GENERAL CHEMISTRY REVIEWER

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➔ P Orbitals
LESSON 1: ELECTRONIC
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

QUANTUM NUMBERS

QUANTUM NUMBERS ➔ D orbitals

➔ The collection of values that represent
an atom's electron's energy and
location.
➔ The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that
no two electrons can have the same set
of four quantum numbers. Each electron
in an atom has a distinct set of quantum
numbers. ➔ F orbitals

4 QUANTUM NUMBERS

1. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER

➔ Denoted by the letter n, describes the

energy of an electron and the most
probable distance of the electron 3. MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER
from the nucleus.
➔ Denoted by ml, describes the energy
levels in a subshell.
2. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM
QUANTUM NUMBER
4. ELECTRON SPIN QUANTUM
➔ Also known as azimuthal quantum NUMBER
number, denoted by l, describes the
➔ Denoted by ms, refers to the spin on
shape of the orbital.
the electron.

ORBITALS UNDER ORBITAL ANGULAR

MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER

➔ S Orbitals

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SUBLEVELS n=3
l=1
➔ Each shell has sublevels ml = 0
➔ Each orbital in a sublevel can hold a ms = -½
maximum of 2 e⁻.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

1. FERROMAGNETISM
➔ The compound shows permanent
EXAMPLES magnetic properties rather than
exhibiting them only in the presence
1. List the values of the four quantum of an external magnetic field.
numbers for orbitals in the 4d ➔ Electrons of atoms are grouped into
sublevel. domains in which each domain has
the same charge.
➔ These domains align in the presence
of a magnetic field, causing charges
to run parallel throughout the
n=4 compound.
l=2 ➔ It is based on the number of unpaired
ml = -2 electrons and its atomic size.
ms = -½

2. List the values of the four quantum 2. PARAMAGNETISM

numbers for orbitals in the 6s sublevel. ➔ The magnetic state of an atom with 1
or more unpaired electrons.
➔ Magnetic Dipole Moments - The
strength and orientation of the
n=6 electron’s magnetic field.
l=0 ➔ The magnetic dipole moments of
electrons cause the unpaired
ml = 0
electrons to be drawn towards a
ms = -½ magnetic field.
➔ Hund's Rule - States that electrons
3. List the values of the four quantum must occupy every orbital singly
numbers for orbitals in the 6s sublevel. before any orbital is doubly occupied;
may leave the atom with many
unpaired electrons.
➔ Exceptions: Concerns some
transition metals, unpaired electrons
are not in a d-orbital.

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3. DIAMAGNETISM
➔ Characterized by paired electrons. ORBITAL DIAGRAMS
➔ Pauli Exclusion Principle - States that
➔ Each type of orbital comes with
two identical electrons cannot occupy
specific capacity constraints based on
the same quantum state
its shape and energy level.
simultaneously; electron spins align in
opposite directions. This causes the
magnetic fields of the electrons to
cancel out; thus, there is no net
magnetic moment, and the atom
cannot be attracted to a magnetic
field.
➔ NOTE: Noble Gases are diamagnetic
atoms.

ORBITAL DIAGRAM
ORBITAL DIAGRAMS
➔ Are visual representations that show
how electrons are distributed
throughout an atom's orbitals.
➔ In orbitals diagrams, the orbitals are
shown as boxes, and the electrons in
them as arrows pointing up or down,
indicating their spin.
➔ Orbital diagrams also follow the three
rules/principles:
1. Aufbau Principle
➔ Electrons occupy the lowest energy
orbital first.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle
➔ Limits each orbital to two electrons
with opposite spins.
3. Hund’s Rule
➔ Electrons prefer to occupy orbitals
singly with parallel spin.
1. S Orbitals
➔ Represented by a single box.
➔ Maximum capacity: 2 electrons (2
electrons per box).
2. P Orbitals
➔ Composed of three boxes.
➔ Maximum capacity: 6 electrons (2
electrons per box).
3. D Orbitals
➔ Consists of five boxes.
➔ Maximum capacity: 10 electrons (2
electrons per box).
4. F Orbitals
➔ Comprises seven boxes.
➔ Maximum capacity: 14 electrons (2
electrons per box).
WRITING THE ORBITAL DIAGRAM
1. (Optional) Write the electron
configuration of the element.
2. Draw the boxes for each orbital (S
orbitals have one box, p orbitals have
three, d orbitals have five, and f
orbitals have seven.)

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3. Following Hund's Rule, fill the boxes

with electrons one at a time before
pairing them. Use arrows (↑ or ↓) to
represent the spin, remember that ↑
arrows always go first.

