MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

Materials as a component used in various applications such as construction, aerospace,

automotive, and biomedical industries are inevitably subjected to mechanical loads and forces.
Therefore, a s a material scientist or engineer, it is required to have a grasp of knowledge and
understanding on the characteristics of material.

Mechanical properties of materials depend on their composition and microstructure. The material’s
composition, nature of bonding, crystal fracture, and defects have a major impact on the strength and
ductility of materials. The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response to deformation in
relation to an applied load or force. The loads are categorized in either tensile, compressive, bending,
shear, or torsion. Strain is the response of a material to stress and is described as the elongation change
in dimension per unit length. Moreover, the mechanical properties of a material may vary and often
change as a function of time, rate of loading, and other conditions.

Testing these properties is very crucial, hence a standard is set by an organization in United States
named as American Society for testing and materials (ASTM) which is composed of multiple volumes
which are publish and updated annually. It encompasses numerous standards on mechanical testing
techniques to ensure the accuracy of tests results being gathered.

Studying mechanical properties involves the basic understanding on the terminology usually used in
describing and quantifying mechanical properties of a material.

 Stress – it is an application of force to an object externally and measures the ratio of that
external for to the cross sectional are of the material. Tensile and compressive stressed are
commonly involve in load-bearing application. These are under normal stress which is referred to
as the perpendicular force being applied to the area of interest. Tension usually results to
elongation, whereas compression causes shortening. Moreover, shear stress is mostly encounter
in processing of materials. It is defined as the applied force parallel to the area of interest.

 Strain – is the response of a material exposed stress. It is AMOUNT OF DEFORMATION

EXPERIENCED BY A BODY IN THE DIRECTION OF FORCE APPLIED OVER THE ORIGINAL
DIMENSIONS OF THE BODY

 stress strain diagram

Th e

IT REPERESENTS THE RELATIONSHIP OF STRESS AND STRAIN. A CURVE WHICH RELATES THE STRESS AND
STRAIN IS PRODUCED WHEN A MATERIAL HAD UNDERGONE MECHANICAL TESTING. THE CURVE SERVES
AS THE DATA OF THE MATERIAL BEING VISUALLY DISPLAYED AS IT BEING DISTURBED BY A MECHANICAL
LOADING. THE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE HAS AN IMPORTANT FUNCTION SINCE IT CAN DETERMINE THE
PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL BY PROVIDING A GRAPHICAL MEASUREMENT OF THE STRENGTH AND
ELASTICITY OF THE MATERIAL AFTER IT PERMANENETLY DEFORM. FUTHERMORE, THE BEHAVIOR OF THE
MATERIAL CAN ALSO BE EXAMINED THROUGH THE DIAGRAM

The stress-strain graph has different points or regions as follows:

 Proportional limit
  Elastic limit
 Yield point
 Ultimate stress point
 Fracture or breaking point
(i) Proportional Limit
The region in the stress-strain curve obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress ratio with strain
gives us a proportionality constant known as young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph is called
the proportional limit.

(ii) Elastic Limit

It is the point in the graph where the material returns to its original position when the load acting on
it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original position, and a
plastic deformation starts to appear in it.

(iii) Yield Point

The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically. After the
yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are two yield points (i) upper
yield point and (ii) lower yield point.

(iv) Ultimate Stress Point:

It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure. Beyond
this point, failure occurs.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point:

It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.

