Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.

1977-52

77-52

Los Angcles,
. CaIif./Jan\iary 24-26, 1977
M*IT- I
Forpermlssion lo c o p y or ropuhllsh. contact (he Amerlcari i n s l l i ~ i i sof A o r o n a u l i c s and A ~ l r o n a u l I ~ ~ .
'IZEO Avenue 01 tilo P.maclcrjs. New Y o r k , l 4 . Y . 10019.
 COMBUSTION MODELLING WITHIN GAS TUFBIh3 ENGINES,
SOME APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS.
J. Odgers.
Wniversite Laval,
Guhbec. Canada.
ABSTRKT.
A review i s given of some of t h e more p e r t i n e n t
models postulated t o describe t h e performance of gas
t u r b i n c combustors,Six d i f f e r e n t dcsign/development
s t a g e s a r e considered - ( a ) t h e i r d t i a l s i z i n g of a
combustor, ( b ) t h e i n i t i a l development t e s t i n g , ( c )
primary zone modelling, ( d ) secondary zone modelling
( e ) dil.ution zone modelline, ( f ) chailges due t o t h e
a l t e r a t i o n of ambient conditions. The models a r e
assessed i n scope, p l a u s i b i l i t y , experimentally,and
i n terms of time and economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n . For ( a )
it i s suggested t h a t a zero-dimensional model w i l l
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52
s u f f i c e , a s a l s o f o r ( b ) . Item ( c ) w i l l probably
r e q u i r e a three-dimensional model; ( d ) and ( e ) w i l l
probab1.y s u f f i c e with a one- o r two-dimensional
model. For item (f) a zero-order model might well
be s a t i s f a c t o r y . If it can be produced with s u f f i c -
i c n t accuracy, a s i n g l e complex (probably three-
dimensional) model could adequately describe a l l
items, ( a ) t o ( f ) . A s h o r t d i s c u s s i o n d e a l s with t h e
need of f u t u r e d a t a , and t h e paper recommends t h e
type of models which may be used c u r r e n t l y , and
those which a r e l i k e l y t o be used i n t h e future.
1. IWRODUCTION.
-
I_
It i s about t b j r t y years since t h e potcntial. of
-
pas t u r b i n e manufacture began t o make i t s e l f f e l t
as a major industpj. Due t o t h e high degree of
technology, it immediately bccamo obvious t h a t t h e
development of new combustion systems would be
expensive and time consuming. Hence a,search began
f o r an understanding of t h e combustion processes s o
t h a t modelling procedures could b e , i n s t i t u t e d . Most
o f t h e e a r l i e r parameters involved some form o r
o t h e r of Mach number s c a l i n g , s i n c e t h i s involved
most of t h e v a r i a b l c s of importance t o perfonnance.
Further, Mach numhsr c o r r e l a t e d with t h e pressure
drop a c r o s s t h e combustor, whi.ch i n t u r n , was a
function of t h e engine e f f i c i e n c y . Droplet evapo-
r a t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were a l s o explored, but it
was g e n e r a l l y conceded t h a t t h e droplehs had but
l i t t l e o v e r a l l e f f e c t providina t h a t t h e s i z e was
small ( about 80 t o 100 microns). I a t e r ! parametcrs
were introduced based upon g l o b a l r e a c t i o n s within
' p e r f e c t l y s t i r r e d rcactors'(PSA's). An a s p e c t ,
appreciated, but s t i l l very imperfectly understood,
i s t h e very complex mixing proccsses between a i r ,
f u e l and products of reaction. The demand f o r a long
l i f e engine has emphasiscd t h e necd t o b e t t e r t h e
knowledge of t h e heat t r a n s f e r processes within t h e
combustor arid t h e requirement f o r improved m a t e r i a l s
of construction.
A s t h e y e a r s progressed, cngineering 'know-how'
eriabled combustors t o be made whj.ch operated w i t h
high combustion i n t e n s i t i e s , and i n recent years it
has been rccognised t h a t t h e combusti.on processes
might limi~ht h e combustor s i z e a t some conditions,
whereas previollsly aerodynamics were always assur:ad
t o be t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r . Si.mtd.taneously with t h e
progress i n e w i n e e r i n g , t h e chcmnistry o f flames
has become b e t t e r knom, and many of t h e i n d i v i d u a l
r e a c t i o n s which comprise t h e process of t h e combus-
t i o n of hydrocarbons, have been i n v e s t i g a t e d and
t h e i r r a t e constants determined with f a i r accuracy.
Recently, p h y s i c i s t s have produced comprehensive
mixing theories. Thus many of t h e i n d i v i d u a l b r i c k s
a r e now a v a i l a b l e t o produce a comprehensive model.
It remains only t o invent a technique t o bind them
together. The cement e x i s t s i n . t h e form of l a r g e
compui.ers which a r e capable of sohri.!q t h c complex
equations.
The net r e s u l t i s , t h a t whereas twenty y e a r s
ago t h e engineer had t o 'make do' with elementary
and limited c o r r e l a t i o n r , today he i s faced with a
'multitude of models ranging from simple z e r o o r d e r
ones t o complex three-dimensional ones combining
a l l possible a s p e c t s of evaporation, mixing and
l d n e t i c considerations, both with and without
simultaneous heat t r a n s f e r .
-
From an e w i n e c r i m v i e m i n t . t h e ~
~
of a model i s , t o a l a r g e measure, based upon
" iustification
-
( a ) Does it p r e d i c t s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e l y ?
1
(b How much time j ~ sneeded t o o b t a i n a s o l u t i o n ?
( c How easy i s it t o understand t h e r e s u l t , and
what a r e t h e p o s s i b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s ?
( d ) What i s t h e f i n a n c i a l c o s t of t h e s o l u t i o n ?
Generally ( a ) and ( d ) a r e t h e most important,
but soma of t h e proposed models a r e now so complex
t h a t t h e average enginccr has d i f f i c u l t y i n under-
standing them, and very r i g h t l y he seeks an e x p e r t
t o a c t as consultant. U n f o r t m t e l y , sometimes t h e
consultant h i s a prablcrn i n a p p r e c i a t i n g e x a c t l y
what t h e e r g i n e e r r e q u i r e s from t h e model. The n e t
r e s u l t i s a c e r t a i n amount of confusion whorebv t h e
r e p u t a t i o n s of both engineer and consultant ( 0 ; t h e
model) may s u f f e r .
Therefore, what i s needed is an a p p r e c i a t i o n of
t h e types of model avail.able and t h e i r p o s s i b l e
a p p l i c a t i o n ( s ) , t h e l a t t e r o f t e n depending upon t h e
s t a t e of t h e development of t h e combustor. As an
exampl-e, unless 5.t was a p e r f e c t mode?, t h e r e would
be l i t t l e point 'to use a complex three-dimensional
model f o r t h e i n i t i a l s i z i n g of t h e combustor. Such
a model would, however, be very a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e
s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h c primary zone c o n d i t i o n s and
t h e i r e f f e c t s upon wall temperatures.
It i s t h e i r h e n t i o n of t h e s e n o t e s t o g i v e some
a i d j n t h i s type of s c l e c t i o n and t o i n d i c a t e ,
whers p o s s i b l e , t h e known accuracy of t h e model
s y g c s t e d and i t s l i m i t a t i o n s .
2 . MODFXS .WAILABLE.
-I_
There a r e so many models a v a i l a b l e t h a t it i s
impossible t o review a l l of them i n a paper such a s
t h i s . Tha ones mentioned here a r e t h o s e of which
t h e author has had some personal experience and/or
t h o s e which have somc mensure of populari.ty. The
m d c l s will be c l a s s i f i e d a s 0 -, -, -
1 2 and 3 -
d i m c n p i o r d , p l u s a sing1.e model s p e c i f i c a l l y aimed
a t furnaces but of p o s s i b l e applicat,ion t o g a s
t u r b i n e combustors. The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s not i d c a l ,
and some overlapping occuPs, but it i s convenient.
 2.1.. Zero - Dimensional Models.
T h i s type of model t r e a t s t h e c n t i r e r e a c t i o n
zone as a s i m l e unit. a n d L t i s t v n i f i a d bv t h e
