7.

MOTIVATING TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION

1. Job Design
Motivation refers to act of giving employees reasons or incentives to 2. Rewards
work to achieve organizational objectives. motivation, on the other 3. Participation
hand, refers to the process of activating behavior, sustaining it, and 4. Diverse Work Force
directing it toward a particular goal. this definition is useful because
it specifies three stages: Activating, Sustaining, and Directing MOTIVATION THROUGH EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION
Actions towards the achievement of objectives.
1. Setting goals
FACTOR CONTRIBUTING TO MOTIVATION 2. Making decisions
3. Solving problems
There are certain factors influencing a person’s desire to do his job 4. Designing and implementing organizational changes
well. They are the following:
1.Willingness to Do a Job THE MORE POPULAR IS:
2.Self-Confidence in Carrying Out a Task
3.Needs Satisfaction 1) Quality control circles
A method of direct employee participation is the QCC. The objective
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION is to increase productivity and quality of output
There are various theories of motivation, but only four most
influential ones will be discussed. they consist of the following: 2) Self-managed teams
•When workers have reached a certain degree of discipline, they
1.) MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY may be ripe for forming self-managed teams
HUMAN BEING FIVE BASIC NEEDS: • Also known as autonomous work group or high-performance
teams
•Physiological
•Security PREQUISITES TO SUCCESSFUL EMPLOYEE
•Social PARTICIPATION PROGRAM
•Esteem
•Self-Actualization 1. A profit-sharing or gain sharing plan
2. A long-term employment relationship with good job security.
Abraham Harold Maslow – was a psychologist who studied positive 3. A concerted effort to build and maintain group cohesiveness.
human qualities and the lives of exemplary people. In 1954, Maslow 4. Protection of the individual employee’s rights.
created the Hierarchy of Human Needs and Expressed his theories in
his book, Motivation and Personality. OTHER MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES
2.) HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY 1) Flexible work schedules
2) Family support services
Two Classes of Factors: 3) Sabbaticals (break break din pag may time!)

Satisfaction Factors 8. LEADING

- achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement, and growth. WHAT IS LEADING?
Dissatisfaction Factors Leading is that management function which "involves influencing
- company policy and administration, supervision, others to engage in the work behaviors necessary to reach
relationship with supervisor, work condition, salary, relationship organizational goals". The definition indicates that a person or group
with peers, personal life, relationship with subordinates, status, and of persons tasked with managing a group must assume the role
security. performed by leaders.
3.) EXPECTANCY THEORY
Expectancy theory is a motivation model based on the assumption “While leading refers to the function, leadership refers to the
that an individual will work depending on his perception of the process.”
probability of his expectations to happen.
HOW LEADERS INFLUENCE OTHERS
4.) GOAL SETTING THEORY • Engineer managers are expected to maintain effective work forces.
Goal Setting refers to the process of “Improving performance with To be able to do so, they are required to perform leadership roles.
objectives, deadlines, or quality standard.” Leaders are said to be able to influence others because of the power
they possess. "Power refers to the ability of a leader to exert force
GOAL SETTING MODEL on other."
1. Goal Content
2. Goal Commitment BASES OF POWER
3. Work Behavior • Legitimate Power
4. Feedback Aspects A person who occupies a higher position has a legitimate power over
persons in lower positions within organization. A supervisor, for
instance, can issue orders to workers in his unit. Compliance can be
expected.
• Reward Power
When person has the ability to give rewards to anybody who follows
orders or requests, he is said to have reward power. Rewards may
be classified into two forms: Material and Psychic.
Material rewards refer to money or other tangible benefits like cars,
house, and lot, etc. Psychic rewards consist of recognition, praises,
etc.
• Coercive Power
When person a person compels another to comply with orders
through threats or punishment, he is said to possess coercive power.
Punishment may take the form of demotion, dismissal, withholding
of promotion, etc.
• Referent Power
When a person get compliance from other because the latter would
want to be identified with the former, that person is said to have
referent power.
• Expert Power
Experts provide specialized information regarding their specific lines
of expertise. This influence, called expert power, is possessed by
people with great skills in technology.
