Motivation

Performance = Ability X Motivation

Willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,

conditioned by effort ability to satisfy some individual need.

Experienced Search for Choice of Goal-

Need Ways to directed
Deficiencies Satisfy needs behaviors

Reassessment Experienced Enactment of

Of needs Reward or Behavioral
Deficiencies Punishment Choice
(Performance)

Need Derive
(Deprivation) (Deprivation Barrier Goal
With (Reductive
direction) Of drive)

Frustration

Defence Mechanism
Defence Mechanism

1. Aggression

(i) Displacement: Example: A frustrated employee, if not able to abuse his superior causing
frustration, may attack his wife or son.

(ii) Negativism: Example: Manager, who having been unsuccessful in getting out of a
committee assignment, picks apart every suggestion that anyone makes in the meeting.

(iii) Fixation: Example: Following of lengthy uneconomic procedure in doing a

work.

2. Withdrawal

(i) Fantasy: Example: Day-dreaming or imaginations away from reality.

(ii) Regression: Example: A manager having been blocked in some administrative pursuit
busies himself with activities, which are more appropriate for his subordinates.

(iii) Repression: Example: Being a subordinate forgetting to tell his superior the
circumstances of an embarrassing situation.

(iv)Flight: Example: Employee may leave the job, which is frustrating.

3. Compromise

(i) Identification: Person takes on the attributes of the model and thus enhances his self-esteem.

(ii) Projection: Individual projects himself from awareness of his own undesirable traits by
attributing them to others.

(iii) Rationalisation: Individual tries to justify inconsistent of undesirable behavior by

providing acceptable explanation for them.

(iv)Reaction formation: Urges not acceptable to consciousness are repressed and opposite
attitudes or modes of behavior are expressed with considerable force.

Theories of Motivation
1. Early Theories of Motivation

(i) Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

 Physiological Needs
 Safety Needs
 Social Needs
 Esteem Needs
  Self Actualization Needs

Critical Analysis of Maslow’s Theory

1. Lack of hierarchical structure of needs as suggested by Maslow:

(a) Some people may be deprived of their lower order needs but may try for delf-acqualising
needs. E.g. Mahatma Gandhi.
(b) For some self-esteem needs are more important than social needs.
(c) Many people do not care for job security but care for social needs.
(d) Foe certain people, many of the needs may not from part of their own needs hierarchy.

2. Lack of Direct cause and effect relationship between need and behavior. A particular need
may cause behavior in different way (need is thirst, behavior could be taking water, or some
soft drink or some juice) or one particular behavior may be the result of different needs
(People earn money to satisfy their several type of needs).

3. A person tries for his higher level need when his lower order need is reasonably satisfied.
What is this reasonable level is a question of subjective matter.

(ii)Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory

(a) Motivation
(b) Hygiene Factor
Present Absent

Motivation (Satisfiers)

Satisfaction No Satisfaction

Present Absent

Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfaction)

No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
Motivational Factors:
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Advancement
 Work itself
 Possibility of growth
 Responsibility

Hygiene Factor
 Company policy and administration
 Technical supervision
 Inter-personal relationship with supervisor
 Inter-personal relationship with subordinates
 Inter-personal relationship with peers
  Salary
 Job security
 Personal life
 Working conditions
 Status
Critical Analysis of the Theory

1. Certain factors may be classified into hygiene and motivating factors.

2. Job satisfaction is affected by any change either in the job environment or in the job content.
3. Numbers of other methods used for similar study have shown different result.
4. This theory does not attach much are held generally as important contents of satisfaction.

(iii) McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X

(a) Management is responsible for organizing element of production-money, material,

equipment and people.
(b) It is a process of directing people, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their
behavior to fit the needs of organization.
(c) Without intervention by management, people would be passive. They must be persuaded,
rewarded, punished and controlled.
(d) Average man is by nature indolent-works as little as possible.
(e) He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to be led.
(f) He is self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs.
(g) He is by nature resistant to change.

Theory Y

(a) Average human being does not dislike work. Depending upon controllable conditions work
may be a source of satisfaction or a source of punishment.
(b) External control and threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about efforts
towards organizational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control.
(c) Commitment to objectives is a function of reward associated with their achievement.
(d) Average human being learns under proper conditions not only to accept, but to seek
responsibility.
(e) Capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the
solution of organizational problems is widely distributed in the population.
(f) Under the conditions of modern industrial life, intellectual potentialities of the average
human being are only partially utilized.

