DY NA MO METERS

THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER

fRRMLATZS E CUV TTZE CMUMS TZNTCI YOMV dRUD

'
' '

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WIT H A DESCRI PT I O N O F T HE MET HO DS A ND A PPA R ATUS EMPL O Y ED

IN MEA S UR ING WA T ER A ND ELE CTRIC-PO WER .

BY

J O HN J F L AT HER, PI L B
”

P EO H S S O R O , ‘
I EC B AN I CAL EN G I NE ER I NG , T H E U NIV ERS IT Y O F l flN NES O ‘I‘A
HEI DI !
M “
0, T H E M E IC A N SO C IET Y O F I E O B A NI C A L ENG I NE ERS ,
H U B ER O F T H E A I E R I C A N I N S T IT UT E O F
E L EC T R I C A L E N GI N EE RS .

S E CO N D E DI TI O N , R E V I S E D A N D E N L A R G E D .

F I R ST T H O US A N D .

NEW Y O RK
J O HN WI L EY S O NS .

L O N DO N : CHA P MA N 85 HA L L , L I MI TE D .

1 9 00 .
 P R E FA C E .

T HE aim follow ing pages has been to present

in the
in convenient form for the use of T echnic l Stud e nt
,
a s

and Engineers a description of the constr u ction and

,

princip l of action of the various types of Dy n am o m

es

et r employed in t he measurement of power

e .

A chronological presentation of the subject has not

been attempted as many of the forms once used have
,

entirely disappeared ; with very few e x ceptions the

various types discussed are those no w in use .

I n the measureme n t of the mechanical horse power -

of a hydraulic motor the e ffective power may be as

ce rta in e d by means of a friction brake or other dyna
-
,

m o me te r under any given conditions ; but as these

,

may be such that the maximum power of the wheel is

not developed it remains for the Engineer to determine
,

those conditions best suited to the wheel under con

sideration I n Chapter V is given a discussion of the
.

methods and apparatus in use for ascertaining the c ffi

cie n cy of a given wheel including the determination
,

of flow in rivers and stre ams .

T he work here presented has been used as the b asis

of a course of lectures to E ngineering students and is ,

iii
iv P RE F A CE .

the outgrowth of a series of articles pu b l ished in th

A m er zka n M aclzi mst
' '

In its preparation free use has been made of nume r .

ous publications rel ati ng to the su bject and references ,

for further information are given in foot notes through -

out the te x t .

Special mention is d ue Professor A ndre w Jamieson of ,

G lasgow for use of matter and figures from his Steam

,

and Steam engines ( L ondon : Chas G ri ffi n 81

-
.

T he a u thor is also under obligations to Professors Jas .

E D enton J Burkitt W e b b D r Mansfield Merrima n

.
, .
, .
,

and others .

J J F L AT H E R . . .

LA F A Y E T T E , I ND A ug . 1 , 1 89 2 .
 NO T E TO T H E S E C O N D E D IT I O N .

T HE prese n t edit io n is not m erely a revisio n of the

previous work Five new ch apters have b een added
.

and som e of the old ones have b een rewritten ; its scop e
has th us b een gre atly enlarged and it is believed that
,

in its present form the book will find an increased field

of usefulness among shopmen as well as engineers
generally .

I n Chapter I V seve ral new forms O f transmission

dyn a mometers are discussed and Chapter V o n the
, ,

M easuremen t of W ater power contains som e n ew

-
,

mat erial on the V enturi meter and meter t esting ,

together with illustrated descriptions of the m e chanism

an d principles of action of various water meters -
.

O f the n ew chapters which have been added o ne is ,

devoted to the Power required to drive Machinery ,

and four are on the Measureme nt of Electric al Power ;

these incl ude a general consideratio n of the su bject ,

t ogethe r with a discu ssio n of e le ctrical me as uring in

st ru m e nts and methods in use for d e t e rm in ing the
powe r and effi ciency of electri c moto rs .

T he chapt e r on the Po wer re q ui red t o d riv e Machin

V
 N O TE TO TH E S E CO N D E D I TI O N .

ery consists of tab ulated results of observed horse

power required to O perate machines of various ki n d s
and sizes working under die rent conditions ; these
em b race a wide range including all ordinary machine
,

shop tools as well as the most common form s of wood

working machinery .

T he plan o f giving references for further informatio n

has b een e x tended and the investigator wil l find much
,

additional material in the foot notes -

.

I n the preparation of the work on electrical mea sure

ments the author has received many helpful s ugges
,

tions from Mr Frank W Springer of the U niversity

. .
,

of Minnesota to whom and to all others who have

, ,

assisted in any way he desires to a cknowledge his

,

inde b tedness .

J J F L A T H E R . . .

Mnmn po u s. MI NN .
, Decemb er 3 1 , 1 89 9 .
 CO N T E N T S .

C HA P T ER I .

DnT z Rui NATi O N or DRI V I NG Po wn

H o rse - p o wer from n um be r of m en em pl —Fri ction
o ye d of

h fti
s a ng in m ill s and h
mac ine -
s h p o s —Horse -
po wer fro m
wi d h t of bel t .

C HA PT ER I I .

FR C
I T I O N-
BR A K ES

brak es — Pro po rti o ns o f sm all brak e s— Regul ato rs

Pro n y
Wate r c l e d b k
o o -
ra s— De te rm i nat i o n o f b rak e po we r— Bel t
e -

brak e s C o m pe n sati ng brakes Ro pe b rakes—Rappard s ’

—
band b rak e Bra ke fo r ve rtica l shafts Mate rial s fo r b rak e
- —
blo cks Lubricati on—Width and v e loci ty o f rubbi ng surface
— .

C HA PT ER III .

\ BS O RPT I O N~DY NAH O MET E RS

R ih c ards dynam o me te r dynam o me ter l
A den Alden
b ra k
e us ed to te st o co m o t ve— Fro nde wate r-b rak e
l i .

C HA P T ER IV .

T R A NS M I S S I O N DY N AMO M E PERS
-
'

T ract i on dyna m o m e t rs
e — M or n i —
dynam o m e te r We bbe r
bal an ce - dyna m o m e te r bi
Ro nso n Rie h l é dyn a m o m e te r -

i
Br ggs b l
e t dyn a m o m e te r— T a t am dy n a m o m e te rs —O t h h er

l
be t dy nam o m e ters— Brack e tt crad e dyn a m o m e te r—W e b
l b
fl tioa dyn a m o m e te r— Ha rt ig
ng dyna m o m e te r— Fisch inge r
—
dyn a m o m e te r Em e rso n o we r p -—V an Wi nkl e po wer
sca e l
—
me ter Fla the r hyd li ra u c dyna m o m e te r—I ndica to r ca rds -

fro m dynamo mete r .

 CO N T E N T S .

C HA PT ER V .

M EAS UREMENT or WAT ER -

PO W ER

Efi cie n cy of m o to rs— De te rm in atio n ofwe g t o f water i h

T ank measurem e n t
-
Curre n t-me ters l
F o a t m e asure me nt s
-

—Mid de p th - l i
v e oc ty —Pito t s ’
tu e —
b W ate r m eters— Ve n turi -

m e te r We i r m easureme n ts C oe fi cie n t of i h
d sc a rge
—
Ho o k gauge s Fl o w of water
-
in pip —L es o ss of h ead

Pressure h e ad.

C HA PT ER VI .

MEAS UREMENT E L LP W G RNRRAI C O NS I Dz RA

“
OF EC T RI CA O ER. .

C NS 0 0 o 0 s s 0 os s o o 0 0 s o 0 O 0

E l ectr c i m o to r use d as dyna m o m e ter — Efi cien cy o f mo tors

—Mo tor l osses — Efi cie n cy curves —T o rque .

C HA PT ER V I I .

U
INST R MENT S FO R ME AS U RI NG E L EC TRI C A L P O W RR
T h mpo so n ga l
D A rson val galvo no m e te r
v a n o m e t er
’

We ts o n v o tm e te rs l
a nd a m m e te rs — E ectro m agne tic iustru l -

i h
m e n ts— Wes t ng o use a m m e te r— C arde w ho t-w re vo t m e te r i l
l
— E e ctro sta ti clm vo t e te rs — S i l
e m e ns e e ctro - dy n a m o m e te r

Watt m e te rs — T h mp o so n r e co rd n g i —
wa ttm e ter S h lla e n be rger

am p ere -
h o ur m e te r—S h ll b
a en e rger i n te grat n g i wa ttme te r .

C HA P T ER V III .

MET HO DS or MEA S U RI NG T HE PO W E R OF DI RECT -

C U RRENT

MO T O RS
Meas urem e nt o f l o sse s — Efi ec t o f fri ctio n— S tray po wer
C o n nect i o nsf o r te s t n g i m o to rs T e m pe ra ture e fi e cts Ho p
— —
ki nso n s
’
—
m e t od K ah pp th’
s re e - mac hi ne m et h od — Us e of

ca li b ra ted m o to r —T e s ti gnil w ra ay m o to rs — W a te r h
r e os tats .

C HA PT ER I X .

MET HO DS or M EA S U RI NG T HE PO W ER or A L T ER N A T I NG - C U R RENT

M O T O RS
I n sta n ta neo us l
v a ues Po we r curve h T re e - v o tm ete r l
met h o d— T h ree am m e te r
- met h od — Co m bi i n at o n me t h od
 CON T E N T S .
ix

P A GE

S i gl ph
n e - ase m o to rs— Po we r facto r— T wo ph -
ase an d t h ree

ph y
a se m — U s s te s se of two wattm e te rs — A pp a re n t watts
G l m th d— U
e n e ra e o se o f o n e se t o f i ns t rum ents —T esti ng
ta b l — R ul t
e f t es s o ests.

C HA PT ER X .

PO W E R U D
REQ I RE T o D RI V E M A C HI N ER Y
El t i m t
ec r c o o r an eco n o m c i facto r in p o wer i i buti
d str on

In di i d l m t
v ua o o rs — Mo me n tary o v e r oad l — G ro up-syste ms
Em cie n cy o f i i
tran s m s s o n a se co ndary co n s id e rat o n i — E ec l
trical i p n V i bl
ut an d n e lt f t h p
o rse -
o we r -
ar a e re s u s o te s ts .

R D T
EC O R I w ki g m hi
S OF y E gi
E ST S . ro n - or n ac ner : n ne

wh l ee d ll t i g l h — T
an l th
ro d-
w
urn n at es urre t -
a es an scre

m hiac —Pl nes— S h p —S l t i g m hia n e rs D illi g a e rs o t n - ac n es r n

m hi ac —B i g m ill — Milli g m hi
nes or n d g s n -
ac ne s a n e a r- cutte rs

H t
-
d o ld w — P
an hi g d h i g m hi
co -
sa s unc n an s ea r n - ac ne s

B l utt
o t-c d pip i
tt g m
e rshi —an D p d th e - cu n ac nes ro an o er

p w o h m mer — M i ll a u i w ki g m h i
e rs s ce an e o s ro n - or n ac ne s .

W d w ki g m hi y
oo -
W d orl t h —
n Ci l d
ac ne r oo -
a es rcu a r an

b d w Pl
an — sa m t h s d h pi g m hi
a n ers, — C a c e rs , an s a n -
ac n es a rv

i g
n d m ldi g m hi
an — B i g m ti i g
o n dt ac i g ne s or n . or s n , an eno n n

m hi ac ne s .

M hi g up — El
ac tne d ro s e v a o rs a n cranes .

C HA PT ER X I .

A N A NA LY S IS O F T HE PO W E R REQ U I RED T o D RI V E L AT HES

F i ti
r c l h
on in at es — T ab l e of h p w f m ll l th
o rs e - o er or s a a es

Fo r m l f h
u a or o rse - pw o i g ligh t— W igh t f m l
e r ru n n n e o e ta

re m o ve dp h er o ur p r
e h orse - p w —G
o er l d d ti e n e ra e uc o ns.
 DYNAMO METERS
A ND

THE MEAS UREMENT O F PO W ER .

C HA PT E R I .

D ET ERM I N A T I O N O F D R I V I NG PO W ER .

IN designing a modern machine shop or m anufac -

tory and in estimating the cost of power for its

,

worki ng plant an accurate knowledge of the amount

,

of power absorb ed b y the difi e re nt machines is not

'

only desirable but essential to economy and e fficiency

, .

I f the power required is not known the e ngine or ,

motor provided may prove incapable of driving the

work ; or on the other han d the motive power may
, ,

b e largely in e x cess of that required in either case :

there is an unnecessary e x pense in the first case in

—
,

remedyi n g the evil and in the second in the daily ex

, , ,

n d it u re of fuel for e x cess of power

p e .

So also in fitting up a factory : if a more accurat e

knowledge of the power required to drive machine
tools were know n there wo uld be a greater economy
,

in runnin g the m . T he wri ter has in mi n d a case

2 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

that came u n der his no t ice a few years ago in which ,

a certain wood plan er had i ts countershaft cha n ged

-

three times di fferent di am et ers of pulley and di ffer

— ,

ent widths of b elt and finally a heavier counter

,

shaft being used before it would work satisfactorily

— .

M achines are largely belted by guesswork I f the .

pulleys guessed at are nea r ly large e n ough to do the

work the workman stretches his belt to its ut m ost
, ,

and manages to run the machine by taking light cuts ;

if ho wever the belt has a V elocity and width barely
, ,

su ffi cient to run the machine and an ordinary cut will ,

thro w o ff the belt then if split p ulley s are not in use

, , ,

a length of S hafti n g is taken down and a la ger pulley r

put in the place of the one which has shown itself to be

insu ffi cient to drive Sometimes both a greater width
.

of b elt and a larger pulley have to be reso rted to .

A nother case was where a 6 inch belt running over -

a 36 inch pulley at 1 2 0 revolutions per min ute had

-

b een put in and had been runni n g for more than a

,

year driving a roo m ful of high velocity machines used -

for covering magnet wire E venness of motion is

-
.

specially desirable in this class of machinery ; and yet ,

when all the machines were on the S h aft would vary ,

from 80 revolutions per min ute to its nor m al speed .

R osin or belt oil was in order every few days and

-
,

when the slip became too great the engine had to be

shut down and the belt relaced T he relacing was .

done by the use of clamps and the belt finally he ,

came so taut that the increased f iction on the bear r

ings near the driving pulley kept the bo x es and s haft

-

constantly hot T his belt was a contin ual so u rce of

.

annoya n ce and e xpense ; but becau se it had bee n ,

 A ND THE M E A S UR E M E N T O F P 0 WE R .
3

deemed large enough to furn ish power for the forty o r

more machines in the room no change had ever been ,

made and it had run for over a year in this same manner
, .

A 9 inch belt was put on and no troub le was

-
,

after ward s e x perienced though it has now been run

,

ning for several years I t is easy enough to remedy a

.

defect like this ; but prevention would have been

better and would have considerably reduced the
,

expense account T he knowledge of the power re

.

quired to drive the machinery was wanting T he .

question arises : Ho w can this po wer be estimated ?

I n the discussion of an inquiry as to the power
requ ired to drive machi n e tools Mr G H Babcock -
, . . .

stated at a meeting of the A merican Society of Me

chan ical E ngineers that for a general rule in ordi
*

na ry machin e work we may take roughly o ne horse

-

power as s uffi cie nt to drive machine tools necessary -

to keep ten men at work ; but this he adds does not , ,

necessarily include S hafting engine etc nor blowers , , .

,

for found ry W ork .

Expressed alge b raically this rule of thumb would ,

where N e q uals the number of men employed ; o r, if

we let IO C a constant we have
, ,

T rans A. . S . M E . . v ol . VI I I.
4 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

T he above as it stands is of little o n o value ; in the r

first place C is too large as will be shown by the fol

, ,

lowi n g data obtained from a large n um b er of rep

*
,

re se n t at iv e machine shops ; and -

in the second place , ,

the power required to drive the machinery varies

b etween such wide limits even in the same class of
,

work that separate values of C cannot b e determined

,

which may b e relied upo n as giving e ven a rough ap

proximation .

Such a formula is of value only when C has been

determined for two or more similar plants and applied ,

to another equipment working under similar co n di

tions and this indeed is rarely met with
— .

By a reference to the above table it will be n oticed

that two firms o n e x actly the sam li n e of work e

that of man ufacturing m a chine scr ws require a total

— -
e

horse power such that the n umber of men employed

-

per horse power is in the one case 2 and in the other

-
,

or as 3 to I T he small value of C in b oth cases

.

is evidently due to the n ature of the machinery which ,

is largely automatic one man being able to feed several

,

machines A comparison of the values of C (o b tai ned

.

for total power used ) of two well known firms the -

,

Pratt 8: W hitney Man u facturi ng Co and the Brown .

Sharpe Manufacturing Co shows that the latter .

,

employ only men per horse power while Pratt -

,

W hit n ey employ and yet these S hops may be

considered to belo ng to the same class .

A nother comparison of two firms runni n g about

the same class of machinery is that of the Bald
.

win L ocomoti v e W orks and W illiam Sellers Co .

T he Baldwin L ocomotive W orks give a value of

C m pil d b y
o h i 889
e a ut or n 1 .
6 p YN A M O M E TE R S

for
per total horse power and Sellers 81 Co
C -
, .

give I f we deduct the power require d to run

the S hafting in each works the values b ecome respec
, ,

tiv ely,

Acloser result obtains between the Po n d Machine

T ool W orks and W illiam Sellers Co throughout all .

the data given T he percentage of power required to

.

drive shafting is in one case 4 1 per cent and in the .

,

other 40 per cent T he values of C and C are as fol

.
,

lows
Po n d Machine T ool W orks
-

W illiam Sellers Co

A verage

T hesevalues are su fficie n tly close to enable one to

deduce an appro x imate value for C and C which ,

would apply to either case but when u ed in con nec

,
s

tion with other and similar shops the results could not
be depended upon even roughly ,
.

T hus the a v erage value of C as shown above is , ,

per total horse power A pplied to W m Sellers

-
. .

C othis give s
.

x
2 73 men employed .
8 p Y N A M OM E TE R S

tion to apply the formula with the average value of C ,,

viz.
, to either of these cases ; nor is it practicable
to apply any other value of C either to determine the ,

horse power from the number of men employed or

-
, ,

v ice w r szz to o b tain the ,n um b er of men employed

from t he horse power f urnished -

.

It will b e noticed in the si x th colum n headed ,

Pe r ce n t of po wer requ ired to dri ve S hafting that ”

,

very wide diff erences occur T he maximum is that .

used by the Baldwin L ocomotive W orks viz 80 per ,

.
,

— x —
cent an e tremely large factor while the minimum
given by J A Fay C o is only 1 5 per cent ; the
. . .

average per cent corresponds to that quoted by

, ,

W illiam Sellers Co within less than 1 § per cent . .

Mr J T Henthorn in a paper read before the

. . .
,

A merican Society of Mecha n ical Engineer s states that ,

the friction of the S hafting and e ngine in a print mill -

should not exceed 1 9 per cent of the full power O ut .

of fi fty fi v e examples of a miscellaneous character

-

which he has tab ulated seven cases are b elow 2 0 per ,

cent twenty vary from 20 per cent to 2 5 per cent fifteen

, ,

from 2 5 per cent to 30 per cent eleven from 30 per cent ,

to 3 5 per cent and two above 3 5 per cent while the

, ,

aver ge of the total number is

a per cent .

Mr Barrus speaking of th is subject q uotes eight

.
, ,

cases the data of which were obtained from tests ma de

,

by himself in various N ew England cotton mills in -

,

which the m inimum percentage was 1 8 and the maxi ,

mum the total average bei ng 2 2 per cent .

Mr Samuel W e b ber states that 1 6 per cent of the

.

total power of a m ill is su ffi cient to overcome the

friction of S hafting and e n gine 1 0 per ce nt for the
—
 A N D THE M E A S URE M E N T 01? p a WER .
9

shafting alone But in this estimate M r W e b ber

. .

does not include the loss due to the belts running

upon loose pulleys which he does not consider to be
,

part o f the shafting as they are not so running while

,

the machine ry is in op e ration : and when it is not they ,

may be thrown o ff as well as not e xcept for co nve n ,

ie nce . He further estimates both f om his own e x

,
r

p e r ie n ce and the o b servations of others that the power ,

consumed by the machine belts on the loose pulleys in

-

a large cotton mill is about 8 per cent of the whole

-
.

T his 8 per cent added to the 1 6 per cent loss due to

shafting and e ngine will give 2 4 per cent of the tot a l
power— a result which agrees closely with the average
values given above .

T he writer believes that for shops using heavy ma

chinery the percentage of po wer required to drive the
shafting will average from 40 to 50 per cent of the
total power e x pended T his presupposes that under
.

the head of shafting are included elevators fans and , ,

b lowers .

I n shop s using lighter machinery and with foundry

connected the po wer percentage will b e a b out the
s ame as ab ove ; but if the foundry work is done out
,

side the power required to drive the shafting will not

,

a verage so high the range being ab out 1 0 per cent less

, ,

or from 30 to 40 per cent of the total .

I n machi n e shops with a line of main shafting run

-

ning dow n the centre of a room connected b y short ,

b elts with innumerable cou n tershafts on either side ,

often b y more than one belt and as frequently , ,

h appe ns also connected to one or more au x iliary

,

s hafts which drive oth r countershafts e we can see ,

IO D YN A M O M E T E R S

why the power required to drive this shafting in

machine shops should be greater than that fo und in
-

cotton and print mills the machi n ery of which is in

,

general driven from the main lines of shafting N o r .

can we neglect the loss due to b elts upon loose pulleys ,

as with the numerous clutches and countershafts in

use the conditions more nearly approach those which
e x ist when the machi n ery is in operation T here is no .

doubt however that a la ge percentage of the power

, ,
r

now spent in overcoming the friction of shafting in o r

dina ry practice could b e made available for useful work
if wider and looser b elts were employed or what would , ,

have the same e ffect if the belts were slackened and

,

their speed increased ; and also if more attention were

paid to lu b rication T he us of r l l be a in g fo r lin e
. e o er r s

shafting o b tains to a l imited e xtent o n ly but the suc ,

cess attained with this form of bearing indicates that it

will be used to an increasing e x tent when its advantages
are more widely known .

A s the po wer required to drive the machinery in a

modern plant cannot be even appro x imately ascer
taine d from its relation to the n umber of men employed ,

the question still remains open : Ho w can this power

b e measured ?
O ne method frequently used is that b y which the
power required is ascertained from the velocity and
width of driving belt D i fferent rules have b een given
-
.

in our te xt b ooks and engineering journals in order to

-

estimate the driving power of a belt from its width and

velocity A rule which the writer has u sed in his pra e
.

tice when the di fference in di ameters of pulleys is not

very great is Every inch in width of a single cemented
b elt having a velocity of 800 feet per min ute wil l
, ,
 AND T AfE M E A S URE M E N T O F P O WE R . II

tra nsmit one horse power up to a velocity of about

-

5 000 feet per min ute ; beyond 5 000 the centrifugal

force of the belt largely diminishes its e ffective tensio n .