LESSON 2: LEWIS STRUCTURES

LEWIS STRUCTURES OF COVALENT

COMPOUNDS AND IONS

LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR MOLECULES

OCTET RULE
➔ When atoms of elements combine to
form compounds, they tend to lose,
gain, or share electrons to achieve the
same electron arrangement as the
noble gas nearest them in the periodic
table.
AND POLYATOMIC IONS
➔ A molecule is represented by a Lewis
structure in which the valence
electrons of all the atoms are
arranged to give octets.

LEDS (Lewis Electron Dot Structure)

➔ The Lewis electron dot structure consists
of the symbol of an element and one dot
for each valence electron in an atom of
the element

➔ The shared electrons, or bonding

pairs, are shown as two dots or a
single line between atoms.
➔ The nonbonding pairs, or lone pairs,
are placed on the outside of the
atoms.

➔ The draw the electron-dot formula

for a fluorine molecule, F2 :
● We start with the electron-dot
symbols for each fluorine
atom

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● Each fluorine atom shares one ➔ The central atom is the atom in the
electron to form a covalent formula with the least number of
bond, giving each fluorine an atoms.
octet.

SHARING ELECTRONS BETWEEN ATOMS

OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS

➔ The number of electrons a nonmetal

atom shares and the number of
covalent bonds it forms are usually
equal to the number of electrons it
needs to achieve a stable electron
configuration.

GUIDE TO DRAWING ELECTRON-DOT

FORMULAS

DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES 1. Determine the arrangement of

atoms.
To draw the electron-dot formula for
2. Determine the total number of
methane, CH4:
valence electrons.
➔ Draw the Lewis symbols for carbon
3. Attach each bonded atom to the
and hydrogen
central atom with a pair of electrons.
4. Place the remaining electrons using
single or multiple bonds to complete
➔ Carbon needs 4 hydrogen atoms to
octets (two for H).
have an octet.
➔ Two bonding electrons between
carbon and hydrogen can be drawn GUIDE TO DRAWING ELECTRON-DOT
as a line FORMULAS

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*Draw the Lewis Structure for PCl3,
phosphorus trichloride, which is used in the
preparation of pesticides and flame
retardants.
STEP 1: Determine the arrangement of
atoms. In PCl3, P is the central atom; there is
only one phosphorus atom in the formula.
STEP 2: Determine the total number of
valence electrons. Use the group number to
determine the number of valence electrons
for each element.
STEP 3: Attach each bonded atom to the
central atom with a pair of electrons. Each
bonding pair can be represented with a single
line.
STEP 4: Place the remaining electrons using
single or multiple bonds to complete octets
(two for H). Six electrons (3 x 2 e-) are used to
bond the central P atom to three Cl atoms.
Twenty valence electrons are left.
DOUBLE BOND
➔ Occurs when atoms share two pairs of
electrons.
➔ Forms when there are not enough
electrons to complete octets.
TRIPLE BOND
➔ Occurs when atoms share three pairs of
electrons.
➔ Forms when there are not enough
electrons to complete octets.
EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE
1. Hydrogen requires just 2 electrons to
form a noble gas arrangement.
2. Nonmetals P, S, Cl, Br, and I can form
compounds with 10 or 12 valence
electrons.
3. The S atom has an octet in many
compounds, but in SF6, there are 12
valence electrons or 6 bonds to the
sulfur atom.
LEWIS STRUCTURE OF IONS
➔ When counting electrons, negative
ions should have extra electrons
placed in their Lewis structures;
positive ions should have fewer
electrons than an uncharged
molecule.
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➔ When the Lewis structure of an ion is
written, the entire structure is placed
in brackets, and the charge is written
as a superscript on the upper right,
outside of the brackets.
➔ For example, consider the ammonium
ion, NH4+ which contains 9 (5 from N
and 1 from each of the four H atoms)
- 1 = 8 electrons. One electron is
subtracted because the entire
molecule has a 1 charge
FORMAL CHARGE
➔ The formal charge of an atom in a
molecule is the hypothetical charge
the atom would have if we could
redistribute the electrons in the bonds
evenly between the atoms.
➔ Formal charge = no. of valence e- -
no. of lone pairs - 1/2 no. of bonding e-
Formal Charges:
➔ I = 7 - 4 - 4 = -1
➔ Cl = 7 - 6 - 1 = 0
➔ The sum of the formal charges of all
the atoms equals -1 which is identical
to the charge of the ion (-1)
Formal Charges:
➔ I=5-2-3=0
➔ Cl = 7 - 6 - 1 = 0
RESONANCE STRUCTURES
➔ Sometimes multiple Lewis structures
can be drawn to represent the same
compound.
➔ These equivalent structures are
known as resonance structures and
involve the shifting of electrons and
not of actual atoms.
➔ Most often, Lewis structures are
drawn so that the formal charge of
each atom is minimized.
➔ Resonance structures. Two of the
contributing structures of nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). Both formulas
represent the same number of atoms
and electrons, just in a slightly
different conformation.
USING FORMAL CHARGE TO
PREDICT MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE
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1. A molecular structure in which all