J p e r f e c t l y s t i F r e d r e a c t o r (PSR) i;bhich veiocities,
temperatures, heat flux d e n o i t i e s and compositions
a r c uxifoim throughout t h e zone. An approach t o
such an i d e a l system was made by Lowwell e t a 1 c;]
usi.rg t h e i r well s t i r r e d reactor. Thi.s exhibite
most of t h e h r a c t e r i s t i c described by Bragg
.
Avery e t a 1 (35,and Vuli.3 41 The derived r a t e
b],
equations a r e slmple, but he accuracy depends
upon t h e approach t o homogeneity. Thrrcforc, they
a r e not d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o systems xhere
mixing processes a e predominant. Essanhigh
and SwAthenbank [62 have attempted t o correc
unmixedness,and f o r a s i n g l e r e a c t o r t h e i r rrmlts
a r e i n f a i r accord with experimental mcasurement.
The o r i g i n a l Longw?ll model. purported t o do no
more t h a n t o d e s c r i b e blow-out phenomena, and t o a
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52
lesser degree, t h e f r a c t i o n a l oxygen consumption
e f f i c i e n c y of t h e equjpment. The perfonnanco was
r e l a t e d t o t h e equation ( l e a n mixtures of a i r and
isMctane)
odgers e t a1 k , t o 14 experimented with a spher-
i c a l combustor i n an attempt t o r e l a t p i t s perfor-
mance t o t h a t of r e a l combustors. I n 7 t o 9 t h e
v a r i o u s p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s we e exmini; o v c a a wide
range of conditions. L a t e r t0] t h e s e r e s u l t s , and
t h o s e of o t h e r workers, were analysed and an
e a u a t i o n was obtained which described a l l t h e data.
Using Eqn.(2) as a b a s i s , t h e s t a b i l i t y and combus-
n = o , Y l l ~ o ~ Y ~ o o ~ ~ 4 , 5 6 n - l-1,087tD'
,I+ 1st
Equation ( 3 ) may be used t o p r e d i c t t h e performance
of a combustor a t any condition3 t h e one c w e i s
unique f o r a wide ran@ of a i r / f u e l r a t i o s , , i n l e t
temperatures and pressures. For a t o t a l l y unknolm
chamber, it i s only necessary t o obtain a value of
t h e constant U' by experiment. Thi.s may not be so
i n t h e near f u t u r e . s i n c e recent work a t litval
University suggest; t h a t D' may be r e l a t e d
coinbuctor pressure loss. Kretschmer e t a 1
shown t h a t Eqn. ( 2 ) may be used t o p r e d i c t
due t o changes fin ambient conditions, i.ncludirig t h e
p r e d i c t i o n of NOx.
Using a somewhat r theoretical basis,
Greerhough and Lefebv:T$ derived a loading
parameter s i m i l a r t o t h a t of Longxell, which they
showed t o be a p p l i c a b l e t o a i r c r a f t combustors.
For a given chamber, a t a fixed a i r / f u e l r a t i o ,
t h e e f f i c i e n c y and s t a b i l i t y may be expressed by
C' p l o t t i n g t h e value of e a a i n s t t h e e f f i c i e n c y ,
where 0 i s given by Sqn. $4). The disadvantage of
t h e e parameter i s t h a t a c w e has t o be made
experimentally f o r each operating air./fuel r a t i o .
2.
An important f e a t u r e of t h e 8 curve i s t h c plateau
of high e f f i c i e n c i e s a t low loadings. Many wbrkers
have u ed n * w f ~ value
0 = d) I of t h i s parameter ( say
t o s i z e a new cornbustor.
A major disadvantage of a l l t h e above rncdcls
i s t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o p r e d i c t t h e mounts of t h e
poll.utants (CO s: HC). Thi.s has been overcome t o
some extent by t h e use of empirical CLII'YCS which
r e l a t e t h e p o l l u t a n t concentration t o tho e f f i c i e n q
but t h e technique i s of 1imi.ted appl%cationand not
vcry accurate.
For a system which i s no$ l i m i t e d by mixing,
i t ought t o be p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t p o l l u t a n t s i f
t h e chemical k i n e t i c s arc f u l i ~ yknoum. A l a r g e
number of p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b
and t y p i c a l ex;unples are given i n E 4 t o
Genera1.l~t h e r c a c t i o n i s thought of a s being a
.
on t h i e t o p i c ,
tro-stage procc.ss, t h e breakdom of t h e hydrocarbon
bcing followed by t h e combustion of t h e r c s d t a n t
carbon monoxide. The first r c a c t i o n i s f a s t compared
with t h e second,and hence it i s t h e k i n e t i c s of t h e
CO burning t h a t l i m i t t h e o v e r a l l process and t h e
amounts of p o l l u t a n t s produced. Reaction schemes
have been proposed rangi.ng from about 8 r e a c t i o n s
t o 40 o r moi'e. The number of r e a c t i o n s s e l e c t e d
appears t o he a function of t h e s i z e of computer
avai.lable. 1,iodels of t h i s type have been used t o
p r e d i c t t h e performance of' PSR's w i t h f a i r success, .
but only over a l i m i t e d ran:,
example, Hammond and Mellor b$ conditions. As an
applied sufh a
scheme t o 3 r c a c t o r burning a propane/air mixture.
They could only o b t a i n v i a b l e s o l u t i o n s over t h e
range 6 = 0,9 t o fl = 1,2, but within t h e s e limits
theory and experiment agreed qu<.te well. Simi
schemes have been used by o t h e r s ( See
but t h e models appear t o be l i m i t e d i n a p p l i c a t i o n
and e x h i b i t l a r e e errors when used t o p r e d i c t t h e
performance of any of t h e o t h e r systems.
-- One - Dimensional Models.
2.2.
Although not so simple a s t h e zero-dinensional
models, t h e one4imensionnl models are s t i l l r e l a t -
i v e l y simple and t h e calciilations a r e cheap t o do.
Heat f l u and s p e c i e s may be predicted, but a know
ledge of f l u i d flow and chemical heat r e l e a s e w i l l
then be required as i n p u t t o t h e model. However,
t h e use of this concept enables one t o depart from
t h e PSR t o one which is nixing Limited, or r e a c t i o n
l i m i t e d , or both (well-stirred r e a c t o r , WSR).
i s divided i n t o a s e r i e s of c e l l s , each of which
i s regarded as a PSR fed by t h e preceedi.ne c e l l
and feeding t h e succeeding one. The a n a l y s i s y i e l d s
a p a i r of a l g e b r a i c equations, conveniently i n
f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e form. The s o l u t i o n g i v e s temper-
a t u r e o r concentration p r o f i l e s a s a function of
d i s t a n c e o r t i m e , f o r t h e various input conditions.
The t h e o i y Rives a r a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e prob-
lem, but t o d a t e it h a s not been thoroughly t e s t e d
against p r a c t i c a l measurements.
Contrary t o t h e above, H o t t e l e t a1 bd
 8ssWi.e t h a t comtustion occurs so r a p i d l y t h a t t h e
gas temperature a t t h e burner end ( o f a furnace) i s
t h e a d i a b a t i c flame temperature. It i s a l s o assumed
t h a t t h e n e t r a d i a t i v e flux i n t h e gas flow direc-
t i o n i s n e g l i g i b l e compared with t h a t noma1 t o it.
Thus it is possible t o p r e d i c t t h e l o c a l f l u x den-
s i t y along t h e x-axis.
The module approach circumvents t h e requirement
of a d e t a i ~ l e da n a l y s i s of t h e microstructure by
breaking t h e chamber i n t o separate zones, each of
which i s assumed t o behave i n a p r e d i c t a b l e manner.
I n t h e s h o r t term, t h i s kind of p r e d i c t i o n may
y i e l d a much more valuable c o r r e l a t i o n t h a n any of
t h e techniques previously discussed. Also, by a
judicious choice of zones, modules may be selected
which w i l l represent, f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y , a three-
dimensional svstem.
Swithenbank 11221 h a s attempted t o model a turbo-.
J e t combustor, The primary zone i s represented by
t h r e e modules, a p a i r of WSR's coupled by a plug-
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52
Slow r e a c t o r (PYR). The volwncs a r e c a l c u l a t e d from
j e t entrainment theory, t h e t o t a l . volume of t h e
primary zone having been assessed previously by
some independent method. The volun!cs of t h e various