Ex pressed as a formula we have

bV
800
in which 5 equals b readth of b elt in inches and V equals ,

vel city of belt in feet per m inute T o illustrate this

o ,

let us look at an example Suppose the main shaft of .

a factory runs at 1 2 5 revolutions per minute and a 1 2 ,

inch pulley on this shaft drives a 1 0 inch pulley on the -

counter of a 1 6 inch lathe through a 3 inch b elt ; the

- -

lathe is driven by a zi in ch b elt running from a 1 0 inch

- -

step to a n 8 inch W hat po wer does the lathe absorb

-
.

when the b elt is ta x ed to its limit ? T he speed of the

b elt is 39 2 feet per min ute ; if we disregard slip which ,

is abo u t two pe r ce nt of the total velocity this would ,

giv e

X 39 2
HP . .

800

N ow, shown the b elt will transmit according to

as ,

our formula 1 2 2 H P and by calculating H P for

. . .
, . .

the di ff erent machi nes 1n the factory a measure of the

shafting .

T hi s pro cess m igh t gi v e an appro x imation somewha t

nearer the truth than the method previously discussed ,

b ut as the fo rm ula is b ased on a certain permissi b le '

stress in the belt fi bres which stress is well within the

-
,

limit of safety we do not know h w m uch m or e power

, o
I2 D YN A M OM E TER S

the belt is e xerting nor do we know that it is exerting

,

as m uc h as the form u la calls f r A lthough we can o .

calculate what the width of a belt ouglzt to be to trans

mit a given horse power x at a given velocity the
-
, , ,

stress in the belt m ay be greater or less than th at on

which our form ula is based an d the resulting horse ,

po wer transmitted may be x i y .

In order to measure the amount of driving po wer

from the velocity and width of belting the tension on ,

the tight and lack sides of a belt the arc of contact

s ,

a between belt and pulley and the co e flicie nt of fric,

tion are all necessary .

T he width of a belt of thickness t must be such that

its cross section multiplied by its permissible working
-

stress f is cap able of resisting the m ax imum tension T ,

in the driving side of the belt or T btf , ,

.

W e have the general equation

T
if we let where m is a fu n ction of the
No w P
;
1

a rc of contact a ,
and coe ffi cient of frictio n we obtain

I f 6: one square inch the horse power t ransmitted

,
-

per 1 000 feet per minute is e xpressed by H f

,
33 m
 A ND THE M E A S URE M E N T OF PO WE R . 13

T his R e uleaux calls the specifi c duty of a belt the ,

value of which he gives for leather b elting as varying ,

from to hence

53 t 0 9 8

As f varies in di ff erent belts and m varie s with , a

and it is seen that any general form ula whether ,

rational or empirical is not trustworthy when the total

,

—
amou nt of power ab sorbed is desired however satis
facto ry such a formula may be when used to calculate
the width of b elt to transmit safely a given horse
power T he only reliable method o f determi n ing this
.

transmission of po wer is by the use of some form of

d y namometer
W here power is rented fro mone firm to another the
.

necessity o f o b taini n g correct estimates of the amount

consumed is apparent A case in point is that of the .

L owell Hosiery Co which rented an est imated total

.
,

o f 1 3; horse power for which $ 1 2 5 per horse power per

-
,
-

annum was paid .

A dynamometer test being made it was ascertained ,

. .
—
that 2 8§ H P was being used more than double the
amount paid for A nother case is that of the N orth
.

ampton T ape Co whose lease called for 30 H P

.
, . a

dynamometer b e ing applied to the shaft it was found

that 1 1 H P was the maximu m transm itted Still
. . .

another case is that of a company in W orcester which ,

hired rooms and power the basis of rent being esti ,

m ated at 1 3 H P F ort y horse power was actually

. .
-
14 D YN A M OM E TE R S

used ,
shown by a dynamometer test and the rent
as ,

wa incr e a ed accordingly
s s .

Many such insta n ces co uld be cited to show that very

wide di fferences e x ist between the amount of estimated
power and the amount actually developed as deter
mined by a n acc u rate dy namometer Such wild e s .

t im at e s are at first sight di ffi cult to account for since ,

there are several good r u les in use for asc e rt aini n g the
width of b lt to transm it a given horse power ; however
e -
,

as a lready shown as these r ules do not t ake into ac

,

count the individual di ffere n ces in belt tensio n there -

,

will result with variations f velocity and tension cor

,
o ,

respo n ding variations o i power transmitted .

Mr He n ry R T ow n e s e x periments with leather

. .
’

belting show that the u ltimate strength of a laced belt

thick is about 2 00 po unds per inch of width ; as
s u m in g a factor of safety of 3 this gives 66 pounds as
,

the al lowable strain per inch of width in single belti n g

( Morin assumes 55 po u nd ) For s cemented
. a or riv
eted joint the permissible strain may be taken one third -

greater or about 9 0 pounds per inch of width

, .

T he following table compiled by M r N agle gives a

, .
,

list of belts in use and the actual horse power trans

,
-

m itte d by them compared with which are calc ulate d

,

widths by the formul a of W ebber and N agle T he .

widths in the ninth and te nth columns have been calcu

lated by the writ e r and added to M r N agle s table .
’

the handy rule r e ferred to in the last column bei ng

the one previously mentioned namely , ,
 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

value to be too low Morin gives 2 8 per cent as an

.

average value for dry belts on smooth cast iron pulleys -

,

and 1 2 per cent for very greasy shop belts on cast iron -

—
pulleys the mean of these being 2 0 per cent R ecent .

investigations at the Massachusetts Institute of T ech

n o l o gy show that this mean value is a little low but ,

probably nearer the truth than either T owne s or R an .

’

kine s coe ffi cient A ccording to these later ex pe ri

’
.

ments the value 2 7 per cent was chosen as being the

best under the average conditions to which an ordinary
belt is subjected in practice allowing 2 § per cent for
—
slip and this value has b een used in calculating the
—

widths given in column 9 the formula used being ,

R e ulea uxformula in which

’
, 50 instead of
as here used is ,

V being in feet per minute T he average arc of con.

tact,
a on the smaller pulley bei ng equal to
,
or a
little less than
U pon conside ration it will be seen that the rule

Trans A S . . . M . E
.
,
vo l . v11 .
 AND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T O F P 0 W E R . 17

commonly used in the machine shops di ff ers so m ewhat

-
,

from

whic h takes into acco u nt the arc of contact and the

coe ffi cient of friction the average values
, 95 and a . 7:

2 7 being used
. .

R educed to an equivalent form this equation become .

which will give a width of belt a little greater than that

o btained by using the shop r ule referred to .

A s the arc of co n tact on smaller pulley decreases ,

the width of belt will have to increase ; thus for an arc

o f contact o f 1 2 0 the width of belt should be 2 5 per
°

cent greater than that found from the above rule .

A s these formulas are based on a given thickness o f

belt t if we increase this thickness the po wer trans
, ,

m itte d ought to increase in proportion and for double ,

b elts we should have half the width required for a

single belt under the same conditio n s W ith large .

p ulleys and moderate velocities of belt it is probable

that this holds good and this value has been used in
,

those cases in the table where double b el ts are em

ployed .

W ith small pulleys however when a double belt is

, ,

used there is not such perfect contact between the

pulley face and the belt due to the rigidity of the
- —

—
l atter and more work is n ecessary to b end the b elt
18 D Y N A M O M E T E RS

fibres than when a thinner and more pliab le b elt is

used Moreover the centrifugal force te n ding to t hro w
.
,

the belt from the pulley increases in a greater degree

than t he e ff ective tension in the belt and for these,

reasons the width of a do uble belt req u ired t trans o

mit a given horse power when used with small p u lleys

-

is generally assumed n t less than seven tenths the

o -

width of a si n gle belt t transmit the same power

o .

A n inspection of the fourth c l umn in T able I I

o

shows th at the act ual stress or belt p ull f r single belt

-
o

ing varies from 2 4 to 1 3 5 p unds per inch f width

o o .

Considering these vary ing tensions and compari n g the

calculated width with those found in act ual practice ,

we arrive at the same c nclusion previ usly re c hed

o o a ,

viz that the driving power of a belt is not directly

.
,

determinable b y the use of a formula unless the belt

pull or stress is known for each particular case .
 A ND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T O F P O WE R . 19

C HA PT E R II .

F R I C T I O N BR A K ES
-
.

W E have already stated that the only satisfactory

method of ascertaining the amount of power is by the
u s e of some form of dynamometer— by which we mea n

an instrument or machine for measuring the power

e xerted by a prime mover or the amount of po wer ,

consumed in driving a machine or machi nery plant .

A lthough the e n gine i n dicator is an instr ument for

-

measuring po wer and is thus a dyn amometer as it

, ,

neither transmits nor absorbs the power its discussion ,

will not b e e n tered into in these pages T he use of .

the engine indicator in connection with a new form of

-

transmission dynamometer designed by the writer will

-

be shown farther on .

A mong the many machines and devices for m e asur

ing power one of the simplest is the Prony friction
brake ; and bu t for certain disadvantages attendant on
its use it would possess a superiority to all other contri
vances .

Primarily this consists of a lever L Fig 1 connected , .

,

to a revolving shaft or pulley in such a man n er that

the friction induced between the surfaces in contact
will tend to rotate the arm in the direction in which
the shaft revolves T his rotation is b alanced by
.

weights P hung in the cale pan at the end of the

,
s -
20 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

lever A counterpoise attached to the b rake arm is

.
-

often used in order to balance it before adding weights

in the scale pan If not balanced the weight of the
-
.
,

lever arm must be ascertained and its moment added

-

to the tot al moment of the weight in order to obtain

an acc u rate measure of the friction I n order t . o

meas ure the power for a given n u mber of revol u ti n o s

of pulley we add weights to the scale pan and sc e w

,
-
r

up on bolts 5 5 until the friction ind uced balance the

,
s

F 113 . 1.

weights and the lever is maintained in its horizontal

position while the revolutions of shaft per minute re
,

main constant T hat this measure o f the friction is

.

equivalent to a measure of the work of the shaft will

b e seen when we co nsider that the entire driving
power of the shaft is e xpended in producing this fric
tion at the re q uired number of revolutions per minute
— an d this driving po wer is equal to the mechanical
e ff ect of the shaft when runn ing at the same speed in
the performance of useful work .

W ith the ordinary form of lever brake in order to -

,

maintain a stable equ ilibrium of the lever the weight

should be s upported on a knife edge and act below -

the centre of the shaft In this case when the weight

.
,
 AND TH E Iv/ E A S UR E M E N T O F PO WE R . 21

falls or rise thro ugh any irregu l arity of the brake the
s, ,

lever arm is decreased or increased and the slight

-
,

irregularity is overcom e b y a corresponding change o f

moment ; whereas i f the weight act above the ax is
, ,

a ny increase or decrease in weight will cause it to act

t hr ugh a longer or shorter arm as the case may be

o , ,

a n d the lever cannot of itself come back to its hori

z o n tal position T his does not apply to that form of

.

F xc . 2.

brake where the force is measured on a platfor m scale ,

as it is evident the lever arm is practically constant

-
.

A lthough the constructio n of the lever is of gre t im a

p rta n ce M r Heinrichs has show n that the propor

o , .

ti ns of the brake for di ff erent horse powe rs are even

o -

more important in order to obtain uniformity of test .

From a number of e xperime n ts made with a Prony

b rake of the design shown in Fig 2 Mr Heinrichs .
, .

gives the followi n g dimensions as being most suitable

for the ho se powers desig nated
r -

Me ch i a n cs , 1 884 .
22 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

T A BL E II I .

Dm rm sw n s FO R Pnon v BRAK E.

S iz e of Brak e
N u m ber of Re v o l u
.

T o me asure tio n s per M in ute o f

Brake pu ll e y
-

L e ngt h . W idt h .

Aregulator or dash pot attached to the end of the

-

lever arm or scale beam may be used with the Pro ny

- -

brake and other various forms of dynamometer in

—

which the pressure is weighed ih order to maintain

—

a more even balance and to prevent vibrations and

sudde n shocks due to momentary slip of the b elt o r
inefficient lubrication of the brake .

T his dash pot is generally in the form of a cylinde r

-

from 4 to 6 inches in dia m eter partly filled with oil o r ,

water n which a piston abo t 1 11 inch

i u 1 “

less in diameter is submerged T his .

piston will allo w the oil to pass freely

around it as it rises or falls with a lo w s

motion but will oppose a resi stance to

,

any sudden movement A n adj u table . s

pist n by which the motio n of the oil

o

F 1G .
can3
be .
r eg ul ated as desired is sometimes

a n advant a ge T hi can be readily . s

made by turning two d i k t fit the b re of the cylin s s o o

de r and drilli n g several holes thro ugh both disks b y

clamping toge th er .
24 D YN A M OM E m m

T he b rak co n ists of a fle x ibl metal strap to which

e s e

are fitted blocks of wo o d f o m ing t h r ubbing s u rf ce ;

r e a

the ends of the strap are c n n ec t d by n a dj u t ble

o e a s a

F 1G 4
. .

b olt clamp b y mean s of which any desired tension

-
,

may b e o b tained .

T he horse power or work o f the shaft is determ ined

-

from the follo wing

L et W work of shaft in foo t po u n ds per m in u t
: e,

equals power ab o b d pe r minute s r e

P unbalanced press u e
: w i ght in p u n ds r or e o ,

acti n g on lever rm at dist a nc L ; -

a e

L length of lever a m in feet fr m cent e of

-
r o r

shaft
V :velocity of a point in f e e t p r minute at e

dista n ce L if a m w e allowed to ro
,
r er

tate ;
N numb r f revol ut io n p r min ute ;
: e o s e .

HP . horse power -
.
 A N D THE M E A S URE M E N T OF P O WE R . 25

T hen will W : PV 2 7rL N P .

PV
Since HP . . we have
33 000

we o b tain

33 ,
inches ,
— practically 5 feet 3 i nches — a

v alue often used in p ractice for the length of arm .

I t will be noticed that neither the diameter of the

p ulley nor the pressure and weight of the frictio n

b locks on the sa m e n o r the coe ffi cient of friction

,

enter into the form ula for obtaining the horse power - .

A s previously noted the friction induced between the

,

brake blocks and the rim of the pulley tends to rotate

-

the brake in the direction in whic h the shaft revolves ;

this rotation is counterbalanced b y the weight acting
upon t he arm of the brake and when the system is in ,

equilibrium the moments are eq ual ; that is if F ,

.

friction between b locks and pulley acting at rad ius

R and P counterbalance acting at distance L
:

from centre of shaft we shall have ,

Multiplying each member of the equation by 2 r1V 7

,

where N : n umber of revol utions of shaft per mi n ute ,

w e obtain
2 7t N
'

X FR , 2 7t N PL W
26 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

T hat is the work absorbed per minute by friction

,

equals the work in foot pounds per minute at the end -

of the lever arm A nd since we have the means of

-
.

obtaining this work W when the weight P and arm L

are known it will readily be seen that the friction and
,

radius of brake pulley do not have to be considered in

-

obtaining the measure of the power of a rotating shaft .

If however the co e fli cie n t of friction q) between the

, , , ,

rubbing surfaces b e kno wn we may obtain from the ,

above equation an e x pressio n for the pressure ex erted

on the pulley rim by the brake -

PL
L et F represent the force of fri ction betwee n
R

the surfaces in contact at the pulley rim then -

,
g
equal the pressure exerted upon the pulley necessa ry
to produce the force F .

T h e coe fficient of friction varies from 06 to 50 de . .

,

pending upon the di fferen t materials in contact and

upon the lubrication of the surfaces W ithin certain .

limits the more perfect the lubrication the smaller the

,

coe fficient b etwee n any two materials .

A brake dynamometer similar to the one shown in

-

Fig 4 is used b y the W esti nghouse Machi n e Co in

. .
,

testing their engines before being sent out of the fac

tory For engine s above 1 2 5 horse power and under
.
-

z 5 o a b ake wheel is u s ed which is 4 8 inches in diameter

r -

a n d 2 4 inches face w ith internal flanges about 3§ inches

,

deep carrying a strea m of water about 2 inches deep

, ,

fed by a i inch pipe the overflow being removed as

-
,

shown in figure by means of the scoop pipe -

.

T he rub b in g surface is composed of 2 8 hard wood -

 A N D TH E M E A S URE M E N T OF P O WE R . 27

blo cks, or hickory which are each 35 inc hes wide

oak , ,

spaced 1 § inches apart T hese blocks are lubricated .

with fat pork or s uet which is packed in against the ,

flat face of the wheel between the b locks T he lever .

a rm is 6 3 } inch es long
1
.

F o r smaller e n gines a brake whee l 4 8 inches in -

diam e ter by 1 3 inches face is used the details being the ,

same as in the larger wheel e x cept the brake arm -

,

which in this case is shorter b eing 2 7§ inches long , .

Even with the sizes given a brake rim occasionally -

catches fire the cooli n g water not b ei ng su fficient to

,

carry o ff the heat quickly enough .

T he following reports of tests made with these b rakes

were furnished to the writer through the cou rtesy o f
the W estinghouse Machine C o both tests being o n .
,

their A utomatic Compound E ngines

Si f
ze o g i en ne 6 8 7 x 6 8 8 3 x8 1 1 2 1 1 1

I i i l t m p
n t a s ea -
re ss u re
93 9 6
T mi
er l mp na s te a 3-
re ssure
4 . 1 1

Hi gh p -
M E P
r e s s ure . .

L wp
o -
M E P
re ssu re . .

I di
n dh
ca te p w o rs e - o er

B k h
ra e pw o rse - o er

L f i i
oss o r r ct o n .

P e rce n ta
g fl e o o ss .

G i di d w
ro s s n ca te a te r- ra te

G b k w
ro ss ra e a te r ra te -

R l ti p m i t
evo u o ns 49
er 3 78 nu e . 2

B k l d (p
ra e - oa d) 785
o un 4 s . 2 1

D d w i gh
ea e l t o n s ca e s
5 0 11

R di
a f b k (i
us o h )
ra e6 3} 72
nc es 2

D i f ( mi
ur a t o n o )test 8 5 n u tes 1

T hearm of the brake is often omitted in which case ,

the friction is induced either by the use of a fle x ible

28 D Y/VA M OM E T E E S
’

brake strap supplied with wooden blocks or simply b y

-
,

the use of a band or ropes thrown over the pulley .

For small powers ordinary leather b elting from two

to fo u r inches wide is generally used b ut care should ,

be taken that the belt is not sticky : a well worn fle x i -

ble belt free to slip on the pulley face will give t he -

most uniform results .

T he belt should be narrower than the pulley face -

,

and in order to provide against its slippi ng

,

o ff the rim side ways it should be tacked ,

to three or four light strips of wood

placed across the face of the pulley
these strip s be 1n g cut o ut to receive the pulley rim -

and leaving a projection of about 2 inch on each side

of the rim as shown in cross section in Fig 5
,
-
. .

I n Fig 6 is seen the general arrangement of this

.

method the belt being carried over the pulley on the

,

motor to be tested and one end secured to the floor

by any convenient means T he o t her end is provided .

with a scale pan or flat wooden bo x to carry the

-

weights A wire or stout cord attached to the bottom

.

of the box and secured to the floor will prevent the

accidental pulling of the bo x over the shaft while
making the test T his wire must necessarily remain
.

slack when the weights are in the bo x .

W ith this form of brake the power is measured as

with the lever brake ; that is the work W of shaft in
-
, , ,

foot pounds per minute equals the product of the

-

weight P in the sc le bo x multiplied by the velocity

. ,
a -
,

V in feet per mi n ute of the lever arm of the weight

,
-

( see page which in thi s case is equal to the radius

of the pulley plus half the thickness of the belt I f we .

 AND TH E M E A S URE M E N T O F P O WE R . 29

neglect the belt t hick n es the velocity V will e qu al

-
s,

t h e circu m ferential velocity of the pull e y hence ,

W : PV = 2 71 RN P ,
’

)r th e ho rs p
e- o w er

2 7rR N P
RN P ,

33 000

wher e R is ra dius of arm in feet and ,

N : n umb e r of

F10 6
. .

revolution s per min ute . If we take radius of arm ,

r, in
inche s we shall obtain
2 7r r N P
0 00 00 1
.
5 8 6 r N P .

33 000 X 12
30 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

lnworking with this belt brake in order to obt ain -

accurate resu lts the weights sho uld be so adjusted that

there hall be no tension in the end of the belt whi ch
s

is secured t o the floor A c mm n e rr r is to v r

. o o o o e

load the scale b x and create a p ull on the e nd 6 w h ich

-
o

w ill cau e a n indication f power in e x c ss f it t u e

s o e o s r

val u e A spring scale or bala n ce interpo e d between

.
-
s

the end 6 and the flo r a shown in Fig 7 w ill giv e

o ,
s .
,

F rc .
7 .

the amount of the pull if any e x ists which pull shou ld

, ,

be ded u cted from the weight in the scale bo x -

.

It is evi dent that the weight of the spring scale should -

be added to the pull which it indicates in rder to obtain o

the total tension in the end 6 A n o ther method is to .

scrape the belt thus causing a great r adhesion to the

,
e

pulley face ; this will pull the b e lt around in the dirc e

-
 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

For larger power s the b rake strap is l i n ed with -

wooden blocks an d encircles the pulley the fri ction ,

being measured either by attaching weights to a h k oo

or scale pan and screwing up on an adj u tin g bol t w hich

- s

brings the two ends of the strap together : or a sprin g

balance is used in connection with the adj ust i ng sc re w ,

as show n in Fig 8 . .

In the Brauer compe n sati n g b rak e the b and which .

encircle s the pulley is o f thin roll d iro n when the e

pulley rim is flat ; w ire r0pe s are used fo r a gr oved

- o

pulley .

For small forces Mr G isbert K pp has adv a nta

. a

ge o u sl
y employed the arrangement represented in Fig .

T h e brake cord which embraces h al f the pulley

9
-
. ,

ci c u mference is attac hed at E on a level with the

r ,

k n ife edge of the scale beam an d at D in a point

- -
,

somewhat below so that the lever arm of D is in

,
-
 AND THE M E A S UE E M E N T OF P 0 WE E .
33

r ased while that of E is dimi n ished t hus formi ng a

c e ,

compensating device T he spring S and n ut N allow

.

an adj ustment of the tension in the cord after the

scale pan is weighted
-
.

T he brake recommended by the R oyal A gricultura l

S ociety designed by Mr C E A mos and Mr A ppo ld
*
, . . . .
,

FIG . 1 0.

is om ewha t similar to those already d e scri b ed but as

s , ,

will b e n oticed Fig 1 0 this brake is provided with a self

,
.
,

acting system of levers w hich are arra nged to adj ust

the tension in order to compensate for the variations
in the m o m ent of friction .

P B i ti h I t C E
roc . r s l xns 888 89
. . .
, vo . cv , 1 -
.
 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

I n this brake the strap is made in two parts to which

blocks of wood are sec ured and at a convenient point
,

the two portio ns are joined by a right and left hand - - -

adjustin g screw .