formal charges are zero is preferable
to one in which some formal charges
are not zero.
2. If the Lewis structure must have
nonzero formal charges, the
arrangement with the smallest
nonzero formal charges is preferable.
3. Lewis structures are preferable when
adjacent formal charges are zero or
of the opposite sign.
4. When we must choose among several
Lewis structures with similar
distributions of formal charges, the
structure with the negative formal
charges on the more electronegative
atoms is preferable.
➔ Comparing the three formal charges,
we can definitively identify the
structure on the left as preferable
because it has only formal charges of
zero (Guideline 1).
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
➔ Is the three-dimensional shape of a
molecule.
➔ Can be predicted using:
◆ Lewis dot structures
◆ VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion) Model
MOLECULES
➔ Molecules of the type ABx will be
considered
◆ A is the central atom
◆ B atoms surround the central
atom
◆ x commonly has integer values
from 1 to 6
EXAMPLES
➔ All 𝐴𝐵1 molecules are linear.

➔ Note that the sum of the formal

charges in each case is equal to the
charge of the ion (-1). However, the ➔ 𝐴𝐵2 molecules can be linear or bent.
first arrangement of atoms is
preferred because it has the lowest
number of atoms with nonzero formal
charges (Guideline 2). Also, it places
the least electronegative atom in the ➔ 𝐴𝐵3 molecules can be pyramidal,
center, and the negative charge on
T-shaped, or trigonal planar.
the more electronegative element
(Guideline 4).

LESSON 3: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

AND POLARITY
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Step 3: molecular geometry = trigonal

➢ VSEPR MODEL pyramidal
➔ Valence-Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Model
➔ Electron pairs move as far apart as ELECTRON DOMAINS AND GEOMETRY
possible to minimize repulsions.
➔ Electron domain is a lone pair or a # of Electron-
bond (the bond may be single, double, Electron Domain
or triple). Domains Geometry
➔ Strategy to predict geometry: 2 Linear

3 Trigonal Planar
STEPS TO DETERMINE GEOMETRY

1. Draw the molecule’s Lewis structure.

2. Count the number of electron 4 Tetrahedral
domains on the central atom.
3. Determine the electron-domain
geometry.
a. The electron-domain
5 Trigonal
geometry is based on the
bipyramidal
number of electron domains
around the central atom.
EXAMPLES:

6 Octahedral

4. Determine molecular geometry.

a. The electron-domain
geometry and the number of
COMMON MOLECULAR GEOMETRIES
bonded atoms determine the
molecular geometry.
NOTE: The common molecular geometries are all
EXAMPLES: Ammonia, NH3
derived from these 5 electron-domain geometries.
Step 1:
● Linear

Step 2: 4 e- domains

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● Bent
● Trigonal Planar

● Bent
● Trigonal
Pyramidal
Tetrahedral

● T-shaped
● Seesaw
● Trigonal
bipyramidal

● Linear PREDICTING MOLECULAR POLARITY

● T-shaped
● Square planar
● Square POLAR MOLECULES
pyramidal
● Octahedral ➔ usually forms when the one end of the
molecule is said to possess a number of
positive charges and whereas the
opposite end of the molecule has
negative charges.

NON-POLAR MOLECULES
➔ A molecule which does not have the
charges present at the end due to the
reason that electrons are finely
distributed and those which
symmetrically cancel out each other are
the non- polar molecules.

GENERAL STEPS

1. Draw a reasonable Lewis structure

for the substance.
2. Identify each bond as either polar or
nonpolar. (If the difference in
electronegativity for the atoms in a
bond is greater than 0.4, we consider
the bond polar. If the difference in
electronegativity is less than 0.4, the
bond is essentially nonpolar.)