r e a c t o r s a r e estiiiiated on t h e assumption of uniform
gas d e n s i t y i t h e s w i r l e r and r c c i r c u l v t i o n volumes
a r e r a t i o e d according t o t h e i r mass flows; t h a t of
t h e primary i s considered t o be symmotrical about
t h e primary o r i f i c e s . The secondary zone has two
modules, a WSR followed by a PFR. The volume of t h e
WSR i s obtained by t h e assumption t h a t it i s sym-
m e t r i c a l about t h e secondary zone holes,,with i.ts
upstream boundary a b u t t i n g t h e primary zone. The
d i l u t i o n s t i r r e d r e a c t o r i s supposed symmetrical
about t h e dilutj.on holes, and of a volume which. i s
ratioed i n proporbion of i t s mass flow t o t h a t of
t h e secondary zone. Between t h e secondary WSR and
t h e d i l u t i o n WSR, t h e resul.tant volume i s taken a s
being t h e secondary PFR. The p l flow ~ module of
t h e d i l u t i o n zone i s taken a s t h a t between t h e
downstream end o f t h e d i l u t i o n !$XI and t h e e x i t of
t h c combustor. Thus,for each module, t h e mass flow,
volume and residence time has been defined, and
t h i s may be used t o p r e d i c t t h e composition leaving
each module (providing t h e r e i s a s u i t a b l e r e a c t i o n
scheme). The output of.. one module becomes t h e i?pdt
of t h e n e x t , although within t h e primary zone an
i t e r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n must be used s i n c e t h e r e is
reci.rculation from one zone t o another. Temperature
t r a v e r s c s i.n a r e a l combustor were q u i t e cl0scl.y
predicted using t h i s model, but extensive t e s t i n g
has not been attempted.
So f a r , t h e models examined have assumed t h a t
t h e influence of f u e l d r o p l e t s i.s n c g l i g i b l c . It
i s obvious t h a t a more complete ana1.ysi.s could be
made if t h e f u e l d r o p l e t s i z e arid d i s t r i b u t i o n
r
were incorporated t o g e t h e r with eva o r a t i v e e f f c c t s .
I n t h i s respect Mellor's proposal. 231 i s of soit~e
i n t e r e s t . The 'modules' a r e charac c r i s e d by resi-
dence times, each time serving a p a r t i c u l a r region
defined v i t h i n t h e combustor. Elellor d e f i n e s f i v e
such t u n e s - ( i ) t h e f u e l drop l.ifctiriie, ( i i ) t h e
eddy dissipat5.on t h e f o r t h e j~rijccted f l u i d (ttds
r e p r e s e n t s small s c a l e t u r b u l e n t siixiix ncar t o t h e
fuel i n j e c t o r i n t h e r e c i r c u l a t i o n s o n e ) , ( i i . j ) t h e
eddy d i s s j ~ p a t i o ntinie i n t h e x h c a r l a y e r ( t h i s rep-
r e s e n t s t h e l a r g e s c a l e t u r b u l e n t nixing of f r e s h
a i r and t h e r e c i r c u l a t e d bur?.ed g a s ) , ( i v ) t h c
f u e l i g n i t i o n and burning t h e ( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
time f o r homogencous combustion of t h e f u e l ) and,
3.
( v ) t h e NO formation time. The approach i s very
promisine, and could well y i e l d v e r y u s e f u l results,
providing t h a t t h e various residence times can be
defined h i t h s u f f i c i e n t p r e c i s s i o n so t h a t t h e y may
be used over a wide range of c o n d i t i o n s and geomet-
ries.To d a t e , not a g r e a t d e a l of a n a l y s i s has been
experimentally i n v e s t i g a t e d , but t h a t which has i s
apparently i n f a i r agreement with t h e predictions.
Nox and CO exhaust-plane emissions have g e n e r a l l y
c o r r e l a t e d wcll with t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e time func-
t i o n s , except h e n f u e l atomisation was poor. The
results also confirm t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e homogeneous
combustion time and t h e i g n i t i o n d a l a v times a r e
much s h o r t e r than e i t h e r t h e d r o p l e t kvaporation
times or t h e mixing timcs.
One dimensional models have proved t o be popular
f o r t h e p r e d i c t i o n of NOx, l a r g e l y due t o t h e way
t h a t t h e r a t e of formation depends so
temperature. As an example Hey#ood e t
t h e secondary zone of a combustor and
a one4imensional model with instantaneous mixing
of t h e secondary a i r . Calculated v a l u e s of NOx were
about h? s.. value a s those from a i r c r a f t engines.
Hung $5 '+ iT suggests a d i f f u s i o n l i m i t e d model
t h a t p r e d i c t s NOx within gas t u r b i n e combustors,
including t h e use of nitrogen-containing f u c l s and
t h e e f f e c t s of water i n i e c t i o n e t c . The Drimarv
.
1
~~
zone i s assumed t o have a flow p a t t e r n s i m i l a r t o
t h a t described by Clarke k71 , such t h a t t h e t h r e e
dimensional e f f e c t can be %'counted f o r by t h e use
of a quasi-one-dimensional model. For t h e s w i r l e r ,
v
t h e core r a d i u s of t h e reverse flow i s determined
i n order t o provide a bo ry f o r t h e r e c i r c u l a t i o n
zone. Kollack and Aceto 28 s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t s of
rec,irculatioii i n a comhus o r using a computer pm-
gramne which simultaneously solved t h e chemical
k i n e t i c , thennodpanic and g a s dynamic equations
for a premixed one-dimensional r e c i r c u l a t i o n system.
The e f f e c t of hot gas r e c i r c u l a t i o n ~rmst o fonn
NOx a t an e a r l i e r s t a g e , but t o about t h e same
maximum a s t h e unrecirculated case. Cold gas could
reduce t h e NOx by an order of magnitudc.
2.3. Two - Dimensional. Models.
These models p r e d i c t with x-y coordinates and
are s u i t a b l e f o r systems (such a s a gas-turbine
combustor) where axi-synmetric flows p r e v a i l . The
problem i s simplified i f t h e flow i s u n i - d i e c t i o n a l
and without r e c j . r c u l z t i ~ o n ,such a 3 a simple,confined
t u r b u l c n t d i f f u s i o n flame. The P a t a k e - p a l d i
technique has been used t o solve t h i s problem.ng24
The problem appears simple, but t h e flows a r e s t i l l
very complex and an adequate d i g i t a l computer i s
requi.red. Adequate modelling of t h e follovnng f e a t -
u r e s i s rcqutrod - (i)turbulence, ( i i ) r e a c t i o n
r a t e ( i i i ) r a d i a t i o n chemical k i n e t i c s (sometimes)
nnd ( v ) pdissih1.e two-phase e f f e c t s . The Genmix
Computer Code i s a v a i l a b l e t o solve t h e problem, by
which s i x s h u l t a n e o u s d i f f e r e n t i . a l equatj~onsa r e
solved f o r v e l o c i t y , turbulence energy, turbulence
s c a l e , stagnai.ion enthalpy, f u e l concentration, and
concentration f l u c t u a t i o n s . Unfortunately, a i r c r a f t
combustors e x h i b i t r e c i r c u l a t i o n , and t h i s means
t h a t i t e r a t i v e procedures must be used i n s t e a d of
marchj.ng i n t e g r a t i o n . For a r e l a t i v e l y simple axi-
symmetric furnace, computations of t h i s kind have
shom good q u a l i t a t i v e agreement with t h e experi-
menta1l.y dctemzned f e a t u r e s . A more complicated
procedurc i s a v a i l a b l e f o r a system having pre-
vapourised f u e l i n j e c t c d ri.th s h r r l i n g a i r i n t o
a filio-cooled combustor $6l. The models employed
 f o r t h i s scheme u t i l i s e d turbulence, conccntrati.on
fluctuations,radiation,a simple combustion k i n e t i c
scheme, and NOx k i n e t i c s . The computer code used
m s EASI ( s t e a d y stat,e model) and qua!.itntive
d'
agreement was obtained wi.th the' experimental data.
The d i f f e r e n c e was a t t r i b u t e d i n pzrt t o t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e comb . t o r was only p a r t i a l l y axi-symmetric.
i T.
P r a t t 31 a 3 2 has published a computer programme
for t h e c a l c u l a t l o n of steady-fl.ow, homogeneous
r e a c t i o n kj-netics. It i s implied t h a t t h i s woidd
improve t h e Spalding-Gosman p r e d i c t i o n s w i t h
t o chemical k i n e t i c s . Recently,. Spalding e t