THE TENSILE TEST IS A MACHINE USED TO STUDY THE mechanical PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL BY
APPLING A UNIDIRECTIONAL FORCE TO A SPECIMEN THROUGH A MOVABLE CROSSHEAD. IT MEASURES
THE RESISTANCE OF A MATERIAL TO THE MECHANICAL LOADING FROM A STATIC TO GRADUAL
INCREMENTS OF FORCE UNTIL IT FRACTURES TO DETERMIN KEY PROPERTIES OF THE MERTIAL BEING
TESTED. MATERIAL’S DATA AND INFORMATION SUCH AS THE STRENGTH, YOUNG’S MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY, AND DUCTILITY CAN BE DRAWN OUT BY GOING THROUGH THIS ANALYSIS. TYPICALLY, THIS
MACHINE IS CONDUCTED ON METALS, ALLOYS, AND PLASTICS. HOWEVER, IT IS NTO IDEAL ON CERAMIC
TESTING FOR THE REASON OF INCAPABILITY TO WITHSTAND FRACTURE WITH LESS TO NO PERMANENT
DEFORMATION.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES CAN BE DETERMINED BY THE STRESS APPLING TO THE MATERIAL WHICH IS
REFER TO THE ENGINEERING STRESS. IT IS OBTAINED BY DIVIDING THE FORCE APPLIED TO THE ORIGINAL
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF THE DEFORMED SPECIMEN. ENGNIEERING STRAIN ON THE OTHER HAND,
RESPONSE OF THE MATERIAL WHICH ENGINEERING STRESS IS APPLIED. A unitless measurement to
determine the deformation on the specimen being tested.

PROPERTIES OBTAINED FROM THE TENSILE TEST:

 YIELD STRENGTH
- IT AN INDICATION OF MAXIMUM STRESS THAT A MATERIAL CAN RESIST WITHOUT
CAUSING PLASTIC DEFORMATION. BY EVALUATING THE STRESS-STRAIN CURE, IT IS
THE POINT WHEREIN IT CEASES TO BE ELASTIC AND PERMANENT DEFORMATION IS
APPARENT IF APPLIED WITH ADDITIONAL STRESS. A MATERIAL SUBJECTED INTO
TENSILE TEST INITIALLY EXHIBIT ELASTICITY WHEN STRETCHED. AFTER SOME TIME
 OF INCREASING STRESS WHICH EXCEEDS THE ELASTIC LIMIT, THE MATERIAL WILL
DEFORM PERMANENTLY. FURTHER APPLICATION OF TENSILE FORCE WILL THEN
RESULT TO NECKING (DEFINE). AS THE STRESS INCREASES AS THE FUNCTION OF
TIME, THE MATERIAL WILL NO LONGER RESIST THE MASSIVE AMOUNT OF STRESS IT
TAKES, THEREFORE, THE MATERIAL WILL FRACTURE.

 TENSILE STRENGTH – IT IS THE STRESS OBTAINED AT THE HIGHEST POINT IN THE ENGINEERING
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE. MATERIALS THAT ARE DUCTILE USUALLY EXPERIENCE NECKING WHEN
REACHED THE MAXIMUM STRESS-STRAIN (ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH) IT IS CAPABLE TO
TAKE. THE DEFOMATION ON THE MATERIAL IS NOT UNIFORM IN EVERY SECTION. AT SOME
POINT, THERE IS AN EXISTENCE OF UNSIMILAR DEFORMATION AND A DECREASE IN CROSS-
SECTIONAL AREA OCCURS TO THE POINT WHERE DEFORMATION IS CONSCIPCUOUSLY SEEN THE
OTHER POINTS ON THE SPECIMEN. THIS PHENOMENON IS REFERRED TO AS NECK DUE TO THE
POINT OF INTEREST WHERE THE AREA RAPIDLY DECREASES AS THE TENSION AND
DEFORMATION INCREASES. DUCTILE MATERIALS TENSILE STRENGTH IS PREDETERMINED BY THE
START OF NECKING. NONETHELESS, IF THE MATERIAL IS SUBJECTED TO COMPRESSION TESTING,
THE MATERIALS NORMALLY BULGE (INCREASE IN AREA AND SHORTEN THE LENGTH)
 ELASTIC PROPERTIES – YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY IS THE SLOPE OF THE STRESS-STRAIN
CURVE IN THE ELASTIC REGION. THE RELATIONSHIP IS DEFINED BY THE HOOKE’S LAW WHEREBY
STATING THAT THERE IS A LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELONGATION AND THE AXIAL
FORCE IN THE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE. THE STEEPNESS OF THE SLOPE HAS A CORRELATION WITH
THE BINDING ENERGY AND HIGHER MELTING POINT WHICH MEANS THAT THE MATERIAL HAS A
HIGH INTERMOLECULAR AND STRUCTURAL FORCE TO STRETCH THE BOND; THUS, THE MATERIAL
HAS HIGH MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. YOUNG’S MODULUS IS A MEASURE OF THE STIFFNESS OF A
COMPONENT. A MATERIAL WITH HIGH MODULUS OF ELASTICITY TEND TO SHOW MINIMAL
CHANGES IN DIMENSION AFTER SMALL APPLICATION OF STRESS, CHARACTERIZED TO HAVE
UNDERGONE ONLY ELASTIC DEFORMATION. MOST ENGINEERS, VIEW STIFFNESS AS A FUNCTION
OF BOTH THE YOUNG’S MODULUS AND THE GEOMETRY OF A COMPONENT.

