THE DISCIPLINE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE INVOLVES INVESTIGATING THE ATOMS.

ATOMS. ALL METALS, MANY CERAMIC MATERIALS, AND CERTAIN POLYMERS

RELATIONSHIPS THAT EXIST BETWEEN THE STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS. MATERIALS ENGINEERING IS, ON THE BASIS OF THESE
STRUCTURE–PROPERTY CORRELATIONS, DESIGNING OR ENGINEERING THE
STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL TO PRODUCE A PREDETERMINED SET OF
PROPERTIES
METALS- ARE EXTREMELY GOOD CONDUCTORS OF ELECTRICITY AND HEAT
AND ARE NOT TRANSPARENT TO VISIBLE LIGHT; METALS ARE QUITE STRONG,
YET DEFORMABLE, WHICH ACCOUNTS FOR THEIR EXTENSIVE USE IN
STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS.
POLYMERS- INCLUDE THE FAMILIAR PLASTIC AND RUBBER MATERIALS MANY
OF THEM ARE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS THAT ARE CHEMICALLY BASED ON
CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OTHER NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS; TYPICALLY
HAVE LOW DENSITIES AND MAY BE EXTREMELY FLEXIBLE.
CERAMICS - TYPICALLY HAVE LOW DENSITIES AND MAY BE EXTREMELY
FLEXIBLE. THEY ARE MOST FREQUENTLY OXIDES, NITRIDES, AND CARBIDES.
(E.G.ELECTRIC INSULATORS, BRICKS)
FORM CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURES UNDER NORMAL SOLIDIFICATION
‘‘LATTICE’’ MEANS A THREE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAY OF POINTS COINCIDING
WITH ATOM POSITIONS (OR SPHERE CENTERS).
CRYSTALLINITY: REPEATING OR PERIODIC ARRAY OVER LARGE ATOMIC
DISTANCES. 3-D PATTERN IN WHICH EACH ATOM IS BONDED TO ITS NEAREST
NEIGHBORS
UNIT CELL: SMALL REPEATING ENTITY OF THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE. THE
BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE. DEFINES THE ENTIRE
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE WITH THE ATOM POSITIONS WITHIN.
METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
1. FACE CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL – ATOMS ARE ARRANGED AT THE
CORNERS AND CENTER OF EACH CUBE FACE OF THE CELL.

COMPOSITES ARE TWO OR MORE CONSTITUENT MATERIALS WITH

SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT PROPERTIES WHICH AFTER COMBINATION
PRODUCE A MATERIAL WITH CHARACTERISTICS DIFFERENT FROM THE
INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS (E.G. FIBERGLASS/NOMEX SANDWICH)

SEMICONDUCTORS HAVE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES THAT ARE INTERMEDIATE

BETWEEN THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS.

BIOMATERIALS EMPLOYED IN COMPONENTS IMPLANTED INTO THE HUMAN

BODY FOR REPLACEMENT OF DISEASED OR DAMAGED BODY PARTS. THESE
MATERIALS MUST NOT PRODUCE TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND MUST BE
COMPATIBLE WITH BODY TISSUES ALL OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS—METALS,
CERAMICS, POLYMERS, COMPOSITES, AND SEMICONDUCTORS— MAY BE 2. BODY CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL - ATOMS ARE ARRANGED AT THE
USED AS BIOMATERIALS. CORNERS OF THE CUBE WITH ANOTHER ATOM AT THE CUBE CENTER.

ELASTOMERS IS A NATURAL POLYMER WITH ELASTIC PROPERTY (E.G.

RUBBER)

STRUCTURE:

THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL USUALLY RELATES TO THE ARRANGEMENT

OF ITS INTERNAL COMPONENTS.

SUBATOMIC STRUCTURE INVOLVES ELECTRONS WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL

ATOMS AND INTERACTIONS WITH THEIR NUCLEI.
THE NEXT LARGER STRUCTURAL REALM, WHICH CONTAINS LARGE GROUPS
OF ATOMS THAT ARE NORMALLY AGGLOMERATED TOGETHER, IS TERMED
‘‘MICROSCOPIC,’’ MEANING THAT WHICH IS SUBJECT TO DIRECT
OBSERVATION USING SOME TYPE OF MICROSCOPE.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT MAY BE VIEWED WITH THE NAKED EYE ARE
TERMED ‘‘MACROSCOPIC.’’
3. THE HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED CRYSTAL – CELL OF AN HCP LATTTICE IS
VISUALIZED AS A TOP AND BOTTOM PLANE OF 7 ATOMS, FORMING A
REGULAR HEXAGON AROUND A CENTRAL ATOM. IN BETWEEN THESE PLANES
IS A HALF-HEXAGON OF 3 ATOMS.
- THERE ARE TWO LATTICE PARAMETERS IN HCP, A AND C,
REPRESENTSING THE BASAL AND HEIGHT PARAMETERS RESPECTIVELY.

PROPERTY:

PROPERTY IS A MATERIAL TRAIT IN TERMS OF THE KIND AND MAGNITUDE OF

RESPONSE TO A SPECIFIC IMPOSED STIMULUS. GENERALLY, DEFINITIONS OF
PROPERTIES ARE MADE INDEPENDENT OF MATERIAL SHAPE AND SIZE.

THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL WILL DEPEND ON HOW IT IS PROCESSED.

FURTHERMORE, A MATERIAL’S PERFORMANCE WILL BE A FUNCTION OF ITS
PROPERTIES. THUS, THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROCESSING,
STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES, AND PERFORMANCE IS LINEAR

ADVANCED MATERIALS - UTILIZED IN HIGH-TECHNOLOGY (OR HIGH-TECH)

APPLICATIONS. EXAMPLES INCLUDE ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (VCRS, CD
PLAYERS, ETC.), COMPUTERS, FIBEROPTIC SYSTEMS, SPACECRAFT, AIRCRAFT,
AND MILITARY ROCKETRY.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURES

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

CRYSTALLINE MATERIAL IS ONE IN WHICH THE ATOMS ARE SITUATED IN A

REPEATING OR PERIODIC ARRAY OVER LARGE ATOMIC DISTANCES; THE
ATOMS WILL POSITION THEMSELVES IN A REPETITIVE THREE-DIMENSIONAL
PATTERN, IN WHICH EACH ATOM IS BONDED TO ITS NEAREST-NEIGHBOR

PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTY THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A MATERIAL ARE
THOSE THAT CAN BE PERCEIVED OR MEASURED WITHOUT ALTERING THE
MATERIAL'S IDENTITY.
DENSITY: THE MASS PER UNIT VOLUME OF A MATERIAL
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: THE RATIO OF THE DENSITY OF A MATERIAL TO THE
DENSITY OF WATER
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION: THE RATE AT WHICH A MATERIAL
EXPANDS WHEN HEATED.
SPECIFIC HEAT: THE AMOUNT OF HEAT ENERGY REQUIRED TO RAISE THE
TEMPERATURE OF A UNIT MASS OF A MATERIAL BY ONE DEGREE CELSIUS.
LATENT HEAT: THE HEAT ABSORBED OR RELEASED DURING A PHASE CHANGE
ELASTICITY - ABILITY OF A DEFORMED MATERIAL BODY TO RETURN TO ITS
ORIGINAL SHAPE AND SIZE WHEN THE FORCES CAUSING THE DEFORMATION
ARE REMOVED
PLASTICITY - IS THE ABILITY OF A SOLID MATERIAL TO UNDERGO
PERMANENT DEFORMATION, A NON-REVERSIBLE CHANGE OF SHAPE IN
RESPONSE TO APPLIED FORCES.
POROSITY IS THE PROPERTY OF AN OBJECT THAT EXPRESSES THE TOTAL
VOLUME OF EMPTY OR PORE SPACE IN THE MATERIAL.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY IS DEFINED AS THE ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO
CONDUCT HEAT FROM ITS ONE SIDE TO THE OTHER.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY - A MEASURE OF A MATERIAL'S ABILITY TO
CARRY AN ELECTRICAL CURRENT.
MECHANICAL PROPERTY - CHARACTERISTICS OF A MATERIAL ENCOMPASS ITS
RESPONSE WHEN SUBJECTED TO AN APPLIED FORCE. THESE PROPERTIES ARE
INSTRUMENTAL IN DEFINING A MATERIAL'S PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND
PREDICTING ITS LIFESPAN.
STRENGTH IS THE PROPERTY OF A MATERIAL WHICH OPPOSES THE
DEFORMATION OR BREAKDOWN OF MATERIAL IN THE PRESENCE OF
EXTERNAL FORCES OR LOAD.
TOUGHNESS IS THE ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO ABSORB ENERGY AND
PLASTICALLY DEFORM WITHOUT FRACTURING.
HARDNESS IS THE RESISTANCE OF A MATERIAL TO LOCALISED PLASTIC
DEFORMATION AND THE ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO MAINTAIN ITS PHYSICAL
FEATURES EVEN IN THE FACE OF APPLIED FORCE.
HARDENABILITY DESCRIBES HOW DEEP A METAL CAN BE HARDENED UPON
QUENCHING FROM HIGH TEMPERATURE,
BRITTLENESS IS A MATERIAL PROPERTY THAT DESCRIBES ITS TENDENCY TO
FRACTURE WITH LITTLE TO NO PLASTIC DEFORMATION WHEN STRESS IS
APPLIED TO IT.
MALLEABILITY IS A PROPERTY OF SOLID MATERIALS WHICH INDICATES HOW
EASILY A MATERIAL GETS DEFORMED UNDER COMPRESSIVE STRESS.
DUCTILITY - THE DEGREE TO WHICH A MATERIAL CAN SUSTAIN PLASTIC
DEFORMATION UNDER TENSILE STRESS BEFORE FAILURE.
CREEP RESISTANCE IS THE PROPERTY OF A MATERIAL WHICH INDICATES THE
TENDENCY OF MATERIAL TO MOVE SLOWLY AND DEFORM PERMANENTLY
UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL MECHANICAL STRESS.
RESILIENCE THE ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO ABSORB AND RELEASE ENERGY
ELASTICALLY WHEN STRESSED.
FATIGUE RESISTANCE IS THE WEAKENING OF MATERIAL CAUSED BY THE
REPEATED LOADING OF THE MATERIAL.
CHEMICAL PROPERTY A SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTIC OF A SUBSTANCE LIKE AN
ELEMENT OR A COMPOUND, RELATING TO HOW IT CAN CHANGE AS A
RESULT OF A REACTION.
CORROSION IS A GRADUAL CHEMICAL OR ELECTROCHEMICAL ATTACK ON A
METAL BY ITS SURROUNDING MEDIUM.
CORROSION RESISTANCE CAN BE DEFINED AS THE ABILITY TO PROTECT THE
SUBSTRATE FROM CORROSION.
THERMAL PROPERTY ENCOMPASSES SPECIFIC HEAT, THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY, THERMAL EXPANSION, MELTING POINT OR HEAT RESISTANCE,
THERMAL SHOCK RESISTANCE, THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY, AND THERMAL EFFECT.
SPECIFIC HEAT: THE HEAT CAPACITY OF A MATERIAL. MEASURED THROUGH
CALORIMETRY.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: THE ABILITY TO CONDUCT HEAT. DETERMINED
USING THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY TESTS.
THERMAL EXPANSION: THE CHANGE IN SIZE WITH TEMPERATURE. ASSESSED
THROUGH THERMAL EXPANSION TESTS.
MELTING POINT OR HEAT RESISTANCE: THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH A
MATERIAL CHANGES FROM A SOLID TO A LIQUID
ELECTRICAL PROPERTY THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL ARE
THOSE WHICH DETERMINE ABILITY OF MATERIAL TO BE SUITABLE FOR A
PARTICULAR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING APPLICATION.
RESISTIVITY IS A PROPERTY THAT DESCRIBES THE EXTENT TO WHICH A
MATERIAL OPPOSES THE FLOW OF ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH IT. IT IS THE
RECIPROCAL OF CONDUCTIVITY.
CONDUCTIVITY IS THE PROPERTY OF MATERIAL WITH ALLOW THE FLOW OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH MATERIAL.
PERMITTIVITY IS THE PROPERTY OF MATERIAL WHICH INDICATES THE ABILITY
OF MATERIAL TO WITHSTAND AT HIGH VOLTAGES.
THE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE OF A MATERIAL INDICATES
THE CHANGE IN RESISTANCE OF MATERIAL WITH CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE.

MAGNETIC PROPERTY THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL ARE
THOSE WHICH DETERMINE THE ABILITY OF MATERIAL TO BE SUITABLE FOR A
MAGNETIC APPLICATION.
PERMEABILITY IS THE PROPERTY OF MAGNETIC MATERIAL WHICH INDICATES
THAT HOW EASILY THE MAGNETIC FLUX IS BUILD UP IN THE MATERIAL.
SOMETIMES IT IS ALSO CALLED AS THE MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF
MATERIAL
RETENTIVITY: THE ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO RETAIN MAGNETIZATION.
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION (CTE) - THIS TEST MEASURES THE
LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION OF RIGID SOLID MATERIALS. IT DETERMINES
HOW A MATERIAL'S DIMENSIONS CHANGE IN RESPONSE TO TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS.
EQUIPMENT: UTILIZE PUSH-ROD DILATOMETERS.
MATERIALS FOR COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION: STEEL, ALUMINUM
SHEAR/TORSION TEST - EVALUATES MATERIALS OR DEVICES UNDER STRESS
FROM ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT. IT IS USED TO DETERMINE PROPERTIES LIKE
SHEAR STRENGTH AND MODULUS.

COERCIVE FORCE OF THE MATERIAL IS THIS EXTERNAL MAGNETIC MOTIVE EQUIPMENT: EMPLOY TORSION TESTING MACHINES.
FORCE (ATS) REQUIRED TO OVERCOME THE RESIDUAL MAGNETISM.
MATERIALS FOR SHEAR/TORSION TEST: STEEL, STAINLESS STEEL, ALUMINUM,
RELUCTANCE IS A PROPERTY OF MAGNETIC MATERIAL WHICH RESISTS TO
TITANIUM, BRASS
BUILDUP OF MAGNETIC FLUX IN MATERIAL.

OPTICAL PROPERTY CHARACTERIZE THE RESPONSE OF MATERIALS TO BEAM DEFLECTION TEST - ALSO KNOWN AS BEND TESTING, THIS MEASURES
INCIDENT ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION HOW MATERIALS BEHAVE UNDER SIMPLE BEAM LOADING.

EVERY SOLID MATERIAL EMITS A THERMAL (INFRARED) RADIATION. THE EQUIPMENT: USE SPECIALIZED FIXTURES FOR 3-POINT OR 4-POINT BEND
RELATIVE ABILITY OF THE MATERIAL TO EMIT RADIATION IS KNOWN AS TESTS.
EMISSIVITY (EMITTANCE).

TRANSMISSIVITY: THE ABILITY TO TRANSMIT INCIDENT ELECTROMAGNETIC

RADIATION.
Reflectivity: The ability to reflect incident radiation. Absorptivity: The ability
to absorb incident radiation. Emissivity: The relative ability to emit thermal
radiation
MATERIALS FOR BEAM DEFLECTION TEST: WOOD, PLYWOOD, FIBER-
REINFORCED COMPOSITES, POLYMERS (E.G., PVC), FIBERGLASS
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

MATERIAL TESTING INVOLVES MEASURING THE CHARACTERISTICS AND

BEHAVIOR OF SUBSTANCES LIKE METALS, CERAMICS, OR PLASTICS UNDER
DIFFERENT CONDITIONS TO ASSESS THEIR SUITABILITY FOR SPECIFIC
APPLICATIONS.

YOUNG'S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - IS A MEASURE OF A MATERIAL'S

STIFFNESS OR HOW MUCH IT DEFORMS WHEN SUBJECTED TO A LOAD.

