrasts with the modernization theory that assumes development is a harmonious process.

▪ Promotes a break with the world capitalist system.

✓ States are encouraged to promote self-reliance –break reliance on international trade and tech support
 APPLICATION OF DT TO RSA
▪ Draws on the work of Colin Bundy

▪ Bundy challenged the modernization myth that lack of development esp. for African
agriculture was due to the influence of tribal custom – tradition inhibited farmers from
engaging with market incentives, employing new technology and diversifying crop
production
▪ The mineral revolution ushered new needs in the economy, opened market opportunities
for wealthy African peasants;
▪ White mine owners and farmers desperate for labour petitioned parliament to intervene

▪ Resulted in taxation, pass laws, vagrancy laws, restriction of African access to land –all
aimed at undermining the independence of black farmers and making them wage
labourers
▪ Additionally, white farmers benefited from state subsidies and improved transport facilities
CONTRIBUTION OF MODERNISATION & DEPENDENCY /
BYDRAE VAN MODERNISERING EN AFHANKLIKHEID
The rise of theories focusing on growth: / Die opkoms van teorieë wat
op groei fokus:
▪ Economic growth alone is not sufficient to eradicate/reduce
poverty
▪ How to effect greater equity without a social revolution
▪ The poor are ready and willing to take advantage of economic
opportunities
▪ Give preference to social and political dimensions of growth and
equality