(iv) Theory Z

 Urwick, Rangnekar and Ouchi level themselves as Z.

 Urwick and Rangnekar could not find prominence owing to their lack of any
significant departure from what others have described earlier.
 Four postulates of Theory Z are:
 (a) Strong Bond between organization and employees

 Lifetime employment
 Highly conducive work environment and
challenges
 Participation in decisions
 Slowing down of evaluation and promotion, which brings saturation in
employee’s prospects very soon.
 More emphasize on horizontal movement than
vertical movement.
 Career planning for employees should be
prepared.

(b) Employee Involvement

 Some decisions are taken without consulting employees but they are informed later.
 Some decisions are where employee’s suggestions are taken but management takes
the final decisions
 In remaining decisions, the process should be taken jointly. E.g. decisions which
affect the employees directly.

(c) No Formal Structure

 According to this theory, no formal structure, it must be a perfect teamwork with co-
operation along with sharing of information, resources and plans.
 No formal reporting relationships and minimum of specialization of positions and of
tasks. (Rotational aspect)

(d) Co-ordination of human beings

 Leader’s role is to coordinate people and not technology

 The purpose is to achieve commitment of employees to the development of a less
selfish more co-operative approach to work.
 To develop trust, there should be a complete openness.

(v) Carrot and Stick Approach

In motivating people for behavior that is desirable, some carrots, rewards, are used such as
money, promotion, and other financial and non-financial factors, some sticks, punishments, are
used to push the people for desired behavior or to refrain from undesired behavior.
2. Contemporary Theories of Motivation

(i) McClelland’s Theory of Needs

McClelland has identified three types of basic motivating needs:

(a) Power Motive

 Ability to induce or influence behavior is power

 Need to manipulate others or the drive for superiority over others.
 People with a high power need have a great concern for exercising influence
and control
 These people seek leadership, they involve conversation, and they are
forceful, outspoken, hardheaded and demanding.

(b) Affiliation Motive

 Most individuals like to interact and be with others in situations where they
feel they belong and are accepted.
 People with high need for affiliation usually derive pleasure from being
loved and tend to avoid the pain of being rejected.
 They are concerned with maintaining pleasant social relationships, enjoying
a sense of intimacy and understanding, and enjoy consoling and helping
others in trouble.

(c) Achievement Motive

Four basic characteristics of high achievers:

 Moderate risk takers.

 Desire activities, which give immediate feedback.
 Finds accomplishing a task intrinsically satisfying
 Once a high achiever selects a goal, he tends to be totally preoccupied with
the task until it is successfully completed.

(ii) Vroom’s Valence Expectancy Theory

According to this, people will be motivated to do things to achieve some goals to the
extent that they expect that certain actions on their part will help them to achieve the
goal.

Motivation (Force) = Valence X Expectancy

Valence: Strength of an individual’s preference to a particular outcome. It could be:

  Positive (prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it)
 Zero (Individual is indifferent toward the outcome)
 Negative (prefer not attaining the outcome to attaining it)

Another important factor is instrumentality of first level outcome in obtaining a derived

second level outcome. E.g. relation or promotion (second level) with superior
performance (First Level)

Expectancy: Probability that a particular action will lead to the outcome. It is different
from instrumentality, as, it relates efforts to first level outcome where instrumentality
relates first and second level outcomes.

(iii) Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation

Value of Reward Ability and Perceived

Traits equitable
rewards

Intrinsic Rewards
Efforts Performance
Accomplishment
Extrinsic Rewards

Satisfaction
Perceived Effort- Role Perception
Reward
Probability

(iv) Alderfer’s ERG Theory

According to this theory, there are three groups of core needs:

(a) Existence Needs: It is concerned with providing our basic material
existence requirements. (Maslow’s Physiological and safety needs)
(b) Relatedness Needs: Desire we have for maintaining important
interpersonal relationships. (Maslow’s Social and a part of Self esteem needs)
(c) Growth Needs: Intrinsic desire for personal development. (Maslow’s
Self esteem and Self Actualization Needs)
When a higher order need level is frustrated, the individual’s desire to increase a lower
level need takes place.