TENSION TEST - ALSO KNOWN AS A TENSILE TEST, IT IS A FUNDAMENTAL

MECHANICAL TEST THAT APPLIES A PULLING FORCE TO A MATERIAL TO
MEASURE ITS RESPONSE TO STRESS. THIS TEST DETERMINES THE MATERIAL'S
STRENGTH AND ELONGATION CAPACITY

READING GRAPH
a linear region where the force required to stretch the material was
- THE INITIAL LINEAR PORTION OF THE CURVE REPRESENTS ELASTIC proportional to the extension of the material, known as Hooke’s Law.
DEFORMATION.

- THE YIELD POINT IS WHERE PLASTIC DEFORMATION BEGINS.

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AND FATIGUE
- THE PEAK OF THE CURVE IS THE ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH.
FRACTURE
- THE SLOPE OF THE CURVE INDICATES THE MATERIAL'S MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY. Separation of a body into pieces due to stress,
at temperatures below the melting point.
- THE POINT WHERE THE MATERIAL FAILS ARE THE BREAKING POINT. Depending on the ability of material to undergo
plastic deformation before the fracture two
EQUIPMENT: UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (UTM) fracture modes can be defined - ductile or
brittle.
MATERIALS FOR TENSION TEST: STEEL, ALUMINUM, COPPER TITANIUM,
BRASS Ductile Fracture

COMPRESSION TEST - THIS TEST ASSESSES HOW A MATERIAL BEHAVES
UNDER APPLIED CRUSHING LOADS. THIS TEST IS PARTICULARLY RELEVANT
FOR MATERIALS USED IN LOAD-BEARING CAPACITIES.
Brittle Fracture
READING GRAPH
- LOOK FOR THE ELASTIC LIMIT WHERE THE MATERIAL BEHAVES
ELASTICALLY.
• Extensive plastic deformation ahead of crack
• Crack is “stable”: resists further extension unless applied stress is
increased.
• Relatively little plastic deformation
• Crack is “unstable”: propagates rapidly without increase in applied
stress.

- THE PROPORTIONAL LIMIT IS WHERE LINEAR ELASTIC DEFORMATION Ductile materials

ENDS.
• Extensive plastic deformation and energy absorption
- THE YIELD POINT IS WHERE PLASTIC DEFORMATION BEGINS. (“toughness”) before fracture

Brittle materials
- THE PEAK STRESS IS THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH.

• Little plastic deformation and low energy absorption before

EQUIPMENT: UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE WITH PLATENS
fracture
MATERIALS FOR COMPRESSION TEST: CONCRETE, WOOD, GLASS, PLASTICS,
RUBBER.

BRITTLE FRACTURE
1. No appreciable plastic deformation
2. Crack propagation is very fast.
3. Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the direction of the
applied stress.
4. Crack often propagates by cleavage - breaking of atomic bonds
along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes).
Transgranular fracture: Fracture cracks pass through grains. Fracture surface
have faceted texture because of different orientation of cleavage planes in
grains. Intergranular fracture: Fracture crack propagation is along grain
boundaries (grain boundaries are weakened or embrittled by impurities
segregation etc.
Stress Concentration - Fracture strength of a brittle solid is related to the
cohesive forces between atoms.
Stress Raisers - Applied stress is amplified at the tips of micro-cracks, voids,
notches, surface scratches, corners, etc.
STRESS CONCENTRATION
For a long crack-oriented perpendicular to the applied stress the maximum
stress near the crack tip is:
where σ0 is the applied external stress, a is the half-length of the crack, and
ρt the radius of curvature of the crack tip. (note that a is half-length of the
internal flaw, but the full length for a surface flaw).
CRACK PROPAGATION
Energy balance on the crack Elastic strain energy:
Energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed. This energy
is released when the crack propagates. Creation of new surfaces requires
energy.
Critical stress for crack propagation:
IMPACT FRACTURE TESTING
Two standard tests, the Charpy and Izod, measure the impact energy (the
energy required to fracture a test piece under an impact load), also called the
notch toughness.
DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION
As temperature decreases a ductile material can become brittle - ductile-to-
brittle transition Alloying usually increases the ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature. FCC metals remain ductile down to very low temperatures. For
ceramics, this type of transition occurs at much higher temperatures than for
metals. The ductile-to-brittle transition can be measured by impact testing:
the impact energy needed for fracture drops suddenly over a relatively
narrow temperature range – temperature of the ductile to-brittle transition.
FATIGUE
Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can occur at loads considerably
lower than tensile or yield strengths of material under a static load: Fatigue.
Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation) - even in
normally ductile materials. Applied stresses causing fatigue may be axial
(tension or compression), flextural (bending) or torsional (twisting).
Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages: crack initiation in the areas
of stress concentration (near stress raisers), incremental crack propagation,
final catastrophic failure.
2 TYPES OF CYCLE FATIGUE
1. Low cycle fatigue: high loads, plastic and elastic deformation
2. High cycle fatigue: low loads, elastic deformation (N > 105)
FATIGUE: S-N CURVE
• Fatigue limit (endurance limit) occurs for some materials (e.g.
some Fe and Ti alloys). In this case, the S—N curve becomes
horizontal at large N. The fatigue limit is a maximum stress
amplitude below which the material never fails, no matter how
large the number of cycles is.
• Fatigue strength: stress at which fracture occurs after a specified
number of cycles (e.g. 107)
• Fatigue life: Number of cycles to fail at a specified stress level.
FATIGUE: CRACK INITIATION AND PROPAGATION
Three stages of fatigue failure:
1. crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration (near
stress raisers)
2. incremental crack propagation
3. final rapid crack propagation after crack reaches critical size.
2 STAGES OF CRACK PROPAGATION
• Stage I: initial slow propagation along crystal planes with high
resolved shear stress. Involves just a few grains, and has flat
fracture surface
• Stage II: faster propagation perpendicular to the applied stress.
Crack grows by repetitive blunting and sharpening process at crack
tip. Rough fracture surface.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Thermal Fatigue. Thermal cycling causes expansion and contraction, hence
thermal stress, if component is restrained.
Solutions:
1. eliminate restraint by design
2. use materials with low thermal expansion coefficients
Corrosion fatigue. Chemical reactions induce pits which act as stress raisers.
Corrosion also enhances crack propagation.
Solutions:
1. decrease corrosiveness of medium, if possible
2. add protective surface coating
3. add residual compressive stresses
CREEP - is a time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when
subjected to a constant load at a high temperature (> 0.4 Tm). Examples:
turbine blades, steam generators.
STAGES OF CREEP
Instantaneous deformation, mainly elastic.
Primary/transient creep. Slope of strain vs. time decreases with time: work-
hardening
Secondary/steady-state creep. Rate of straining is constant: balance of
workhardening and recovery.
Tertiary. Rapidly accelerating strain rate up to failure: formation of internal
cracks, voids, grain boundary separation, necking, etc.
PARAMETERS OF CREEP BEHAVIOR
The stage of secondary/steady-state creep is of longest duration and the
steady-state creep rate is the most important parameter of the creep
behavior in long-life applications. Another parameter, especially important in
short-life creep situations, is time to rupture, or the rupture lifetime, tr
CREEP: STRESS AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
With increasing stress or temperature: The instantaneous strain increases The
steady-state creep rate increases The time to rupture decreases
The stress/temperature dependence of the steady-state creep rate can be
described by
where Qc is the activation energy for creep, K2 and n are material constants. and Co-60 is usually used for thicker materials due to its greater penetrating
(Remember the Arrhenius dependence on temperature for thermally ability.
activated processes that we discussed for diffusion)
ULTRASONIC TESTING - uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR
MECHANISM OF CREEP and fish finders. Ultra-high frequency sound is introduced into the part being
inspected and if the sound hits a material with a different acoustic impedance
Different mechanisms are responsible for creep in different materials and (density and acoustic velocity), some of the sound will reflect back to the
under different loading and temperature conditions. The mechanisms sending unit and can be presented on a visual display. The most common
include: sound frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz, which are too
high to be heard and do not travel through air. The lower frequencies have
1. Stress-assisted vacancy diffusion greater penetrating power but less sensitivity (the ability to "see" small
2. Grain boundary diffusion indications), while the higher frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but can
3. Grain boundary sliding detect smaller indications.
4. Dislocation motion
The two most commonly used types of sound waves used in industrial
ALLOYS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE USE inspections are the compression (longitudinal) wave - cause the atoms in a
part to vibrate back and forth parallel to the sound direction and the shear
Creep is generally minimized in materials with: (transverse) wave - cause the atoms to vibrate perpendicularly (from side to
side) to the direction of the sound.
1. High melting temperature
2. High elastic modulus Large grain sizes (inhibits grain boundary Sound is introduced into the part using an ultrasonic transducer ("probe")
sliding) that converts electrical impulses from the UT machine into sound waves,
then converts returning sound back into electric impulses that can be
Following alloys are especially resilient to creep: displayed as a visual representation on a digital or LCD screen (on older
machines, a CRT screen).
1. Stainless steels
2. Refractory metals (containing elements of high melting point, like
Nb, Mo, W, Ta)
3. “Superalloys” (Co, Ni based: solid solution hardening and
secondary phases)

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or

evaluating materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or
differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part
or system. In other words, when the inspection or test is completed the part
can still be used.