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a. If there are no polar bonds,
the molecule is nonpolar.
b. If the molecule has polar
bonds, move on to step 3.
3. If there is only one central atom,
examine the electron groups around
it.
a. If there are no lone pairs on
the central atom, and if all the
bonds to the central atom are
the same, the molecule is
nonpolar.
4. Draw a geometric sketch of the
molecule.
5. Determine the symmetry of the
molecule using the following steps.
a. Describe the polar bonds with
arrows pointing toward the
more electronegative element.
b. Use the length of the arrow to
show the relative polarities of
the different bonds. (A greater
difference in electronegativity
suggests a more polar bond,
which is described with a
longer arrow.)
c. Decide whether the
arrangement of arrows is
symmetrical or asymmetrical.
d. If the arrangement is
symmetrical and the arrows
are of equal length, the
molecule is nonpolar.
e. If the arrows are of different
lengths, and if they do not
balance each other, the
molecule is polar.
f. If the arrangement is
asymmetrical, the molecule is
polar.
EXAMPLES
➔ The electronegativities of oxygen and
fluorine, 3.44 and 3.98, respectively,
produce a 0.54 difference that leads
us to predict that the O-F bonds are
polar. The molecular geometry of OF2
is bent. Such an asymmetrical
distribution of polar bonds would
produce a polar molecule.
➔ The molecular geometry of CCl4 is
tetrahedral. Even though the C-Cl
bonds are polar, their symmetrical
arrangement makes the molecule
nonpolar.
➔ The electronegativities of hydrogen,
carbon, and chlorine are 2.20, 2.55,
and 3.16. The 0.35 difference in
electronegativity for the H-C bonds
tells us that they are essentially
nonpolar. The 0.61 difference in
electronegativity for the C-Cl bonds
shows that they are polar. The
following geometric sketches show
that the polar bonds are
asymmetrically arranged, so the
molecule is polar.
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LESSON 4: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ➔ Alkenes are hydrocarbons that

contain at least one carbon to carbon
double bond.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
➔ Branch of chemistry that deals with ALKYNES
carbon compounds.
➔ Classes of organic compounds can be ➔ Alkynes contain one or more triple
identified according to functional bonds between neighboring carbon
groups. atoms.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
➔ Carbon can form more compounds than
any other element because it can form
single, double, and triple carbon-carbon AROMATICS
bonds, and can link up with each other in
➔ A hydrocarbon that contains an
chains and ring structures.
aromatic ring which is a six-carbon
➔ A group of atoms that is responsible for
ring with alternative double bonds or
the chemical behavior of the molecule.
a ring with a circle in the middle
➔ Different molecules containing the
representing the double bonds.
same kind of functional group undergo
(benzene ring).
similar reactions.
➔ By learning functional groups, we can
study and understand the properties of
many organic compounds.
➔ Most organic compounds are derived
from a group of compounds known as
hydrocarbons.
ALCOHOL
HYDROCARBONS
➔ The alcohol functional group contains
➔ Compounds made up entirely of carbon
an oxygen atom that is bonded to one
and hydrogen.
hydrogen atom and one carbon atom
with the formula R−OHR−OH. R
COMMON FUNCTIONAL GROUPS represents any organic chain.
➔ Alcohol can be classified as primary,
secondary, or tertiary based on the
ALKENES
carbon to which it is attached.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ALCOHOLS
1. Primary Alcohol

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➔ The carbon is bonded directly to the
oxygen atom and is also bonded to
exactly one carbon atom, with the
other bonds generally going to
hydrogen atoms.
2. Secondary Alcohol
➔ The carbon is attached to two other
carbon atoms.
3. Tertiary Alcohol
➔ The carbon is bonded to three other
carbon atoms.
EXAMPLES OF ALCOHOLS
➔ Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) which is the
alcohol present in alcoholic
beverages.
➔ Methanol (CH3OH) is used as a
gasoline additive or alternative.
➔ Isopropanol is commonly known as
rubbing alcohol.
ETHERS
➔ The ether functional group consists of
an oxygen atom that forms single
bonds with two carbon atoms.
➔ Ethers have low reactivity and so they
are considered as good solvents for
other organic compounds.
➔ They dissolve nonpolar molecules.
➔ Diethyl Ether - best known ether;
widely used as a solvent and inhalable
anesthetic.
THIOL
➔ The thiol functional group contains a
sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen
atom, where R-represents an alkyl or
other organic substitute.
➔ Thiols form strong bonds with
mercury-containing compounds and
have a distinctive smell similar to
rotten eggs.
➔ They are used as an additive to
natural gas to detect leaks.
AMINE
➔ An amine consists of a nitrogen atom
bonded to hydrocarbons.
➔ Amines are organic compounds that
contain nitrogen atoms with a lone
pair.
➔ They are derived from ammonia
(NH3) in which one or more hydrogen
atom is replaced by an alkyl or aryl
group, and so they are known as
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alkylamines and arylamines may be an R-group or a hydrogen

respectively.
➔ Amines are used as components in
some lubricating materials, in
developers, and in waterproofing
textiles.
EXAMPLES OF ALDEHYDES
EXAMPLES OF AMINES
➔ Cadaverine and Putrescine are
foul-smelling amines, formed as a
part of the decay process after death.
➔ Diphenylamine is used as a stabilizer
for certain types of explosives.
➔ Novocaine are used as anesthetics.
atom.
➔ Cinnamaldehyde which is responsible
for the flavor of cinnamon and
vanillin.
➔ Vanillin is an aldehyde responsible for
the smell and taste of the vanilla
extract.
➔ Formaldehyde is used as a tissue
preservative and a precursor to
various materials such as plastics,
resins, and polymers.