have published p r e d i c t i o n s of t h c hydrodymi.c an
thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s of flow relevant t o a j e t -
e w n e aftc-r-burner. The flow was twoilimensioniil,
am-svmmetric. uneteadv. comnressibl.e.and chemicallv.
a u s e f u l t o o l for i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e 'buzz' i n t h e
engine after-burner.
- Dimensional
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52
2.L. Three Models.
These should be t h e 'all-can-do' models, which
i f s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e should y i e l d perfect pre-
d i c t i o n s throughout t h e combustor. Currently, tho
known modols p r e d i c t s p e c i e s , concentrations, tem-
p e r a t u r c s and v e l o c i t i e s a t any point within t h e
combustor. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o include t h e p r c d i c t i o n
of flame r a d i a t i o n and wa1.l temperatures (with and
without f i l m cooling) a t the p r i c c of a mure comp
l i c a t e d programme. The major problems prevcnting
t h e e e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n of these modcls a r e -
(i) assumptions invold.ng flow and turbulence
p r e d i c t i o n s may not be c o r r e c t ,
r e a c t i o n k i n e t i c s may not be c o r r e c t
) F a c t o r s governing carbon formation a r e
L' not known, and t h i s e f f e c t s t h e accuracy of flame
r a d i a t i o n prcdictions,
(iv) f o r a c c u r a t e p r c d i c t i o n , n lared number
of p o i n t s i s required (i.e. f i n e mesh). Thi.s incr-
eases t h e computer time and cost,
(V) a s p e c i . a l i s t enp,ineer/programmer i s needed
o r e l s e t h c work must be l i v e n t o a consultant,
(vi) a l a r g e computer must be available.
From t h i s it might seem t h a t t h e chance of a
s a t i s f a c t o r y three-dimensional progrmne would be
remote. However, considerable progress has been
made and s c v e r a l models c x i s t khich demonstrate t h e
c o r r e c t t r e n d s of conditions within t h e combustor.
Perhaps t h e most comprehensive i s t h a t of Spalding
bg . This uses a f i n i t e difference computational
procedure t o p r e d i c t q u a n t i t a t i v e l y t h e l o c a l flow,
h e a t t r a n s f e r and combustion processes i n s i d e a
three-dimensional can combustor where t h e flow was
sw:rling and r e c i r c u l a t i n g . A gareons f u e l system
was employed. The process required t h e n m e r i c a l
s o l u t i o n o f twelve simultaneous d i f f e r e n t i a l equa-
t i o n s i n f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e foorm. It is claimed t h a t
t h e system w i l l compute economically. and thereby
s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduce t h e experimental p o r t i o n of
t h e development time. Although t h e r e s u l t s given
M r e not v e r i f i e d experimentally, it was noted t h a t
t h e p h y s i c a l models used hod a l l been shown t o be
v a l i d i n simpler tw- and thr-e- dimensional s i t u -
a t i o n s and t h a t t h e procedure now seemed t o be
ready t o be employed within imlustry.
2.5. MiscelZaneous Models.
W
Several models e f i s t ' which do not r e a d i l y f a l l
i n t o any of t h e above categories. Of t h e ones e m -
i n e d , only one seemed t o be of significance. This
L.
model was devclopzd s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r furnaces, but
t h e r e s u l t s a x so interestinp, t h a t it would seem
l o g i c a l t o t e s t t h e method a g a i n s t t h e perl'otninnce
of a a s turbine. The model i s t h a t of Magnusscn e t
a 1 [3$ , and it r e l a t e s t h e r a t e of combusti.on t o
t h e r e of eddy d i s s i p a t i o n of t u r b u l e n t eddies.
The r a t e o f r e a c t i o n i s cxpressed by t h e mean
concentration of a r e a c t i n g specie, t h e t u r b u l e n t
k i n c t i c energy and t h e r a t e of d i s s i p a t i o n of t h e
t u r b u l e n t k i n e t i c energy. It d i f f e r s from o t h e r
models i n t h a t i t does not c a l l f o r p r e d i c t i ~ o nof
fl.nctuntions of r e a c t i n g species and, a d d i t i o n 3 l l y ,
i t i s a p p l i c a b l e t o both premixed and d i f f u s i o n
flames. A very i.nteresti~ngf e a t u r e i s t h a t t h e
model can be used t o p r e d i c t soot formation and
combustion i n t u r b u l e n t flames. The theory was
t e s t e d by computing t h e behavi.our of seven flaines
represeiitinp, tui.bulent d?.ffusion flames, premixed
t u r b u l e n t cncloscd flames. combincri premixed/ d X -
fusion'flamep, and t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n sooticg
fla%?. I n all cases c l o s e c o r r e l a t i o n was obtained
between p r e d i c t i o n and experimcnt.
2.6. wall C o w .
Most combustion models do not t a k e wall cool.ing
i n t o account, nn,i those t h s t do regard it a s a n
a d d i t i o n a l camplicntion t o an already complex model.
Thus, only t h e t-wo- and three-. dimensional models
of Spalding and co-worked attempt t o make these
p r e d i c t i o n s i n conjunction with t h e combustor model.
&!ore g e n e r a l l y , t h e combustor p r e d i c t i o n s a r e used
t o esimate t h e l o c a l hot gas conditions, and t h e s e
a r e t h e n u t i l i s e d with a separate f i . h cooli.ry
c o r r e l a t i o n . A number of .?11 temperature p r e d i c t i o n
technj.cpes e x i s t k8 t o l + q f o r e y n p l e wfiich gi.ve
reasonably sati.nfactory predi.ct:ons. B a s i c a l l y , a l l
of them use t h e same equations, modified according
t o t h e whims of t h e u s e r , and t h e r e seems l i t t l e t o
chose i n t h e accuracy of p r e d i c t i o n s . These l a t t e r
range from +-20 t o i40K, depending upon conditions.
The simple models appear t o give about t h e same
precissi.on a s t h e complex ones.
3 . WHICH MODEL ?-A!?D WE3N ?
One of t h e major problems confronting anyone
t r y i n g t o assess t h e accuracy of a model, i s t h a t
most a u t h o r s j u s t i f y t h e i r parameter s o l e l y a g a i n s t
t h e i r o m experimental work. Also, because of put-
l i c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h e data a r e not u s u a l l y
given i n s u f f i c i e n t detai: 5oenable them t o be used
t o check t h e parameters of o t h e r workers. Add t o
t h i s . t h a t c e r t a i n computer programcs a r e l i m i t e d
by p r o p r i e t y right,s, and t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s 09 comp-
a r i n g one model with another become obvious. To
complicate t h e matter f u r t h c r , t h e economics of t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n i s sometimes a r e s t r i c t i n g f a c t o r , a s i s
a l s o t h e s p e c i a l i s e d howledge required t o solve
some of t h e inore complcx progrimes. It i s not,
t h e r e f o r e , s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e followjng assessment
must have r e s e r v a t i o n s , and t h a t no clear-cut
p i c t u r e w i l l emerge.
The only models which have been t e s t e d a t a l l
comprehensively a r e t h e simple empirical and semi-
empirical ones. An attempt w i l l be made t o i n d i c a t e
t h e i r accuracy, so t h a t t h e proposers of f u t u r e
complex models w i l l have a t l e a s t a t a r e e t which
t h e y must surpass. This i s not t o denegmte t h e
complex models from a s c i e n t i f i c viewpoint, but t h e
engineer must keep constantly i n mind t h a t h i s PrO-
duct mustbe economic; f o r t h e same accuracy,acheaP
model i s ' b e t t e r ' t h a n a coirplex expensive one.
 3.1.. I n i t i a l s i z i w , of t h e Combustor. TADW 11.
I -, I I
A combustor has been s e h c t e d which was devel-
oped t o meet Condition 1, Table I , a s i t s design
point. To i n d i c a t e what happens i f a number of
design conditions have t o be mct ( i n s t e s d of one),
J t h r e e new 'design' conditions have been added.
TARTE T.