These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of
materials such as impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile
strength, fracture toughness and fatigue strength, but discontinuities and
differences in material characteristics are more effectively found by NDT. ELECTRO MAGNETIC TESTING - is a general test category that includes Eddy
Current testing, Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) and Remote
NON-DESTRUCTIVE METHODS Field testing. While magnetic particle testing is also an electromagnetic test,
due to its widespread use it is considered a stand-alone test method rather as
1. Magnetic particle testing than an electromagnetic testing technique. All of these techniques use the
2. Liquid penetrant testing induction of an electric current or magnetic field into a conductive part, then
3. Radiographic testing the resulting effects are recorded and evaluated.
4. Ultrasonic testing
5. Electromagneting testing VISUAL TESTING (VT) - is the most commonly used test method in industry.
6. Visual testing  Accoustic emission testing VT involves the visual observation of the surface of a test object to evaluate
7. Guided wave testing the presence of surface discontinuities. VT inspections may be by Direct
8. Laser testing methods Viewing, using line-of sight vision, or may be enhanced with the use of optical
9. Leak testing instruments such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, boroscopes, charge-coupled
10. Magnetic flux leakage devices (CCDs) and computer-assisted viewing systems (Remote Viewing).
11. Neutron radiographic testing
12. thermal/infrared testing ACCOUSTICE EMISSION TESTING - is performed by applying a localized
13. Vibration analysis external force such as an abrupt mechanical load or rapid temperature or
pressure change to the part being tested. The resulting stress waves in turn
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING - uses one or more magnetic fields to locate generate short-lived, high frequency elastic waves in the form of small
surface and near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The material displacements, or plastic deformation, on the part surface that are
magnetic field can be applied with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. detected by sensors that have been attached to the part surface. When
When using an electromagnet, the field is present only when the current is multiple sensors are used, the resulting data can be evaluated to locate
being applied. discontinuities in the part.

GUIDED WAVE TESTING - uses controlled excitation of one or more ultrasonic

waveforms that travel along the length of the pipe, reflecting from changes in
the pipe stiffness or cross-sectional area. A transducer ring or exciter coil
assembly is used to introduce the guided wave into the pipe and each
transducer/exciter .