The expert power exercised by environmental scientist was enough
to force governments throughout the world to pass legislations
favorable to environmental protection.
THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership may be referred to as
"The process of influencing and supporting others to work
enthusiastically toward achieving objectives." Leadership is
expected of any manager in charge of any unit or division.
One cannot expect a unit or division to achieve objectives in the
absence of leadership. Even if a leader is present, but if he is not
functioning properly, no unit or division objectives can
be expected to be achieved.
TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERS
• A high level of personal drive
Persons with drive are those identified as willing to accept
responsibility, possess vigor, initiative, persistence, and health. Drive
is a very important leadership trait because of the possibility of
failure in every attempt to achieve certain goals. If a chosen way to
reach goal is not successful, a leader finds another way to reach it,
even if it precedes a succession of failed attempts. This will, of
course, require a high level of personal drive from the leader.
• The desire to lead
There are some persons who have all the qualifications for
leadership, yet they could not become leaders because they lack
one special requirement: the desire to lead.
Even if they are forced to act as leaders, they will not be effective
because their efforts will be half-hearted. Leaders
with desire to lead will always have a reservoir of extra efforts which
can be used whenever needed.
• Personal integrity
A person who is well-regarded by others as one who has integrity
possesses one trait of a leader. One who does not have personal
integrity will have a hard time convincing his subordinates about the
necessity of completing various tasks. If this is the case, the leader
will, then, resort to "exercising his authority and getting things done
entirely by the use of threat or use of the coercive powers vested in
him by virtue of the rank and position he occupies in the hierarchy."
If this happens, the economic and emotional costs will be too high to
be maintained for a desirable length of time. As it is, the better
option is to have personal integrity.
• Self-confidence
The activities of leaders require moves that will produce the needed
outputs. The steps of conceptualizing, organizing, and
implementing will be completed if sustained efforts are made. for
the moves to be continuous and precise, self-confidence is necessary.
• Analytical ability or judgement
Leaders are, oftentimes, faced with difficulties that prevent the
completion of assigned tasks. A subordinate, for instance, may have
record of continually failing to produce the needed output. A leader
with sufficient skill to determine the root cause of the problem may
be able to help the subordinate to improve his production.
The ability to analyze is one desirable trait that a leader can use to
tide over many challenging aspects of leadership
• Knowledge of the company, industry, or Technology
A leader who is well-informed about his company, the industry
where the company belongs, and the technology utilized by the
industry, will be in a better position to provide directions to his unit.
• Charisma
When a person has sufficient personal magnetism that leads people
to follow his directives, this person is said to have charisma. Great
personalities in history like Napoleon Bonaparte, Julius Caesar, Adolf
Hitler, George Washington, Elvis Presley, and others are said to
possess charisma. This Characteristics was greatly responsible for
whatever accomplishments they achieved.
When used properly, charisma will help the leader in achieving his
goals. With some adjustments, subordinates may be expected to do
their tasks willingly.
• Creativity
Ronnie Millevo defines creativity as "the ability to combine existing
data, experience, and preconditions from various sources in such a
way that the results will be subjectively regarded as new, valuable,
and innovative, and as a direct solution to an identified problem
situation.
“As leaders are tasked to provide solutions to problems besetting
their particular units or divisions, creativity will be very useful trait.
Problems, are oftentimes, complex, and challenging, and if they are,
the leader will need all the creative abilities he has.
• Flexibility
People differ in the way they do their work. One will adapt a
different method from the other person's method. A leader who
allows this situation as long as the required outputs are produced, is
said to be flexible.
There is wisdom in being flexible. It allows the other means of
achieving goals when the prescribed manner is not appropriate.
LEADERSHIP SKILLS
• Technical Skills
These are skills a leader must possess to enable him to understand
and make decisions about work processes, activities, and technology.
Technical skill is the specialized knowledge needed to perform a job.
When a leader has a technical skill related to his area of
responsibility, he will be more confident in performing his functions.
The engineer manager, for instance, must be able to perform
engineering jobs, if he wants to maintain motivated work force.
• Human Skills
These skills refer to the ability of a leader to deal with people, both
inside and outside the organization. Good leaders must know how to
get along with people, motivate them and inspire them.