T he other end of the strap are joint e d to a do u ble

s

swingi n g lever in such a manner that the radii of the

two ends of the st ap from the centre of o scillation o f
r

the lever are u n eq ua l .

If thro ugh deficien cy of lubricatio n other ca u es

,
or s ,

the wheel should tend to c r y the strap aro u n d w ith

a r

it in the direction of the arrow the greater radius of ,

the end nearer the weight would e ff ect a loosening of

the strap and a diminution of the friction whereas if
the friction is mome n tarily ins uflicie nt to sustain the ‘

weight it will in falling tighten the strap and th us

, ,

maintain a utomatically a fairly constant moment .

T his form of brake like that f A ppo ld can nly be

,
o ,
o

used for measuring sm all horse po wers u n less we take

-
,

into account the reaction at the point of suspension of

the lever .

So lo n g as the f ictio n between the wooden blocks

r

a nd wheel is such that the weight of the brake strap -

and suspended weight is s ufficient at the required ,

speed to carry the load without t ightening the adj ust

,

ing scre w to any e x tent the lever does not a ff ect

,

the res u lts the conditions being similar to those which

—

would obtain if the brake were without compe n s ting a

lever and the stra p so slack that the b tt o m blocks

, o -

barely touch the wheel T hat the re ultant f th ten

. s o e

sions in the brake band resolved alon g the lever a ffe cts
-

the measu re of the power can be shown by mea ns of

the following figure
 AND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T O F PO WE R .
35

the lever E CD be in the positi o n show n an d the

L et ,

system in equilibrium T he ten sions of the brake

.

blocks on the lever to w ards the right at C and left at ,

D are represented in the figure by T and T

,
O n the , ,
.

other hand the re ctio ns of the lever on the brake

,
a

blocks are T t wa ds the left at C and T towards the

,
o r , ,

right at D ; then since there is eq u ilibri um in the sys

,

Fl a . 1!

re m ,the alge b raic sum of the moments taken about the

c ntre of shaft m ust equal zero
e .

T he resultant of the forces T and T which we may , ,

ca ll Q m ust pass t hrough the point of suspension E of

, , ,

the lever R esolving this force Q into its vertic al and

.

horizontal co m ponents acting at the point E which is ,

36 D YN A M O M E T E E S

directly under the centre of the shaft or centre of

mo m ents we have the moment of the vertical compo
,

nent equal to z e ro Calling the horizontal comp o nent

.

12 and the vertical component Z we have the sum of

,
‘
J,

the moments about the cent re of rotation :

PR FR, + /zr ;

in which P is the weight a cting n brake at r di u s R ; o a

F is the friction between brake block and rim f pulley -

s o

acting at radius R ; and k is th at co mpone nt f the

,
o

reaction at the point of support of the lev r which tends e

to produce a rotation about the centre of shaft ; its

lever arm 7
-
.

Since FR PR ,
127 we have ,

Z N N FR , 2 7rN (P R it r );

that is the work absorb e d by friction equals the work

,

of the shaft in foot pounds per min ute (when R R and

-
, ,

r are in feet and N ,re volutions per minu te)or as

:
, ,

previously found ,

W : 2 7ZN
’

(P R lt r)
,

2 7t N
hors e power-
(P R lzr ) .

33 000

amount of the force lz is best o btained b y the

T he
use of a sprin g bala nce W ith a high coe fficie n t of
-
.
 AN D THE MEA S UE E N E N T OF P 0 WE E .
37

fric tion
the force It may be small and might b e disre ,

garded in approximate measurements b ut in e v e ry ca se ,

where accuracy is desi re d its moment must be co n

s ide re d .

R op es used as b rak e straps have given very satisfac

-

o ry results .

smut bl it z es
-

F ig . 12.

Prof A ndre w
. Jamieso n of the Glasgow College o f
,

Science and A rts states that he prefers a rope brake to

,

any one of the numero us forms which he has tried ,

and believes that it could be adopted for large po wers

an d for long continuous runs for the following reasons
,

It could be constr u cted on very short notice from

materials always at hand in every factory and at very ,
38 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

little e xpense I t is so se lf adjusting that no accu rat e

.
-

fitting is required It can be put on an d taken o ff in a .

m o m e nt ; is very ligh t and of small bulk It needs .

little or no attention for lubrication T he back pull .

-

r g ist ered by t he spring balance is steady and migh t

e -
,

be made a mini m um by properly adj u sting the weight .

For larger powers o n ly more or larger or flatter ropes , , ,

o r a larger brake wheel w uld be req u ired

”
-
,
o .

Fig 1 2 represents a rope br k e u ed by Prof Jamie

.
-
a s .

son to indicate a ga e ngine f fifteen brake horse s -

o

power In this test the diameter of ropes was

. inch ,

working over a 5 foot fly wheel - -

.

T he following are some of the c nditio n s under whic h o

the test was made

M e an revolutions of brake wheel per min ute -
2 05

W eight P in lbs , , 1 57

Mean back pull on balance in lbs -

, 4
Mean brake H P d uri n g two hou rs run . .
’

Gas consumption per brake H P in c u ft per hr

-
. . . .

indic .

More
recently Prof Jamieson has used the forms o f .

rope brake shown in Fig 1 3 T hese are of the same

- . .

kind emp loyed in the trials of gas engines under the -

auspices of the Society of A rts L o n do n and give much , ,

more satisfactory resu lts t han any other form of b rake

hitherto devised for light work T he subst it ution of .

the spring balance in the right hand figure for the

- -

weight shown at the l e ft of the fi gu e is a decided ad r

“S p p by
ee a er W W
. . Be a u m o n t in P ro c . Br ii
t sh I ns t . C . E
888 9 ; l J mi S te a m i L
( n do n
’
1 -
a so a e so n s S te a m and
-
e ng ne s o ,
40 D YN A M OM E TE E S

vantage since b y the us e of two spring b alanc es o f -

“
,

di ff eren t periods of oscillation the hunting action of ”

the brake is e ff ectually minimized enabling observa ,

tions to be taken with great precision T o obtain the .

brake load it is only nece ssary to add the wei ght of the
-

ha n ging part o f the lower balance to its own r eading ,

a n d subtract from this sum the back pull as re gis t er e d -

by the reading of the upper scale .

T his form of b rake deserve s to b e b et ter k nown ; fo r

with it n o l u b rication whatever is requ ired and con ,

t in uo us runs o f any desired len gth of time m ay be

carried out without any fear of o v e rh eati ng or re quir
ing to st 0 p for adj ustment .

W ith this brak e Prof Jamieson conducted a fi v e .

ho ur continuous test of Brown s R otary E ngine and * ’

,

obtained for speeds varying from 560 to 600 re v o lu

tions per min ute an average brake horse power of -

A s the b rake wheel used was 4 feet in diame

-

t e r it w ill be seen that the average surface velocity

was nearly 7300 feet per minute a very unsatisfactory
—

s peed fo r friction b rakes -

.

A n in t eresti n g for m of rope b rake dynamometer is -

that shown in F ig 1 3a . .

T his brake was designed to measure 1 2 5 hors e

power when placed upo n a 72 inch fly wheel running - -

at 1 50 revolutions per minute T he frame E which .

,

stands upon the platform scales F is made of such a ,

s ize tha t the two upright pieces pass each sid e of the

fly wheel A
-
A t the lower portion of the frame there
.

T ran s . I n st . Eng i n e e rs a nd S hip b il d

u e rs in S co t l a n d, No v .

1 89 1 .
 AN D THE M EA S URE ME N T O F P O WER .

is a cross piec e which holds the lower ends of the two

-

ropes .

T he ropes pass around the wheel and the upper end s ,

are spliced so as to p ass over a pair of hooks at t he

e n d of t he screw D .

Al w : mm

Fm . 1 3a . MA
— R 09 11 H-
3 1uua us s n TO E S UR E 1 2 5 O RS E - PO W E R .

T he di ff erence in tension which the friction produces

in the ropes is measured directly on the platfor m
s cales no correction being nec essary fo r back pull
, .

Prof D S Jacobus states that in one case a test

. .
*
.

w as mad e with this brake of s ix hours duration with

’

o ut any trouble whatever .

D u ri n g a su b sequent test the load was run up to 1 4 5

brake hors e power and maintained at this figure
-
T he .

total v ariat ion as registered by a bo x counter rea d -

,

T A S M E l x
ra n s p 8 . . . . vo . v1 . . 2 0.
4 2 D YN A M O M E TE E S

eve ry two or three minutes was only three revolution s , ,

showing how steadily a rope brake can be run even -

with heavy loads .

I n the test mentioned the inside of the fly wheel ,

-

was cast with flanges on either side thus forming a ,

hollo w space which was filled with water .

W hen loaded from 1 2 0 to 1 50 horse power a little -

water was also added on the outside of the wheel in

order to prevent the charring of the ropes ; this pre
caution is however usually not necessary Brakes of
, , .

this character have been used very satisfactorily for

fi v e and s ix hour runs over pulleys no larger than 4 2
-

inches in diameter measuring up to 75 or 80 horse

, ,

po wer .

In using a rope brake of any kind one half the diam

-

eter of the rope should be added to the radius of the

pulley in order to obtain the e ff ective radius of the
b rake T he writer s e x perience with rope brakes
.
’
-

would indicate that the diameter of rope should be

as large as can be conveniently handled R opes one .

inch or more in diameter are preferable to 5 inch or 1 1-

i-
inch as
,
these wear out quickly with heavy stresses .

A n interesting form of brake dynamometer invented -

by M R appard modified in order to adapt its use to

.
,

large forces and high speed machinery is thus described

-
,

in L a L u m zfi e E lect zgue
’ '

O n e of these improvements consists in the s ubst i

t utio n for the rubbing surfaces of linen bands secured
, ,

to metallic straps instead of the ordinary belts usually

,

e m ployed I n this way a composition belt is obtained

.

A u gu s t 1 , 1 89 1 .
 AN D THE M E A S UR E M E N T OF P 0 WE E .
43

which is entirely ine xtensible very strong an d perfectly ,

free to allo w water to pass to cool the surfaces .

“A strip of brass 08 inch thick covered with b ands

.

of linen 04 inch thick constitutes a very desirable form

.

of belt for this work .

It is by the use of this n ew form of ine x tensible

strap that M R appard has been able to construct the
.

machines represented by Figs 1 4 to 1 6 . .

T he apparat us represented by Fig 1 4 consists .

I st O f a brake shaft connected b y a universal

.

joint to the motor to be tested .

“2 d O f a dr um mounted mid length of the brake

.
-

shaft and of two loose pulleys placed on each side of

,

the drum upon the hubs of which the arms of a forked

,

b alance yoke are supported

-
.

3 d .O f three metallic straps two for the loose pulley s ,

an d the other for the drum : this last which produces ,

the friction is covered with a b and of linen ; from the

,

forked yoke to which it is attached this strap passes

over the drum and descends vertically to the lowe r
cross bar of the frame
-
.

T he two other straps also attached to the forked ,

yoke envelop the lo wer surface of t he loose pulleys

, ,

from which they rise vertically and are attached to the

upper cross bar of the frame -
.

T his vertical frame of wood ( it would be b etter to

construct it in part of wrought iron pipe)carries at top -

and bottom two strong cross bars through which p ass -

,

the bolts which receive the ends of the straps

“T hese bolts are for re ul ti n g the t e n sio n o f the
.

g a

straps so as to pr duce the necessary friction to balanc e

o

the load o f the brake .

44 D YN A M O M E TEE S

T he wholeapparatus is suspended b y a chain which ,

after passing over a pulley rigidly supported a b ove the

frame descends vertically and is atta ched to the lower

,

bar of the frame as shown

, .
 A ND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T O F P 0 WE E . 45

T his arrangement is used to insure an equal rolling

and unrolling of the belts on the pulleys and drum in ,

order to maintai n a constant load on the brake not

withstanding the vertical movement T he w e ight of .

the fra m e an d the brake load are carried upon a rod

-

situated in the centre of the vertic al portion of the

chain .

“T here will often be an advantage in placi n g the

apparatus hor izo n tally ; in this case the plane of the
ba n ds is placed tangentially to the upper part of the
drum the horizont al motion being o b tained by means
,

of small friction rollers placed under the frame A t .

each end of the frame there is a c hain which afte r ,

being stretched horizontally passes under the pulley at

,

an angle and de cen ds vert ically to the floor T he

s .

chains should be long enough so that they do n o t leave

the flo r whatever the motion of the frame
o .

T he brake load is placed u pon that one of the two

-

chains w hich is connected to the cross bar of the frame -

to which are attached the bands from the loose pulleys .

Fig 1 5 is another arrangement of the R appard bal

.

ance dynamometer which permits placing the brake

-

shaft nearer the floor T he centre strap covered with

.
,

canvas and which forms the ru b bing surface passes

, ,

downwards and under a guide pulley thence upwards -

,

to the rod which receives the weights .

T he two other bands after passing under the loose

,

pulleys ascend and are carried over guide pulleys

, ,
-
,

thence do wn wards and are attached to the e x tremities

,

of a short beam the centre of which receives the eye of

,

the rod which carries the load .

T ension in the straps is obtained b y means of t wo

4 6 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

sc ews and n uts which allow the shaft of the guide pul
r -

leys to be rais e d or lo wered .

T h e water necessary for cooling the straps of the

F 10 . 1 5 .

brake instead of falling upon the e xterior surface is ,

delivered to the interior of the drum by two small pipes

passing bet ween the drum and the two loose p u lleys .

T he water is retained in the interior of the drum b y

4 3 D YN A M O M E T E E S

Fig 1 7 represents a friction brake for a ve rtic al

.
-

shaft which was used by F rancis in his L owell h ydraulic

e x periments in testing a 1 50 horse power t u r b ine T he
- -
.

brake wheel rim A is of cast iron 5 } feet in diameter

- -

and 2 4 inches width of face T his rim is 3 inches .

thick and is cast with internal lugs which perm it it

,

F ro . 1 7.

to b e b olte d to a spider keyed to the turbine shaft

D provision being made for a slight e x pansion b etween
,

the end o f the arms and the b rake rim which is flanged -
,

to receive the b rake shoes T he b rakes E and F are

-
.
, ,

of maple and are tightened by two 2 inch sq uare bolts

,
-

one of the brake arms F is connected to the swin gin g

-
, ,

l ever K b y means of the rod K L as shown

, ,
Fro m o ne , .

e n d o f this lever the scale pan is hung and to the othe r

-
,
 AND THE M E A S UE E M E N T O F P 0 WE E . 49

e nd is connected a hydra ulic reg ulator N (see Fig , .

which consists of an iron plate half an inch thick t u rned , ,

1
1,
inch less than diameter of cylinder free to move ,

up and down in a cylinder filled with water so that ,

it acts as previously noted as a moderator in con

, ,

trolling any s u dd e n vibrations o f the lever arm T he -

.

brake is cooled by means of a forked pipe R which , ,

throws jets of water against the wheel the quantity o f ,

cooling water b ing about 1 7 cubic feet per min ut e

e . .

W hen ru n ning slow the lubricatio n was with linseed

and resin oil ; water h owever was preferred for the
, ,

faster speeds abo u t 60 revolutions per m i nute

— .

Mr Samuel W ebber in 1 884 had occasion to test

.
, ,

a large turbine at A ugusta G a and for this pur ,

.
,

pose had a br ake made similar in appeara n ce to the

one shown in Fig 4 page 2 4 b ut arrange d hori
.
, ,

z o n t ally with a bent lever like the o n e j ust shown .

In this brake the friction pulley was 7 feet in diameter

-

and 2 4 inches face T h e brake lever was of oak 1 6

.
-
,

inches square reaching , feet from the centre of

shaft to the point of connection with the bent lever -

scale b eam which latter had a leverage of two to one

-
,

to red u ce the amount of weights to be handle d .

L ubrication was supplied by strong soap suds fed -

from three large cans placed at intervals around the

brake Besides this a thin jet of water was thro wn
.

upon the brake through a flattened nozzle .

T h e apparatus worked perfectly and a steady test ,

was obtained of 4 75 H P at 76 revolutions of the . .

wheel per minute .

T his is probably the heaviest test of a single moto r

ever mad e w it h a b r ak e at t his spe e d .
5 0 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

T he strap of the brake w s made of boiler iron lined a -

with blocks o f soft wood and the pulley had deep ,

flanges so that the brake set into it like a saddle

, .

T he iron clamp was in t wo pieces hinged together at a

point opposite the adjusting bolt .

In connection with this brake M r W ebber used a .

hydraulic regulator for the scale beam the cylinder o f -

,

which was 1 8 inches diameter and the piston 1 7§ inches .

In using any form of friction brake if the surface in -

,

contact with the pulley be too large it will be found ,

that a considerable weight may be added to the scale

pan without materially altering the position of the
lever arm ; b ut if on the other hand this rubbing
-
, ,

s urface b e too small the res u lting friction will show

,

—
great irregularity probably on account of insu ffi cient
lubrication the jaws being allowed to seize the pulley
—
,

thus producing shocks and sudden vibrations of the

lever arm T he material in contact with brake pulley
-
.
-
,

no doubt enters largely into the question of smooth

,

running especially if the lubrication be not of the best

, .

Soft woods such as b as plane tree beech poplar or

,
s, -
, , ,

maple are generally to be preferred to the harder woods

,

for b rake blocks O ld leather belting secured to wooden

-
.
,

blocks forms a good rubbing surface provided the

, ,

leather is not sticky or gummy and maintains a very ,

regular motion of the brake if properly lubric ated .

For high speeds and small powers the writer has

found strong soap suds very e ffi cient for this purpose
-
.

A convenient method of s upplying the lu b ricant to

small brakes is to place a large can provided with a ,

pet cock dir e ctly above the brake allowing the so py

-
, , a

water to trickle do wn two or more wires which lead to

 AND THE M E A S UR E M E N T OF PO WE R .

5 !

t he pulley surface A trough a nd shield can be suit

- .

a bly arranged to catch the e x cess of water thrown from

the pulley .

For light tests Mr W ebber has found that cork gives

.

a very good rubbing surface .

F IG . 1 8 .

Babbitt metal has also been used for this p u rpose

the p ulley being g ooved a nd the Bab bitt shoes cast
r

to fit it T here is no do ubt th at this material would

.

give e x cellent results as a brake rubbi n g surface if -

prop e rly lu b ri cate d .

5 2 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

Self cooling brakes Fig 1 8 where b oth the rim of

-
, .
,

the pulley a n d the br ke strap were hollow with a a -

,

stream of c o ld water flowi ng through them were ,

u sed by Mr E merso n at L owell in 1 869 o il bei ng

.
,

used on t he metallic rubbing s u rfac s as the l a bri e

cant In this brake the wheel B is made of cast iron

.
-
,

and the fric tion b and of composition or gun bronze the

- -
,

hollo w b and being supplied with water from the out

side while the rim o f pulley is kept cool by means of
,

water which enters the hub and is delivered thro ugh

the hollow arms to the rim .

Mr W W Beau mont in his e x cellent paper on

. . .
,

T he Friction brake Dynamometer -

previo u sly t e ,

ferred to has given a form u la by m eans of w hich the

,

relative capacities of brakes can be co m pared j udgin g ,

from the amount of horse power ascertained by thei -

r

use 2
If W width of rubbi ng surface on brake wheel in -

inches
veloci ty of point on circumference of wheel
in feet per minute ;
co e ffi cie n t,
— then

average of three b rakes cited by Mr Be a um x

T he . o

gives the value of K as 860 .

I n T able I V is give n a n u mber of tes t s a n d th e siz e

of b rake used from which the value of K has been cal

,
.

culat ed as show n in t he l ast c olu m n

, T h ese fi gu r s . e
 AND THE M E A S UR E M E N T O F P O WE R . 53

h av ebeen collected from various sources and represent

v aried practice .

T A BL E IV .

CA P ACIT Y or F RI CT I O N -
BRA K ES .

Bra ke p ull ey
-

h
.

R P M L e n gt o f
Ho rse
. .

w
Bra ek arm 1 n Design of Brak e
h
.

po e r
pul l e y F a ce i n D ia in in c e s
.

h
. .

inc e s fee t. .

Ro ya l
A g S o c , co m . .

pe n sat in g
Mc L a re n , co m e n satin g p
Mc La re n wa te r co o e d -
l
p i
,

a n d co m e n s a t ng

G a rr e tt , wa te r co o e d -
l
a n d c o m e n sa t ing p
G a rre tt , wa te r co o e d -
l
a n d co m e n sa t n g p i
S cho e nh e yde r wa te r
coo e d l
Ba lk co m p e n sa t i n g

G t ly K l
,

a e e ts ch , wat e r
ld
co o e
W bbe w er, a te r- coo ed l
W i gh
es t n o use , wate r
ld
co o e
W ti gh
es n o use, wate r
ld
co o e

By referring to the table it will b e seen that the

above calc ulations for eleven brakes give v alues of K
v aryi n g from to 1 3 8 5 for actual horse powers -

tested the average bei n g K 6 5 5 By a comparison

,
.

of the siz s and speeds given by Mr Heinrichs (see

e .

T able I I ) K is found to average 89 5 for small horse

,

powers vary ing from 2 to 8 From the n ature of the .

device these latter brakes are not water cooled

,
-
.
54 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

In t h e G a t e ly c l d brake (f r de K le t sch w a te r -
oo e o

scripti n of w hich s e article by Prof R H T h u r ton

o e . . . s

in j our Frankli n I n st A p il 1 886) the wh e e l was

. .
,
r

designed to measure 540 ho se p o wer but it does not r -

,

appear to have been used to indicate more than 1 80

horse power -
.

For this n u mber K 2 09 I n the S ch o e nheyde r : .

water cooled b rake K

-
2 8 2 ; in the large W esting :

house brake K varied f om 2 88 to 709 for actual horse r

powers tested averagi n g 46 5 , .

For the smaller W e s t ingho use brake K averaged ,

84 7 which see m s to be the only c ase in which the

,

val ue of the c e ffi ci e nt for non comp e n ting brake e x

o -
sa p

cee d that a c e r ta ined for compe n sating brakes

s s T he .

average v l ue o f K for the several w ater cooled non

a -

compensati ng brake s is 3 77 a n d for the compensating ,

b rakes K 8 53 N egl e cti n g the e x treme value as

: .

given for the Balk brake K will equal 762 , .

From these ded uctions it would appear that wh en

the brake strap is provided with some form of co m pen
-

sating device (as f r i nstance that shown in Fig 1 0)by

,
o , .

which a self acting adj ustme nt of the t n sion of the

-
e

strap is suppo sed to maintain a ne arly con st nt moment a

of friction the rubbing s u rface is generally greater than

,

when such device is not employed I n stead therefore .

, ,

of assuming an average coe ffi cient of 860 the write r ,

would propose the followi ng

K :
4 00 for wat r cooled b k non compensating ;
e -
ra e -

K 75 0 for wat r cooled b ake compensati

e -
n g ; r

K 9 00 for non cooled br ake with or without com

-

e nsat in g device
p .
5 6 D YN A M O M E TE E S

C HA PT E R III .