 POISSON’S RATIO –It provides information about a material's response to loading in different
directions. It is often used to predict how a material will behave when subjected to various types
of loading, such as tension, compression, or bending. IT RELATES THE LONGITUDINAL ELASTIC
DEFORMATION PRODUCED BY EITHER SIMPLE TENSILE OR COMPRESSVE STRESS TO THE LATERAL
DEFORMATION THAT OCCURS. Poisson's ratio can range from 0 to 0.5 for most common
materials, where a value of 0 corresponds to a perfectly incompressible material, and a value of
0.5 corresponds to a material that has no resistance to lateral deformation. The Poisson's ratio of
a material is determined by its microstructure and can vary depending on factors such as
temperature, pressure, and strain rate.
 MODULUS OF RESILIENCE – Mechanical property of materials. It is a measure of the amount of
energy that a material can absorb before it undergoes permanent deformation or fracture. AREA
CONTAINED UNDER THE ELASTIC PORTION OF A STRESS-STRAIN. It is often used to compare the
energy absorption capabilities of different materials and to determine their suitability for specific
applications, such as in springs or shock absorbers. Modulus of resilience is also used in
 materials selection and design to ensure that a component or structure can withstand the
expected stresses and loads without undergoing permanent deformation or failure.
 RESILIENCE - is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. It is defined as the maximum amount of
energy per unit volume that can be absorbed by a material when it is elastically deformed up to
its yield point. Resilience is expressed in units of joules per cubic meter (J/m^3) or foot-pounds
per cubic inch (ft-lb/in^3).
 TENSILE TOUGHNESS- It is described as the energy absorbed by a material prior to fracture often
measured under true stress-strain curve. Tensile toughness is defined as the area under the
stress-strain curve of a material up to the point of fracture, which represents the total amount of
energy required to fracture the material. It is often expressed in units of joules per square meter
(J/m^2) or foot-pounds per square inch (ft-lb/in^2).
 DUCTILITY- ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO BE PERMANENTLY DEFORMED WITHOUT BREAKING
WHEN A FORCE IS APPLIED. DUCTILITY CAN BE MEASURED INTO 2 WAYS: PERCENT ELONGATION
AND PERCENT REDUCTION IN AREA. THROUGH PERCENT ELONGATION WHICH QUANTIFIES THE
PERMANENT PLASTIC DEFORMATION AT FAILURE BY MEASURING THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE
GAUGE MARKS ON THE SPECIMEN BEFORE AND AFTER THE TEST (SHOW FORMULA). ON THE
OTHER HAND, PERCENT REDUCTION IN AREA DESCRIBES THE AMOUNT OF THINNING
UNDERGONE BY THE SPECIMEN DURING THE TEST.
- EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE – THE INTERNAL ENERGY AND THE TEMPERATURE HAS A
DIRECT RELATIONSHIP WITH EACH OTHER. AN INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE IS
SYNONYMOUS TO AN INCREASE IN INTERNAL ENERGY WHICH AFFECTS AND
CHANGES HOW MATERIAL RESPOND TO EXTERNAL FORCES. THIS INCLUDES THE