➢ AMINE
➔ Based on the VSEPR theory, nitrogen
present in amines is sp3 hybridized
and due to the presence of lone pair, it
is pyramidal instead of tetrahedral
shape which is a general structure for
most sp3 hybridized molecules. Each
of the three sp3 hybridized orbitals of
nitrogen overlap with orbitals of
KETONES
hydrogen or carbon depending upon
the configuration of amines. Due to
➔ A ketone involves a carbonyl in which
the presence of lone pair, the C-N-H
the carbon atom makes single bonds
angle in amines is less than 109
with two R-groups.
degrees which is a characteristic
➔ Ketones are also used in the
angle of tetrahedral geometry. The
production of various polymers, either
angle of amines is near about 107
as a building block or as a solvent.
degrees.

ALDEHYDES
EXAMPLES OF KETONES
➔ An aldehyde has a carbonyl in which ➔ Acetone is the simplest ketone in
the carbdehydeson atom is bonded to which the carbonyl carbon is bonded
at least one hydrogen atom. The to two CH3 groups. It is used to
other group attached to the carbonyl

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remove fingernail polish and serves as
an industrial solvent.
➔ Methyl ethyl ketone is used as a paint
stripper and a solvent.
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
➔ Carboxylic acids are another
carbonyl-containing functional group,
in which the carbon atom is bonded to
an OH group on one side and either a
carbon or hydrogen atom on the
other.
➔ Carboxylic acids are used in a variety
of environments.
EXAMPLES OF ESTERS
EXAMPLES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
➔ Formic acid acts as a protective
chemical for many stinging insects
and plants.
➔ Acetic acid gives vinegar its
characteristic smell and flavor and is
a fundamental biological and
industrial building block.
➔ The citric acid (three carboxyl groups)
is especially abundant in citrus fruits
and is used as a flavoring and
preservative in many foods and
beverages.
ESTERS
➔ An ester contains a carbonyl where
the carbon is bonded to one
additional oxygen atom and one
carbon or a hydrogen atom. However,
the second oxygen atom is bonded to
another carbon instead of to an acidic
hydrogen atom.
➔ Esters can be formed by heating
carboxylic acids and alcohols in the
presence of an acid catalyst.
➔ Some esters are used in the
manufacture of perfumes because
they have very pleasant odors.
➔ They are also used in the manufacture
of polyesters and plexiglass.
➔ Propyl acetate is the one responsible
for the odor of pears.
➔ Isoamyl acetate gives the smell of
bananas.
AMIDES
➔ An amide is a carbonyl in which the
carbon is attached to one nitrogen
atom and one carbon or hydrogen
atom.
➔ An amide can be formed by
combining a carboxylic acid and an
amine.
➔ Amides are used as coloring agents in
crayons, pencils, and ink.
➔ They are used in the paper, plastic,
and rubber industries.
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➔ Also known as a constitutional isomer, is

EXAMPLES OF ESTERS
one in which two or more organic
➔ Polyacrylamide is a very widely used
compounds have the same molecular
amide. It is involved in the treatment
formulas but different structures.
of drinking water and sewage, and in
➔ The two molecules below have the same
plastics manufacture.
chemical formula but are different
molecules because they differ in the
HALOALKANES location of the methyl group.

➔ The haloalkanes, also known as alkyl

halides, are a group of chemical
compounds comprised of an alkane
with one or more hydrogens replaced
by a halogen atom (Group 17 atom).
➔ Haloalkanes are used in fire
extinguishers, refrigerants,
propellants, solvents, and
medications.
EXAMPLES OF HALOALKANES
➔ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were
used as refrigerants in
air-conditioners but were found to be
a major cause of the depletion of the
ozone layer.
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
➔ Shows the arrangement of atoms in a
completely different order.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
CHAIN ISOMERISM
➔ The presentation of these isomers
arises because of the tendency of
branching in carbon chains.
EXAMPLES OF CHAIN ISOMERISM
➔ For example, there are two isomers of
butane, C4H10. One is configured in a
"straight-chain" whereas in the other
the chain is branched.

POSITION ISOMERISM

➔ The basic carbon skeleton remains

unchanged, but a substituent or a
group in a molecule is moved around
on that skeleton.
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
EXAMPLES OF POSITION ISOMERISM

STRUCTURAL ISOMER

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FUNCTIONAL GROUP ISOMERISM
➔ This isomer contains different
functional groups --- that is, they
belong to different families of
compounds.
EXAMPLES OF METAMERISM
EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP
ISOMERISM
➔ For example, a molecular formula
C3H6O could be either propanal (an
aldehyde) or propanone (a ketone).
METAMERISM
➔ It is a type of structural isomerism in
which different alkyl groups are
attached to the same functional
group.
➔ For example, diethyl ether and methyl
propyl ethers are metamers. They
both contain the ether functional
group, but they have different alkyl
groups attached to the oxygen atom.