A BS O R PT I O N D Y NA MO M ET E R S
-
.

form of absorbing dynamometer is that de

A NO T H E R
signed by Prof C B R ichards of the S he fli e ld S cie n
. . .
,

t ifi c School of Y ale U niversity It consists of a tank .

,

A B ( Fig within which t wo paddle wheels revo lve

.
-

F rG . 1 9 .

in oil thus prod u ci n g a resistance and a tendency to

,

rot te the whole tank which is m ou nted on friction

a ,

roll e rs T his t nd e ncy to rotate is measured by the

. e

lever m acting o n a pl atform sc ale By means of the

-
ar -
.

v alve 0 the oil in the t n k c n be allowed to circulate

a a

with g eater or less fre e do m ; by closing the valve 3

r
 AND T HE M E A S UEE M E N T O F P 0 WE E .
57

pressure is brough t to b ear on the oil in the tan k so ,

that the resistance to the rotation of the inner wheels

thus b ecomes a drag on the driving power ; when the
max imum resistance is obtained without decreasing
the number of revolutions per min ute of the shaft the ,

force of resistance meas u red on the scale beam will

,
-
,

enable us to calculate the horse power co nsumed I n -

.

order to prevent any change of temperat u re in the oil ,

a constant stream of water is discharged onto the tank

thro ugh a perforated pipe P above it Beneath the
, ,
.

tank proper a metal receiver R catches the water , , ,

which is then carried o ff by the waste pipe 1 shown

47 -
,

at the bottom of the receiver .

Part of the ta n k A B and also of the outside receiver

,

R is torn away in the figure in order to show more

, ,

clearly the circulation of oil and position of the paddle

wheels O ne of these latter is mounted on the pulley
.

shaft and has the same direction of rotation as the

,

belt pulley ; the other is driven b y a gear ( not shown)

-
,

and revolves in the opposite direction A casing at .

each end of the ta n k fits close to the paddle wheels -

,

the blades of which roll on each other In this re .

,
spect the internal arrangement is similar to that of
various rotary e ngines and blowers In order that .

there should be a minimum amou n t of vibration of the

scale beam while weighing the pressures a rod an d
-
,

dash pot were used the lat ter being supported by an

- —

arm attached to t h e side of the scal s e .

T he size of this dynamometer was 30 X 1 4 x 1 8

in c hes and would meas u re from i to 1 4 horse power
,
-
.

W ith this apparatus as with the Prony b rake it will

, ,

be seen that an absorbing dy n amometer cann o t be

5 8 D Y N A M OM E TE E S

used to determine the p w r wh ich is act ually tran s

o e

m itte d to a machine ; it can o n ly measure the pow e r

which is produced in circumstances as similar as pos
sible to those under which the machine is O perated ;
and this power is assumed equivalent to that con
sumed b y the machine A bo u t the year 1 873 Prof
.
, .

R ichards used th is principle of measuring the tende n cy

of the b elt to rotate a body about its a x is and de ,

signed a stand or cradle u pon which the machine itself

was suspended o n trunnions W hen the machine to .

be tested was put in motion its tendency to rotate ,

th us b ecame a measure of the resista nce .

T his same principle was i n tr o d u ced by Prof Brack .

ett of Princ eton a n umber of years later in his

, , ,

cradle dynamometer which is now very generally and

-
,

s uccessfully used in testing dynamos and electric mo

tors .

A little consideration will show t hat the cradle

dynamometer measures the actual power transmitted
to the machine or developed by the motor and is thus ,

a tran mitting dynamometer A s such it will b e con

s .

s ide re d subseq u ently .

A n a b sorptio n dynamometer by which also any

-
,

desired load can be maintained on the en gine is the ,

invention of Prof A lden of W orcester T his dyna

.
, .

m o m e t e r is essentially a friction brake in which the

pressure causing the friction is distributed over a com
p a rat iv e ly large area thus givi
,
n g a low intensity of

pressure b etween the r ubbing surfaces .

T his friction is produced by the pressure of water

from the city pipes acting upon two copper plates in
contact with a smooth cast iron disk keyed to the s haft
-
 A ND THE M EA S URE M E N T O F P 0 WE E . 59

which re volves in a bath f o il b e twe e n the p late s o .

T hese latter are secur e d by a wat e r tig h t join t to a -

casing whi c h does not revolve and to wh ic h is bolted ,

a lever arm carryi n g weights as in an ordinary Prony

-

brake T he shell or casing is so constructed t hat it

.

pe rmits an equal pres ure of water upon b oth sides of

s

the disk a s u flicie nt quantity of the wat r being al

— ‘
e

lowed to pass through the machine to carry o ff the

heat due to the energy abso bed r .

A n ingenious form of valve O perated b y the slight

ang u lar motion of the dynamometer
varies the supply of water and con ,

sequen tly the press u re between the

frictional surfaces th us securin g uto
, a

matic regulation R efe ring to Figs

. r .

2 0 to 2 4 A ( Fig 2 0) is an iron
, .

disk keyed to the crank shaft B -

.

T h e sides of this disk are fin ished

smooth and each side has one or
,

more shallow radial grooves as sho wn ,

at X ( Fig T he outer sh e ll
.

consists of two pieces of cast iro n -

,

C C bolted together bu t held at

, ,
Fm 20

a fi xed distance apart b y the iro n

. .

—
ring D whose t hickness is the same as that of the
disk A and by the edges of the copper plates E B
— .

Each of these plates at its inner edge makes with the

cast iron shell a water tight joint b y being sp u n o ut
- -

into a cavity in the iron and held by driven ri ngs F F .

T hus b etween each copper plate and its cast iron s h ell -

there is a water tight c o mpartme nt W W into whic h

-
,
'

water from the city pipes is admitted at G and passing ,

60 D YN A M O M E TE E S

to the opposite compartment through passages as ,

shown at O is discharged thro ugh a s m all ou t let at H

,

T he chamber M NN is filled with oil which finds its ,

way from N to M along the grooves in the disk A .

T he shaft is free to revolve in the b earin gs of the

cast iron shell CC T he shell has an arm carrying
-
.

weights as shown in Fig 2 1 T he arm has its angular

, . .

motion limited by stops at P and Q .

Fm . 21 .

An automatic valve at V ( Fig and shown in . 2 2 —

secti o ns Fig 2 3 and 2 4) regulates the supply of

,
s .

w a ter to the machine .

T h e valve c n i ts f t w o brass tubes fitted one in

o s s o

side the ther but f ee to revo lve relatively to one

o ,
r

another T he inside t ube ha s o n end closed Each

. e .

t ub e has slots p rall l or nearly parallel to its axis

a e , ,
.

O ne tube conne cts wi t h the s upply pipe S the other -

,

with a pipe rigidly fi x d to the b rake and com e

m un icating with one of t he compartments IV A flex .

 AND TH E M EA S UE E M E N T O F P 0 WE E . 61

ible tube R encloses the whole T he valve is so

, , .

adjusted that slight angular motion of the b rake

a

varies the free water passage thro ugh the slots (see
Fig. an d the apert u re at H thro ugh which t he ,

water is disch arged being s m all and cons tant the press
, ,

F xc . 22 .

FIG . 24

P ro . 23 .

ure of the water in the cham b ers W W is thus auto

m at ical ly varied .

T h e dynamometer is operated as follows : T he

ch am b er N N M being filled with oil weights are sus ,

pended from the arm to give the desired load T he .

en gine is started and when u p to speed a va lve is s uit

,

ably open ed in the water pipe leadi ng to the automatic

-

valve ( V ) which l atter being ope n allows water to

, ,

ass to com artm nts W W T h ress re of h'

p t he p e e
p u t is .
62 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

water forces the copper pl tes against the sides of the

a

—
revolving disk A with which they were already in
—
contact causing su fficient frictio n to b alance the
wei ghts upon the arm which then rises T his motion
, .

operates the automatic valve checking the flow of ,

water to the b rake and regulating the moment of the

friction on the disk to the moment of the weights ap
plied to the arm of the brake T he first trial of the .

m ach ine gave remarkable results the arm standing ,

m idway between the stops with only a slight a n d slow

,

v ibration and this without the use of a dash pot

, T he -
.

water seems a little sluggish in its action in response

to the motion of the regulating valve so that there is ,

no sudden vibration of the arm an d the load is ,

practically constant *
.

I n e xperimenting with a 50 horse power A lden - -

b rake Prof G oss of Purdue U niversity has found

,
.
, ,

that the operation of the brake is very materially

improved b y c u tting spiral grooves on each face of
the revolving plate and connecting the inner com
rt m e n t b etween the copper disks with two pipes
p a

the one near the h ub and the other at the outer cir
,

cu m fe re n ce of the shell T his admits of a better dis

.

t ribut io n and circulation of the oil which is fed from ,

the pipe con nected to the chamber near the hub .

From this chamber the oil is carried to the circum fer

ence both by the radial grooves and b y the spiral
,

groove which crosses the former thus e nsuring a very ,

even and uniform distribution of the oil which then ,

passes out at the circumference into a strainer situated

T ra n s A S
. . . M E
. .
, vo l . VI .
 A ND T HE M E A S URE M E N T O F P 0 WE E .
65

direction b eing m e asure d by a system of levers and

weights connected to the draw bar b y which the trac -

tion of the engine can readily b e weighed A ny desired .

load and speed can be maintained b y means of the

powerful friction b rakes which are b olted securely to
-

—
stone foundations in this respect di ffering fro m the
A lden dynamometer which is free to rotate through a
,

s m all arc T he smoke is ex hausted through the roof

.

of the b uilding by a Sturtevan t b lower which is placed

above the smoke stack but not in connection with i t
-
, .

A n absorption dynamometer designed b y Mr W m

-
, . .

Froude to measure the power of large marine engines

is essentially another form of water b rake -
.

In this arrangement the e ngine in deliverin g its

,

power may b e assumed to be winding u p a weight o ut

of indefinite depth b ut the weight instead of b eing
,

constant and assigned ( as in the cas e of the suspended

weight on a friction b rake)will vary with the spe ed of

-

rotation much in the same way as the resistance of the

propeller itself does ; and th u s the work performed b y
the e ngine under trial will more closely resem b le its
natural work though the same circumstance renders
,

nec essary an automatic method of recording the varia

tions of the resistance which occurs during the trial .

T he re actio n as will b e shown instead of arising from

, ,

the friction of two solid s u rfaces will consist of a seri e s ,

of fluid jets which are maint ained in a condition of in

te nsifi e d speed b y a so rt of turbine revolving within a
casin g filled with water b oth turb ine and casing being
,

m ou n t e d on the end of the screw shaft in place of the -

Proc Br
. it . I ns t . M E
. .
, v ol . fo r 1 877 .
66 D Y N A M OM E T E E S

screw ; the turbine revolving while the casing is dy

n am o m e t rical ly held stationary T he jets are alter
.

nat ely dashed forward from projections in the turbine

agains t co u nter projections in the interior of the casi ng

-
,

tending to impress forward rotation upon the casing ,

and are in turn dashed back from the projections in

the casing against those in the turbine tending to ré ,

sist the turbi n e s rotation T he important point is

’
.

that the speed of jets is intensified by the reactions

to which they are a lternately subjected ; and thus in ,

virtue of this circumsta n ce a total reaction of very ,

great magnit u de is maintai n ed within a casi n g of com

p a rat iv e l
y very limited dimensio n s .

T he nature of thi s arrangement will b e understood

b y referring to the following figures which represent ,

the dynamometer as designed to measure 2 000 H P . .

In Fig 2 6 A represents the screw e n o f the scre w

.
,

shaft ; BB shows in section what has bee n termed

“the turb ine ; it is a disk or circular plate 5 feet in
”

diameter with central hu b keyed to the shaft in place of

,

the screw and revolving with the shaft T he disk is

, .

n o t flat throughout its entire zone b eing shaped into ,

a semi oval section which sweeps around the whole

-

circumference concentric with the axis In Fig 2 7

“
. .

Fig 2 6 is repeated and the casing is added CC

.
”
,

representing the front and DD the back .

T he face is shaped into a channel the counterpart of

that in the turbine disk so that the two semi oval chan
,
-

nels in e ffect form o n e complete channel T he back of the .

casing encloses the turbine entirely but without touch ,

ing it T he casing is also provided with a hub which

.
,

is an easy fit over that of the turbine so that the latt e r ,

 AN D TH E M E A S URE M E N T OF P 0 WE E . 67

isfree to revolve within the casing which is stationary ,

.

Both casing and t u rbine are provided with a series o f

twelve fi x ed diaphragms one of which is shown in Fig,
.

28 T hese diaphragms c u t the channel obliquely bein g

. ,

semicircular in o u tline so that when se t at an angle

, ,

as shown in side vie w ( Fig 2 9 )their circ ular edges fit the

-
.
,

P ro . 2 6. F 1o 2 7. F 113 . 2 8. Fm . 29.

F m 3o . .

Fao un n ’
s Ma ma s -
11 11 0111 1; D vm mo m r rna .

oval botto m of the channel while their diameters spa n ,

the major ax is of the oval T hus is formed by casing .

and turbine when the diaphragms are opposite to each

,

other a series of cells ; and as the function of the tur

,

b ine is to rotate while the casing remains at rest o ne ,

half of each cell is m oving past the other half in such

a m ann e r that the moving half if v iewed fro m its s ta ,
68 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

t io nary counterpart would appear to b e advancing ,

antagonistically towards it T he effectiveness of this .

combination to resist rotation will be seen to depend

essentially on this ass u med anta gonistic motion T he .

channel and casing is filled with water and the ,

turbine is made to rotate as described W hen the tur .

b ine is th us put in motion the water contained in its ,

half cells is u rged ou tward by centrifugal force and in

-
,

obeying this impul se it forces inward the water co n

ta in e d in the half cells of the stationary casing and
-
,

thus a contin uo us curre n t is e stablished — out ward in

the turbine s half cells and inward in those of t he c a i ng
'
-
, s .

T he current though in fact originated solely by cen

,

t rifugal force possesses when once called into exist

, ,

ence a vitality and power of growth quite independent

,

of centrifugal force and dependent on what has been ,

called the virtually antagonistic atti tude or motion of

,

the two sets of diaphragms and the cells of which they

are the boundaries *
.

It can be shown t hat with a dynamometer of given ,

dimensions the reactions which tend to stop ro tatl o n

,

of the turbine and to give rotation to the casi ng will be

as the square of the speed of rotation of the shaft to
which it is attached ; and that by compari ng two
similar but di fferently d imensioned turbines their re
,
-
,

s pe c t iv e m om en ts Of r ea ct ion for the same speed of ro

t atio n sho uld be as the fifth powers of their respective

diameters .

Mr Froude constructed an e xperimental pair o f dy

.

n am o m e t e rs in w hich the turbine diameters were re

F di
or i f p i ipl i l d
s cus s o n o A pp di x i
r nc l f es n v o ve , se e en n vo . or

1 877 P B it I t M E
ro c . r . ns . . .
 A ND THE MEA S UEE M E N T OF P 0 WE E . 69

(a)
12
spect iv el y 1 2 inches and inc hes . Now 4,

an d therefore the ratio o f moments of the two in s t ru

m ents at a given speed should also have b een 4 T h e .

ratio determined by e x periment was in fact b ut

t h e small di fference is refera b le to the circumsta n ce

1 113 4 2 6 0

F ro 3 1 — F R O UD E
. .
’
S M M
MA RI N E - ENG I N E D Y NA O ET E R .

t hat in the l a rger of the two instruments the internal

surface was rougher an d the friction of the water
greater T he data t h us obtai n ed not only verify the
.

scale of comparison based on th e fifth power f the re o

sp e ct iv e diameters but also furnish a starting poin t by

,
-

which to proportion the dimensions of an instrument

req uired to deal with any given horse power delivered -

at a given speed .

It thus appears that an instrument similar to that

shown in F igs 30 and 3 1 will m asure 2 000 H P at 9 0
. e . .

revolutions per m in ute ; the t u bine being 5 feet in di r

70 D YN A M OM E TE E S

and formed with two faces with a double sided

a m e te r, ,
-

casing to match T his double arrangeme nt it may b e

.
,

added while it supplies a dou b le circumferential reac

,

tion with a given diameter has the advantage of o blit ,

c rating all mut ual thrust on w orking parts In order .

to adapt this dynamometer to m easure varying horse

powers that is to prod uce read ily a greater or less
—
,

reaction with a given n umber of revolutio n s two —

sliding shutters E E of thin metal fi tted b etween the

, , ,

turbine and easing are arranged so that each sh utter

,

may b e carried forward by a screw mo tion governed -

from the outside .

By this means the internal water ways or passages -

thro ugh the cells are contracted an d the reactions

greatly reduced .

T he e x peri m ents with the models showed that with ,

any given speed of turbine the reaction could be re ,

duce d with a perfectly graduated progression in a ny

required ratio down to one fourteenth -
.

T he intensity of reaction is thus easily bro ught un

der the control of the operator within a wide range .

T he b rake represented in the fig u res and designed as , ,

stated for an engine of 2 000 H P at 90 revolutions

,
. .

per minute is also capable of dealing with one of 34 0

,

H P making 1 2 0 revol u tio n s per m in ute

. . .

T he mechanical reactio n du e to friction in the

working parts of the i nstru m ent w hile of relatively ,

small amou n t is in e ff ect wh olly incorporated with the

,

hydrodynamical reaction and is t hus taken account of

,
.

In applying t h is dynamometer to meas u re the power

of a ship s engines the i n strument is mounted upon
’

the screw shaft in place of the screw as shown in Fig 3 2

-

, . .
72 D YN A M O ME TEES

ing in H at the other A s the force at H acts dow n .

wards it will b e seen that F is in compre ssion and G

,

in tension .

A suitable weighing apparatus consisting of a sys ,

tem of flat spri ngs and levers is provided for a certain , s

ing the load to which is attached a recording device

,

c onnected to the screw shaft through the rod L whic h -

,

takes its motion b y b evel gears directly from the shaft .

More recently Prof O sborne R eyno l ds of O we ns

,
*
.
,

College Ma n chester has constructed several of th es e

, ,

water b rakes for experimental purposes ; and as the

-

result of his experience he finds that air is drawn from

the water and accu m ulates in the centre of the cell s ,

occupyin g water spac e and diminishing resistance ,

besides prod ucing an irregular motion T his would b e .

prevented if p assages could b e provided through the

outside to the axis of vortex within carrying a supply ,

of water at or ab ove atmospheric pressure so as to pre ,

vent the pressure at t his point falling b elow that of the

atmo sphere T hi s was accomplished b y Prof R eynolds
. .

by perforating the vanes of the turb ine and supplying

water throug h the perforations I t also appeared that .

by having similar perforations in the casing open to th e

atmosphere the pressure at cent e of vortex could be r

rendered constant whatever the s u pply of water and,

speed of wheel so that it would then be possible to

,

run the b rake partially full and regular ; resist anc e from
nothing to max im um w it ho u t sluices , .

T hese conclusions bei ng verified on a small model

(4-
inch turbine ) three l a r ger bra k
,
es with 1 8 inch wheels -

“S Pee B it I
roc . C E r l x xx
. l V N t d
n s t. . .
, vo . c , a so an o s ra n
’
s

S i
c e nceS i N 99
e r e s, o. .
 AND THE MEA S URE MEN T OE E 0WE E .
73

were co nstructed T hese brakes proved eve rythin g

.

desirable exc e pt wh en running under a constant load

with varying speeds T his matter was considered dur
.

ing their co nst ruction , and an arrange m ent was devised

b y which the supply and exit of water to and from the
brake was a utomatica lly controlled ; the lifting of the
lever o pening the e x it and closing t he s upply so as to
diminish the quantity o f water in the b rake and vice ,

D urin g the twelve mon ths these b rake s h ave b ee n

in use the y have received no attention whatever .

T he casing is provided wit h a lever 4 feet long fro m

ce n tr e of sh a ft to the weight W he n the sp e ed o f
.

engines re ach e s a b out 2 0 revolutions per minut e t he

leve rs rise (whatever load they have on ) and thou gh ,

alw ay s in sli ght motio n they do not vary half an inch

,

un t il the e n gin es stop during the run the load on the

,

brakes m ay b e alt e re d at will without any o ther adj ust

m ent .

T he e n gines to wh ic h t he b rak e s we re connect e d

were each desi gn ed to work with any ste am press ure -

u p to 2 00 pounds per squ a re in ch at any piston spee d

,
-

up to 1 000 feet per m i n ute and to have expansion ge ar

,
-

to cut o ff fro m 0 up to t wo third s stroke

-
.

Each e ngin e was fu rn ish e d with a fly whee l weigh -

ing 1 2 00 p o unds .

T he di me nsi ons of engines were as follows

High pressure
-
5 inches diamete r 1 0 inches,str o k e

I nt e rm edi ate 8 10

L o w press u re
-
. 12 15

A ll the cylinders were stea m jacketed but arran ged

-
,

so tha t any or all of the jackets could be cut out .

74 D YN A M O M E TE RS

C HA PT E R I V .

T RA NS MI T T I NG DY NA MO MET ERS
-
.

Half century ago Morin gave as the requirement s

a ,

of a dynamometer the following viz ,

F irst T he se n si b ility of the instrument should b e

.

proportioned to the intensity of e ff orts to be measured ,

and should not b e liable to alterations b y use .

S econd T he indications of fle x u re s should be o b

.

tain e d by methods independent of the attendance ,

fa ncies or prepossessions of the observer and should

, ,

consequently be furnished b y the instrument itself by ,

m eans o f tracings or material results remaining after

, ,

the experiments .

Tlzir d W e should be able to ascertain the e ff ort

.

exerted at each point of the path described by the

point of applicatio n of the e ff ort or in certain cases , , ,

at each instant in the period of observations .

Four th If the experiment from its nature must be

.

co ntinued a long time the apparatus should be such

,

as can easily determi n e the total quantity of work ex

pended by the motor .

T o meet these conditions Morin made the sprin g ,

dynamometer in order to obtain the magnitude of a

,

force as for instance the traction of a horse on a

, , ,

loaded wagon or canal boat -

.

I n this dynamometer a force was measured by the

flexure produced by it on t wo springs connected at
 A ND T HE MEA S UE E M E N T O F E 0 W EE .
75

t heir ends an d loaded in the middle Fig 3 2 4 T he , . .

force P is applied at the centre M of spring A B and ,

its magnitude is determined b y the increase of the

distance M N b etween the two springs A B and CD

FI G .
32 4 .
—T RA CT I O N -
D Y N A M O M BT B R .

when the latter is attached to its load at centre N .

W hen a steel b ar of rectangular cross section is placed -

freely upon two supports and subjected in the middle

,

to a force P perpendicular to its length its flex ure d , , ,

so long as it does not e x ceed the limits of elasticity ,

will b e
76 D YN A M OME TERS

whic h
d deflectio n of bar ,

1 length of bar b etw een sup po rt s ,

1 moment of inertia for rectangular sect io n ,

E modulus of elasticity for material of the bar

If 6 b re adth of the bar we shall h ave sinc e I
, ,

S in c e there are two springs in this c ase , the t ot al

defl e ction will b e

N ow if the longitudinal profile of the b ar b e para

bo lic the fle xure will b e dou b le th at of a spring of
,

uniform thickness while the strength remain s the

,

same ; hence W e have

where n is a number to b e determined by experiment .