REDUCTION OF STRENGTH BECAUSE ATOMS HAD GIVEN AN ENERGY TO MOVE AND
VIBRATE WHICH DISRUPTS THE LATTICE STRUCTURE AND WEAKENS THE
COMPOSITION OF THE MATERIAL. MEANWHILE. IN ADDITION, MATERIALS BECOME
INELASTIC WHEN IS HEATED AND ELASTIC DEFORMATION MAY NOT BE SUSCEPTIBLE.
MEANWHILE, DUCTILITY, TOUGHNESS, AND CREEP GOES ALONG WITH HIGH
TEMPERATURE CODITIONS WHICH ENHANCES CAPABILITY OF A MATERIAL.
 TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN - GIVES TRUE INDICATION OF DEFORMATION
CHARACTERISITCS BECAUSE IT IS BASED ON THE INSTANTANEOUS DIMENSION OF THE
SPECIMEN. IN ENGINEERIN SS CURVE, THE STRESS DROPS DOWN AFTER NECKING SINCE
IT IS BASED ON THE ORIGINAL AREA. IN THE TRU SS CURVE, THE STRESS HOWEVER
INCREASES AFTER NECKING SINCE THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF THE SPECIMEN
DECREASES RAPIDLY AFTER NECKING.
 BRITTLENESS – A metal that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is
termed brittle. FAILURE OCCURS IN MAXIMUM LOAD, WHERE THE TENSILE AND BREAKING
STRENGTH ARE THE SAME SPECIFICALLY FOR THIS TYPE OF MATERIALS. CERAMICS, FOR
EXAMPLE A BRITTLE MATERIAL HAS THE SAME YIELD, TENSILE, AND BREAKING STRENGTH. AS AN
EVALUATIN, TENSILE TEST CANNOT DO THE JOB TO TEST THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
BRITTLE MATERIALS. THEREFORE, BEND TEST IS NECESSARY, BY APPLYING LOAD AT THREE
PARTICULAR POINTS WHICH CAUSES THE BENDING. THE TENSILE FORCE IS ACTS OPPOSITE IN
THE MATERIAL’S MIDPOINT, WHERE FRACTURE BEGINS. FLEXURAL STRENGTH OR MODULUS OF
 RUPTURE IS THE SAME AS THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY IN BENDING WHICH DESCRIBES THE
MATERIAL’S STRENGTH
 HARDNESS – MEASURES THE RESISTANCE TO PENETRATION ON THE SURFACE OF A MATERIAL BY
A HARD OBJECT. HARDNESS REPRESENTS THE RESISTANCE TO SCRATCHING OR INDENTATION
AND A QUALITATIVE MEASURE, TERMED AS MOHS SCALE is used to measure THE STRENGTH OF
MATERIAL. IN MEASURING HARDNESS IN MACROSCALE, THERE ARE VARIETY OF TESTS THAT CAN
BE DEVISED SUCH AS ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST AND BRINELL HARDNESS TEST. (DIAGRAMS
AND FORMULAS). MOREOVER, MICROHARDNESS TESTS SUCH AS KNOOP AND VICKERS TESTS
AREALSO INTRODUCED TO FORM SUCH INDENTATIONS AT A MICROSCOPIC LEVEL. IT IS
SUITABLEFOR MATERIALS THAT HAVE HIGHER HARDNESS THAN THE BULK.
 FATIGUE- LOWERING OF STRENGTH OR FAILURE OF A MATERIAL DUE TO REPETITIVE STRESS
WHICH MAY BE ABOVE OR BELOW THE YIELD STRENGTH. IT MAY OCCUR ALSO ON MATERIALS
WITH STRESS ABOVE THE YIELD STRENGTH DUE TO THE REPETITIVE APPLICATION OF STRESS.
FATIGUES TYPICALLY UNDERGOES THREE STAGES;
1. A TINY CRACK INITIATES OR NUCLEATES TYPICALLY AT THE SURFACE, OFTEN DURING
A PERIOD OF TIME AFTER THE APPLICATION OF LOAD BEGINS. THESE NUCLEATES
ARE NORMALLY START AT OR NEAR THE SURFACES WHERE THE STRESS IS AT
MAXIMUM AS WELL AS THE SURFACE DEFECTS ARE LOCATED,
2. THE CRACK GRADUALLY PROPAGATES AS THE LOAD CONTINUOUS TO
MECHANICALLY DISTURB THE MATERIAL
3. A SUDDEN FRACTURE WILL THEN EMERGE IN THE MATERIAL WHEN THE REMAINING
CROSS-SECTION AREA IS TOO SMALL FOR THE MATERIAL TO HANDLE THE EXTERNAL
FORCE