:" 1 ~
3 17,?7 &b3
: 24 ~
4,95 !'0,05
10,13
20,?6 \0,05
L 0.7L 7001 1.01 I 0.0125
10,05
~
0,056 0,0778
0,056 O,i677
0,056 0,2295
0.028 O.Co82
1,O
1,0
1,0
0.67 I
I ' I .''I
* Original design point.
1 I I
Five d i f f e r e n t ( a l l siinple) c o r r e l a t i o n para - *. This i s t h e a c t u a l s i z e of t h c combustor wbi.ch
meters have been selected t o detenninc t h e s i z e , was based upon a casing Mach number 0,056.
based upon c i t h e r aerodyrwmic o r combustion perfor- # ' I d l i n g ' conditions based upon Eqn. (3).
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52

mance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s are well

known, but t h e y have been rea ed i n SI units. 3.2. I n i t i a l C m i h s t o r Developcnt.
fi) Elach Number F . e l a t i o n s h i p . E y
It does not come within t h e province of t h i s
n L fi paper t o d i s c u s s flow v i s u a l i s a t i o n experiments, end
A = 14,s -
A? (51 t h e i r valne t o t h e engineer, but it i s assumed t h a t
t h e s e s t u d i e s w i l l have been c a r r i e d out and t h a t
( i i ) Pressure Loss Relation-. [34 t h e r e s u l t s would have i n d i c a t e d t h a t ( a ) t h e flow
p a t t e r n was s a t i s f a c t o r y , ( b ) t h e f i l m cooling j e t s
appear s a t i s f a c t o r y ( c ) j e t p e n e t r a t i o n s i n t o Lhe
161 vari.ous zones a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y and ( d ) t h e primary
and r e c i r c u l a t i o n zone volumes are well defined. The
combustor pressure l o s s w i l l a l s o have been measured
and found s a t i s f a c t o r y .

Following t h i s , atmospheric t e s t i n g w i l l be done

t o v e r i f y t h e combustor performance a t ground l e v e l
and t o forecast i t s performance a t o t h e r conditions.
The i d c a l model would p r e d i c t i g n i t a b i l i t y , comhus-
t i o n effici.ency,exhnust t r a v e r s e q u a l i t y , t y p e and
q u a n t i t y of p o l l u t a n t s , and bl.ow-out cliaracterj.stics.
An i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e flamc-tube h a l l teaipcratures
a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y would also be useful. A l l t h i s
could be done with a s a t i s f a c t o r y three-dimenei.onn1
model, but a t prescnt no proven one e x i s t s which i s
both accurate axd cheap. How a c c u r a t e must it be?
0bvioi;sly combustion e f f i c i ~ e n c i e smust e v e n t u a l l y
This l a t t e r parameter i s s p e c i f i c t o $ = 1,0 i n t h e p r e d i c t t o b e t t e r t h a n @ ; ; t h e o t h e r t o p i c s a r e less
p r i n a r y zoric. For any o t h e r valuc of 6,
Eqn.(3)must c r i t i c a l p r o v i d i i x t h a t t h e opcrati.ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
be used. arc superi.or t o t h o s e demanded. They should a t l e a s t
bc h o t t e r than t h e simple models c i t e d below.
It i s important t o r e a l i s c t h a t a t l e a s t two of
t h e above parameters must be used (cnc aerodynamic .on (3) may be used t o p r e d i c t combustjcn
and one combustion). I n t h e Iaval l a b o r a t o r i c s a l l ES a t all conditions providing t h a t t h e
f i v e arc employed. TI:> r e s u l t s given by t h c above con!;tant D' has been f i r s t e s l a h l i s h e d . Theoreti.cally
e q u a t i o n s , f o r t h e conditions o f Talde I, a r c given only a sing1.e e f f i c i e n c y detennirintion i s needed t o
i n Table 11. It i s i n t e r c s t i n g t h a t both Eqns. ( 8 & estebli.sh D'. I n p r a c t i c e t h e mean of four detennin-
9 ) p r c d i c t t h e necd f o r a larger chambcr t o meet t h e a t i o n s provides a much more r e l i a b l e figure. A t ].east
combustion c f f i c i e n c y of 9% i m p l i c i t i n t h e values two measurements should be mads of e f f i c i e n c e s i n
selectcd f o r t h e s e equations. I n f a c t , 5.f t h e f i m l excess of 99$, and a t l e a s t o x of t h e o r d e r of 9%.
r e a l chambcr dimensions a r c i n s e r t e d i n t o . t h e orig- The e f f i c i e n c i e s need t o be a c c u r a t e and dcmand t h e
i n a l version of Eqn.(9) (i.e. Eqn.3), t h e n f o r use of g a s a n a l y s i s ; pyrometric techniques a r e simply
condition 4 , t h e predicted e f f i c i e n c y of 93s i s i n not accurate enough.
f a i r accord with t h e mcasured value of 91%. The
results of Table I1 c l e a r l y demonstrate t h e necd t o For t h e followire example,a combustor was mi a t
consider a l l t h e r u n n i x p o i n t s a s dcsign p o i n t s . atmospheric prcssurc but a t four d i f f e r e n t condi.-
The days of d e s i g n h e t o meet a s i n g l e ' c r i t i c a l ' t i o n s . The value of D' vas assessed a t 0,336. The
condition a r e past. The demand of very high coinbus- combustor was t h e n nul over a xide range of condi-
t i o n c f f i c i enci.cs a t i.dl.i.ne, condi.ti.ons ( t o mcet ti.ons (A/F 216 t o 34, P? 0,34 t o 7,66 atm, T2 243 t o
v environmental requirements) rcqnires a v e r y c r i t i c a l 545K). Tho prcdicted and measured e f f i c i e n c i e s are
look a t t h e i n i t i a l s i z i n g procedure. i n d i c a t e d i n F i g , ( l ) . It i s obvious t h a t t h e g a s

5.
 i s a b x t t h e sarnc as t h a t givcn hy Eqn.3.
p r e d i c t i o n is
I

1
tiif/VPn lhls (t'atrn"
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52

Fig. 2. Prediktion of Dlow-out Usiw Eqn.(3).

'/measured I ' ' ' ""I I s I I I , I *

P o i n t s uscd t o define De.