If in the construction of a spring dynamo m eter known

-

weights be applied an d the deflection d o b served the

, , , ,

n umber n can b e calculated and used in the co nstruc

, ,

tion of a scale .

Morin found that with good steel the deflection may

reach one tenth of the length of the spri ng before t he
-

relation between it and the force changes .

In order to determine the relative strength of men

an d anim als R egnier constructed the spring dyna -
 AND TH E M E A S UEE M E N T O F E 0 WE E .
77

shown in Fig 3 2 6 in which two elliptical

m o m e te r .
,

steel springs about 1 2 inches long are connected at

F I G 3 2 6 — S PRI N G
. .
-
D MM
Y NA O ET E R.

A and C forming a closed ring DE GH is a secto r

, .

suitab ly graduated and rigidly attached to the lower

spring ; the lever F pivoted at O is caused to move
, ,

when the two springs are b rought together either b y

pulling on the ends or by compressing at B and D .

A b ove the lever F is a self registering inde x fi nger

- -

M G which is actuated by a pin attached to the hand

F. W hen force is applied to the dynamometer the
hand F presses against the inde x fi nge r and moves it -

to a position corresponding to the m agnitude of the

force A friction washer at M causes a su fficient
.

amount of friction to hold the pointer in position after

the force is withdrawn .

I n order to meet the second third and fourth t e , ,

q u ire m e n t s mentioned in the beginning of this chapter ,

Morin designed a self registering recording dy nam o m

-

eter by which the work performed was traced upo n

,
78 D Y N A M O M E TE ES

acontinuous roll of paper se t in motion b y suita b l e ,

wheelwork as shown at O H Fig 3 2 a , . .

More recently Mr C M G iddings of R ockford Ill

. . .
, .
,

F ro 32 c —t
. . n m cs T aa cr ro N-D vua mo mnr a n .

has construc ted such an apparatus Fig 3 2 c especially , .

,

designed for obtaining the draught power of traction -

en gines and horses on roads or in the field T his .

dynamometer consists of a pair of elliptical springs

joined at the ends with links for attachment to load .

T o one of these springs is attached the dial plate and -

,

also the pivoted index hands -

.

T he pointer C carrying a pe n cil at p is attac hed to

, ,

the opposite spring by means of an adj ustable connec

tion T he slotted inde x fi nge r D has a slight friction
.
-

on the pivot and serves as an averaging hand to the

,

reading of the pointer C .

A pin projects through the end of C both above and

b elow ; the upper portion works in a slot in the averag
ing hand D which is a dark color to distinguish it from
,

the other when in motion T he lower end of the pin

.
 80
'

D Y N A M OM E TE E S

U pon shaft restin g o n two cast iro n supports are

a -

three pu l leys of the same diameter F igs 3 3 and 34 , . .

A is fixed C is loose and B is mova b le around the

, ,

shaft b etw e en the limits which we shall indicate T his .

apparatus b eing placed between the driving shaft and -

a machine whose re sistance is to b e me as ured the loos e ,

pulley C receives the p o wer from the driving shaft by -

F IG 3 3
. . F I G 34 . .

M o nm ’
s T RA NS M I SS I O N- D Y NA MO M ET BR .

means of a b elt which when transferred to A set s

, , ,

the shaft S in motion .

T he pulley B is free on the shaft and is connected ,

to it b y means o f two para b olic springs which are

fastened to the shaft and at the end 6 to the rim of B
,
.

T hese springs tu rning with the shaft deflect more or

l ess accordin g to the resistance encountered and when
, ,

t he resistance to fl exure o vercomes the resistance o f

the machine motion is transmitted through the springs

,

to B .

Upo n the sh a ft is a worm K h avin g a stop p so that , , , ,

 AN D TH E M E A S UR E M E N T O E E 0 WE E . 81

by means of a sliding bar m n it may be prevented , ,

fro m revolving with the shaft during the experi m e nt .

By a suitably arranged train of gearing a series of

drums is set in motion by means of which a roll of
,

paper is caused to pass under a pencil P attached to , ,

one of the arms of pulley B thus recording the resist ,

a n ce s and giving a measure of the work performed

,
.

U sing the same notation previously given and sub ,

st it t
u in g R — radius of path in feet — for L we have the ,

work don e
W= e RN P ;

where P r esistan ce overcome in the machine driven

by the dynamometer P can be readily ascertained
.

when deflection of spring is known O n e of the prin .

cipal objections to the use o f this instrument is that

the centrifugal force of the rotating pieces enters as a

factor into the final result for accurate work this will
necessitate corrections for di ff erent speeds and in this ,

respect Morin s dynamometer does not fulfil his third

’

requirement of a good instrument

“
viz : W e should , .

be able to ascertain the e ff ort exerted at each point of

the path descri b ed b y the point of application of the
e ff ort or in c e rtain cases at each instant in the pe riod
, , ,

o f o b servations
”
.

A nother form o f transmitting dynamometer some -

,

times called the di fferential dynamometer was intro ,

duce d into this country by M r Sam uel Batchelder of .

,

Sac o Maine in 1 836 T he principle of this machin e

, ,
.

is that to hold a weight b y the radius of a circle in a

,

hori zo ntal posi tion tak e s as m uch pow er as to l if t the

82 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

s ame weight through the dista n ce wh ic h wou l d be

t raversed by it in any given number of revolutions if

FI G 35 .
—W a nns a Ba u uc a Dm
-
m ou n m n.
'

rotated in the circle and in the time required for such

numb er o f rev o l u tions We have al ready see n that thi s
.
 AN D THE M E A S UE E M E N T OF E 0 WE E . 83

is the governi ng principle of the Prony b rake where the

lever is maintained in a horizontal posit ion the work ,

b eing estimated as though the weight suspended at the

e n d of the lever rotated in a c ircle whose radius was

equ al to the length o f arm L T hough alike in prin .

ciple the m e thods b y which these two dynamometers

,

operate are radically di ff erent T he Batchelder in .

strume nt improved and modified is now made by the

, ,

L wrence Machine C o and k nown as the W e bb e r b al

a

ance dynamometer
-
.

T he following description of this machine ( see Fig .

3 5) is ta k en from a paper by S S and W O W e bber . . . .

,

read before the Society of Mechanical Engineers *

.

O n the receiving shaft are fi x ed a pair of fast

-

an d loose pulleys at one end and a spur gear at the

-
,
-

other T his spur gear drives a corresponding gear of

.
-

the same size and number of teeth which is fi x ed o n ,

the end of a sleeve or collar having on its other end a ,

b evel gear which forms one side of what is known as a

-

‘
b ox or compound gear A corresponding gear on
’
.

the opposite side of the bo x is fi xed on the delivering

shaft w hich passes through the sleeve above mentioned ,

an d also through the fulcrum of the scale beam T he -

.

two remain ing sides of the bo x are composed of a pair

of equal and similar gears which revolve freely around ,

the scale beam on either side of the fulcrum

-
O ne .

would really be s uflicie n t for the purpose but a pair

‘
,

is used in order to preserve a balance W hen motion .

is given to the shafts b y means of a belt to the

Trans A S M E , . . . . . v o l . Iv ,
84 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

receiving pulley the intermediate gears revolve abou t

-
,

the scale be am without e ff ect ; b ut when a b elt is car

-

ried fro m the deli eri ng pulley to the machine to b e

v -

tested the resis tance causes the intermediates to act

,

with the e ffect of levers on the scale beam and would -

,

put the latter in revolution about its a xis or fulcrum if

it were no t restrained by the weights which are to be ,

added and adj usted unt il a b alance has been obtained

, .

It will be readily seen that the real motion of the

scale beam were it fre e to move would only be one
-
, ,

half that of the shafts and the weights in actual use

,

are th e r e fore double their apparent v a l ue— o r in other

words the weight marked 1 000 pounds is in reality two

,

pounds instead of one .

”

T he circum ference of the circle through which the

weight would trave l were it free to move is ten feet
, , ,

therefore we can re adily calculate the horse power fro m -

the followin g
s n RN
.

33 000

since 2 7rR 1 0, we have

in which as in our former notation P pounds weigh t

, , ,

N : revolutions per minute and 0 velocity in fe t ,

e

per minut e .

T he weights are marked for N 1 00 : .

O n e of the o l de r fo rm s of d yna mo mete r in which

 AN D T HE M E A S UE E M E N T OF E 0 WE E . 85

t he endency to rotate a shaft was weighed on an

t
arm as in the present case was the Hachette steelyard
, ,

dynamometer a m achine now seldom used

*
,
.

A recent modification o f this apparatus is known as

the R ie hlé R obinson dynamometer designed by Prof
-
.

S W R obinson
. . .

T his machine Fig 3 5 a consists essentially of a sup

, .
,

porting frame or p e destal a T shaped arm carryi n g

,
‘

,
-

the driving mechanism and a graduated scale or ,

weighing apparatus -
.

In use the dyna m ome t er is m ade fast to the floor

and the l wer p ulley belt d to the machi n e to be
o e

tested while a second belt c nn cts the u pper pulley

,
o e

o n the dynam meter with the p ull e y o n the power

o

shaft .

T he two p u lleys of the dynam meter are mounted o

on a strong cr ss tree bar s that t hey both overhang

o -
o

and c n be sw ung a ro u nd to ny posi t io n

a a .

T h is o erha n g n d swi n g mak s it c nvenient to put

v a e o

either bel t n r ff w ith u t unlac ing nd t swing th e

o o o o ,
a o

pull eys e ith e r way f r t ightening or loosening both o

belts .

T he p u lleys have each a gear on the end of the h u b ,

both of which mesh into a small e r gear between t h , e

latter b e i n g s u pported n a pin made fast as a cr n k o a

pin in an arm attached to a shaft which passes thr ugh o

the centre of the hu b of t h cross tree T the e -

. o

o pposite e n d f this shaft the p ise bar is m de fast

o o -
a

by a set scr w in a b ss t which the poise bar is

-
e o o -

sec u red .

W e i s ba c h , vol . 11, H y dra u li cs , p .

47 .
88 D Y N A M OM E TE R S

b rought into play one side— that on which the pull is ,

exerted— is tighte ned while t he other is correspond ,

ingly slac k e n ed *
.

T o o b tai n a m e asure of this di ffe rence in b elt strain -

,

the dynamometer show n in F ig 36 was d e signed by .

Mr R obert Bri ggs

. .

FI G 36 —BRI GG s a
. . r -n v m mo u 111 1 111 .

In this arra ngement it is evident that when at rest or ,

r u nning with no resistance the system will come into ,

equilibrium with equal b ut opposite angles for b oth the

lower and upper belt — provided the weight of the car
rier pulleys the frame supporting same and the weight
-
, ,

In a se rie s of ex e r p im e n ts onl th b lti g m d by Wm

ea er e n a e .

Se ll e rs 81 C o in . 1 885 it was s h w h th m f h b l t i
o n t at e su o t e e - te n s o ns

is n o t co n s ta n t, ibut n cre ases wi th th l d eT hi i oa t y t.h s s co n rar o t e

ge n e ra y ll acce pt d th y th th m i
e eo rt t but b q
at e su s co n s a n , su se ue nt

p im
e x er e n ts h h w th t h
ave s o lt i n tu ll y i
a t e to ta e ns o n ac a n crease s as

the difi e re nce i wh h

n creases,h b lt b h i t l et ti ler t e e e o r zo n a or v er ca .
 AN D THE M E A S UEE ME N T OE P O WE R . 89

of the b elt are b alanced It can b e shown that the

.

resultant of strain from the deflected belt varies as the

cosine of the angle which the belt makes with the ver

tical or W ,
: 2P cos ( F ig
a ,
therefore if we make
.
,

the angle 75 °
the cosine will equal or

cos H}-

:
75
°

L etcos 2 5 ; tension on tight side of b elt

a T
tension on slack side of belt T ; weight W ; force ,

transmitted F ; then will T T P N o w since , ,

.
,

W 2 P cos and cos

: a , we have W 2 P X
a :

h e nce
P = 2 PV .

I f therefore a weight 20 be applied on the scale

, ,

b eam so that it exerts a force W acting downwards , ,

there will b e transmitted b y the b elt a force P 2 VV ,

in order to maintain the system in its central position ;

a n d this fo rce is a meas u re of the driving p ow e r of the

belt .
9 0 D YN A M O M E TER S

A ccepting t hese relations of angles and force the ,

following diagram Fig 3 8 will show the relative posi

, .
,

tions of the arrangemen t employed A n allowance of .

1 5 inch has been made for half the thickness of b elt

1

wh e n the radii of the line of the b elt on the two pulleys

b ecome as sho wn
°

a nd , for the 1 6 and 2 4 inc h -

pulleys respectively .

F I G 38 . .

A modification of this dynamometer was desi gne d

b y Prof Elihu T homson in which the angl e a was
.
,

m ade equal to 60 °

A nother form in which the di ff erence in tension o f

,

the slack and driving sides of the belt is e x erted to

vi b rate a syste m of lever arms and scale beam is that - -
,

designed by Mr W P T atham of Philadelphia and

. . .
,

constructed for the use of the Franklin Institute *

.

T his machine Fig 39 consists of a double gallow s

, .
,

frame constructed of wood framed together at the ,

foo t and sustaining at the top a cross b lock fro m

,
-
,

which the scale b eam is suspended T his beam is

- .

capable of weighing 300 lbs and is graduated to 2 5 .

,

lbs b y pounds and tenths

. .

W hen the indicator is employed a spring b alance is ,

-

See J o urn a lF rank li n i

I n st tute, Dec . 1 882.
9 2 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

attached near the e x treme end of the beam so as to

e x hibit 2 5 lbs by pounds and tenths
. .

O n each side of the principal centre of the beam and

inches therefrom (unseen in the figure)are knife
edges from which hang two links suspendi ng the free
,

movin g ends of two cast ir n lever frames whose ful - o -

,

crums are outside knife edges which rest upon two -

iron plates bolted to the gallo ws frames -

.

E ach of these lever frames carries a pulley whose

-

face is 7 inches and whose average radius is

inches .

T he a x is of the pulley is placed inch e s from the

link knife edge and
-
inches from a line j o ining the
fulcr u m k nife edges T he e ffective radius of the pulley
-
.

is found by e xperiment to b e inches .

T he middle pulley partially obscured by the counter

,

and indicator card represents the machine on trial

-
, .

Its shaft is produced towards the observe r and by ,

means of a cl u tch and sleeve carryin g a small spur

wh eel and worm screw the counter and c ard are put
-
,

I n or out of gear at pleasure T he shaft produced .

,

towards the rear carries an outside pulley and may be

,

coupled directly to the machine on trial or con n ect e d ,

with it by a b elt .

T he middle pulley has a face of 7 inches a n d an

average circum fere n ce of inches Careful m e . as

u re m e nt s showed that the ctual delivery of belt per a

revolution was inches or about 005 inch less , .

than the feet desired .

T he larger lower p u lley 30 inches diameter and 7 ,

inches face is the drive r on the fi rst motion sh a ft It

,
-
.

is on a shaft which receive power from an outsid e s

 AND T HE M E A S URE M E N T O F P O I
/
V ER . 93

source and ru ns in jour nals on a frame adj usted verti

,

cally in slides b y means of set screws so as to tighten -

,

t he b elt .

T he belt r u ns in the directio n of the arro ws on the

o utside down on the left and u p on the right But in
,
.

describing its operation it is best to follow the tension ,

of the belt in a direction contrary to the motion of the

belt itself .

T he tension originating at the lower driving wh e el

,
-
,

acts vertically upon the left hand idler pulley at the e x - -

t re m ity of its e ff ective radius and in a line joining the ,

t wo knife edges of the fulcrum and therefore the e ff ect

-
,

of this part of the belt upon the scale beam is nil -

.

L osing enough fo ce to overcome the friction of the 1

idler pulley the re m aini ng tension acts vertically : fi rst

-
, ,

b y reaction upon the lever frame carrying the idler -

pulley at a point corresponding to the extremity o f

,

the inside e ff ective radi us of the pulley and thence ,

through the link upon the positive side of the scale

,

b eam and second upon the middle pulley represen ting

,

the machine on trial T hese forces are equal and o p .

p o s it e .

T he tension acting upon the middle pulley there ,

performs the work wh ich is to b e measured and is re

duce d thereby T h e remainder acts fi rst b y reaction
.
, ,

on the middle pulley and second directly upon the , , ,

lever frame carrying the right hand idler pulley as be

- - -

fore and thence through the link to the negative side

,

of the scale b eam T hese two for ces are equal and
-
.

opposite .

T he tension then passes over the idler through the

ful crum as b efore to the place of b e ginnin g T he
, ,
.
94 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

outside slack tension has therefore no infl uen ce on the

scale b eam
-
.

I t is eviden t fro m this description th at the only

forces bearing upon the scale beam are the tension of
-

the tight belt on the positive side of the beam and the ,

tension of the slack b elt on the negative side T he .

scale b e am the re fo re wei ghs the difference betwee n

-

the two .

T he horse power a b sor b ed by the machine b ein g

-

tested may b e found from the general form ula

P in thi s q uals the num b er of pounds shown o n

case e

scal e b eam o
-
velocity o f belt 2 rRN where N
7

is the n um b er of rev o lutions per m

, ,

inute ; but as pre ,

v io usly shown the velocity of the belt is

, feet per
revolution therefore the equation for th is particular
,

machine b ecomes

T he principal centre of the scale b eam is lengt hened

-

towards the observer and at its nearest e x tremity

,

carries a vertical lever arm attached to a horizontal

-

link connecting it with a long vertical index lever -

which carries a pencil at its lower end moving hori ,

z o ntally as the e n d of the b eam vi b rates vertically .

T his pencil marks upon a ri bb on of paper caused to

m ove vertically between two revolving rollers which ,

are driven b y the worm screw upon the prolon gatio n

-
 AND TH E M E A S URE M E N T OF P O WE R .
97

fa ce and are upon steel shafts 2 inches diameter run

, ,
.

ning in brass boxes which are from 6 to 8 inche s in

length .

T he pulley D is 2 5 inches diameter crowned and ,

p l a ced upon the first motion shaft whic h r-e c e ive s ,

F IG 41 .

po w er from an outside belt T he pulley B 2 5 inc he s .

,

di am eter ground perfectly true and flat is upo n a

, ,

shaft which conveys the power to the machine to be

te st e d I n measurin g a motor its power is applied to

.
,

the pulley B .

T he two pul l eys S are cro wned 2 1 inch es diameter , ,

and their shafts run in b earings whic h are upon vertica l

slides regulated b y scre ws T he vertical movement of

.

t hese pulleys regulates the tension of the b elt T he .

p u ll e ys W and W are 21 inches diameter slightly ,

cro wned and th e ir shafts run in b earings upon the t wo

,

lever frames L E and L F each of which has its ful

-
,

cru m in a pair Of knife edges at F resting upon the-

m ain frame T he inside ends of the lever frames a r e

. -

suspend e d by links L C and L C to the scale b eam F P at -

9 8 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

e qual dista n ces o n either side of the principal centre o f

the beam T here are two adj ustments to each of these
.

lever frames ( 1 )T wo micro m eter screws adj ust the

-
.
-

position of the centre of the pulley so that the line o f ,

e fi e ct o f a b elt hung on it on the outside will pass

through the fulcrum and no addition of weight to the

,

belt will a ffect the scale beam which is e xperimentally

-

proved (2 )T he position of the knife edge suspended

.
-

to the link is adj usted so that the scale beam weighs -

acc u rately any weight suspended b y a piece f belt o

hu n g over the inside of the pulley .

T he endless b elt used was a four ply gum b elt 1 2 -

,

in ch e s wide and inch thick .

I f the b elt were inch thick its delivery would ,

have been feet per revolution of the pulley B .

It will be seen by the construction that the pulley

B is actuated b y the di ffere n ce of the tensions of the
two parts of the b elt ta ngent to it and that the scal e ,

b ea m weighs the same di fference of tensions of the

sa me parts tangent to the pulleys W and W .

T he scale b eam was grad uated in 600 divisions of 111

-

i n ch each representing a half pound with the travelling

,
-

poise used O n this poise is a small b eam graduated

.

in hundredths so that the small poise upon the small

,

beam is capable of weighing T h of a pou n d when the

machine is in motion T he more rapid the motion the
.

more delicately can the weigh ing b e accomplished .

In testing dynamo electrical m achines the resistan ce

-
,

measured b eing very uniform it was only necessary ,

that the b elts used should b e of even thickness and

free fro m lum py s pl icin gs to ge t rid al togeth er of the
,
1 00 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

of revolutions which latter can b e o b se rved to withi n

,

a fraction of one revolution .

It is a lso provided with apparatus to record the

power measured T his however was not used during
.
, ,

the tests referred to as direct weighing was found so

,

convenient and the results could be so quickly calc u

,

lated A t the end of the scale beam is a vertical rod

.
-

attached below to an iron cylinder which floats in

mercu ry in a cylindrical iron pipe T he b eam being .

b alanced any force tendi ng to raise it lifts the cylinder

,

out of the mercury propo tionally T his motion r .

,

m ultiplied by levers is c mm unicated to a pencil point

,
o -

which moves vertically } of an inch to the pound 4

and records the weight upon a paper band moving

horizontally one inch for every 1 00 revolutions and
recording them T his automatic registration of weigh t
.

is applied only to the fractions of weight b etween the

even fifty pounds the principal part of the weight
,

b eing hung at the en d of the scale beam in the usual way -

.

By confining the registration to this small e x cess it ,

is registered on the large scale a b ove mentioned .

T he method of calculating the H P is similar to that . .

used in the smal ler machine ; the form ula b ein g

PN
°

1 0 000

F is in half po unds since the delive ry of b elt per

-
,

revolution of B is feet T his however supposes a .

, ,

belt of an inch thick A thicker b elt requires a .

correction in accurate w ork .

N o t the least interesting portion of the rep o rt of the

committ e e referred to is that relating to the Calibra
 AND THE M E A S URE MEN T OF P O WE R . 1 01

tion of the Dyn amometer In order to prove wheth e r .

or fiot the dynamometer me asured correctly the power

transmitted through it it was used in the determin a ,

tion of the mechanical equivalent of heat on a l arge

scale T he water churn used was a cylinder 3 fe et
.
-
,

diameter and 3 feet long holding 1 2 2 3 pounds of ,

water I n the contin uous method devised by Pro ie s

.
,

sor Marks the water entered the churn at n early

,

unifo rm temperature and left it at nearly uniform

temperature a b out Centigrade higher than it
,

entered T he operation continued for three ho urs

. .

T he first half ho ur was occupied in bringing the e x it

-

water to uniform temperature when the experiment ,

proper began and continued for two hours and a half ,

during which over five tons of water passed through

the c hurn and was raised about C entigrade b y
the continued e x ertion of about 46 horse power * -
.

T he result as calculated was

M h i l q i l tf C ti g d f t p
°
ec a n ca e u va e n d or 1 en ra e oo -
o un s.