Fatigue failures are often easy to identify. The fracture surface—particularly near the origin—is typically
smooth. The surface becomes rougher as the original crack increases in size and may be fibrous during
final crack propagation. Microscopic and macroscopic examinations reveal a fracture surface including a
beach mark pattern and striation

 CREEP – IT IS A TIME DEPENDENT PLASTIC DEFORMATIN UNDER A CONSTANT LOAD AT ELEVATED

TEMPERATURE. permanent deformation under load over a period of time; dependent on
temperature. A large number of failures occurring in components used at high temperatures can
be attributed to creep or a combination of creep and fatigue. Essentially, in creep the material
begins to flow slowly. Di¤usion, dislocation glide or climb, or grain boundary sliding can
contribute to the CREEP OF METALLIC MATERIALS. A creep TEST involves a tensile specimen
under a constant load maintained at a constant temperature. At relatively high temperature,
creep appears to occur at all stress levels, but the creep rate increases with increasing stress at a
given temperature. the applications are studying material behavior at elevated temperature such
as turbine blades, nuclear reactor components, jet engines, heat exchangers, ETC.

 OBJ: EXPLORE ELEC’L PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND THEIR

RESPONSE TO AN APPLIED ELECTRIC FIELD.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES (BAND GAP)
- ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF A METERIAL ARE THOSE WHICH CLASSIFIED AS
MATERIALS HAVING THE ABILITY TO CONDUCT ELECTRICAL CURRENT. zEVALUATION
OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES IS AN IMPORTANT PART ON THE ANALYSIS OF
COMPONENT-STRUCTURE ASSEMBLY. MATERIALS HAVING ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
ARE TYPICALLY USED IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION
APPLICATIONS.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (SIGMA) – THE MAGNITUDE OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IS TRONGLY

DEPENDENT ON THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS AVAILABLE TO PARTICIPATE THE CONDUCTION PROCESS. IT
IS A DIRECT FUNCTION OF THE NUMBER OF FREE ELECTRONS WHICH ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR
CONDUCTIONS PROCESS AND HOLES THAT ARE FOUND IN SEMINCONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS.
WHEN AN ELECTRIC FIELD IS APPLIED, A FORCE IS BROUGHT TO CARRY THE FREE ELECTRONS AND
ACCELERATE TO OPPOSITE DIRECTION TO THAT FIELD, BY VIRTUE OF THEIR NEGATIVE CHARGE.
ACCORDING TO QUANTUM MECHANICS, THERE IS NO INTERACTION BETWEEN AN ACCELERATING
ELECTRON AND THE ATOMS IN A PERFECT CRYSTAL LATTICE. IN SUCH MANNER, ALL FREE ELECTRONS
WILL ACCELERATE AS LONG AS ELECTRIC FIELD IS APPLIED AND HENCE GIVE RISE TO ELECTRIC CURRENT
WITH INCREASING AMOUNT OVER TIME.