Apart from motivating, human skills include coaching,
communicating, morale building, training and development, help
and supportiveness and delegating.
• Conceptual Skills
These skills refer to "the ability to think in abstract terms, to see how
parts fit together to form the whole." A very basic requirement for
effective implementation is a cleared well-expressed presentation of
what must be done. A leader without sufficient conceptual skills will
fail to achieve this.
BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP STYLES
Those in positions of leadership exhibit a pattern of behavior that is
unique and different from other patterns. This total pattern of
behavior is called leadership style.
There are several approaches used in classifying leadership styles.
They are as follows:
• According to the ways leader’s approach people to motivate
them.
There are two ways, a leader may approach people motivate them.
They are:
• Positive leadership
• Negative Leadership
When the leader's approach emphasizes rewards, the style used is
positive leadership. When punishment is emphasized by the leader,
the style is said to be negative leadership.
• According to the way the leader uses power.
Leadership styles also vary according
to how power used. They are as follows:
• Autocratic
Leaders who make decisions themselves, without consulting
subordinates are called autocratic leaders. Motivation takes the
form of threats, punishment, and intimidation of all kinds. The
autocratic style is effective in emergencies and when absolute
followership is needed. An example is a civil engineer in charge of
constructing a temporary bridge over one that has been currently
damaged.
The disadvantage of autocratic leadership is that the leader
"receives little, if any, information, and ideas from his
people as inputs into his decision-making”
• Participative
When a leader openly invites his subordinates to participate or share
in decisions, policy-making, and operation methods, he is said to be
participative leader.
The advantage of participative leadership is that it generates a lot
of good ideas. Another advantage is the increased
support for decisions and the reduction of the chance that they will
be unexpectedly undermined.
The disadvantage of participative leadership is that it is time-
consuming and frustrating to people who prefer to see a quick
decision reached.
• Free-rein
Leaders who set objectives and allow employees or subordinates
relative freedom to do whatever it takes to accomplish these
objectives, are called free-rein leaders. This leadership style is most
applicable to certain organizations manned by professionals like
doctors and engineers. As an example, is the engineering
department of a university which is headed by the dean. If free-rein
leadership fits the situation, there is full managerial delegation
resulting to optimum utilization of time and resources. This happens
because many people are motivated to full effort only if given this
kind of free-rein.
The weakness of free-rein leadership is that there is very little
managerial control and high degree of risk. If the leader does not
know well the competence and integrity of his people and their
ability to handle this kind of freedom, the result
could be disastrous.
• According to the leader's orientation towards task and people
Leaders may be classified according to how they view tasks and
people. Consequently, a leader may either be:
• Employee oriented
A leader is said to be employee oriented when he considers
employees as human beings of "intrinsic importance and with
individual and personal need" to satisfy.
• Task oriented
A leader is said to be task oriented if he places stress on production
and the technical aspects of the job and the employees are viewed
as the means of getting the work done.
CONTIGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP STYLE
The contingency approach is "an effort to determine through
research which managerial practices and techniques are appropriate
in specific situations." The various contingency approaches are as
follows:
• Fiedler's Contingency Model
According to Fred Fiedler, "leadership is effective when the leader's
style is appropriate to the situation." The situational characteristics
is determined by three principal factors:
1. The relations between leaders and followers
2.The structure of the task, and
3.The power inherent in the leader's position.
The situational characteristics vary from organization to organization.
To be effective, the situation must fit the leader. If this is not so; the
following may be tried:
1.Change the leader's trait or behaviors.
2.Select leaders who have traits or behaviors fitting the situation.
3.Move leaders around in the organization until they are in
positions that fit them.
4.Change the situation.
• Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model
The situational leadership models developed by Hersey and
Blanchard suggest that the most important factor affecting the
selection of a leader's style is the development (or maturity) level
of subordinate. The leaders should match his or her style to this
maturity level. Maturity has two components:
1. Job skills and knowledge, and
2.Psychological maturity.
Blanchard and others elaborated on the leadership styles
appropriate for the various maturity level of subordinates. They are
as follows:
Style 1: Directing
• is for people who lack competence but are enthusiastic and
committed. They need direction and supervision to get them
started.