Efficiencies determined by gas a n a l y s i s .
E f f i c i c n c i e s determined by pyrometry.
A~='measured
- 7prcdicted.
Fig. 1. P r e d i c t i o n of Combustion E f f i c i e n c i e s
Usine Equation (3).

a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s agree with t h e p r e d i c t i o n s be) r

than do t h e pyrometric v a l u e s J?arlier a n a l y s i s _ &
h d i c a t e d t h a t t h e l a t t e r could have errors of i 5%.
More r e c e n t work suggests t h a t Eqn.(3) will. p r e d i c t
kithin f 2$ a t low e f f i c i e n c i e s ( s a y 80 t o 9%) and
b e t t e r t h a n 1% a t high e f f i c i e n c i e s ; (say 99%). Eqn.
( 3 ) may a l s o bc used t o i n d i c a t e t h e blow-out curve
f o r a combustor. For a PSR flame e x t i n c t i o n seems
t o occur a t a r e l a t i v e l y constant flame temperature,
of t h e o r d e r of 1500K. I n a r e a l combustor, due t o Fig. 3. Prediction of E f f i c i e n c y , Theta Parameter.
mixing and d r o p l e t evaporation, t h e temperature i s
somewhat lower. Equation ( 3 ) has a very s t e e p f a l l
O f f toward?= 0, at an efficiency of 1%. This
value of '1 may be i n s e r t e d i n t o Eqn.(3) and assumed
t o g i v e blow-out loadings. Figure 2 compares t h e
o r e d i c t i o n s with experimental r e s u l t s . As a general
i n d i c a t i o n t h e p r e d i c t i o n i s s a t i s f a c t o r j , hut t h e r e
i s considerahle room f o r improvement. To t h e b e s t
howledge of t h e a u t h o r , no p r e d i c t i o n technique
e x i s t s which w i l l p r e d i c t i g n i t i o n limits. Of course
if t h e system was p e r f e c t , t h e i g n i t i o n and s t a b i -
l i t y limits would coincide. For t h e p a r t i c u l a r can
used h e r e , a rough approximation t o t h e i g n i t i o n
Limits was achieved by put,ting? = 9% i n Eqn. (3).
T h i s could well he circumstantial.
An a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e use of Eqn.(3) i s to use
t h e e c o r r e l a t i o n (Eqn. 4 ) . This, however, r e q u i r e s
more experiments, since t h r e e or four p o i n t s a r e
required t o e s t a b l i s h each curve f o r a si.ngle o p e r
a t i n g a i r / f u e l r a t i o . Typical r e s u l t s , f o r t h e
Same chamber a s above, a r e shown i n Figs. 3 and 4.
The A/F=&/l p o i n t s show much l e s s s c a t t e r than
t h o s e f o r A/F = 100/1. This might be i n d i c a t i v e of Fig. 4. P r e d i c t i o n of E f f i c i e n c y , Theta Parameter.
t h e need t o assume a v a r i a b l e r e a c t i o n o r d e r , a s
per Eqn. (3). As before, t h e f a l l - o f f i n e f f i c i e n c y
m y b e used t o p r e d i c t blow-out. The accuracy of

b
 Both of t h e above techniques p r e d i c t e f f i c i e n c y
a t t h e exhaust. If p o l l u t a n t s a r s required, e i t h e r (121
an a l t e r n a t i v e parameter must be s o w h t , o r some
estimate way be made by assuming t h a t t h e r a t i o of
CO t o HC v a r i e s i n t h e same wav as t h e measured
values used t o d e f i n e t h e c o r r k l a t i o n equation. I f (131
t h e combustion e f f i c i e n c y i s i n excess of 99,546,
t h e e x e r c i s e becomes academic. For t h e p r e d i c t i o n
of NOx, t h e curve f retschmer
or t h a t of L i p f e r t t g or most
lations. Tout = T2 + 0,8SAl' 1141
PZ Pa
An i n d i c a t i o n a s t o t h e film cooling may be
obtained from t h e follounng equation (empirical)
developed a t h v a l University.
The high v a l u e s a s c r i b e d t o t h e s e equations a r e
% F i l m Cooling = 0,I Ti - 30 (?IO%) (IO1 excused by t h e importance of flame r a d i a t i o n i n t h e
zoneBased, upon t h e experimental information a v s i l -
An equation which p r e d i c t s (very approxlmately) t h e
a b l e it i s estimated t h a t t h e flame temperatures
traverse quality i s - predjcted i n t h i s way have t h e following accuracy -
t l O O K a t conditions of low e f f i c i e n c y
? 50K a$ conditions of high e f f i c i e n c y .
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52

The heat t r a n s f e r equations used t o c a l c u l a t e

t h e w a l l temperature a r e due t o Lefebvre e t a 1 r43]

Q- Tmax - Tmean -
Mean Temp. Rise

Both Eqns. (10& 1 l ) a r e relevant t o conventional

combustors with conventional f u e l systems. There
a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t n e i t h e r apply ( f o r i n s t a n c e )
t o a i r - b l a s t f u e l i n j e c t i o n systems. The accuracy
of p r e d i c t i o n f o r both equations i s not s a t i s f a c t -
ory, and b e t t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s should be sought. They
a r e o n l y a guide, and s h o d d be accepted a s such.
4 4
It i s obvious t h a t t h e r e i s room f o r improve- R2 3 0,4S (TW - T, 1
ment f o r a l l t h e above techniques. They a r e given
here ( a ) because t h e y a r e ' b e t t e r than nothing',
and ( b ) t h e y g i v e an idea of t h e occuracy which
must be b e t t e r e d by any replacement c o r r e l a t i o n s .
Assuming t h a t t h e combustor design h a s proved t o be
s a t i s f a c t o r y a t t h i s stage, t h e next phase i s t o
ewmine t h e performance of t h e i n d i v i d u a l zones o f R t CI 2 R2 + C2 (191
t h e combustor. 1

3-3. Primary Zone Model.

i The e m h s i v i t y equation i s a l s o t h a t o f Lefebvre
Any model for usc i n t h e primary zone should
predict one o r more of t h e following -
Ii)
ii)
iii)
(iv)
flame temperature d i s t r j b u t i o n .
flame emissivity
l o c a l a i r / f u e l and composition
l o c a l gas v e l o c i t i e s
However, t h e luminosity e q m t i o n h a s been derived i n
t h i s l a b o r a t o r y , based upon t h e d a t a given i n p
. 3 to

I
{:li
(vii)
combustor wall tempcraturcs
flame s t a b i l i t y
cartjon formation and consumption
453
1,47
Lu = 1 , 3 2 ( C / / / - 4,171 (211
There a r e no simple models which ".ill p r e d i c t
a c c u r a t e l y within t h i s zone. Crude, empirical The f i l m cooling expression i s t h a t of Odgers am3
. ! mode1.s e x i s t which give some idea of t h e mean gas )linter [jtj
temperature and entissi.vi~ty,hot gas v e l o c i t y and T - T
cooling j e t velocity. Thus, an a p p r a i s a l of t h e
. ,
. , wal.1 temperature can be made which, s t r a n g e l y T - T
enough, I s o f t e n s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate f o r engin- Q C
eerj.ng purposes. Again, t h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s , and t h e
observed accuracy, represent a t a r g e t f o r t h e more Using t h e above equations and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
rcfi.ncd techniques. f i l m cooling c o r r e l a t i o n (depending upon t h e geome-
try of t h e filni cooling d e v i c e ) , t h e w a l l tempcrat-
For t h e s o l e purpose of wall temperature pre- w e s may be predicted i n t h e primary zone rrjth an
d i c t i o n , t h e followin6 empirical cquations have accuracy of not l e s s t h a n f 50K. A t y p i c a l r e s u l t
been developed a t I a v a l University. They r e l a t e t o is given i n Fi8.5. Tho above accuracy cannot b e
t h e v3rious mean hot gas tempcratuies. guaranteed f o r a i p b l a s t o r s i m i l a r systems.

7.
 21.

I-
-.I-

O""' PZ
a=-.- sz
. &-i-DZ
x10-2,

A Predictions
11
0 10 20 30 43
4 bar

Fig. 5 . Wall Temperature Predictions.