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY - FRICTIONAL LOSSES EMERGED WHEN THE CURRENT REACHES A CONSTANT
VALUE. IT COUNTERS THE ACCELERATION AND SCATTERING OF ELECTRONS EXIST DUE TO THE
IMPERFECTIONS IN THE CRYSTAL LATTICE AND LOWERS THE CONDUCTIVITY. THE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
AND CONDUCTIVITY HAVE RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP WITH EACH OTHER. THEREFORE, A DECREASE IN
CONDUCTIVITY RESULTS TO AN INCREASE IN RESISTIVITY. THESE IMPURITIES ARE IDENTIFIED AS
IMPURITY ATOMS, VACANCIESM INTERSITIAL ATOMS, DISLOCATIONS, AND THERMAL VIBRATIONS OF
THE ATOMS. THE SCATERRING PHENOMENON ACTS AS A RESISTANCE TO THE PASSAGE PF THE ELECTRIC
CURRENT. IT CAN BE DESCRIBED BY DRIFT VELOCITY, DEFINE AS THE AVERAGE ELECTRON VELOCITY IN
THE DIRECTION OF THE FORCE IMPOSED BY THE FIELD, WHEREAS ELECTRON MOBILITY IS AN INDICATOR
OF HOW FREQUENT THE SCATTERING EVENTS OCCUR. THE CONCENTRATION OF THESE IMPERFECTION
THAT INCREASES THE RESISTIVITY OF A MATERIAL FOR CURRENT TO FLOW IS DEPENDENT ON
TEMPERATURE, COMPOSITION, AND DEGREE OF COLD WORK OF A METAL SPECIMEN. ACCORDING TO
MATTHIESSEN’S RULE, THE TOTAL RESISTIVITY OF A MATERIAL, SPECIFICALLY METAL, IS THE SUM OF
IMPURITIES, THERMAL VIBRATIONS, AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION THAT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR
SCATTERING MECHANISM THAT ELECTRONS BEHAVE

SEMICONDUCTIVITY – SEMICONDUCTORS ARE MATERIALS THAT HAVE AN ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

BETWEEN IN THAT OF INSULATORS AND CONDUCTORS. THEY ARE SPECIAL TYPES OF MATERIALS THAT
CAN CONDUCT ELECTRICITY AT SPECIFIED CONDITIONS. SEMICONDUCTORS ARE FURTHER CLASSIFIED
INTO TWO CATERGORIES: THE INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC. THE CONDUCTIVITY OF AN INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR DEPENDS ON THE SURROUNDING TEMPERATURE. AT ROOM TEMPERATURE, IT IS
TEND TO HAVE LOW CONDUCTING CAPABILITIES. DUE TO THIS REASON, IT IS CONSIDERED UNSUITABLE
TO USE IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES. NONETHELESS, EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS HAVE AN ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY THAT CAN BE CONTROLLED AND MANIPULATED THROUGH DOPING, WHICH IS AN
INTENTIONAL INCLUSION OF IMPURITIES ONTO THE MATERIAL TO ALTER ITS ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES.
THUS, ENABLING IT TO PERFORM SPECIFIC ELECTRONIC FUNCTIONS SUCH AS DIODES AND
TRANSISTORS.

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT - also known as relative permittivity, is a dimensionless quantity that describes
how easily a material can become polarized when placed in an electric field, relative to a vacuum. It is
defined as the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor filled with the dielectric material to the capacitance
of an identical capacitor with a vacuum or air filling. The dielectric constant is an important parameter in
the design of electronic components such as capacitors, where it affects the amount of charge that can
be stored.

DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR – A DIELECTRIC MATERIAL IS AN ELECTRICALLY INSULATING

(NONMETALLIC) AND EXHIBIT OR MADE TO EXHIBIT AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE STRUCTURE – THE SEPARATION
OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGED ENTITIES ON AN ATOMIC OR MOLECULAR LEVEL.
ALTHOUGH IT IS CHARACTERIZED TO BE A POOR CONDUCTOR, IT IS EFFICIENT SUPPORTER OF
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS, CAN STORE ELECTRICAL CHARGES, HAVE HIGH SPECIFIC RESISTANCE, AND A
NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE. THE ABILITY OF THIS MATERIAL CAN BE
MEASURED NY ITS PERMITTIVITY.