RING-CHAIN ISOMERISM

➔ It is a type of structural isomerism

TAUTOMERISM where compounds having the same
molecular formula but possessing
➔ It is a dynamic equilibrium between
open-chain and cyclic structures.
two compounds with same molecular
formula.
EXAMPLES OF RING-CHAIN ISOMERISM
➔ The most common form of
tautomerism is keto-enol
tautomerism. A carbonyl compound
containing at least one α-hydrogen
atom is converted to an enol by the
transfer of an α-hydrogen onto the
oxygen atom.

EXAMPLES OF TAUTOMERISM LESSON 5: POLYMERS

POLYMERS

POLYMERS
➔ Large molecular compounds made up of
many repeating units called monomers.

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➔ Can either be natural or synthetic. a new radical.

➔ Macromolecules because of their high
molar masses.
➔ “poly” (meaning many) and “mer”
(meaning part or segment). 2. Propagation - The radical will react
with another ethylene molecule
Natural Synthetic polymers are monomer. This is repeated many
polymers man made and synthesized times over and a long chain is
occur in nature. in the laboratory. formed.
Cellulose, Polypropylene, Polyethylene,
Starch, Protein, Polyvinyl chloride, Polyester, 3. The process gets terminated when
DNA, Enzymes Polystyrene two long-chained radicals combine to
form the polyethylene polymer.

MAKING POLYMERS

POLYMERIZATION
➔ Chemical reaction by which the
monomers are linked together to form
polymers.
➔ Can be addition or condensation
polymerization.

ADDITION POLYMERIZATION

➔ The entire monomer becomes part of

the polymer.
➔ They involve molecules with double CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION
bonds or triple bonds.
➔ Monomers join together at the same
POLYMERIZATION OF POLYETHYLENE time losing a small molecule like water
as a by-product.
1. Initiation - An initiator molecule is
heated to produce free radicals.
These free radicals have one
unpaired electron each and are
therefore very reactive seeking other
electrons from other molecules to pair
up with. The free radicals react with
the ethylene molecule monomer
breaking the double bond and forming ➔ If the dicarboxylic acid is made to
react with a diammine (instead of a