F h hi 1
°
a re n e t

Still another modification of the belt dynamometer

which has in its favor simplicity is that sho wn in
—

Fig 4 2 Instead of employing a scale beam with

. .
-

movable weights the force is measured by di fference

,

in actual weight of the machi ne when at rest and when

in motion the driving side of the b elt being on the
—

lower idle pulley I n this case the dynamometer is .

placed upon an ordinary platform scale and the bas e -

,

filled with iron or other suitable material which will

*
See art c e il by W . P T at
. h am in J o u rn a l of the Fra n kli n I n st i
tute , De c . 1 88 5 .
IO2 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

out weigh the pull of the belt T his is weighed (after .

the belt is put on ready for ru nning) and when work ,

is performed the resistance of the driven shaft tends to

straighten out the belt and thus to lift the weight in
,

FIG .
42 .

the b ase so that if weighed when the max imum

, ,

resistance is reached the di ff erence in weight will equal

,

W
'

As before the d riving force is equal to P

, T T , ,,

the di ff erence in tensio n bet ween the tight and slack

sides of the belt .

From an inspection of the accompanyi n g diagram ,

Fig 4 3 it will be seen t hat as t he p ull ey B is free to

.
,

move up and down the a ngle [5 w ill b l e ss the greater

,
e

the tension in T for the gre at e r t h tension in T the

,
e ,

less (proportionally)there will be in T and in co use

1 04 D YN A M OME TER S

of the m ach in e when at rest an d when work is per

form e d T he n gles . an d [3 are variable their
a a ,

m agnitude depending upon the load passing through

the b elts A convenient met hod of obtaining these
.

angles is by the use of a jointed gauge free to open to

any desired an gle T his gauge consist s of two thi n .

strips of metal or wood hinged at one end and pro ,

v ided with a clamp scr ew or thu mb nut ; by placin

g
- -

the gau ge parallel to the edge of the belt the a ngl e a ,

o r fl made by the belt can readily b e obtain e d b y

,

adjustin g the legs of the gauge to correspond to the

angle of the b elt ; by transferring this angle to pap er

its magn itud e may b e measured by means o f a pro
trac tor .

A b e l t dyn amometer designed b y Messrs G eo W ales

- . .

and F M L eavitt and built under the direction of

. .

Prof Jas E D enton in 1 88 3 for the use of the C hicago

. . .
, ,

R ailroad Ex hibit C ommittee appointed to test dynamo

m eters is shown in Fig 44
, . .

T his apparatus was designed to m ake an autographic

portab le dynamometer on the belt angle principle -
,

u sing the angle of the belt as the primary ele m ent of

force measur e d T he belt c o uld be drawn to any
.

angle by a wrench applied to chain winding pulley G a -

,

and the ratio of the belt a n gle to the d i ff erence of ten -

sion was given by the gauge a ; that is the reading of ,

the point d on the semicircu lar scale gave a co nstant

which m ultiplied i nt the height of the pencil on the
,
o

paper drum ft and i n to the scale of the spring L — which

-
,

was varia b le over a large ra n ge by sliding the spring

and arm N along the levers H and 1 gave the di ffer
—
,

e n ces of tension .
1 06 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

T he le ngth of paper revolved in a given time gave

the space moved through by the belt T he train o f .

di fferential gearing M driving the paper drum gave a

,
-
,

wide range of speeds to the drum T he instrument .

was successfully applied to the measurement of power

on a 2 00 incandescent light dynamo ; and with a tight
-

belt 7 inches wide which did not violently vi brate a ,

very perfect trace under varying loads could be o h

, ,

t ain e d on the paper by the use of a flexible pencil point -

.

T he time was indicated each minute by perforati n g

the paper by an electric spark .

T he disadvantage in using this apparatus and in ,

fact most forms of belt dynamometer is the tendency

,
-
,

o f the belt to produce e x cessive vibration thus causi n g ,

very irregular readi ngs .

For small machines w hich can be mounted on skids

or other supports an d placed on a pair of platform
,

scales the drivi ng power can be obtai n ed directly from

,

the di fference in weight when at rest and when per

forming work provided the driving shaft be placed
,

vertically over the driven shaft of the machine : in this

case a dash pot co n nected with the scale beam would
- -

be an advantage in obtaining steadine ss of read ings .

A s previously shown (page the power trans

m itte d to a machine or given out by a motor ,can b e
,

determined by supporti n g the mac hine upon trun

nions and m e as u ring its torque or turning moment ,
.

In the Brackett cradle dynamometer the torq u e is

-

determined by suitably mounting the machine to be

t sted upon a swinging platform suspended from knife
e

edges and suppli e d with c ale beam and sliding

a s -

weight ; the t e ndency o f the driving belt to rotate the

 '

1 08 D yN A M OM E TEES

ort b olted to the floor and constructed that

'

p s so a

sligh t swinging m otio n is allowed to the platform upon

which the machine to b e tested is mounted .

T o o n e of the swingin g uprights near the knife edge ,

-
,

is fixed a graduated horizontal lever which carries a

sliding weight A dj usting screws are provi ded b y
.
,

means of which the axis of rotation of the armature of

any give n machine may be made to coincide with the
ax is of oscillation of the cradle viz the line which , .
,

passes through the two knife edges I n this way ma -

.

chines o f various makes and sizes can readily b e put in

position and their data determined Provision is mad e .

to enable the experimenter to determine whe n thi s

adj ustment is secured b y use of a circular plate of
metal fixed to the inner end of each of the knife edges -
,

so that its centre coincides v ry closely with the ax is

e

of oscillation of the cradle when by means of the ad ,

j usting scre ws the armature shaft is made concentri c

,
-

with the circular plates as determined by means of a

,

gauge the machine is i n the proper position

,
.

Counterweights are also provided which can easily

be set so that the cen tre of gravity of the system in ,

cluding the machine and the cradle together with its

att ac hments shall nearly coincide with the axis of
,

oscillation as is done in the common balance

,
.

Suppose the dynamo machine placed upon the cradle

-

and the whole adj usted as above and that we wish to ,

determine the mechanical energy requisite to produce

a given current T he machine being at rest wi th
.

its driving b elt o ff the cradle is brought to e q uilib

,

r ium by means of the sliding w e ight and the positio n ,

o f the latter is noted T he machine is then belted

.
 A ND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T O F P O IV E R .

and drive n at the proper speed the circuit b eing closed ,

to produce the required current I n conseq uence o f .

the interaction between the armature and the fi e ld

m agnets e q uilibrium will be destroyed and the sliding ,

weight must b e moved to a n ew position in order to

restore it T his done the new position is noted T he
.
, .

di fference b etween this and the former position is the

le ngth of the e ff ective arm of the couple which acts
against journal friction and the resistance of the arma
ture to motion due to the interaction b etween itself
,

and the fi eld magnets -

.

I f as before we represent the length o f this eff e c

, ,

tive arm in feet by L the weight of sliding balance in

,

pounds by P ; the n umber of revolutions per minute

by N then the mechanical e ff ect IV in foot pound s
, , ,
-

per minute absorb ed b y the dynamo or given out by

the motor will be
W : 2 7I L 1VP ,
'

an equation similar to that previously found in the dis

cussio n on friction b rakes It m ust b e noticed how
-
.
,

ever that here the length o f arm L is not the tot al

,

horizontal distance from centre of sliding weight to

centre of shaft ( centre of suspe nsio n) as in the Prony ,

and band brakes b ut is the di ff erence of lever arms

,
-

L and L measured when the machine is in open cir

, ,
-

c uit (L )and when the circuit is closed

,
so that
L L, L, .

I t is obvious that the cradle dynamometer can be -

u sed to measure the work absorbed b y any machine

which can b e conveniently mounted on the swinging
platform the e ffective lever arm L b eing o b tained by -
, ,
”0 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

subtracting the arm L obtained b y running the m a, ,

chine light from L obtained when the machine is

,

performi n g useful work .

In any ca e the mechanical ho rse power can be

s -

obtained by dividing W by 33 000 .

Besides the energy required to turn the armature

journals in their bearings and to produce the c urrent ,

some is necessarily spent in producing disturbance in

the air about the armature T h e amount may be deter .

mined by means o i the cradle dynamometer if desired -

,

and when found if it be added to that determined as

, ,

ab ove the total energy e x pended upon the machine

,

w ill be known T he energy expended upon the air is

.

in most machines very s m all and may be neglected ,

without serious error .

T he manner of using the cradle dynamometer to

‘

m easure the energy developed by th e dynamo m achine -

when used as a motor will immediately be obvious ,

s ince n o new principle is involved .

A cradle dynamometer designed for a capacity of

-

from l, to 3 3 horse po wer (2 50 to 2 5 000 watts)will

-

weigh about 1 2 00 lbs and occupies a flo o r space of 4

.
,
-

b y 6 feet .

Since its first intro duction by Prof Brackett the .

,

cradle dynamometer has been largely used for m easur

-

ing the power of dynamos and m o t ors Ex perience .

has shown that where the power of a single dy n amo is

co ncerned and a vertical driving b elt can be used ,

this dynamometer is su ffi ciently accurate for all prac

tical purposes the variations of successive measure
,

ments being easil y kept within a twentieth of a horse

powe r W e k no w of no su ccess fu l att em pt ho weve r
. , ,
”2 D Y N A M O ME TE E S

h eavier li q uid as b rin e I n thi s is floated the nearly

, .

sq uare ca isson C which is a n egative tank i e one having

, , . .
,

its water tight surface outsid e T he tank rests either

-
.

F IG .
46.
—W a nn s F LO
’
A T IN G A
D Y N M O MET E R— E L E V A T I O N .

on the floor or upon sk ids B with screws for adj ustin g, ,

the tank a small distance sideways O n the caiss o n is .

m ounted any suita b le machine whose plus or mi nus

consumption o f power is to be measured T he figure .

shows four gear wheels mou nted in such a way that

-

their running friction may be measured in an e x act

-

manner T he power absorbed or developed b y other

.

—
rotatin g machines as steam e ngines electric m otors -
, ,

dynamos — may thus be measured .

T he caisson together with whatever is m o un ted

,

upon it is termed the floa t and the weight o f li quid

, ,
 AND TH E M E A S UE E M E N T O E E O WE E . 1 13

displaced b y it must of course be equal to its own

weight . In addition to this the proportions of the ,

caisson m ust be such as to bring its m eta centr e ve ry

n ear to the centr e of it of the float

gr a v y .

F l o 4 7 —W aus
.
°

s F LO A T IN G D Y NA MM
O — G R O UN D P L
ET ER A N.

T he machine to be tested the combination

of gear wheels D or other machine )is driven by a
-
, ,

coupling E from the counters/raf t F T he latter sus

, , .

tain s the pull and vibrations of the driving b elt G

and transmits to the machine a pure moment only .

The connectin g c o u plin g E is of a special desi gn and ,

1 14 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

has the property of acting as a semi rigid universal -

joint A s a un iversal joint it allows the float to

.

deviate from its normal position when forced to do so , ,

witho ut inj ury to the apparatus while its rigidity acts , .

automatically to keep the machine shaf t in line with -

the countershaft .

T he countershaft is furn ished with a speed counter H -

, ,

mounted upon a lever which can be operated from the

,

front of the dynamometer to throw the counter in and

out of gear T his lever is f urnished with a spec ial
.

el ectr ic lock which holds it securely in or out of gear

-
, ,

ex cept at regular inter vals when the electric circuit is

broken b y a cloc k and the lever unlocked b y a sprin g ,

not shown in the figure T he period of time d uring

.

which the counter is operating must therefore be an

integral n um b er of these inter vals ; in default of some
such arrangement for sec u ring a high degree of preci
sion in measuring the speed this part of the work would
,

b e considera b ly less precise than that of measuring

the moment T he electric lock may b e incorporated -

“
.

in the construction of the counter or a card may ,

b e run from the cou ntershaft and intervals of time

marked upon it automatically thus recording the e x ,

act number o f revolutions during each interval .

For measuring the driving moment the caisson i s

furnished with two adj ustable levels a S haf t l evel I ,

-
, ,

a n d a m om ent l evel and with a scale 0 and sliding

-
, , ,

weight or pee P T he shaft level is set so as to sho w

, , .
-

when the machine shaft is level and therefore in the

-
,

same horizontal plane as the horizontal countershaft

a deviation therefrom being corrected by varying the .

q uantity of water in the tan k T his adj ust m ent e . r

1 16 D YN A M O M E T E E S

stability is reduced to the small amount re q uired b y

, ,

raisi ng some of the ballast to the top of the caisson or

to a (removable) shelf Q over the machine See , ,
.

F ig 46. .

For dyna m ometers of large size the use o f heavy

b allast can b e avoided by the stability tr ough K T his -
.

is a trough of triangular section running entirely round

the inside of the caisson and partly filled with the
same li q uid as is in the tank ; by p u tting more liquid

in the trough the stability is decreased T he machine .

should b e put o n in the first place at a b out the right

height ; the higher it is the less the stability T he .

right height can be deter m ined b y a simpl e calculation

of the centre of gravity of the float but this is not ,

necessa ry for the machine may b e at once mounte d

,

and b locked up until the float shows signs of insta

bility when the final adj ustment can be made with the
,

ballast T he countershaft should then be blocked up

.

to about the sa m e height I nstead of setting a light

.

machine high on the caisson to secure small stab ility ,

loose b allast can b e put at once on the shelf Q until

the proper stability is obtained .

By a suitable arra n gement of mechanism upon the

caisson power may b e transmitted from one machine
to another both standing upon the floor and the ma
, ,

chine b ecomes a transmitting dynamometer -

.

A very high degree of precision can be attained with

this dynamometer In fact as there is practically no
.
,

friction in the liquid to interfere with the action of the

caisson almost any degree of precision may b e reached
,
.

E xperience has shown that in close comparative tests

o f ma chines or in measuri n
g their
, fric tion or air r esi st -
 A ND THE M E A S UR E M E N T OF PO WE R

ance there is no other dy n amometer with which the

,

( almost u navoidable )accidental errors may not cover

up or reverse the results T he particular machine .

illustrated in the figures as mounted for the purpose of

bein g tested will serve as an illustration of this fact .

I n attempting to measure the friction of gearing it has

been customary to measure the power supplied to the
gears and that received from them and to take the ,

di ff erence of these two quantities as the amount lost in

friction ; b ut the unavoidable error in measuring these
two quantities b y ordinary means is such as to intro
duce muc h uncertainty into the value obtained for the
friction and in many cases to render it entirely v al u e
,

l ess
.

I n exp lanatio n o f the particular method illustrate d

for measuring the friction of gears it may be further ,

explained that the lower shaft has two gears fast to it ,

while on the upper shaft the forward gear is free to

turn on the shaft T he upper gears are connected
.

by an adjustab l e spring N b y means of which the loose

, ,

wheel is p o werfu lly rotated so as to bring the teeth of

the upp er and lower wheels in contact with a known ,

and adjustable pressure By this arra ngement it m ust

.

be evident upo n examination that the horse power or

, ,
-

energy transmitted by the gears is carried around in a

circuit o nly through the gears themselves and doe s ,

no t at all e m b ar rass the direct measurement of the loss

due to friction T he gear at the b ack or counter

.
,

shaft side o n the l ower shaft drives t he gear above it

, ,

communicating to it a ce rtain horse power dependent -

,

upon the velocity of the teeth and the pressure between

t hem T his gea r drives the one in fron t o f it o n the
.
 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

upper shaft by me ans of the spring N and then thi s

, ,

gear drive the gear beneath it thus return ing the

s ,

horse power to the lower shaft less the loss by friction

-
,
.

T he u pper sh a ft is adjustable on the standards M

T he dynamometer therefore is called upon to meas
, ,

ure the friction o n ly an d no s u ch reliable determina

,

tion of frictional l sses ca n be made by a measurement

o

of gr ss and net horse powers where the small q u an

o -
,

tity lost must be obtained as the di ff erence b etwee n

the relatively large gross and net quantities T h is .

dif er entia l m ethod of measuring friction was first pub

lishe d by Professor W ebb in the T ransactions of the
A merican Society of M e chanical E ngineers *
.

In measuri n g the frictio n an d internal air resistance -

of any machine no special precautions are ne e ded ;

the machine is simply r u n for that purpose and the
measurement made in the same way as any other
measuremen ts of the power ab sorbed by the machine .

It is ho wever to be noted that in attempting to do

, , ,

this with a dynamo the re sid ual magnetism will cause

,

a wa ste of po wer in Fo u cault currents which will be ,

i n cl uded in a n d may invalidate the measured res ul t .

T his residual magnetism however may b e nearly , ,

e limi n ated by me ans of a current from a battery o r ,

from another machi n e which is passed through the ,

field and s uccessively reversed and reduced by means

of a rheostat T here is n o way of separating the in
.

ternal air resistance fro m the friction e x cept to get

-
,

rid of it by running the machi ne in vacuo

“
.

If it b e the e x ternal air resistance or fanni ng that -

*
V ol . 1x . p . 2 13 .
1 20 D Y N A M OM E TE R S

ing force F is held in equilibrium b y two forces R and ,

R that o ut o f these last arises a c o uple

,
— RR , , ,

which holds the forc e o f resistance Q in equili b rium and ,

that therefore the forces 2 R and 2 R act at F and F ,

and stretch the springs H H with a certain force Z .

FI G 48 —A RRA N G BM K NT
. . usa D av Hu m e .

L et a lev e r
-
arm CA of the force P
6 l eve r arm CB of the resistanc e Q
-

r radius CD of large annular gear ;

r, radius CE of centre gear wheel and he nce -
,

r
ra dI us FD of m e dIate
I nte r gear ,

c leve r arm of the force

-
Z CL .

T h en we s hal l have
Pa Rr Rr , or Pa 2 Rr ;
 A ND THE M E A S URE ME N T OF P O WE R . 12 1

Qh 2Rr and Zc Qb Pa .

Substituting above values for Q6 and Pa , we have

Zc 2R r (
hence
Pa 2 Rr P b
X
Qb 2 Rr , Q a r,

2 Rr r

r + r.

transmission dynamometer which has b een u sed

A -

with ve ry satisfa ct o ry results is that sh o wn in F igs 4 8 a .

,

F IG 484
. .

6, c, a n d d
. due largely t o this piece of appara
I t was
tus that certain power tests of generators and electric
m otors were m ade at the Frankfort El ectrical Ex hibi
tion in
T his machine designed b y Mr F ischinge r c o nsists of
, .
,

a continuous partly hollow shaft a F ig 4 8a which runs

, ,
.
,

in the journals 0 o of the frame p T he three arm s d d e

,
.
,

l
E i l W ld
e ct r ca or , 1 89 2 , v o l . X I X . p a ge 400 .
1 22 D Y N A M O M E T E RS

form one piece with the shaft and stand out from it at
right angles T he smaller shaft i with the lever arm g
.
-

has one bearing in the enlarged portion of the main

shaft its upper end running on a pin of the arm d
, .

T his upper end of the shaft i carries a lever of the first

class h T he two arms of the latter engage with two
.

projections nn and cast on the inside faces of the

, ,

pulleys c and c F ig 4 86 O n a pin at the extreme end

,,
. .

of arm e turns the dou b le lever

ff A pin at the end of arm f ,
.
,

runs in a slot g of the lever arm0

,
-

g T h e outer end of this arm g

'

carries two threaded pins with

adjusting n uts h h T o avoid ,
.

F 6
sudden
IG . 4 8 .
shocks when the dyna
m o m e te r is set in motion these
two adj usting nuts strike against two ru bb er cushions
on the inside faces of the two pulleys T he arm d has .

a long slot in which runs the b olt m carrying a weight

I
e

a proper adjustment of this weight the centre of

By
gravity of the whole lever system can be b rought to
coincidence with the centre of the main shaft a a .

A rod 6 runs through the centre of the hollow part

of shaft a T his rod 6 pushes with one e nd against the
.

end of lever arm f while the other end touches the arm
-
,

r of lever r r
,
A n adj ustable weight 7} serves to b al
,
.

ance the weight of arm r T he lever r r turns around .

,

the pin t ; the arm r which acts as an inde x finger ,, ,

m oves over a scale t at the lower end of the frame ,

.

T he whole system of levers is enclosed between the

two movable pulleys c c ; it is however very easily ac , , ,
1 24 D Y N A M O M E TE ES

return s to zero in which case the system is in equilib

,

r iu m T he levers have such positio n relative to each

.

othe r that the forces transmitted through them all act

perpendicularly to the arms thus allowing the relation s ,

between them to be easily calculated T he rati o of .

the weights on the scale pan to the pull on the circum -

ference of the p u lley depend s upon the ratio of the

lever arms T his ratio is made 1 0 to 1 ; the pull on
- .

the circumference is therefore 1 0 times the weight in

the scale pan It must b e taken into consideration
- .
,

however that in this case the weight in the scale pan

,
-

will indicate the total work do n e including that which ,

it takes to run the dynamometer without a load T he .

wei ght corresponding to this latter amount of work

will of course di ff er for di ff erent velocities and can
, , ,

very easily be determined b y throwing o ff the belt from

the driven pulley and b y balancing the system when
running at the new velocity which is desired for a cer
t ain test By making records of the di ff erent balancing
.

weights for di ff erent velocities

this can b e kept in the form
of a table for fu ture reference .

T he diagram F ig 4 8d shows .

the system of levers which can

easily be measured with great
F
accuracy
IG .
T o determine the
4 8d .
.

proper point of suspension of

t he scale pan the lengths of the di fferent lever arms
-
,
-

a re accurately measured and the point 2 found by ,

:

ca lculation .

F o r a convenient calculation of the work done or

horse power transmitted the pulleys are given such
-
,
 AND TH E M E A S UE E M E N T OE E O WE E . 125

diameters that their circumferences are e x pressed by

even numbers T he following table gives some of the
.

data of five di ff erent types of the dynamometer

”1
. IV .

C i rc u m f e r e n c e o f p ll y i m t
u e s n e re s 2 3 4
l p i k il g
.

Ma x im u m l o a do n sca e a n n -
o r

Ma x n u m b e r o f r e v o u t o n s
. l i p m 1 2 00 900 600 5 10 4 50
Ma x n u m be r o f
. at a ch p
. .i m rc u

fe re n t ia l l i ty
v e oc of 30 m e t r e s p e r
se co n d 24 48 88 2

In this form of dynamometer gre at sensitiveness is

obtained by proper b alancing and minimum friction in
the lever system accomplished by the use of knife
,

edges wherever possible .