PERMITTIVITY - is a fundamental property of the material and does not depend on the specific geometry
of the system. Permittivity is a measure of a material's ability to store electrical energy in an electric
field. It is a fundamental electrical property of materials, and it determines the amount of electric flux
that can pass through a given area of material for a given electric field strength. The permittivity of a
material is typically measured in units of farads per meter (F/m) or picofarads per meter (pF/m). The
permittivity of a dielectric material is a measure of how easily it can be polarized by an electric field. The
higher the permittivity, the more electrical energy a dielectric material can store in an electric field.

CAPACITANCE - Capacitance is a measure of the ability of a system of conductors and dielectrics to store
electrical charge and energy when a voltage is applied. It depends on the geometry of the system, the
separation distance between the conductors, and the permittivity of the dielectric material between
them. The capacitance of a capacitor is given by the equation C = Q/V, where C is capacitance, Q is
charge, and V is voltage. The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the permittivity of the dielectric
material between its plates, as well as other factors such as the distance between the plates and the
geometry of the capacitor.

POLARIZATION - polarization is the alignment of permanent or induced atomic or molecular dipole

moments with an externally applied electric field. Polarization can occur in both insulators and
conductors, and it is a fundamental concept in the study of electric fields and electrostatics. There are
several types of polarization, which are categorized based on the underlying mechanism that causes the
alignment of dipole moments in a material:

Electronic polarization: This occurs in materials that have covalent or ionic bonding, such as insulators
and semiconductors. The external electric field causes a shift in the positions of the electrons in the
material, creating a temporary dipole moment.
Ionic polarization: This occurs in materials that have ionic bonding, such as some ceramics. The external
electric field causes the ions to move slightly in the material, creating a dipole moment.

Orientation polarization: This occurs in materials that have permanent dipole moments, such as some
molecules and some crystals. The external electric field causes the dipole moments to align in the
direction of the field.

DIELECTRIC STRENGTH - dielectric strength is an electrical property of a material. It is defined as the

maximum electric field that a dielectric material can withstand before it breaks down and begins to
conduct electricity. Dielectric strength is an important parameter for insulating materials, as it
determines the maximum voltage that can be applied across the material without causing electrical
breakdown. The dielectric strength of a material depends on factors such as its composition, thickness,
and temperature.

OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIAL

FERROELECTRICITY – electrical property exhibited by certain materials, similar to piezoelectricity.

Ferroelectric materials have a spontaneous electric polarization that can be reversed by applying an
external electric field. This property arises from the unique crystal structure of the material, which
consists of polar molecules arranged in a specific orientation. When an external electric field is applied, it
causes a reorientation of the polar molecules, resulting in a reversal of the polarization. This makes
ferroelectric materials useful for a variety of applications, such as memory devices, capacitors, and
sensors.

PIEZOELECTRICITY – AN UNUSUAL PHENOMENON CERAMIC MATERIALS AND POLYMERS TYPICALLY

BEHAVE. IT IS NOTED AS PRESSURE ELECTRICITY BECAUSE IT GENERATE AN ELECTRIC CHARGE IN
RESPONSE TO MECHANICAL STRESS OR PRESSURE. When a piezoelectric material is subjected to a
mechanical force, such as pressure or vibration, its crystal lattice structure deforms, causing a separation
of positive and negative charges within the material. This separation of charges generates an electric
field and a voltage across the material, creating an electric charge. Conversely, when an electric field is
applied to a piezoelectric material, it deforms the crystal lattice structure, causing a mechanical strain or
movement. This ability of piezoelectric materials to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, and
vice versa, makes them useful in a wide range of applications, such as in sensors, actuators, and
transducers.