I n order t o provide t h e n e c e s m r y d e t a i l , the
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52

complexity of t h e primary zone rlcmands a two .- o r a

t,hreedi.mensioml model. Those of S p a l d i x and Co.
a r e o f considerable i n t e r e s t , a s a l s o t h a t of 37 .
I t seems very d o u b t f u l t h a t any of t h o modular t c c h -
niqucs would give t h e rcquired s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l .
I t would be of considerable i n t e r e s t t o compare
some of t h e s e models and t h e i r corresponding pred-
i c t i o n s . I t should now b e p o s s i b l e t o provide t h e
experimental d a t a required t o f u l l y t e s t such tcch-
niques. G3s a n a l y s i s methods now e x i s t which wi1.l Fig.6. Zone Temperntures i n an A i r c r a f t Combustor.
provide t h e required composition d a t a ,and t h e 1'111s~
Thermocouple devolopcd by Krctschmer has bcen shown
t o be an a c c u r a t e and f a s t way of evaliutino, t h e Tout = T +rj~T (241
temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n [G71 A t y p i c a l s e t of sz 2 +=pz
t r a v e r s e d a t a through an a i r c r a f t combustor i s shoim
i n Fig.6. The values were obtained by sampling T%em
SI?
= Tin+ Tout
-- 125)
through t h e a i r admission h o l e s ; samples between 2
holes show a somewhat d i f f e r e n t p t t e r n . The t c m p
e r a t u r e s measured agree c l o s e l y rii.th those given by The simple model p r e d i c t s wall temperatures with an
d e t a i l e d gas a n a l y s e s , although t h e l a t t e r show t h e accuracy o f f . 30K.
f u e l e f f i c i e n c y t o be q u i t e low. I n d i c a t i o n s a r e
t h a t t h e f u e l effi.ciency i n t h e primary zone i s of 3.5. D i l u t i o n Zone Model.
t h e o r d e r of SO$. These r e s u l t s support t h e assunp-
t i o n t h a t hflrocarhons a r e t h e r e s u l t of mixing For t h e simple model t o p r e d i c t t h e wall t e m p
i n e f f i c i e n c y , and t h a t t h e remaining s p e c i e s a r e e r a t u r e s , t h e procedure is a s before but with gas
k i h e t i c l i m i t e d . It h a s been shown 48 t h a t even
completclypremixcd air and f u e l y i e l d considerable
temperatures given by -
amounts of hydrocarbons when conbusted i n a typi.ca1
prjmary zone. T h i s w u l d cause considerable d i f f i -
c u l t y t o t h e 'mixi% l i m i t e d ' e n t h u s i a s t s .

2.b. Secandary Zone Model.

This i s t h e r e g i o n wkere t h e combustion i s nneenndz = Tin + Tout

s e n s i b l y completed,and t h e model should f o r e c a s t
(i) gas temperature d i s t r i . b u t i o n
(ii) l o c a l A/F and s p e c i e s d i s t r i b u t i o n
gas v e l o c i t y di.stribut.ion
PIY)i ) h a l l temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n .
The flows i n t h i s zone a r e s t i l l complcx,and
it i s suggested t h a t t h e same models be used i n
t h i s r e g i o n a s f o r t h e primary zone. A few gas
a n a l y s i s measurements s w g e s t t h a t Fqn. 3 w i l l
reasonably p r e d i c t t h e e f f i c i e n c y a t t h e e x i t of
t h i s zone. Gthcr t h a n t h i s , t h e only model used
e x t e n s i v e l y is one t o p r e d i c t h a l l temperatures.
- 2
1281
The a c c w a c y i s again 2 30K.
Obviously t h e complex model used t o p r e d i c t
c o n d i t h n s i n t h e primary and secondary zones could
a l s o be used f o r t h i s zone. Nowever, i f it can be
d e f i n e t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t combustion i s s e n s i b l y
completed within t h e secondary zone, t h e n t h e poss-
i b i l i t y of a much simpler model is'obvious.
3.6. Chawes i n Ambient Conditions.
._, . . , ,, , . . ,, ..,. ., . . ,
,

.. T h i s i s i d e n t i c a l i n procedure t o t h a t outlined i n If it can be avoided, t h e r e seems t o be l i t t l e

Para. 3.3, except t h a t t h e mean gas temperatures a r e point i n using 3 complex model f o r t h i s pu-puse.
estimated ( a t l a v a l ) by t h e followirx empirical The problem i s simplyfied t o some exd.ent by t h e
eauations. f a c t t h a t t h e performance of t h e combustor i s
Tin = Tout (231 a l r e a d y l0loir-n a t some 'near' condition. Hence, it
SZ PZ

8.
 i s u s u a l l y possible t o u t i l i s e some type of 'scol- A m a j o r reason f o r t h i s i s :bs absence of acc-

\'
i n g f a c t o r . Kretschmer 1 2 suggests selveral such.
An eyample of t h e p r e d i c ed and measured changes i n
efficiency, due t o increased inlet temperature, i s
given i n Fig. 7. The agreement i s s a t i s f a c t o r y , but
t h e method gives no i n d i c a t i o n of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l p o l l u t a n t s . These have t o be
assessed from a p r i o r knowledge of t h e combustor
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t o t h e r conditions.
u r a t e experimen:al d a t a w i t h i n t h e combustors which
would enable 'any t h e o r i t o be comprehensively t e s t e d .
What i s require,?. ( s a y ; i s measured d a t a from f i v e
conbust,ors operated over a range o f conditions. For
each c o n b m t o r t h e r r wou1.d be a 'nap' of t h e primary,
secondary and d i l u t i o n Zones g i v i n g d e t a i l e d d i s t -
r i b u t i o n s of ( a ) temperature ( b ) s p e c i e s ( c ) g a s
e m i s s i v i t y ( d ) v e l o c i t i e s ( e ) fuel d r o p l e t s i z e s
and placement ( f ) carbon measurements and ( g ) wall
temperature measurements. The chambers should be
s e l e c t e d so as t o include geometry v a r i a t i o n s ,
conventional f u e l i n j e c t i o n , a i r - b l a s t i n j e c t i o n ,
pre-vapourised f u e l and premixed fuel l a i r .

It i s r e a l i s e d t h a t t h i s nould be an expensive
p r o j e c t , b u t t h e end-result would be t o possess a
s e t of d a t a s u f f i c i e n t t o t e s t any proposed theory.
The d e s i r e f o r an adequate model i s now so s t r o n g
t h a t it ought t o be p o s s i b l e t o set up a n a t i o n a l ,
o r even an i n t e r n a t i o n a l , committee t o s t a n d a r d i s e
t h e techniques of measurement, o b t a i n t h e necessary
funds and Lo p l a c e t h e work i n approved l a b o r a t o r i e s :
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52

If t h e r e s u l t s l e d t o a s a t i s f a c t o r y ' u n i v e r s a l '
3w 305 310 K 315 model, t h e savings i n development t i m e would more
than amply repay t h e c o s t of t h e work, as well a s
Ambient Temperature a s s i s t i n g i n t h e understanding of t h e complex phen-
omena of combustion within a r e a l system. I t i s
Fig.7. E f f e c t s of Ambient Temperature upon
Combustion Efficiency. f u r t h e r believed t h a t any model developed f o r t h e
gas t u r b i n e combustor could have widespread applic-
a t i o n t o o t h e r continuous flow combustion systems
Kretschmer's techniques w i l l a l s o p r e d ' c t NOx
changes f a i r l y accurately. Mameski e t a 1 E+9
i
s p e c i f i c a l l y examine t h e e f f e c t s of ambient c anges
upon emi.ssions a t i d l i n g conditions. They give
such,as furnaces and domestic h e a t i n g equipment.