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dialcohol), then a polyamide is
formed such as nylon.
POLYMER ARRANGEMENTS AND
STRUCTURES
LINEAR POLYMERS
➔ The arrangement of atoms is like that
of a long chain.
➔ This long chain is often referred to as
the backbone. Atoms or small groups
of atoms attached to the long chain
are called pendant atoms.
➔ The arrangement of the pendant
atoms or pendant groups attached to
the backbone gives different
properties to the polymer.
➔ Three distinct arrangements are
observed: syndiotactic, isotactic, or
atactic.
➔ The isotactic arrangement is where
all the pendant groups or substituents
(represented by R — ) are on the same
side of the polymer chain. They pack
efficiently resulting in polymers with
high melting point, high crystallinity,
and superior mechanical strength.
➔ A syndiotactic polymer chain is one
where the substituent group
alternates from left to right of the
asymmetric carbons. They pack less
efficiently than isotactic chains.
➔ In atactic polymers, the substituents
occur randomly. Therefore, they do
not pack well. These polymers are
rubbery, not crystalline, and relatively
weak.
➔ COPOLYMER - polymer formed when
two (or more) different types of
monomers are linked in the same
polymer chain, as opposed to a
homopolymer where only one
monomer is used.
➔ These two monomers may be
arranged in several ways in a polymer
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giving different physical properties to
the polymer:
◆ Examples include:
polyethylene-vinyl acetate
(PEVA), nitrile rubber, and
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS).
BRANCHED POLYMERS
➔ Resemble linear polymers with the
addition of shorter chains hanging
from the spaghetti backbone.
➔ Since these shorter chains can
interfere with efficient packing of the
polymers, branched polymers tend to
be less dense than similar linear
polymers.
CROSS-LINKED POLYMERS
➔ Resemble ladders. The chains link
from one backbone to another.
➔ So, unlike linear polymers which are
held together by weaker van der
Waals forces, crosslinked polymers
are tied together via covalent
bonding.
NETWORKED POLYMERS
➔ Are complex polymers that are
heavily linked to form a complex
network of three-dimensional
linkages.
➔ These polymers are nearly impossible
to soften when heating without
degrading the underlying polymer
structure and are thus thermosetting
polymers.
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF
POLYMERS
1. Heat Capacity/Heat Conductivity
➔ The extent to which the plastic or
polymer acts as an effective insulator
against the flow of heat.
2. Thermal Expansion
➔ The extent to which the polymer
expands or contracts when heated or
cooled.
3. Crystallinity
➔ The extent to which the polymer
chains are arranged in a regular
structure instead of a random
fashion.
4. Permeability
➔ The tendency of a polymer to pass
extraneous materials.
5. Elastic Modulus
➔ The quantity that measures an object
or substance's resistance to being
deformed elastically (i.e.,
non-permanently) when stress is
applied to it.
6. Tensile Strength
➔ The strength of plastic. (The force
that must be applied in one direction
to stretch the plastic until it breaks.)
7. Resilience
➔ The ability of the plastic to resist
abrasion and wear.
8. Refractive Index
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➔ The extent to which the plastic affects
light as it passes through the polymer.
9. Resistance to Electric Current
➔ Insulator: Most polymers do not
conduct electricity
10. Unreactivity
➔ Most polymers are not affected by air
or water, and many are not affected
by chemicals that make plastic
durable and safely contain and
protect many substances.
➢ It is also possible to change the
properties of a polymer by adding either
stabilizers or plasticizers.
➢ Stabilizers are used to increase the
ability of a plastic to resist oxidation, to
make it less sensitive to either heat light,
or as flame retardants.
➢ Plasticizers increase the flexibility of
plastic by acting as a lubricant,
decreasing the friction between
molecules as one polymer chain moves
past another.
➢ The result of all of these manipulations
can be a polymer as strong as Kevlar,
which is used to make bullet-proof vests,
or material as easy to rip as a piece of
paper.
➢ LOW-DENSITY POLYETHENE OR
POLYTHENE (LDPE)
➔ Is manufactured using a very high
pressure (2000 atm) and a
temperature of 2000°C with trace
oxygen. This results in the formation
of branched polymer and prevents
polymer chains from packing closely
hence low density.
➢ HIGH-DENSITY POLYETHENE OR
POLYTHENE (HDPE)
➔ Is manufactured using a catalyst at a
temperature of 500°C and a slightly
raised pressure (80 atm). This results
in the formation of straight polymer
chains that facilitates polymer chains
packing close together hence, high
density.
➢ THERMOSOFTENING POLYMERS
➔ Consist of tangled web chains and are
attracted by weak intermolecular
forces.
➢ THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
➔ When heated they form crosslinks
between molecules that are
covalently bonded.
LESSON 6: MACROMOLECULES
BIOMOLECULES
POLYMERS
➔ Proteins are natural polymers.
➔ They are very large molecules that are
critical for the functions of the human
body.
➔ They are made from the linkage of
monomers called amino acids.
➔ There are 20 kinds of amino acids
depending on the —R group.
➔ The simplest amino acid is glycine where
R is a hydrogen atom.
➔ The body cannot make all the amino
acids required by the body and is
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dependent on protein taken through

food.
➔ Two amino acids can link together
through a condensation reaction with
the removal of a water molecule.
➔ The linkage is called a peptide bond.
➔ Take the case of two amino acids
reacting to form a dipeptide.
➔ When many amino acids are linked
together through peptide bonds, the
resulting molecule is called a
polypeptide. 3. Tertiary Structure - The interactions
➔ A very large number of amino acids among the R groups cause the folding
linked together results in a protein. and bending of the polypeptide chain.
➔ Some proteins are made up of only one These interactions include the
polypeptide while most proteins involve hydrogen bonding between R groups,
assemblies of two or more polypeptides. ionic bonding between positive and
negative R groups, disulfide bonding
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PROTEIN between two sulfur atoms, and the
STRUCTURE hydrophobic interaction between
nonpolar groups.
1. The primary structure refers to the
linear sequence of amino acids joined
by peptide bonds such as the
sequence of amino acids below.

4. Quaternary structure is the 3-D

structure of the protein. It results from
the interactions among different
polypeptide chains, forming either
fibrous globular or conjugated
2. Secondary structure indicates the proteins.
shape of the protein molecule as a
result of hydrogen bonding between
–C=O and –NH groups (backbones of
amino acids) within the chain.

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g. Transport proteins – are carrier

proteins which move molecules from
one place to another in the body. An
example is hemoglobin which
transports oxygen.

➢ DENATURATION
➔ Denaturation is a process in which a
protein loses its secondary, tertiary, or
quaternary structures.
➔ This may be caused by physical or
chemical agents like strong acid,
base, inorganic salt, heat, or solvent
which disrupt the bonds that hold the
protein structures together.