When the magnetic field encounters a discontinuity transverse to the
direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines produce a magnetic flux leakage
field of their own as shown in Figure 1. Because magnetic flux lines don't
travel well in air, when very fine colored ferromagnetic particles ("magnetic
particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles will be drawn
into the discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication
on the surface of the part.
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING - is that when a very low viscosity (highly fluid)
liquid (the penetrant) is applied to the surface of a part, it will penetrate into
fissures and voids open to the surface. Once the excess penetrant is removed,
the penetrant trapped in those voids will flow back out, creating an
indication. Penetrant testing can be performed on magnetic and non-
magnetic materials, but does not work well on porous materials. Penetrants
may be "visible", meaning they can be seen in ambient light, or fluorescent,
requiring the use of a "black" light.
RADIO GRAPHIC TESTING - Industrial radiography involves exposing a test
object to penetrating radiation so that the radiation passes through the
object being inspected and a recording medium placed against the opposite
side of that object. Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive
materials, with the two most commonly used sources of gamma radiation
being Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-60). IR-192 is generally used for
steel up to 2-1/2 - 3 inches, depending on the Curie strength of the source,
LASER TESTING METHODS - includes three techniques, Holography - uses a
laser to detect changes to the surface of a part as it deforms under induced
stress which can be applied as mechanical stress, heat, pressure, or
vibrational energy. The laser beam scans across the surface of the part and
reflects back to sensors that record the differences in the surface created by
that stress. Shearography - applies laser light to the surface of the part being
tested with the part at rest (non-stressed) and the resulting image is picked
up by a charge-coupled device (CCD) and stored on a computer. and
Profilometry - uses a high-speed rotating laser light source, miniature optics
and a computer with high-speed digital signal processing software. The ID
surface of a tube is scanned in two dimensions and the reflected light is
passed through a lens that focuses that light onto a photo-detector,
generating a signal. As the method name implies, all three techniques user
lasers to perform the inspections.
LEAK TESTING - used to detect through leaks using one of the four major LT
techniques:
Bubble Leak testing -relies on the visual detection of a gas (usually air)
leaking from a pressurized system. Small parts can be pressurized and
immersed in a tank of liquid and larger vessels can be pressurized and
inspected by spraying a soap solution that creates fine bubbles to the area
being tested.
Pressure Change - can be performed on closed systems only. Detection of a
leak is done by either pressurizing the system or pulling a vacuum then
monitoring the pressure. Loss of pressure or vacuum over a set period of time
indicates that there is a leak in the system.
Halogen Diode - is done by pressurizing a system with a mixture of air and a
halogen-based tracer gas. After a set period of time, a halogen diode
detection unit, or "sniffer", is used to locate leaks and
Mass Spectrometer Testing - can be done by pressurizing the test part with
helium or a helium/air mixture within a test chamber then surveying the
surfaces using a sniffer, which sends an air sample back to the spectrometer.
Another technique creates a vacuum within the test chamber so that the gas
within the pressurized system is drawn into the chamber through any leaks.
MAGNETIC FLUX TESTING - detects anomalies in normal flux patterns created
by discontinuities in ferrous material saturated by a magnetic field. This
technique can be used for piping and tubing inspection, tank floor inspection
and other applications.
NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING - uses an intense beam of low energy
neutrons as a penetrating medium rather than the gamma- or x-radiation
used in conventional radiography.
THERMAL/ INFRARED TESTING - or infrared thermography, is used to
measure or map surface temperatures based on the infrared radiation given
off by an object as heat flows through, to or from that object. The majority of
infrared radiation is longer in wavelength than visible light but can be
detected using thermal imaging devices, commonly called "infrared
cameras."
VIBRATION ANALYSIS - refers to the process of monitoring the vibration
signatures specific to a piece of rotating machinery and analyzing that
information to determine the condition of that equipment.
Three types of sensors are commonly used: Displacement sensors - uses eddy
current to detect vertical and/or horizontal motion (depending on whether
one or two sensors are used) and are well suited to detect shaft motion and
changes in clearance tolerances.
Velocity sensors - use a spring-mounted magnet that moves through a coil of
wire, with the outer case of the sensor attached to the part being inspected.
Newer model vibration sensors use time-of-flight technology and improved
analysis software. Velocity sensors are commonly used in handheld sensors.
and
Accelerometers - use a piezoelectric crystal (that converts sound waves to
electrical impulses and back) attached to a mass that vibrates due to the
motion of the part to which the sensor casing is attached. As the mass and
crystal vibrate, a low voltage current is generated which is passed through a
pre-amplifier and sent to the recording device. Accelerometers are very
effective for detecting the high frequencies created by high speed turbine
blades, gears and ball and roller bearings that travel at much greater speeds
than the shafts to which they are attached.
METALLURGY
The Physical Metallurgy focuses on the development of metallic and
intermetallic materials for extreme application conditions. The
identification of suitable alloy compositions and tailoring of the
microstructures is a particular aim of work.
Physical metallurgist monitoring the behavior of metals under stress
and studying changes in temperature. You may be involved in
inventing new products and improving manufacturing techniques.
METALLURGY PROCESS
Metallurgy is best described as a field of materials science
and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behaviours of
metallic elements. Metallurgy also examines the inter-metallic
compounds and how they can be mixed.
Metallurgy encompasses a broad range of processes
involved in extracting metals from their ores, refining them, and
creating usable materials. Here's a more detailed breakdown of the
processes involved:
Mining is the process of extracting useful materials from the earth.
o Exploration: Finding areas where valuable metals
exist.
o Extraction: Removing the ores from the earth's
crust through drilling, blasting, and excavation.
TYPES OF MINING METHODS:
• SURFACE MINING
• UNDERGROUND MINING
• PLCACER MINING
• IN-SITU MINING
COMMINUTION (CRUSHING AND GRINDING)
Comminution in the mineral processing industry is a physical pre-
treatment method that involves ore milling, grinding, and breaking.
• Primary Crushing: Breaking down large chunks of ore into
smaller pieces.
• Grinding: Reducing the size of ore particles to increase
surface area, aiding in subsequent processes
The terms crushing and grinding are used for the same meaning i.e.
for size reduction. The term crushing represents the reduction in the
size of a lumpy solid mass which gives a coarse product whereas the
term grinding represents the reduction in size of the crushed
materials which gives finer products than crushing.
Crushing, Mineral Chunks for smelting iron, copper, etc. Grinding, to
a fine powder: Crush granite, limestone, etc.
ORE BENEFEFICIATION (CONCENTRATION)
Physical Methods: Froth flotation, gravity separation, magnetic
separation, or dense media separation to separate the desired
metal-bearing minerals from the rest of the ore.
SMELTING
Roasting: Heating the concentrated ore in the presence of air to
remove sulfur, arsenic, and other volatile impurities.
Reduction: Heating the roasted ore with a reducing agent (like
carbon) in a furnace to extract the metal from its compounds.
REFINING
Electrolytic Refining: Electrolysis to purify the metal by removing
impurities.
Pyrometallurgical Refining: Using high temperatures to separate
impurities from the metal.
Hydrometallurgical Refining: Using chemical solutions to dissolve
impurities from the metal.
Leaching involves the use of aqueous solutions, which are brought
into contact with a material containing a valuable metal; the solution
may be acidic or basic. In the leaching process, oxidation potential,
temperature, and pH of the solution are important parameters and
are often manipulated to optimize the dissolution of the desired
metal component into the aqueous phase.
Heat treatment is a metallurgical process that involves heating and
cooling metal to achieve specific properties, such as hardness,
toughness, and durability. The process typically consists of three
stages:
QUENCHING
where the steel is rapidly cooled in water or oil. This sudden cooling
"freezes" the atoms in a specific arrangement, resulting in a harder
but more brittle structure.
Austenite is formed by diffusion of carbon atoms from cementite
into ferrite. AUSTENITIC a solid solution in iron of carbon and
sometimes other solutes that occurs as a constituent of steel under
certain conditions
Martensite is a metastable interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron.
It is formed when austenite is quenched rapidly to room
temperature and may have a bcc structure at low carbon
concentrations or a body-centered tetragonal structure at high
carbon concentrations.
Austenitic Stainless Steel is highly corrosion-resistant, ductile, and
formable, while Martensitic Stainless Steel is highly wearresistant,
hard, and strong.
TEMPERING
The hardened steel is then heated again to a lower temperature, and
this time it is held at that temperature for a specific duration. The
result is steel with a balance of hardness and toughness, making it
suitable for various applications.
ANNEALING
Annealing is a heat treatment process that changes the physical and
sometimes also the chemical properties of a material to increase
ductility and reduce the hardness to make it more workable.
EXTRUSION
Extrusion involves forcing metal through a die to create complex
cross sectional shapes. This method allows for the creation of
intricate and uniform profiles for window frames, providing strength,
durability, and a sleek appearance.
SHAPING AND FORMING
Casting: Pouring molten metal into molds to create specific shapes.
Forging: Shaping metal by applying localized compressive forces.
Rolling: Passing metal between rollers to reduce its thickness or
change its shape.
Extrusion: Forcing metal through a die to create complex cross-
sectional shapes
Ferrous materials refer to metals that contain iron as a principal
component, such as steel and cast iron, and are characterized by
their magnetic properties, strength, and suitability for a wide range
of industrial applications, including construction, automotive, and
machinery manufacturing.
The basic ferrous metal form is pig iron. Pig Iron is produced in a
blast furnace that is charged with an iron ore, coke, and limestone.
Wrought iron has a low carbon content, typically less than 0.08%.
This low carbon content contributes to its malleability and ductility.
This process involves repeated heating and hammering, which
imparts unique properties to the metal.
Cast iron is a strong and brittle alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon,
often containing small amounts of other elements. It is produced by
melting the iron and then pouring it into a mold to solidify. Cast iron
is known for its excellent castability, high melting point, and
exceptional heat retention properties, making it suitable for a wide
range of applications such as cookware, pipes, engine blocks, and
architectural elements.
◦ i) Grey cast iron - Grey cast iron, also known as gray iron, is a type
of cast iron that exhibits a characteristic gray color when fractured.
Grey cast iron is produced by melting iron along with specific
amounts of carbon, silicon, and other elements, and then casting it
into molds. The graphite flakes in grey cast iron provide lubrication
and act as crack initiators, giving the material its distinct brittleness. .
Common applications include engine blocks, pipes, and various
machine components.
◦ ii) White cast iron - White cast iron is a type of cast iron
characterized by its white, hard, and brittle structure. It forms when
molten iron rapidly cools, preventing the carbon in the alloy from
precipitating into graphite. White cast iron is known for its high
hardness and wear resistance, making it suitable for applications
where abrasion and wear are significant factors, such as in certain
types of grinding balls and liners used in mining and milling
operations.
◦ iii) Malleable cast iron - Malleable cast iron is a specific type of cast
iron that has undergone a heat treatment process called annealing,
which imparts malleability to the material. his results in a more
ductile and less brittle material, making malleable cast iron easier to