A very commendable feature is its large range for

any given size T his is shown in the following results
.

of tests with a N o 1 1 1 dynamometer which measures

.
,

up to 8 8 horse power max im um -

126 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

A mo n g other forms of dy n amometer not already

di c u ed is the E merson Po wer sc ale
s ss — a n instr u m ent -

w hich i con n ected directly to the revolv ing shaft with

s

o ut the interposition of belts e x c e pt t hat u ed to drive,

s

the shaft itself T he machine in p i n ciple is a rotary

. r

scale and its construction clo sely resembles the well

,

kno wn Fairbank platform scales T his dynamometer

s -
.

is l a rge ly u sed in cotton mills to determine the power

-

cons u med by the indi id ual machines and when used

v ,

w it h c a re fo rm an excellent instr u ment for the

s

purpose being self conta ined and readily applied In

,
-
.

this machine the pulley which receives the power is

,

lo ose on the shaft and is connected wi th the latter by

,

means of a spider whic h is keyed to the shaft the h ub ,

of the spider forming o n e of the guides to the position

of the p u lley (not shown in the figure) A round this .

spider is a rim free to rotate and from which studs ,

project and serve to connect it to the p u lley I n .

transmittin g power from the shaft to the loosened

p u lley the te n dency e rim to rotate on the
spider is resisted by c m of levers which com

m u n ic at e with a pendulum b alance weight A dash -

.

pot filled with oil is connected to the long lever and

chain rod to prevent u nnecessary oscillations of the
-

pend u l u m T hese instruments are made in h alv e s so

.
,

th at they m ay be readily applied without disarranging

p ull eys or line sh a fting -
.

T he cotton mill scale shown in Fig 4 9 is fitted with

-
.

special cl utch and split bushings to fit shafts varying

from 1} inch to 1 } inches being sec ured in position by
,

n ut B In this form of scale two sets of prime levers

.
,

K K are used so as to o perate w itho ut chan ge wh en

, ,
128 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

figure the stop G is thrown out of gear with the lo os e

,

plate and this latter is free to revolve on the hu b of

,

the spider being driven b y the loose pulley

, .

T hese scales are constructed so that the pivots in

the ends of the levers at L describe a circle whose
circumference is two feet and the quadrants are gradu
,

ated to read pounds ; if the graduations are insu fficient ,

weights may be added at f the leverage of the scales

,

being such that an actual we ight O f one pound placed

O

at f has the e ffect of fifty pounds on the quadrant .

In the larger power scales the centre of pivots of

-

the prime levers (K )is always taken at such a distance

fro m the centre that the distance passed through in
o n e revolution is equal to a given number of feet .

T hus in the scale designed to weigh 6 5 horse power -

,

the greatest diameter of the machine is 38 inches and

the space passed through by pivot L in one revolution
is 9 fe e t .

T o ascertai n the num b er of hors e power b y means -

of an Emerson po wer scale it is first necessary to find

-

t he centrifugal force of the unbalanced moving parts

of the scale T his is obtained by running the belt o n
.

the tight pulley the loose plate being disconnected

,

from the spider then note the reading as shown by

,

the position o f the pend ulum on the quadrant .

T his amount will be small for slow speeds and belo w ,

a certain minim u m speed will be zero ; but as it varie s

with the squ are of the number of revolutions it should ,

in e ve ry cas e b e determined at the same velocity at

which the total force is de termined I n a t est by Mr
. .

Channing W hitaker to determine the e ffect of a cotton

tnill s cal e it was found tha t at a S peed o f 4 1 6 re vo l a
 A ND T HE M E A S UEE M E N T O F P 0 WE E 12
.
9

tions per minu te the reading was one half pound b ut -

,

at the sp ee d o f 1 000 revolutions per minute it amounted

to thirty six pounds
-
.

Having ascertained the amount to be deducted for

a given speed which is in fact equivalent to balancing
,

the scale we can find the horse power developed from

,
-

PV
O ur general form ula
33 000

If F total pounds indicated on the q uad ra nt ,

f pounds necessary to balance at given speed ,

”

N : n umber of revolutions per mi n ute ,

C path in fe et of end of l ever (K ) ,

F —
f = P , and N X C= K

which substituted in above formula will give net horse

power T he observed data o f a test with a cotton mill
.
-

scale was as follows

T he gross in d icated force 83 pounds ; the tare or
b alanci ng force 2 3 pounds ; revol utions per minut e
79 1 T.h e path of end of lever bein g 2 feet we obtai n ,

( 3
8 23 )79 1 X 2
horse powe r
-
.

33 000

A nother form of s h aft dy namometer is the Pow e r -

meter which has recently been patented by Mr .

Frankl in V an W inkle T his is a rotary transmitting

.

dyn amometer which is especially adapted for adj ust

ment to any shaft or pulley for measuring power
transmitted by a shaft to a p u lley or vice ver sa in thi s , ,

res pect resemblin g the Emerson pow e r sca l e

-
.
1 30 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

H e l ical
pull springs are employed for weighing the
-

amo u nt of force transmitted from the driving to the

driven portion of the dynamometer .

Figs 50 5 8 will illustrate the construct io n and ap

.
—

plication of this dynamometer .

Figs 50 5 5 are illustrative more particularly of the

—.

“light orta ble style T he constr uction and opera

”
p .

F IG .
50 .

tion of all ot her styles will however b e understood

, ,

from this description as it embraces the features of the

,

others .

Similar letters re fer to similar parts throughout the

several views .

T o facilitate the application of the dynamometer to

a shaft the main framework and all parts which sur
,

rou n d the shaft are made in halves in order that the ,

dynamometer may b e mounted on the shaft in the

manner o f a split or separab le pulley .
1 32 D Y N A M O M E TE E S

B, the outline of which is best sho wn in Fig 5 1 . .

T his plate has a central hub C prolonged o n one ,

s ide with the grooved collar e near its e nd ; this

,

hub projects a short distance to the other side of

the plate with a spherical e xt erior surface D ( see
,

F igs 5 2 and 5 3) terminating in the plain collar E

.
,

the plate an d hubs being made in halves and held

togeth er by b olts pass ing through the projecting lugs

GG . central hollow hub f this main frame work

T he o

is recessed along a portion of its prolonged end and

b ored out in the remaining portions of its length to re
ce iv e the shaft upon which it may be placed as show n ,

in Fig 5 3 . .

A is a circular p l at e the middle portion of which is

dished or crowni n g T his plate is made in halves
.

coming together along the line HH Fig 5 1 an d held ,

.
,

together by bolts passing through projecti ng lugs I I ,

Fig 50 the plate b eing provided with a hort central

.
,
s

ho l l ow hub w hi ch is b ored out to fit loosely aroun d

 A ND THE M EA S UEE M E N T OE E O WE E . 1 33

the sphe rical portion D of the central hu b of the main

framework .

K is a rock shaft the ends of which have counter

-

s unk recesses by means o f which it is mounted on

,

conically poi n ted screws L L which pass through lugs

-
,

projecting from B and are held firmly in place by

lock nuts M M N is an arm on K proj ecting toward
-

the plate A and o and o are parallel arms proj ecting

,

from K at right angles to N one over each side of the ,

hu b C .

P P are links connecting b y pivotal screws the

ends of the parallel arms 0 o to the grooved collar Q ,

which b eing made in hal v es encircles the reduced por

, ,

tion of h u b C being free to slide along C and pro vided

, ,

wit h feathers which project into the slots S Fig 5 2 , . .

T is a c o nnecting rod having spherical socket ends

- -

with detachab le caps .

U and U are spherical or b all ended stud bolts set

’
- -

in the end of the arm N and in the curved slot 2 in ,

the plate A respectively and connected by the con

, ,

n e ct ing rod T ( see F ig

-
W hen the plate A rock
.
,

shaft K and collar Q are mounted on the framework

,

of the dynamometer and connected as described then ,

any change of relati ve angular position between the

plates A and B around the ax is of hub C will cause Q
to move along the hub the d irection and degree of ,

travel being dependent upon the relative direction and

degree of motion between the two plates A and B .

V V are bosses on one side of the plate A project

’
,

ing toward B X is a similar boss on the plate B

.
,

projecting toward the plate A .

W Fig 5 1 is a helical pull spring connecting the

,
.
,
-
1 34 D YN A M O ME TE E S

plates A and B T he material of the helix forming W

.

is turned up in eyes at both ends through which the ,

suspending pins Y and Y pass the pins b eing held in

’
,

place by set screws as shown in Fig 5 3 If the plate

-
,
. .

A b e rotated on its a x is in the direction indicated by

the a rrow Z F ig 5 1 any resistance o ffered t o such

, .
,

rotation by B will be transmitted through W to A ,

cau sing W to elongate and thereby permitting A to

,

advance in its relative angular position with respect to

B in direction of the arrow Z until the resistance
o ff ered b y B is overcome by W T hen B follows along
.

in the rotation primarily imparted to A T he direc .

tion o f arro w c in Figs 5 2 and 54 is the same with

.

respect to B as arrow Z in F ig 5 1 Consequently . .

,
1 36 D Y N A M OME TEES

W hen the hub is in rotation the scale ring s f ,

- and g
m ay be prevented from rotating with the h ub and ,

c aused to remain stationary b y holding the downward .

e x tending portion of the scale plate in the hand or by -

,

s e c u ring the lower portion of the scale plate b y t w ine -

o r ot h er wise to a stationary object T he position as .

s u m e d by the poin ter hand on the scale may be noted

-

wh ile the hub is in rotation .

I f the pl ate B receives the primary rotation instead

of A but in a direction opposite to that indicated b y
,

the arrow Z Fig 5 1 and such rotation be resisted by

,
.
,

the plate A then the spri ng W will be similarly elon

,

gated and n will be carried over the scale in the same

,

manner .

T he periphery of the plate B has cut out of it

a gap or notch b ounded by projecting lugs g and
r ,
through which pass the set screws S and t u is -
.

the stop bracket projecting from the plate A through

-

the gap in B W hen the spring in its n orm al le ngth

.

an d without any strain upon it connects A and B ,

as previously described then A is to b e turned past,

B su fficiently to take up any lost motion b etween the

suspending pins and the plates A and B or b etween
the suspending pins and the eyes o f the spring .

T he screw s is t hen to be set down and secured in co n

tact with u W ith it and s thus in co n tact the dyna
.

m o m e ter may be driven b ack ward withou t inj ury to or

derangement of its parts W hen driven in the direc .

tion which tends to elongate the spring the max i ,

m u m relative motion b etween the two plates and

consequently the ma x imum elongation of the spring
are both limited b y it coming in co n tact with the
 A ND THE M EA S UREME N T OF P O WE R .

end of the screw t I f however it b e desired to

.
, ,

measure re sistance transmitted between the plates

when the relative directions of rotation are opposite to
those descri b ed then in order that such resistance
,

may b e transmitted in a manner tending to elongate

W it is n ecessary for W to be connected from the pro
je c t ing hu b X o f the plate B to the projecting hub V
’

of the plate A b y means of the suspe ndin g pins Y and

Y
”
W hen the spring is connected without strain as ,

shown in Fig 5 1 the proportions of the dynamometer

.
,

are such that the distance from X to V is greater than ’

the distanc e from X to V b y such an amount that in

order to connect W witho u t strain from X to V it is ’

first necessary to rotate A around B in the direction of

arrow Z a su fficient distanc e to b ring the side of the
stop bracket u against the end of t t is then in posi
-
.

tion to operate as a b ackward stop while s b ecomes the ,

forward stop W hen W is thus cha nged a b out the

.
,

partial rotation of A past B which is incidental there

,

to results in carrying the pointer hand to a point to

,
-

the left of the zero of the sca le that is to say in di

— ,

rection of the arrow d T he pointer hand may b e re

.
-

,
turned to zero b y loosen ing the b all stud U in the -
’

slot x of the plate A and m o vm g it alo ng the slot to

such position that n again indicates zero in which ,

position U may b e again secured to A W hen thu s

’
.

adj usted any resista nce to rotation b etween the plates

,

A and B causing the spring to elongate will cause n

, ,

to assume a position to the right of the zero of the

scale .

Successive positions which the end o f the pointer

hand n will assume on the arc of the scale plate for -
1 38 D Y N A M OM E TE ES

di ff erent n um b ers of horse po wers or foot pounds per

- -

mi n ute transmitted from A to B or B to A employ ,

ing a given spring may be determ ined for a given

,

speed of rotation of the dynamometer inasmuch as ,

the degree of elongat ion of the spring is ascertainable

for any degree of resistance to rotation which the plate
A may o ffer to the plate B or v ice ver sa
, T hus if th e .

distance from centre of shaft to centre of the suspend

ing pins of the spring W b e 5 inches and the elonga ,

tion of the spring b e 1 i n ch under a pull of 2 00 pounds ,

the horse power transmitted at 1 00 revolutions per

-

minut e for an elongation of half an inch will b e

F or a given extension of the spring which represent s

,

a corresponding force P the pointer hand will assume

,
-

a definite position and if the lever arms of the in stru

,
-

ment b e suita b ly proportio n ed the arc may b e so

,

graduated that for a given spring the successive divi

sions will represent horse powers and decimals for a
-

fi xed number of revolutions per minute F ig 50 illus . .

trates the appearance Of a divided and figured scale

laid o ff on 1 in the manner described for a stated speed
of rotation of the dynamometer as for instance o n e
—
, ,

—
hundred revolutions per minute using always the
same spring In dynamometers heretofore made this
.

has been the only type of scale provided and when ,

s uch a scale is used at any other speed of rotation or ,

when any change is made in the spring employed dif

fe re nt from those for which the scale is especially con
 1 40 D YN A M O M E TER S

u pper part of 1 W hen using always the same sp ring

.

or equal springs ar b itrarily spaced lines each repre

,
-
,

se n tat iv e of a speed of rotation are made upon the ,

face of the upper portion of l in form of a scale g and '

so laid o ff that the upper edge of d may be b rought

"
opposite to any division on g A s shown in Fig . .

54 , the face of d is laid o ff with

’
a central zero
line to the right and left of which are curved lines
,

marked 1 2 3 , ,
etc T hese di fferential curves
, .

are of such form that when the upper edge of d is set

opposite to that division of g corresponding to any
”

given speed of rotation made by the dynamometer ,

then the end of the pointer hand will be on the curve -

marked 1 when one horse po wer is being trans -

m itt e d on curve
, 2 for two horse powers 3 for -
,

three horse powers etc to the right or left of the zero

-
, .
,

line accordi ng to the direction of resistan ce for which

,

the spring and pointer ha n d may have bee n adj usted

-
.

W hen the dynamometer is a lways to b e used at

a constant speed of rotation an d for the purpose
of greater or less sensitiveness of action di ff erent ,

strengths of springs are employed at di ff erent times .

T hen in a similar manner the di fferential scale plate -

m ay be laid o ff in curves to be used for indicating

di fferent horse po wers the division of the scale g be
-
,
s
’

ing t h en taken as representative of di ff erent strengths

of sp rings instead of di ff erent speeds of rotation .

For sprin gs o ffering di fferent degrees of resistance

to elongati on each of which may be used in the dyna
,

m o m e t e r at di fferent speeds of rotation of the latter ,

t he same general form of di ff ere n tial scale plate is -

employed in con junction with the compounding scale

 AND THE M E A S UR E M E N T OF P O WE R . 14 1

plate Fig 55 T
. he scale
. divisions g are t he n dis-
’

carded e x c epting a single division line h which for

,
-
’
, ,

greater e x plicitness of location is marked with an ,

arrow head By means of the binding screw h which

-
.
-
’
,

passes thro ugh the slotted projecting portion of the

FIG .
—
ss C O M PO UN D I N G S ca ns

b ack of j the latter may bese cu red in di ffere n t

’
,

vertical adj ustments with reference to I so that any ,

one of the division lines drawn on the face o f j may

-
’

be opposite to h '

Beginning at a certain division on as for e x am ,

le that marked and proceeding up ward lines

p , ,

are drawn each of which is representative of the num

b e r of pounds re quired to elon gate di fferent s rin
p g s
142 D Y N A M OM E TE ES

1 inch as one hundred two hundred three hundred

, , , ,
"
etc ; and similarly b egi n ning at 1 00 on 7 and pro
.
”

ce e din g downward lines are drawn representative of

,

di fferent speeds of rotation of the dynamometer as , ,

for instance one hundred two hundred three hundred

, , , ,

etc revolutions per minut e

.
,
.

T he spacings of the divisions of the compounding

scale plate j and the curves on the di fferen tial scale
-
’

plate when used in conj unction with the co mpounding

,

scale are s uch that the pointer hand will indicate the
,
-

correct num b er of horse powe rs on the diff erential -

scale plate provided j is s o adj usted that the divisio n

-
’

representing the streng th of spring employed is opp o

site the division line h marked wi th an arrow head
-
’
-
,

and the upper edge of d is fi x ed opposite to that divi

sion on j representing the speed of rotation
’
.

In order to apply the dynamometer as for insta n ce , , ,

for the purpose of measuring the horse power taken by -

a pulley p Fig 5 3 from line shaft c the pulley is

’
, .
,
-
’
,

first loosened from the shaft by removing set screws -

,

keys or other mea ns of fastening makin g of it a loose

, ,

pulley A short dista n ce one side or the other of the

.

pulley the plate B is mounted on the shaft the halves ,

being secured together by the bolts through lugs G .

T hen the rock shaft K and its connections the scale

-
,

ring and scale employed and fi nally t he plate A are ,

all m ounted on B T he weighing spring W is then.

connected according to the direction of motion and ,

the b all stud U is set in the slot x so as to b ring the

-
’
,

pointer n to indicate zero when the stop bracket u is -

a gainst the end of the scre w s or t for a back stop -

.

T he d ynam o me te r is then move d alon g the shaft un ti l

1 44 . D Y N A M O M E TE R S

T hisis called the initial weighing spring T he remain .

ing springs have 100ped eyes at one end the loops ,

being of such di fferent lengths that after the i n itial

spring has been loaded to a portion of its capacity the

F ro .
5 6—VAN m uz D Y N A M O ME I B R
‘ ‘

looped springs assist the initial drawing on their sus ,

pending pins one after another

, .

T his system of suspending the weighing springs

greatly facilitates accuracy in constructio n a pplication , ,

and use of the dynamometer .

T he holes for the s u spending pins b eing equally

s aced the s rin s are inte cha n eab l e in l o ca tion ; and
p , p g g r
 AN D TH E M E A S URE M E N T OF P 0 W E R .
14 5

the amplitude of s wing or cha nge of relative angul ar

,

positio n between the plates being depe nde nt upon t he ,

resistance of only one or as many springs as may be

,

necessary for transmitting any load the divisions of ,

the zero en d of the scale are coarser than if all springs

started to pull at the beginning and admit of smaller ,

fractional su b division -
.

Still another form is shown in Figs 56 5 7 and 5 8 .

, , .

in which A is the pulley plate and B the plate which i- .

F IG .
57
.

secu red to the sha ft It di ffers from the L igh t Po rt

.

able style in requiring the connecting rod which oper -

,

a tes the rock shaft to b e changed to the other side o f

-
,

the machine in order to use the dynamometer in a

,

reverse direction : and the weighing springs being sus

p e nded from stud b lts the-
springs together
o with , ,

their stud b olts must be removed from the plates A

-
,

an d B and the studs inserted each in the opposite

,

p late in holes provided for the purpose

“
.

Fig 5 7 illustrates the parts of the Standard Port

.

ab le dynamometer and Fig 5 8 illustrates it applie d

, .

to a shaft and pulley .

r4 é D Y N A M O M E TE R S

I t is claime d by the manufacturer that these dyna

m o m e te rs are only about o ne half the weight of other
-

types for equal capacities T he dynamometers h ave.

b een tested after several years use and the weighin g ’

springs have b een found to retain their original

strength .

N o allowance for centrifugal frictional or other , ,

Fl o .
5 8— V AN m uz D Y N A M O M E I E R A PP L I E D
‘ ‘

TO S um .

error is made in using this instrument T he weighin g .

springs are so proportioned th at as has been proven ,

in tests of the dynamometer the indications of the ,

s c ale are una ff ected by centrifugal disturb ance beyon d

t h e highest speeds of shaft in practice .

T he tran smitting mecha nism is so proportioned and

b alanced that any tendency to centrifugal disturbance
is avoided .

T he only sour ces of frictional disturb an ce are in the

1 48 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

est loads have earned for them a prom inent plac e

,

among dynamometers manufactured for general use .

T wo V an W inkle dynamometers furnished to a

firm in A ntofagasta Chili respectively of 4 50 and
, ,

o f 600 horse power capaci ty

-
at 1 2 0 revolutions per
,

minute transmit the power of two 9 inch shafts -

.

T hey are believed to be the most powerful rotary

transmitting dyna m ometers of any type eve r con
-
, ,

structed.

W hile investigating the subject o f power transmi s

sion as applied to millin g machines the writer con
-
,

structed an apparatus sh w n in F ig 59 by which he

o .

FIG 59
. .

p roposed to measure the magnitude of the force exerted

b y the teeth of the cutter but the results were not
,

wholly satisfactory when applied to a milling machine -

.

U sed o n a planer however a meas ure of the us ef ul

, ,
 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T O F P 0 WE R 149

work was eadily obtained from the card taken from

r

the indi ato r attached

c .

Prof L P Breckenridge of the U niversity of

. . .
,

I llinois had previously made some interesting ex

,

im e n t s with a similar apparatus for determining the

p e r

pressure e x erted by a drill working under similar con

dit io n s and later had ve ry successfully applied the
,

apparat us to planer tools (See A m er ica n M a chinist

.
,

A ugust 1 4 ,
T he actio n will be understood by
an inspection of the figure T he thrust of the tool .

acts upon the plunger of the cylinder thereby forcing ,

the contained oil into the pressure gauge and into the -

cylinder of the indicator By a suitable arrangemen t

.

of cords the drum of the indicator is made to revolve

,

synchronously with the stroke of the tool or with the

work ; and as the pencil is forced upwards by the
pressure e xerted at the point of the tool it will be ,

seen that a measure of the work performed can be o b

t ain e d from the card T he gauge is simply a check on
.

the indicator I t is evident that the total work pe r

.

formed cannot be obtained by this means as the forc e ,

required to drive the machine itself is disregarded .

T o obtai n the total work and at the same time the,

useful e ffect the plan was adopted of mounting the

,

cylinder upon a rotating p u lley and f rcing the oil o

through the centre of the shaft but in order to balance ,

the pulleys two cylinders were used as shown in Fig .

60. T o maintain the lever arm constant the cylinder

-
,

through which the transmitting force acts should not

be bolted rigidly to the pulley arm but should be -
,

pivoted in such a manner as to obtain a constant lever

a rm . T he action of the F la t he r dynamometer is this
1 50 D YN A M O M E TE R S

T hepulley L which receives the driving belt is

, ,

loose on the shaft and free to t u r n within certain limits .

F sec u red to the shaft is belted to the machine to be

, ,

F ro 60 — F L A T H E R HY
. . D RA U LC
I DY NA MM
O ET E R .

tested and carri s a p ir f cyli n ders C which are

,
e a o , ,

s upported n tr un ni ns ; th e cylind rs a partially

o o es e re

filled with oil a n d co n n ct e d t c e ntre f s h ft by a

,
e o o a

small fle x ible t u b e T h n d of the shaft i bored

. e e s
1 52 D YNA M O ME TE RS

I n later m achines the point of application o f the

force P was such that one revolution of the pulleys
caused this point to move through a space equal to two
feet ; in which case

In the exp e rim e ntal machine first co nstructed the pul

leys were each 1 2 inch es in diameter and 3§ inches
face ; the cylinders were inches in diameter pre ,

senting an are a of three sq uare inches T he plungers .

were of hard bronze and were kept tight by le ather

,

cup washers secured to the end as sho wn in Fig 6 3

-
. .