Style 2: Coaching
• is for people who have some competence but lack commitment.
They need direction and supervision because they're still relatively
inexperienced. They also need support and praise to build their self-
esteem, and involvement in decision making to restore their
commitment.
Style 3: Supporting
• is for people who have competence but lack of confidence or
motivation. They do not need much direction because of their
skills, but support is necessary to boost their confidence and
motivation.
Style 4: Delegating
• is for people who have both competence and commitment. They
are able and willing to work on a project by themselves with little
supervision or support. Path-Goal Model of Leadership The path-
goal model of leadership espoused by Robert J. House
• Path-Goal Model of Leadership
The path-goal model of leadership espoused by Robert J. House
and Terence R. Mitchell, stipulates that leadership can be made
effective because leaders can influence subordinate's perceptions of
their work goals, personal goals, and paths to goal attainment. By
using the path-goal model, it is assumed that effective leaders can
enhance subordinate motivation by:
1. Clarifying the subordinate's perception of work goals,
2. Linking meaningful rewards with goal attainment, and
3.Explaining how goals and desired rewards can be achieved.
Leadership Styles
1. Directive leadership - where the leader focuses on clear task
assignments, standards of successful performance, and work
schedules.
2. Supportive leadership – where subordinates are treated as equals
in a friendly manner while striving to improve their well-being.
3. Participative leadership - where the leader consults with
subordinates to seek their suggestions and then seriously considers
those suggestions when making decisions.
4. Achievement-oriented leadership – Where the leader set
challenging goals, emphasize excellence, and seek continuous
improvement while maintaining a high degree of confidence that
subordinates will meet difficult challenges in a responsible manner.
• Vroom's Decision-Making Model
Vroom's model of leadership is one that prescribes the proper
leadership style for various situations, focusing on the appropriate
degrees of delegation of decision-making authority.
Five distinct decision-making styles are identified under the Vroom
model. Two of them are autocratic, two others are consultative, and
one is group directed.
9. CONTROLLING
“Refers to the process of ascertaining whether organizational
objectives have been achieved; if not, why not; and determining
what activities should then be taken to achieve objectives better in
the future.”
Objectives and goals that are set to the planning stage are verified
as to achievement or completion at any given point in the
organizing and implementing stages.
When expectations are not met at scheduled dates, corrective
measure are usually undertaken.
IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLING
Help the organization achieve its goal in the most efficient and
effective manner possible.
Deviations, mistakes, and shortcomings happen inevitably. When
they occur in the daily operations, they contribute to unnecessary
expenditures which increase the cost of producing goods and
services.
Proper control measures minimize the ill effects of such negative
occurrences. An effective inventory control system, for instance,
minimize, if not totally eliminates losses in inventory.
STEPS IN THE CONTROL PROCESS
•Establishing performances objectives and standards
1. Sales targets – which are expressed in quantity or monetary
terms
2. Production targets – which are expressed in quantity or quality
3. Worker attendance – which are expressed in terms of rate of
absences
4. Safety record – which is expressed in number of accidents for
given periods
5. Supplies used – which are expressed in quantity or monetary
terms for given periods
Once objectives and standards are established, the measurement of
performance will be facilitated. Standards differ among various
organizations. In construction firms, project completion dates are
useful standards. In chemical manufacturing firms, certain pollution
measures form the basis of standard requirements. After the
performance objectives and standards are established, the methods
for measuring performance must be designed. Every standard
established must be provided with its own method for measurement.
•Measuring actual performances
There is need to measure actual performance so that when
shortcomings occur, adjustments could be made. The adjustments
will depend on the actual findings.
The measuring tools will differ from organization to organization, as
each have their own unique objectives. Some firms, for instance, will
use annual growth rate as standard basis, while other firms will use
some other tools like the market share approach and position in the
industry.