shape, bend, and deform without fracturing. Malleable cast iron is
commonly used in applications where both strength and flexibility
are required, such as in pipe fittings, automotive components, and
certain types of hardware.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, where the carbon content is
typically kept to a level below 2%. Steel is renowned for its strength,
versatility, and durability, making it a fundamental material in
construction, manufacturing, automotive, and numerous other
industries. The various types of steel, ranging from carbon steel to
alloy steel, offer a wide range of mechanical and thermal properties,
allowing for tailored applications across diverse sectors.
i) Low carbon steel - Low-carbon steel, also known as mild steel, is
simply composed of iron and carbon but it has a very low content of
carbon in it.
• It is used in the making of vehicle frames, panels,
boxes, cases and sheet metal for roofs. It is now
also used as a replacement for wrought iron in
the making of railroad rails.
ii) Medium carbon steel - are stronger and harder than low-carbon
steels. This is due to their increased carbon content, but it also
means they’re less ductile and more difficult to form and weld.
• They are used in the making of tool frames and
springs.
iii) High carbon steel - It’s the most corrosion resistant of the steels
due to its high amount of carbon. This increased carbon significantly
enhances the steel's hardness, tensile strength, and wear resistance.
However, the higher carbon content also makes these steels more
brittle and less ductile, which makes it more susceptible to cracking
under certain conditions.
• It is used in making of cutting tools, axes, swords,
scissors, injection molding tools, Ball and roller
bearings for engines, heavy machinery,
gearboxes, pumps, etc.
Alloy steel may be defined as steels to which elements other than
carbon are added in sufficient amounts to produce improvements in
properties. In general ,alloy steels can give better strength, ductility,
and toughness than plain carbon steels. They find widespread use in
industries like construction, automotive, aerospace, and machinery
manufacturing due to their tailored properties to meet specific
performance requirements.
i) Stainless steels - Stainless steel is a type of steel alloy that
contains a minimum of 10.5% chromium, which imparts corrosion
resistance properties to the material. The addition of chromium
forms a protective oxide layer on the surface of the steel, preventing
rust and corrosion.
• widely used in various industries, including
construction, kitchenware, automotive, and
medical equipment.
ii) Heat resisting steels - Heat-resisting steels, also known as heat-
resistant or heat-resisting alloys, are a group of steels designed to
withstand high temperatures and maintain their mechanical
properties at elevated temperatures.
• Use in environments with extreme heat, such as
industrial furnaces, heat exchangers, and
applications in the aerospace and power
generation industries.
iii) High speed steels - refers to a type of tool steel that is designed
for high-speed cutting operations. It is known for its exceptional
hardness, wear resistance, and ability to withstand elevated
temperatures without losing its hardness.
• used for cutting tools such as drills, taps, milling
cutters, and turning tools in applications where
materials need to be cut at high speeds or where
tools are subjected to intense heat during
machining.
iv) Spring steels - refers to a group of high-strength, low-alloy steels
or medium to high carbon steels with added elements like silicon or
manganese. These steels are specifically designed to exhibit
excellent elasticity and resilience, allowing them to return to their
original shape after being deformed.
• used in the manufacturing of springs for various
applications, including automotive suspensions,
mechanical devices, and industrial machinery,
where the ability to withstand repeated loading
and unloading cycles is crucial.
NON FERROUS METALS
Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron in
significant amounts. These metals typically lack the magnetic
properties associated with iron and are generally more resistant to
corrosion than ferrous metals.
Aluminum is silvery-white and lighter in weight than steel and
copper. It has high corrosion resistance. Aluminum has good
machinability, formability and castability. Duralumin and Y-alloy are
the important aluminum alloys.
Application :
• These are widely used in air craft, automobile
industry and buildings covers.
COPPER AND IT’S ALLOY
Copper is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in
industry. It is a soft, malleable, good conductor of electricity.
Application :
• Copper is largely used in making electric cables
and wires for electric machinery and appliances,
refrigerators etc.
Following are the main alloys of copper :
1) Brass - Brass is a metallic alloy primarily composed of copper and
zinc. Brass is appreciated for its attractive gold-like appearance,
corrosion resistance, and malleability.
• Used in musical instruments, decorative items,
plumbing fittings, and electrical connectors,
Following are the main alloys of copper :
2) Bronze - Is a metal alloy primarily composed of copper, typically
with the addition of tin. It is known for its durability, corrosion
resistance, and distinctive golden-brown color.
• used throughout history for casting sculptures,
creating tools and weapons, as well as in various
industrial applications due to its favorable
combination of strength and workability.
LEAD AND ITS ALLOY
Lead is the heaviest and softest among all common metals. It is
corrosion resistant and having good lubricating properties.
Application :
• It is extensively used for making solder, as a
lining for acid tanks, water pipes, batteries,
bearings, etc.
Tin is brightly shining white , soft and malleable metal . It can be
rolled into very thin sheets.
Application :
• It is used for making fine solder,as a protective
coating for iron and steel sheets,for making tin
foil used as moisture proof packing, etc
NICKLE AND ITS ALLOY
Nickel is an important alloying element and widely used in
engineering industry on account of their high mechanical strength
properties , corrosion resistance, etc.
Application :
• A large percentage of nickel is used for
production of stainless steels. these are used in
making propellers, condenser tubes etc.
HEAT TREATMENT
INVOLVES CAREFULLY MANIPULATING THE TEMPERATURE OF METALS,
SUBJECTING THEM TO CONTROLLED HEATING AND COOLING PROCESSES,
WITH THE AIM OF MODIFYING THEIR PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL
CHARACTERISTICS WHILE PRESERVING THE ORIGINAL SHAPE OF THE
PRODUCT.
HARDENING
THE STRENGTHENING OF STEELS IS CARRIED OUT TO ENHANCE THEIR
STRENGTH AND WEAR RESISTANCE.CONTROLLED HEATING FOLLOWED BY
RAPID COOLING CAN EFFECTIVELY STRENGTHEN NUMEROUS NONFERROUS
METALS, ENHANCING THEIR OVERALL STRENGTH. HOWEVER, MATERIALS LIKE
PURE IRON, WROUGHT IRON, AND EXTREMELY LOW-CARBON STEELS EXHIBIT
LIMITED HARDENING PROPERTIES AND PROVE CHALLENGING TO FORTIFY
THROUGH HEAT TREATMENT.
TYPES OF HARDENING
1. CASE HARDENING - CASE HARDENING OR CARBURIZING IS A HEAT
TREATMENT PROCESS THAT PRODUCES A SURFACE WHICH IS RESISTANT TO
WEAR, WHILE MAINTAINING TOUGHNESS AND STRENGTH OF THE CORE. THIS
TREATMENT IS APPLIED TO LOW CARBON STEEL PARTS AFTER MACHINING,
AS WELL AS HIGH ALLOY STEEL BEARINGS, GEARS, AND OTHER
COMPONENTS.
2. CYANIDING - CYANIDING, OR SALT BATH CARBONITRIDING, IS A HEAT
TREATING PROCESS THAT PRODUCES A FILE-HARD, WEAR-RESISTANT
SURFACE ON FERROUS PARTS. WHEN STEEL IS HEATED ABOVE AC1 IN A
SUITABLE BATH CONTAINING ALKALI CYANIDES AND CYANATES, THE SURFACE
OF THE STEEL ABSORBS BOTH CARBON AND NITROGEN FROM THE MOLTEN
BATH.
3. NITRIDING - NITRIDING IS A SURFACE HARDENING PROCESS IN WHICH
NITROGEN ATOMS ARE DIFFUSED INTO THE SURFACE OF FERROUS
MATERIALS AT SUB-CRITICAL TEMPERATURES AND REACT WITH THE BASE
METAL TO FORM A HARD, WEAR RESISTANT, AND FATIGUE RESISTANT
NITRIDED CASE BELOW THE SURFACE.
4. FLAME HARDENING - FLAME HARDENING IS A HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS
WHERE OXYFUEL GAS FLAMES ARE DIRECTLY IMPINGED ONTO THE GEAR-
TOOTH SURFACE AREA TO BE HARDENED WHICH IS THEN SUBJECTED TO
QUENCHING. IT RESULTS IN A HARD SURFACE LAYER OF MARTENSITE OVER A
SOFTER INTERIOR CORE.
TEMPERING - REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF HEATING AFTER PRIOR
HARDENING, COLD WORKING (COLD LEVELING), OR WELDING, REACHING A
TEMPERATURE BETWEEN ROOM TEMPERATURE AND BELOW THE
TRANSFORMATION POINT AC1. THE MATERIAL IS THEN HELD AT THIS
TEMPERATURE BEFORE UNDERGOING A CONTROLLED COOLING, DEPENDING
ON THE INTENDED PURPOSE.
ANNEALING - PROCESS ANNEALING IS EMPLOYED FOR THE TREATMENT OF
WORK-HARDENED COMPONENTS CONSTRUCTED FROM LOW-CARBON
STEELS (< 0.25% CARBON). THIS FACILITATES RENDERING THE PARTS
SUFFICIENTLY SOFT TO UNDERGO ADDITIONAL COLD WORKING WITHOUT
THE RISK OF FRACTURING. THE PROCEDURE INVOLVES ELEVATING THE
TEMPERATURE TO A POINT JUST BELOW THE FERRITE-AUSTENITE REGION,
SPECIFICALLY AROUND LINE A1 ON THE DIAGRAM, WHICH IS APPROXIMATELY
727 ºC (1341 ºF). WARMING IT TO APPROXIMATELY 700 ºC (1292 ºF) SHOULD
BE ADEQUATE FOR THIS PURPOSE.
TYPES OF ANNEALING:
1. SOFT ANNEALING - SOFT ANNEALING IS A HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS
THAT INVOLVES HEATING A MATERIAL, TYPICALLY A METAL OR ALLOY, TO A
SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE AND THEN COOLING IT SLOWLY TO MAKE THE
MATERIAL SOFTER AND MORE DUCTILE. THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF SOFT
ANNEALING IS TO RELIEVE INTERNAL STRESSES, IMPROVE MACHINABILITY,
AND ENHANCE CERTAIN MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
MATERIAL.
2. FULL ANNEALING - FULL ANNEALING IS A HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS USED
TO SOFTEN AND REFINE THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL, TYPICALLY A
METAL OR ALLOY. THE PROCESS INVOLVES HEATING THE MATERIAL TO A
TEMPERATURE ABOVE ITS CRITICAL TRANSFORMATION TEMPERATURE AND
THEN COOLING IT SLOWLY IN A CONTROLLED MANNER. THE PRIMARY
OBJECTIVES OF FULL ANNEALING INCLUDE REDUCING HARDNESS,
IMPROVING MACHINABILITY, AND REFINING THE GRAIN STRUCTURE.
3. STRESS RELIEF ANNEAL - STRESS RELIEF ANNEALING IS A HEAT TREATMENT
PROCESS DESIGNED TO REDUCE OR ELIMINATE INTERNAL STRESSES WITHIN A
MATERIAL, TYPICALLY METALS AND ALLOYS. THESE INTERNAL STRESSES CAN
ARISE FROM VARIOUS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES SUCH AS WELDING,
MACHINING, OR COLD WORKING. STRESS RELIEF ANNEALING IS NOT
INTENDED TO CHANGE THE MATERIAL'S MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
SIGNIFICANTLY BUT RATHER TO ENHANCE DIMENSIONAL STABILITY AND
REDUCE THE RISK OF DISTORTION OR CRACKING DURING SUBSEQUENT
PROCESSING OR USE.
SPHEROIDIZATION - SPHEROIDIZATION ANNEALING IS A SPECIFIC TYPE OF
HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS AIMED AT TRANSFORMING THE
MICROSTRUCTURE OF CERTAIN HIGH-CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS. THE
PROCESS INVOLVES HEATING THE MATERIAL TO A TEMPERATURE WITHIN A
SPECIFIC RANGE, HOLDING IT AT THAT TEMPERATURE FOR AN EXTENDED
PERIOD, AND THEN SLOW COOLING. THE PRIMARY OBJECTIVE OF
SPHEROIDIZATION ANNEALING IS TO CONVERT THE CARBIDES IN THE STEEL,
TYPICALLY CEMENTITE, INTO A SPHEROIDAL OR GLOBULAR SHAPE.
NORMALIZING - NORMALIZATION IS A METHOD EMPLOYED TO ACHIEVE
CONSISTENCY IN BOTH GRAIN SIZE AND COMPOSITION ACROSS AN ALLOY.
TYPICALLY APPLIED TO FERROUS ALLOYS, THIS PROCESS INVOLVES HEATING
THE MATERIAL ABOVE ITS UPPER CRITICAL TEMPERATURE AND
SUBSEQUENTLY ALLOWING IT TO COOL IN OPEN AIR. NORMALIZED STEELS
ARE HARDER AND STRONGER THAN AN-NEALED STEELS.
Ceramic materials are a class of inorganic, non-metallic solids made from
compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements. These materials are
extensively studied in the field of materials science and engineering.
Ceramics exhibit a wide range of properties, making them suitable for various
applications.
Ceramics are composed of inorganic compounds, typically consisting of
metallic and non-metallic elements. Common examples include oxides,
nitrides, carbides, and silicates.
INORGANIC PROPERTY OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
• The inorganic properties of ceramic materials refer to
characteristics that arise from their composition, which
is predominantly made up of inorganic compounds.
• i.e. Glasses, Phosphates, Oxynitrides, Carbides,
Nitrides, etc.
HIGH MELTING POINT OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
• Ceramics are known for their high melting points, a
property that distinguishes them from many other
materials.
• Ceramics can withstand high temperatures without
deforming or melting.
HARDNESS AND WEAR RESISTANCE OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
• Ceramics are tough and can be very hard, but can be
easily broken if hit hard.
• Ceramics are known for their hardness. This property
makes ceramics suitable for applications where
hardness is essential, such as cutting tools and
abrasives.
BRITTLENESS OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
• The brittleness of ceramic materials refers to their
tendency to fracture or break without significant
deformation when subjected to stress. Unlike metals,
which can undergo plastic deformation, ceramics
typically exhibit a brittle behavior.
• The brittleness of ceramics influences their use in
certain applications. While they may be unsuitable for