PROTEIN FUNCTIONS

a. Antibodies - proteins involved in

defending the body against antigens. NUCLEIC ACIDS
They are the molecules of the immune
➔ Nucleic acids are natural polymers
system.
with very large molar masses.
b. Contractile proteins – responsible for
➔ The two main types of nucleic acids
body movement such as muscle
are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
contraction.
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
c. Enzymes – proteins that catalyze
➔ DNA and RNA are polymers made up
(speed up) or facilitate biochemical
of monomers in the form of
reactions.
nucleotides.
d. Hormonal proteins – serve as
➔ When these nucleotides combine,
messenger proteins to help
they form polynucleotides.
coordinate some body functions. An
➔ DNA carries the genetic information
example is insulin (which controls
passed on from parents to children.
blood sugar concentration).
➔ RNA plays an important role in protein
e. Structural proteins – are fibrous and
synthesis.
provide support. An example is
➔ Each nucleotide is made up of three
collagen which provides support to
parts:
connective tissues.
1. A nitrogen base
f. Storage proteins – store amino acids
like casein in milk.

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a. Purines - adenine (A), and

guanine (G)
b. Pyrimidines - cytosine (C) ,
thymine (T), uracil (U)
2. A five-carbon sugar
a. Deoxyribose
b. Ribose
3. Phosphate

CARBOHYDRATES

➔ Carbohydrates are compounds made

up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
➔ They are also known as saccharides.
➔ They have the general formula Cn
(H2O)n .
➔ Carbohydrates function as the energy
source of the body.
➔ A simple general classification of
carbohydrates is according to the
number of sugar units (saccharides)
present in the molecule:
monosaccharides, disaccharides,
and polysaccharides.
➔ Polysaccharides are polymers of
monosaccharides.
◆ Examples of polysaccharides
are starch, glycogen, and
cellulose which are all
polymers of glucose.
◆ Starch is found in plants and
used as a source of energy.
◆ Starch consists of two types of
glucose polymers: amylose
and amylopectin which differ
from each other in structure.
◆ Amylose, which consists of
about 20% of all starch
polymers, has a simpler
structure.

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➔ These compounds are the most

➔ Glycogen is another polymer of
glucose stored as an energy source in
the liver and muscle cells of animals,
including humans.
➔ Cellulose is a long and unbranched
chain of glucose units arranged in a
way that allows for extensive bonding
within the polymer.
➔ This makes the cellulose form the
strong and long bundles of fibers in
plant cell walls.
➔ It also makes the compound
hydrolysable by select organisms like
cows, which have cellulose-degrading
microorganisms in their digestive
tract.
abundant energy storage lipids in
organisms. They can supply more
energy than carbohydrates.
➔ Fatty acids, which are carboxylic
acids, may be described as saturated
or unsaturated.
➔ Saturated fatty acids contain only
single bonds. They tend to solidify at
room temperature.
➔ This explains why fats with more
saturated fatty acids are considered
less healthful and are associated with
heart diseases.
➔ Unsaturated fatty acids contain
double bonds and tend to make fats.
➔ They are liquid at room temperature.

LIPIDS

➔ Lipids are a class of naturally

occurring organic compounds
distinguished by their solubility in an
organic solvent (and not in water).
➔ Lipids are hydrophobic, nonpolar, and
made up mostly of hydrocarbon
chains.
➔ Some of the more important lipids
are: triglycerides, waxes, WAXES
phospholipids, and steroids.
➔ Waxes are esters formed from a fatty
acid and a high molecular weight
TRIGLYCERIDES alcohol.
➔ General structure of waxes:
➔ Triglycerides (fats) contain a glycerol
and three fatty acids, each bound by
an ester linkage.

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➔ General formation of waxes:
➔ Because of their long nonpolar C
chains, waxes are very hydrophobic.
➔ They form protective coatings on
bird’s feathers and sheep’s wool and
make up beeswax.
➔ Beeswax (myricyl palmitate):
STEROIDS
➔ Unlike phospholipids and fats, steroids
have a fused ring structure. Although
they do not resemble the other lipids,
PREPARATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
they are grouped with them because
they are also hydrophobic and
insoluble in water.
➔ All steroids have four linked carbon
rings, and many of them, like
cholesterol, have a short tail.
➔ Many steroids also have the –OH
functional group, and these steroids
are classified as alcohols called
sterols.
➔ Cholesterol is the most common
steroid and is the precursor to vitamin
D, testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol,
and bile salts.
➔ Cholesterol is a component of the
phospholipid bilayer and plays a role
in the structure and function of
membranes.
➔ Steroids are found in the brain and
alter electrical activity in the brain.
➔ Because they can tone down
receptors that communicate
messages from neurotransmitters,
steroids are often used in anesthetic
medicines.
1. ESTERIFICATION - is condensation
polymerization, in which a reaction
occurs between a dicarboxylic acid
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and a dihydric alcohol (diol), with the

elimination of water. Such a reaction
yields an ester that contains a free
(unreacted) carboxyl group at one
end and a free alcohol group at the
other end.
2. FERMENTATION - is a metabolic
process in which an organism
converts a carbohydrate, such as
starch or a sugar, into an alcohol or
an acid

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