•Comparing actual performances to objectives and standards
Once actual performance has been determined, this will be
compared with what the organization seeks to achieve. Actual
production output, for instance, will be compared with the target
output. This may be illustrated as follows:
A construction firm entered into a contract with the government to
construct a 100-kilometer road within ten months. It would be, then,
reasonable for management to expect at least 10 kms to be
constructed every month. As such, this must be verified every month,
or possible, every week
•Taking necessary action based on the results of the comparisons
The purpose of comparing actual performance with the desired
result is to provide management with the opportunity to take
corrective action when necessary. If in the illustration cited above,
the management of the construction firm found out that only 15
kms were finished after 2 months, then, any of the actions may be
undertaken:
1. Hire additional personnel
2. Use more equipment
3. Require overtime
TYPES OF CONTROL
1. Feed forward control – when management anticipates problems
and prevent their occurrence, this is undertaken. This type of control
provides the assurance that the required human and non-human
resources are in place before operations begin.
2. Concurrent Control – when operations are already ongoing and
activates to detect variance are made, this is undertaken. It is always
possible that deviations from standards will happen in the
production process.
3. Feedback Control – when information is gathered about a
completed activity, and in order that evaluation and steps for
improvement are derived, it is undertaken. Corrective actions aimed
at improving future activities are features of feedback control. It also
validates objectives and standards.
TYPES OF CONTROL AND THEIR RELATION TO OPERATIONS
COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. Strategic Plan – provides the basic control mechanism for the
organization.
2. The Long-Range financial plan - recommends a direction for
financial activities.
3. The Operating Budget – indicates the expenditures, revenues, or
profits planned for some future period regarding operations.
4. Performance Appraisals - measures employee performance
5. Statistical Reports - pertain to those that contain data on various
developments to find out if it had a positive effect on his
performance Information which may be found in a statistical report:
-Labor efficiency rates
-Quality control rejects
-Accounts receivable
-Accounts payable
-Sales reports
-Accident reports
-Power Consumption report
6. Policies and Procedures - refer to the “framework within which
the objectives must be pursued.” A procedure is a “plan that
describes the exact series of actions to be taken in a given
situation.
STRATEGIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. Financial Analysis - the success of most organizations depends on
heavily on its financial performance. A review of financial statements
will reveal important details about the company’s performance.
2. Financial Ratio Analysis - is a more elaborate approach used in
controlling activities. One account appearing in the financial
statement is paired with another to constitute ratio.
• Liquidity Ratios – ratios that assess the ability of a company to
meet its current obligations.
a.) Current ratio - this shows the extent to which current
assets of the company can cover its liabilities.
b.) Acid-test ration – measure of the firm’s ability to pay
off short-term obligations with the use of current assets without
relying on the sale of inventories.
• Efficiency Ratios – ratios show how effectively certain
assets/liabilities are being used in the production of goods and
services.
a.) Inventory turnover ratio - ratio that measures the
number of times an inventory is turned over each year.
b.) Fixed asset turnover – ratio is used to measure
utilization of the company’s investment in its fixed assets, such as its
plant equipment.
• Financial Leverage Ratios - group of ratios designed to assess
the balance of financing obtained through debt and equity sources.
a.) Debt to total assets ratio – shows how much of the
firm’s assets are financed by debt.
b.) Times interest earned to ratio – measures the number
of times that earnings before interest and taxes are cover or exceed
the company’s interest expense.
• Profitability Ratios – measures how much operating income/
net income a company is able to generate in relation to its assets,
owners’ equity, and sales.
a.) Profit margin ratio – compares the net profit to the
level of sales.
b.) Return on assets ratio – shows how much income in
the company produce for every peso invested in assets.
c.) Return on equity ratio – measures the returns on the
owner’s investment.
IDENTIFYING CONTROL PROBLEMS
When operations become complex, the engineer manager must
consider useful steps in controlling. Kreitner mentions 3 approaches
1. Executive Reality Check
2. Comprehensive Internal Audit
3. General checklist of symptoms of inadequate control
-Unexplained decline in revenues and profits
-A degradation of service (customer complaints)
-Employee dissatisfaction (complaints, grievances, turnover)
-Cash shortages caused by bloated inventories or delinquent
accounts receivable
-Idle facilities or personnel
-Disorganized operations (work flow bottlenecks, excessive
paperwork)
-Excessive costs
-Evidence of waste and efficiency (scrap, rework)