parts subjected to high tensile stresses, they are often
chosen for applications where high compressive
strength and hardness are essential.
ELECTRICAL INSULATION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
• Electrical insulator ceramics are materials that don't
conduct electricity well. They're like the opposite of
metals, which are good conductors.
• Because of their ability to block electricity, these
ceramics are handy in electronics. They are used to
insulate and separate electrical components,
preventing unintended connections and ensuring that
electricity goes where it's supposed to without leaks.
CHEMICAL STABILITY OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
• The chemical stability of ceramics contributes to their
longevity in harsh environments. They can endure
conditions that might cause degradation in other
materials.
• The chemical stability of ceramics can be further
enhanced by applying glazes or coatings. These layers
act as protective barriers, preventing direct exposure of
the ceramic to corrosive substances.
LOW THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
• Thermal conductivity is a measure of a
material's ability to conduct heat. Low thermal
conductivity means that the material is not efficient at
transmitting heat.
• Ceramic materials are used in various insulation
applications, such as
⚬ Building Insulation: Ceramic tiles, bricks, and
fibers are employed for thermal insulation
in buildings.
⚬ High-Temperature Insulation: Ceramics are
used as insulating materials in high-
temperature environments, such as
furnaces and kilns.
TYPES OF CERAMIC
PORCELAIN - Porcelain is a type of ceramic material that is known for its
white, translucent appearance, strength, and durability. It is made from a
specific type of clay, often referred to as kaolin or china clay, which is fired at
a high temperature. Porcelain has been historically valued for its beauty and
versatility, and it has a wide range of applications, including in the production
of dinnerware, decorative items, and technical components.
EARTHENWARE - Earthenware is a type of ceramic material that has been
used for thousands of years for both practical and artistic purposes. It is one
of the oldest and most traditional forms of pottery.
STONEWARE - Stoneware is another type of ceramic material, distinct from
earthenware and porcelain. Stoneware is valued for its durability, strength,
and versatility.
- Stoneware occupies a middle ground between the porous
earthenware and the refined, translucent porcelain. Its balance of durability,
aesthetic possibilities, and functionality makes it a popular choice for a wide
range of ceramic applications.
TERRA COTTA - Terra cotta, which means "baked earth" in Italian, refers to a
type of clay-based ceramic that has been used for centuries for both
functional and decorative purposes.
Materials In Making Ceramics
• Clays: Various types of clay serve as primary raw
materials for ceramics.
⚬ Kaolin: White clay used for porcelain.
• Alumina (Aluminum Oxide): Provides hardness and
strength.
• Silicate Glasses: Used in glass ceramics.
• Water: Essential for mixing and forming clay bodies.
• Talc: Improves thermal expansion and workability.
NANOMATERIALS
A nanomaterial is a material that has at least one dimension (length, width,
or height) on the nanoscale, typically in the range of 1 to 100 nanometers. At
this scale, the properties of the material can differ significantly from those at
the macroscale due to quantum effects and increased surface area.
A nanoparticle is an extremely tiny particle, typically having dimensions in
the range of 1 to 100 nanometers (a nanometer is one billionth of a meter).
Nanoparticles can be made of various materials, such as metals, ceramics, or
polymers, and they exhibit unique properties due to their small size.
A nanotube is a tiny tube-like structure that is extremely small, typically on
the nanoscale. Nanotubes are cylindrical in shape and can be made from
various materials, including carbon, metals, or polymers. One of the most
well-known examples of nanotubes is the carbon nanotube (CNT). Carbon
nanotubes are made up of carbon atoms arranged in a cylindrical structure.
A nanocomposite is a material that combines two or more different types of
substances, where at least one of them has nanoscale dimensions. These
nanoscale components are often dispersed or integrated into a larger
material, creating a composite with enhanced properties compared to
traditional materials.
APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS
• ELECTRONICS AND NANOELECTRONICS
• MEDICINE AND DRUG DELIVERY
• ENERGY STORAGE AND CONVERSION
• AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
• ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS
BIOMATERIALS
A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to interact with
biological systems for medical purposes. These materials are used in various
medical applications to replace or repair tissues and organs within the human
body. Biomaterials can be natural or synthetic and are designed to be
compatible with living tissues.
A synthetic biomaterial is a substance that is engineered to interact with
biological systems for various medical or biological applications. These
materials are designed to mimic the properties of natural biological materials
or to have specific properties that make them suitable for use in medical
devices, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and other biomedical applications.
POLYMERS AND COMPOSITES
Polymer refers to a large molecule composed of repeating structural units,
which are often connected by covalent chemical bonds. These repeating
units, called monomers, are small molecules that can bond together to form
a long chain. The process of forming a polymer from monomers is known as
polymerization.
BASIC MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF POLYMERS
• Linear - refers to the arrangement of polymer chains in
a straight or nearly straight configuration without
significant branching or cross-linking.
• Branched - refers to a polymer chain that has side
chains or branches extending from the main backbone
• Cross-linked - refer to a network of chemical bonds that
connect the polymer chains to each other. This process
is called cross-linking, and it results in the formation of
a three-dimensional network within the polymer
matrix.
• Network - are complex polymers that are heavily linked
to form a complex network of three-dimensional
linkages.
TYPES OF POLYMERS
Natural polymers are produced by biological systems, and are large
molecules that occur naturally in living organisms.
Some common examples of Naturally Occurring Polymers are:
Hemp (Abaka) - can be utilized in polymer composites to create a more
sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional materials. Hemp fibers,
derived from the stalks of the hemp plant, can be incorporated into polymers
to enhance their mechanical properties and reduce Aimpact.
Shellac - is a natural resin from lac bugs, mainly found in India and Thailand.
When we talk about shellac polymer, it means modifying shellac to create a
polymer. This involves breaking down shellac into simpler components and
then reassembling them through polymerization reactions.
Amber - is a polymer that is synthesized or derived from amber, a fossilized
tree resin. Amber is known for its rich color and ability to preserve ancient
organisms. The polymerization of amber involves creating a material with
specific properties by chemically altering and processing the resin. This type
of polymer might find applications in various industries, such as jewelry,
manufacturing, or research, depending on its specific properties
Wool - is not a polymer in the traditional sense; however, it is composed of
natural polymers. The primary component of wool is a protein called keratin.
Keratin is a complex, naturally occurring polymer made up of amino acid
monomers.
Silk - is a natural polymer composed of proteins. It is primarily produced by
insects, with the silkworm being one of the most well-known silk-producing
insects. The main protein in silk is fibroin, and sericin is another protein
present in smaller amounts. Fibroin is a fibrous protein with unique
properties that make silk highly valued.
Natural Rubber - is obtained from the latex sap of certain trees, primarily the
rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). The latex is collected, and it contains
polyisoprene in a colloidal state. Through a process called coagulation, the
latex is converted into a solid form, and the resulting material is natural
rubber.
Cellulose is a natural polymer and one of the most abundant organic
compounds on Earth. It is a linear polysaccharide composed of repeating
units of glucose linked together by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Cellulose is a
crucial structural component in the cell walls of plants, providing strength and
rigidity to plant cells.
SYNTHETIC POLYMER
A synthetic polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural
units known as monomers. These polymers are created through chemical
synthesis, as opposed to natural polymers that are found in living organisms.
There are various types of synthetic polymers, and they are widely used in
everyday materials and products. Some common examples include:
Polyethylene - is one of the most widely used synthetic polymers and belongs
to the family of polyolefins. It is a versatile plastic with a wide range of
applications due to its desirable properties, including flexibility, chemical
resistance, and low cost of production. The monomer for polyethylene is
ethylene (C2H4).
• High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE): This type of
polyethylene has a higher density and is often used for
applications requiring stiffer and more rigid plastics,
such as bottles, pipes, and containers.
• Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE): LDPE has a lower
density and is more flexible. It is commonly used for
applications like plastic bags, packaging films, and
tubing.
Polypropylene (PP) - is a thermoplastic polymer, meaning that it can be
melted and reshaped multiple times without undergoing significant
degradation. It’s chemical formula is (C3H6)n.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - is a synthetic polymer made by linking together
vinyl chloride molecules. It has various applications because of its durability,
resistance to chemicals, and adaptability. PVC is used in making pipes,
electrical cables, clothing, construction materials, and more.
Polystyrene - is a man-made plastic made from a chemical called styrene. It is
clear, rigid, and often used in packaging, disposable products, and insulation.
While it has useful properties, like transparency and thermal stability, it has
faced environmental concerns, especially the foam type.
Nylon - is a tough and durable synthetic polymer known for its strength. It's
created through specific chemical reactions, resulting in a structure with
repeating units. Nylon is resistant to chemicals and commonly used in textiles
(like clothing and carpets), engineering components, and various everyday
items due to its toughness and versatility.
Polyester - is a synthetic polymer made by combining chemicals like ethylene
glycol and terephthalic acid. One common type is polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), which is used for things like clothing fibers and beverage bottles.
Polyester is known for its strength, resistance to wrinkles, and recyclability.
It's often blended with other materials for different properties and has
widespread use in textiles and packaging.
Composites are materials made by combining two or more different types of
components with distinct physical or chemical properties. The goal is to
create a material that has improved and tailored properties compared to its
individual components. The components of a composite material are typically
a matrix and reinforcement.
• Matrix: This is the main part that holds everything
together. It can be made of things like plastic, metal, or
ceramic. The matrix gives strength, stiffness, and
protection.
• Reinforcement: These are materials added to the
matrix to make the composite better. Common
reinforcements include fibers like glass or carbon, as
well as particles. Reinforcements are chosen for their
strength and other good qualities.
COMPOSITES THAT IS MOSTLY USED IN THE MARINE INDUSTRY:
• Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP): Glass fibers in
epoxy or polyester resin. High strength, lightweight,
corrosion-resistant. Used in boat hulls and structural
components.
• Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP): Carbon fibers
in epoxy resin. Exceptional strength, lightweight. Used
in high-performance boats for weight reduction.
• Aluminum Matrix Composites: Aluminum reinforced
with ceramics or fibers. Good strength, lightweight,
corrosion-resistant. Used in ship and boat construction.
• Epoxy Resin Systems: Widely used as a matrix material.
Excellent adhesion, high strength, water, and chemical
resistance. Common in laminates and coatings for boat
construction.
• Kevlar Reinforced Composites: Synthetic Kevlar fibers
for high tensile strength and impact resistance. Used in
boat hulls for collision and rough condition resistance.
• Polyethylene (PE) and Polypropylene (PP) Composites:
Composites made from HDPE or PP. Used in boat
docks, pontoons. Resistant to water, chemicals, and UV
radiation.
COMMON APPLICATIONS AND TYPES OF COMPOSITES USED IN
CONSTRUCTION:

Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRP) - are composite materials made up of a

polymer matrix reinforced with fibers. These materials combine the strength
and flexibility of fibers with the lightweight and corrosion-resistant properties
of polymers, resulting in a versatile and high-performance material. The most
common types of fibers used in FRP composites include glass fibers, carbon
fibers, aramid fibers, and basalt fibers.

Composite Panels - refer to materials that are made by combining two or

more distinct substances to create a new material with enhanced properties.
These panels typically consist of a combination of a core material and a facing
or skin material. The core provides structural stability, while the facing
material contributes to specific performance characteristics.

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) - is a composite material that

consists of carbon fibers embedded in a polymer matrix. This material
combines the strength and stiffness of carbon fibers with the flexibility and
lightweight characteristics of polymers, resulting in a high-performance
material with various applications across different industries.

Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) - is a composite material made up of

glass fibers and a polymer matrix, typically a thermosetting resin such as
epoxy, polyester, or vinyl ester. This combination results in a material that
exhibits improved strength, stiffness, and durability compared to the
individual components.

Composite Pipes and Tanks - refer to structures that are made using a
combination of different materials rather than being composed of a single
material. This approach allows for the advantages of each material to be
utilized, resulting in a product with improved performance and durability.

3D-Printed Composites - refer to materials that combine two or more

different types of materials, typically a matrix material and reinforcement
fibers, through a three-dimensional printing process. This technique allows
for the creation of complex structures with unique properties, tailored for
specific applications.