NCN3NCLATuRE .
formulae f o r changes i n HC and NOx, but r e p o r t 3
A Outer casing reference a r e a m2
f a i l u r e when attemptine t h e p r e d i c t i o n of CO.There
a Flame tube reference a r e a m2
seems t o be a p o s s i b i l i t y of usi.ng t h i s work i n
conjunction with t h a t of [lq i n order 'to o b t a i n a
b
c
Constant depending upon A/F; see 13 K
K
full range of p r e d i c t i o n s et a l l conditions. D
=E/R
Outer cnsine r e f c r e n c e diameter
3.6. Predicti.on o f s ~ d e of
s Nitro@:. D' Constant
d Flame t u b e reference diameter
E Activation energy
NOx has assumed such a s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e
e Emissivitv
f i e l d of p o l l u t i o n t h a t it seems reasonable t o
consider models s p e c i f i c t o i t s prediction. The f R e a c t i o n ~ o r d e rf o r f u e l
published l i t e r a t u r e i s so enormous t h a t a f u l l f Fuel/air r a t i o (by mass) Fqn.(2@)
review h e r e i s not possible. Cement w i l l be res- K A constant
erved t o those papors which, i n t h e a u t h o r ' s opin- k Any constant
ion,have widespread application. For appr j a t ? I. Length of d i l u t i o n zone
estimates t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s of Kretschmer T g a n d LU Flame 1uminasj.ty
Li p f e r t $01 are,ad!quate. The model of Hung E25 d M Mach number
269 is more s o p h i s t i c a t e d and is claimed t o p r e d i c t m mass flow
a c c u r a t e l y th.! e f f e c t s of ( a ) c o m h s t o r conditions m* P a t i o mols i n e r t s l m o l s oxygen
N Mass fl.ow
( b ) steam and water i n j e c t i o n ( c ) t h e presence of n Overall. r e a c t i o n o r d e r
n i t r o g e n i n t h e fue1.s (d)ambient changes and ( e )
changes i n combustor geometry. The claims are sup- O/F Oxygen/fiel r a t i o (mass o r volume) -
P Pressure Pa(atm)
ported by experimental evidence, and t h e technique
i.s worthy of f u r t h e r consideration.
Q Traverse q u a l i t y -
q V e l o c i t y liead Pa
h . DISCUSSION. R Gas constant J/molK
S Radiation constant (5,667 x 104) W/m2K4
It must be concluded t h a t t h e r e i s no model s S l o t thickness m
avaj.lable which w i l l sotisfactori1.y teke i n t o acc- T Temperature T
ount a l l t h e v a r i a b l e s which occur i n t h e aperat.ion V Volume d(l)
x Distance from film c o o l i n e s l o t m
of gas t u r b i n e combustors and p r e d i c t t h e perfor-
AP Pressure drop Pa
mance with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy. A nwnber of moricls AT T h e o r e t i c a l temperature r i s e K
e x i s t of l i m i t e d zpp!.ication, and othersome encou-
rage f u r t h e r inveeoti.gation s i n c e they have t h e Fractional. oxygen consumption e f f i c i e n c y -
prospect of more general usage. Whilst work t o d a t e 0 Parameter, s e e Eqn. (4)
has shed l i e h t on t h e general. understanding of t h c A Gas conductivity w/.K
combustion processes, t h e s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t t h e r e
P Gas v i s r o s i t y
i s stj1.1 no model capable of c a t e r i n g f o r t h e
p r e d i c t i v e requirements of r e a l combustors.
7
41
F u e l loading, See Eqn.(3), Ref. ll kg/s%g
Combustion e f f i c i e n c y
Parameter = l o g l o g (I/*
--
9.
 Nomenclature( cont ' d ) 35 Levitt,Hydraulics, Pitman, 1923.
36 Rouse, Elementary MJchanics of Fuels,Wiley,1946.
--
Suffixes. 3 7 Magnussen c t a l , 'On ?.lathematical Modeling of
Turbulent Combustion with s p e c i a l emphais on Soot
a i n l e t a i r ( o r mount of air i n outer casing Fomatj.on and Combustion, 16th Symp. I n t e r n a t i o n a l
a t any point. on Combustion, Bo:iton,1976. To be ptblished.
J'
C film cooling 38 Spalding, AIM. Jour.>-,Ao5. 1965, ~ 9 6 5 .
dz d i l u t i o n zone 39 Sturgess, Corrclation of Data and Prediction of
f fuel Effectiveness from Film Cooling I n j e c t i o n C-eomet-
e hot gas o r flame gas r i e s of D P r a c t i c a l Nature, Cranfiel IntTL. Pmp.
i a t i n l e t conditions Synposim, 1769.
m mass 40 Papell e t a l , NASA Tech. Note -9, March, 1959.
pz primary zone l+l Bragg, Application of Xcaction Pate Theory t o
T r e c i r c u l a t i o n zone Combustion Chmber Arulysis, Paper t o t h e Comb-
ref reference point usti.0, and Euels Committee of t h e A * , Sept.1953.
62 secondary zone 42 Lipfert, .ASMF: Paper Nc.7243-60, 1972
V volume 43 Lcfebvrc e t al., Proc.Instn Mech.Engrs. 1711, N0.12
W wall 1960. p463.
1 refere6 t o within combustor 111, Marslane, e t a l , l2th.Symp. I n t e r n a t i o n n l on Comb-
2 refered t o outer casing ustion, Combustion I n s t i t u t e , 1966, p 1265.
45 Lefebvre e t a l , Proc.1nstn.Mech.Engrs. 174,No.12
KEFEWXES. 1960, p463.
46 &leers e t a l , 1,ucas Gas Turbine Rep. No. B40,3ll+,
Downloaded by CORNELL UNIVERSITY on July 31, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1977-52

1 ImgWell e t al,Ind.Eng.Chem. 47, No.8,1.955,pl634 (Unpublished i.iork), I!ov. 1963.

2 Bragg,Rritish Aer. Xes. Council., Paper 16170,1953 47 Kretschmcr e t a l , ASla Paper No. 76cT-1, 2976.
3 Avery e t a l , 1nd.Gng.Chem. h5, No.8, 1953,p1634 h8 Pioy et a l , AS!.% Paper No.74-GT-8, 1971,
4 Vulis,Theimal Regions of Combustion, W c ~ r a w - ~ i l l , 49 Yarzeski e t a l , ASK& Paper No.?--130, 1976.
New York. 1961. 50 Lipfert,ASME Paper >10.72-GT-60, 1972.
5 Essenhigi;, An Introduction t o S t i r r e d Reactor
Theory Applied t o Design of Combustors, Combustion
Technology: Some Modern Developicnts, PennsyvaNa
S t a t e University, 1973.
6 Swithenhapk e t a l . l 4 t h SWIID.I n t e m t i o n a l . on

t i o n , p664, Buttcrworth, 1959.

8 Clarke e t a l , 8 t h Syrp. I n t c m a t i o n n l , on Combus-
tj.on, p9e2, F i l l i m s &. Wilicins, 1961.
9 Clarke e t a l , 1 0 t h Symp. Intcrmtiona1,on Cornbus-
ti.on, pll51, C w b u s t h n I n s t i t u t e , 1965.
10 Kretschmer e t a l , AS% J. En,?. f o r Powcr, J u l y ,
1972, ~ 1 7 3 .
1.1 ~ d g c r se t a l , ASMX Paper NO 72-l.lA/GT-5, 1772.
1 2 Kretschmer e t a l , ASME paper No 73-WA/GT-6, 1977.
13 Greenhough e t a l , 6th Symp. I n t e r n a t i n a l on Com-
bustion,p85e, Reinhold, 1956.
Ui Osgerby, m ~ - ~ ~ - 7 ? - 1 6 4(AD75Ui62), 1912.
1 5 Edchan e t a 1 A I A A Paper '/1-711+, S a l t Iake Cjty,
U t a h , 1971.
1 6 U'Souza e t a l , Comb. Science &. Tech. l,S.971,@3.
17 Edolman e t a L , AULA Paper 6 7 4 6 , New York, lq69.
10 Kennedy e t a]., AS$% Paper No.76-FK-NN, 1974.
19 Hammond e t a l , A I M Paper No.71-7ll, 1971.
20 Cdgers, 15th Symp. I n t e m t i o i l u l on Combustion,
p.1321, Combustion I n s t i t u t e , 1974.
21. Hottel. e t a l , Radiative Transfer, McC-rav+Hill,A.
1967.
22 Swithcnba&, USAF/QSR/70,/2llUrR (AD710321), 1970,
Seo a l s o Xef.6.
23 Mellor e t a l , Rep. No. PuRDU4L-75-0l1. JuIv.1975.
21, HepIood, A l N i Paper No. 71-713, S a l t Like, 1971.
25 Hung, ASME Pdpcr No. 75-GT-71, 1975.
26 Hung, X5bfE Fapw No. 75-PLT-11, 1975
27 Cl-nrke, Proc.LMI-ASi.LE Conf.on Co!cbustion,l955p351+
28 KoUrack, ASMK Paper No. 71,-dA/CrT-3, 1971,. .'
29 Patankar e t a]., Heat and mas:^ Transfer i n Acw.d-
ary laycrs,Iandon I n t e r t e x t Books, 1970.
30 Spalding, AGAFWP-164, Papcr No.1-1,197I1,p 11-1.
31 P r a t t , Washington S t a t e University, Bul.let5~n336,

10.