A 5 lb spring was used in the indicator as with stronge r

-
.
,

springs the cards obtained in some of the tests were

not su ffi ciently large to show the small di ffere nces of
power which it was desired to determin e .

I t would seem that the centrifugal force of the

pl unger would materially a ffect the true val u e of the
force transmitted but a careful e x amination of this
,

force with varying lever arms correspondi n g to di fferent

-
,

positions of the plunger shows that the ac t ual e ff ect

,

is very sm all .

A s the lev e r arm o f the driving force is constant

-
,

the centre o f gravity of t he plunger wil l have a vary

ing arm dependent upon its position relative to the
cylind er T his is shown in F ig 6 3 in which G G and
. .
, ,
’
,

"
G are three positions of the ce n tre of the pl u nger ,

the leve r arms of which are

- i nches inches , ,

an d inches re spectively the radi us o f the driving

—

force b e ing const nt and eq ua l to

a inches .
 A ND THE MEA S URE MEN T OF P 0 WE R . 1 53

T he centrifugal force f of the plunger can be cal eu

, ,

lated from the formula

f 000 2 84 Wr N ’
,

W b e ing the weight in pounds r the radius in inches , ,

a n d N the n um b er o f revol utions pe r m in ute In the .

case b efore us W : pounds I f we assume N to .

e qual 1 00 1 50 2 00 2 50 we obtain for f the values

, , , ,

sh own in the following diagrams Figs 64 6 5 66 ,

.
, , .

A s the centrifugal force acts along the radial line

through the centre of gravity of the plunger it will be ,

seen that only the horizontal component can be con

s ide re d as a force acting in the direction of motion .

I f we assume the average radius of the centre of gravity

of the plunger inches) and the average number
,

o f revolutions per min ute to be 1 75 we find from Fig .

64 that the correspondin g value of f is pounds as ,

shown by dotted coordinates I f we decompose this .

force into its two components (see Fig we find the .

horizontal component is pounds the vertical being ,

5 pounds ; now the vertica l component produces a cer

tain amount of friction against the walls of the cylinder
which retards the motion of the plunger ; if we take
the c o e ffi cient o f friction in this case to equal seven
p e r cent w
, e o b tain pound for the friction w h ich
acts in the opposite direction to that of motion hence .

.
35 pounds equals the e fi e c t iv e compo
nent of the centrifugal force A s this acts on an are a.

of 3 squ are inches the e ffective component at the given

,

speed is only pound per sq uare inch which if , ,

D YN A M OME TER S

in n er o

o u te r

F IG 63
. .
1 56 D Y N A M O M E TE RS

co uld readily be determine d as will b e shown subse ,

quently From this it was concluded that for ordinary

.

speeds the e fi e ct of the centrifugal force of the plunger

was neutralized by the friction in the dyn amom eter ; in
a ny case it could be neglected by obtaining the zero

line when run n ing free at a given speed .

T he small coiled spring outside of the cyl i n d e r F ig , .

60 connecting the arms of the loose pul ley L with the

,

b racket 15 keep the pin 1) in contact with the plunger ;

,
s

the action of this spring is to force the plunger int o

the cylinde r and th us raise the pressure on the gauge ;
,

this force is however counteracted b y another sprin g

, ,

inside the cylinder which resists the inward motion of

,

the plunger yet acts with an equal force to keep the

,
'

plunger in contact with the pin W hen resistance is .

applied to the pulle y F the plu nger is forced into the

cylinder until this resistance is overcome ; the inner
spring is the reby compressed and presents a resistanc e

F IG . D
67 —I N D I CA T O R
.v w D -
m CA R n on u u c vx
u uo a r a n.
'

t o the motion of the piston A s the sprin g is v e ry .

light and the compression seldom e x ceeds half an inch

,
,

it will be seen that this force of resistance is hardly

ap p reciable .
 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T OF P O WE R .

A n examination of an indicator card Fig 6 7 from -

, .
,

thi s dynamometer shows that the power req u ired to

drive a 1 6 inch F lathe r lathe with back gears in well
-
,

lubricated and runni n g light at 36 revolutions per

,

minute is ,

PV
33 000

x )X
x 3 2 : X D
”
7 X 1 40

33 000 x 1 2

foot po u nds
-
,

where equals the height of card in inches ; 5

po unds equals the spring used area of cylinder piston -

e quals 3 inches ; radius of arm equals inches ; the

r evolutions of dynamomete r b eing 1 4 0 per minute .

W ith the screw feed in still running light the power , ,

F xc . 68 — F n 1c n o N
.
'
-
cnnn iro n x6- m cn L A T HE .

was found to be H P or 1 4 2 1 foot pounds ; . .

,
-

wi th the l o ad on which was a light cut 1 1, inch deep

,

o n a r ound b ar of wrought iron with diamond pointed - -

tool the m aximum power registered was

, H P . .
,

or 69 48 foot pound s
-
.
1 58 D YN A M O ME T E R S

An interes t ing result shown in Fig 6 8 was obtained

, .
,

on several cards t h is being a greater amount of powe r

,

used t o drive the lathe r unning free with o ut b a ck

g e a rs tha n u nder t he sa m e co nditions with th e b a ck

g ea rs thrown in .

A somewhat similar oc cu rr ence re peatedl y con ,

firmed was n oticed b y Mr W ilfred L ewi s in the

, .

course of some experiments with a 4 8 inch lath e -

.

T he pro b able re ason for this is that the w o rk o f

frictio n in the spindle b rass e s and o th e r b eari ngs is
-

mu ch l ess at the lo wer v elocity W ith the b elt o n .

a ny give n step of a four st ep pe d co n e pulley the

- -

red u ction o f velocity in t he m ai n spindle journals -

,

when b a ck gears are thrown in will b e a b out nin e

-
,

to one , which reduces the work of friction very

m at e rially ; the superio r lubrication of the co n e pul -

ley due to the revolving spindle also reduces its fric

tion b elow that required to drive the spindle at the
greater velocity without the back gears and with the -
, ,

ratio of speeds as great as that ordinarily employed ,

this reduction in journal friction more than co m pe n

-

sates for the work spent in overcoming the resistanc e

due to the gearing .

T he machine j ust described enables one to use any

make of indicator by attaching it to the stand 5 b ut it ,

was thought desirable to make the dynamometer self

contained and capable of giving a continuous record .

W ith this o bject in view the writer designed his re

cording hydraulic dynamometer a number of which ,

are in successf ul operation .

I n its latest form Figs 6 8 a b c this machine con

, .
, , ,

sists essentially of three pulleys 1 8 inches in diameter , ,

 AND THE ME A S URE M E N T OE P O WE R . 16 1

carried by a hollow shaft which runs upon roller

bearings mounted on a sti ff frame as shown .

T he pulley on the right is fi x ed to the shaft and

may be used for the belt which co n nects the dyna
m o m e te r to the machine to be teste d or it may be ,

used for a brake band ; the middle pulley is an idler

-

and runs loose on the shaft ; while the one to the left
receives the drivi ng belt and is free to turn only withi n
-

give n limits T his latter pulley is connected to the

.

shaft through the hydraulic cylinders and cylinder

carrier shown in F ig 6 86
, . .

T he cylinders and shaft are filled with oil so that ,

any resistance to turning produces a pressure in the

cylinders T his pressure is transmitted by the oil
.

through the hollow shaft and is recorded by the move

,

ment of an indicator piston which is fitted into the

-

end of the shaft ; the pressure is also shown by the

ga uge at the opposite end .

In addition to the force curve traced by the indi

cator pencil the zero or datum line is traced by an
-
,
.

other pencil which is adj ustable in position and may

be located at pleasure on a line parallel with the ax is
of the shaft T hus one is enabled to measure the
.

total power required to run a given machine or any

s ubdivided part of it .

T wo sets of cylinders are provided with the ma

chine ; in one case the area of each cylinder is 1 0
inches and in the other the area is 2 } inches T his
,
1 .

permits a much wider range to the instrument and

secures in all cases a suitable height of card Each .

pair of cylinders is provided with bronze pistons that

work witho u t cup leathers T hese are actuated by
-
.
 1 62 D Y N A M O M E T ERS

steel plunger pins which may b e located in either o f

-

two positions the inner fo r ordina ry work and the

,

oute r for extra heavy work or when the speed of

-

rotation is slo w .

Springs of various intensities are used to transmit

the pressure from the shaft to the indicator pencil -
,

”A “"
. CO LA

aim -ro a d

CO T T O

F ro . 6se —S z c rxo n
.
'
or P unu w Rm .

depending upon the pressure recorded T hese springs .

are changed as in any ordinary indicator A djustable .

casters permit the dynamometer to be moved about

or to rest firmly on the floor as desired O n e of the , .

interesting features about this machine is its adapta

bilit y to either transmit or absorb power .

T he fi x ed pulley which is ordinarily used to connect

the dynamometer to the machine to be driven has
internal flanges for carrying the cooling water and ,

the rim is furnished with a number of adjustable bush

ings as shown in Fig 6 86 by which the quantity of
,
.
,

water admitted to the brake band is readily controlled -

.

T he cooling water is supplied directly to the wheel

from a small circular tank attached to the machin e
and provided with a regulating valve T he brake -
.

band is a heavy cotton belt 7 inches wide connected , ,

1 64 D YN A M O ME TE R S

case an automatic record is traced upon a rol l o f

paper which can b e stopped or started at pleasu re .

T he fe e d mechanism is provided with ch ange gears so

’

-
,

that three di ff ere n t speeds can b e given to the paper

roll depending on the w ork to be done
, .

I n Fig 68d several diagrams fro m this dynam o m

.

ete r are pre sented which m ay b e of interest *

It will .

T un m nc can m o re . 1 1 7.

F tc . 68c —D1m1m o u n r nn
.
'
C A RD n on Lu au .

b e noticed from an e x amination of these cards that

the po wer required to drive the machine empty can
readily b e determined if desired for all that is n e ce s ,

sary is to run the machine at the same speed with o u t

n y pressure on the c u tti n g tool and the resulting
a ,
'

;
c ard will give a meas u re of the work T h e same is .

true of the power required to operate the feed mechan

ism of the machine or the dynamometer itself ,
.

See il
a rt c e by Mr .
J . D . Ho flm a n T ra n s A S M E
'

,
. . . . .
, vol .

xv n . p .
4 71 .
 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T OE E O WE R . 165

C HA PT E R V .

MEA SU REMENT 01? W AT ER -

PO W ER .

IN testing a hydraulic motor a friction b rake or other -

absorbing dynamometer applied to pulley on the driv

ing shaft as already described will give the power de
-
, ,

v e lo pe d by the motor under the given conditions b ut ,

this power m ay be less than that which it is poss ible to

attain or which might be developed by the wheel when
,

running at a greater or even a lesser speed : for if the

velocity of the wheel be reduced to zero there will be ,

no power developed ; and if on the other hand the

, ,

speed be excessive the water will flow through the

,

motor giving up but l ittle of its energy to the wheel

, .

In making a test of a hydraulic motor therefore it , ,

will be necessary to find the availab le energy of the

water which passes through the wheel in a unit of time ,

and also the power developed by the motor in the same

time while running at di ff erent velocities and with dif
fe re nt quantities of water .

A wheel may b e worki n g under conditions which

will develop a maximum power b ut the e ffi ciency of,

t he motor may not b e so great as when developing a

lesser power T he problem then presents itse lf to de
.

termine the speed of wheel an d quantity of water

whic h will giv e the maximum amount o f power ; and
1 66 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

s econdly to determine that speed and quantity o f

,

water which will give the max imu m e ffi ciency .

T he e ffi ciency of the motor in any case will be the

ratio of the useful work performed as determined by a ,

dynamometer to the theoretical or availabl e work due

,

t o the energy of the water ; that is ,

where
17 e ffi ciency
P : e ff ective work of the wheel in foot pounds per -

unit time ;
W weight of water passing the wheel per unit time ;
ft available head of water above the m otor in feet .

I f It is the total height of fall from upper level in

head race to lo wer level in tail race or if it is the dif
- -
,

ference in levels between reservoir and the discharge

pipe of the m otor when the latter is supplied by a
P
system of p i pes we shall obtai n m 0 an e x pres
,
W/z
sion for the e ffi ciency of the fall ; but if It is only the
height from the level of head race to the motor in the
-
,

o n e case and the e ff ective pressure head as determined

,
-
,

by a gauge in the supply pipe at a point near the-

motor in the other then this expression will give the

, ,

e ffi ciency of the motor .

It will be apparent that to obtain the greatest e f

fi cie n cy of the fall the wheel should be placed as nea r
,

as possible to the level of the water in the tail race ; -

and th at in the case of motors supplied by systems o f

 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T OE P O WE R . 1 69

W ith the motor running at 5 2 6 revol utions per min

ute and an unbalanced pressure of 6} pounds o n the
scales the lever arm of the brake being 1 5 inches the
,
-
,

brake horse power is -

BHP
. . . 0
9 4 P RN
I 5
0
9 4 x x 12
X 526

therefore the e ffi ciency under the given condit ion was

40 per cent .

By lowering the pressure to 30 pounds per square

inch (equals 69 feet head ) the q uanti ty of water pass
,

ing the wheel per min ute wi th the s me no z zle was ,

a ,

decreased to 2 9 5 pou nd s cor e spo n di ng to which the

,
r

theoretical horse power is -

T he speed of wheel also bei n g d e crea sed to 3 5 4

revolution s per minute the brake hor e power was
,
s -

only but the e ffi cie n cy has been increased to

64 per cent .

F rom this it will be seen as previously noted that a, ,

wheel may develop a ma x im u m hor se power under -

given conditions but the e ffi ciency may be m uch less

,

than that obtained under di ff erent conditions when the

horse power is not so gre at T he e ff ect of varying the
-
.

size of nozzle with varying head and load may be seen

from the following tabulated results from tests made
1 70 D YIVA M O M E T E R S

on a small motor by Mr J C Esco b ar the press ure

. . .
,

ra n gi n g from 30 to 75 pounds per square inch .

T A BL E V .

T EST 011 A S MA LL HY D R LI AU C MO TO R .

m
m — 6‘
u m s.

gp m
O
ans s
_ 83 .

z 8
o

h , ~

E ”
3 3 3 5 2 8:
93
a n"
m :
m
2 3 8
.

5 0
g g

T he follo wing results will show very clearly the e ff ect

of varyi ng the load for the same head and diameter of
nozzle It will b e noticed that as the load increases the
.

speed decreases and that the power developed increases

,

with the load up to a given poin t ; beyond this how ,

ever the power and hence the e ffi ciency decreases as

, , ,

the load is increased .

1 72 D YN A M O M E TER S

ing the area of cross section by the velocity per s econ d

-

the quantity of water passing through the section per

second will be o b tained .

If A area of channel at the given section in

square feet ;
average velocity of current in feet per
second
cubic feet of water passi ng through the
channel per second ,

A V” :
Q .

A closer determinat ion may be made by ascertaining

the discharge of each subdivision from its area and
mean velocity ; the discha ge of the stream will then
r

be the sum of the discharges thus found .

It is evident that the mean velocity of each sub

division and hence of the entire section will be more
, ,

closely determined the greater the num b er of vertical

stations across the stream .

A very accurate method of obtaining the area at

the given section in narrow streams or small naviga b le
rivers is to run a cord or wire across the chan n el at
right angles to the stream an d to take a number of
,

soundings at equal intervals measured along the wire .

T he lead for the soundings should b e of su fficient

weight to insure a vertical measurement in eve ry case ;
its weight varies from five pounds for shall o w still ,

water to twenty pounds for deep and swift currents .

A long cylindric al shape similar to a sash weight

,
-
,
 AND THE MEA S UREMEN T OF P 0WER . 1 73

e g litt le resistance to the water is suita b le for

off rin ,

the purpose *
.

I t is essential that the cord attached to the lead

should b e thoroughly stretched before being graduated .

T he gradu ations are placed one foot apart and indicated

by a small strip of cotton attached to the line every ,

five feet being denoted by a leather strip .

Sounding poles are preferable for shal lo w channels

-
,

and should b e graduated to feet and tenths .

W hen float measure m ents are used t o ascertain the

-

v elocity of the current it is advisable to tak e sound

,

ings in two sections in order to determine accurately

,

the discharge of the stream .

If a su ffi cient number of soundings be made and the ,

results plotted on section paper the free hand curve ,

-

joi n ing the lower ends of the vertical ordinates will

represent ve ry closely the contour of the bed of the
channel from which the area of the section may be
,

obtained either b y the use of a planimeter or by one

,

of the approxi m ate methods .

F o r subsequent use in determini ng the height o f the

water a pe f m ane nt bench mark as for instance a spike
,
'
-

driven into a tree stump should b e established in the

-
,

immediate vicinity and a water gauge located near by -

.

For this purpose a white painted board graduated to -

,

feet and tenths plainly marked in black is fast en ed to ,

a stake or post firmly set at the edge of the water ;

the zero point of the scale is loca ted with referen ce to
-

the bench mark previo usly set which also pro vides a
-
,

J h o
’
n so n s S urve y i ng . W il ey 8: S o n s, 1 89 0.
1 74 D V N A M O M E TE R S

means of resetting the gauge in case of dist urbance or

rene wal .

T he current meter used at the present time is gen

-

e rally some modification of W o ltm a n n s Mill or T acho m

’

eter shown in F ig 71 which consists of a small whe l

.
, e

with i n cli ned floats or vanes F hel d in the current

, , ,

71 .
-
W 0L T M A R N s M1L L
’
.

w
hich causes it to revolve at a speed nearly propor
t
o nal to the veloci ty of the water passing it By a
’
.

suitable arrangement of gearing co n nection is made

with an i n dicator which records the number of re v o l u
tions S metime a rud de r is a ttached to cause the
. o s
1 76 D YNA M OM E TE RS

T h is current meter i also adapted to b e use d w it h

-
s

a n electric register for showing the n u mber of re v o lu

t ions of the whe l It is constructed upon the pri nc iple

e .

o f R obinson s anemometer turning by the di ff erence

’
,

o f pressure upon opposite vanes of the wheel T he .

va n es of this meter however instead of b ei n g hemi

, ,

spherical c ups with a straight stem are made conical at ,

the ends and are hollow and taper to the central hub
, ,

so as to o ff er no obstruction to the slippi n g o ff of straws ,

l eaves or grass as the wheel revolves T he central

, .

hub is made tapering so that any object can slide o ff

,

easily and it e x tends over the joints at the ends of the

,

a xis so as to encl o se and protect them from floatin g

,

substances .

T h e a x is runs in agates through w hich a fine plati ,

n um wire connects with the metal of the frame .

T he forward end of the frame which carries the

wheel can be turned and secured in any po sition so
that the wheel can be horizo n tal vertical or at any , ,

desired angle .

T he electrical connection is made by carryi ng an in

s u lat e d wire from near the centre of the instru m ent ,

where the insulated wire from the battery is attached

t o it wh e n in use out to the e n d of one arm of the
,

wheel frame where it ends in a fine platinum wire

-
,

resti ng upon a ring in the hub of the wheel T his .

ring is made of alternate interchangeable sectio n s of

silv e r a nd hard rubb e r secured in place by screws so, ,

that their positio n can be changed to register whole or

part revol utions as d esired .

T here is also a socket a n d set screw in the b ody of -

the frame near the centre for the return current which ,
-
,
A ND THE M E A S UR E M E N T O F PO WE R . 1 77

carried m ost conveniently through a plain wire

slightly t wisted around the in
s ulat e d wire so as to form one

cord I f the instrument is run

.

upon a wire or has a metalli c ,

connection with the surface the ,

return current can be made

-

through that .

T his meter can be used in

connection with any apparatus
for registering the revolutions
of the wheel by the b reaks in
the electric circuit .

T he Price current meter * -

,

which is used to a considerab l e

e xtent by the U S Coast and . .

G eo detic Survey show n ,

Fig .

73
— P R 1C E ' s C UR RE N T -M E T ER.

Made by W 8: . L . . l
E G u r e y, T ro y, N Y . .
1 78 D YN A M O M E T E R S

T he wheel of this meter carries five conical bucket s ,

v ery strongly and compactly for m ed so as to be a bl e

t o resist inj ury from floating driftwood while at t he ,

sa me time it is so designed as not to b e li a b le to o b

struction from leaves or grass .

A hollo w trunnion fitting freely upon the o d sup r

ports the frame by a pivot on each side and thus by ,

the rod and pivots the meter is free to move both

horizontally and vertically and so adj ust itself to the
,

direction of the current .

T he rod is of b rass 2 inch in diameter and 2 fe et

,

l ong its upper end having an eye of b rass screwed

,

firmly on and pinned and its lower end screwed into a

,

b rass socket in the weight B and secured b y a n ut , .

T he weight B is of lead and weighs

m
ct zc TER
c REGlS about si xty pounds ; it has a
rudder of wood which can be set ,

at any angle with the weight or ,

turned up parallel with the rod

whe n not in use T his weight is .

only used for deep water and -

harbor surveying where the cur

rents are very strong For shal .

lower waters the meter is used

upon a rod of wood or metal .

T he electric register used with this instrument is

s h own in Fig 74 . .

Before usi n g a current m eter it will b e necessary to

-

calibrate it in order to ascertain the n umber of rev o l u

tions of the wheel with known velocities of current .

T he calibration of the instr u ment is most readily o b

ta in e d by causin g it to pass throu gh a m easured dis
1 80 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

the water is su pended at the desired depth from an

s

other body floating at or j ust benea th the surface and ,

of such a form and size as to o ffer less resistance to the

strea m than the first so that without sensible error the
,

velocity with which the floats are carried along by the

current is that of the submerged body and of the
stream at the particular depth belo w the surface at
which it is placed .

For the surface floa t a block or ball of wood is often

-

used but hollow floa ts such as glass or metallic balls

, , ,

are prefe rred b y many e ngineers as they may b e par

,

t ially filled with water and sunk j ust below the surfa ce ,

where they are less a ff ected by the wind A sm all flag .

or other suitable indication will locate the position o f

the float .

For the sub s urface flo ats m etallic balls have be en

-

used from 6 to 8 inches in diameter Humphreys and .

A bbot in their work on the Mississippi used smal l

, ,

kegs without top or b ottom ballasted with strips o f

,

lead so as to sink and remain upright ; these kegs w ere

9 inches high and 6 inches in diameter b ut for depth s ,

greater than 5 feet below the surface a larger size 1 2 ,

inches high and 8 inches in diameter was used , .

A very convenient form of float is made by joini n g

two sheets of galvan ized iron at right a ngles intersect ,

in g in their centre lines and weigh ti ng the lower e dges

,

with lead T his maintains the float in an upright

.

position and gives the required tension on the connect

ing cord T he vanes should be from 8 to 2 0 i nc hes
.

high depending upon the depth of stream in which

,

they are to be used Cylindrical air cavities are pro

.
-

vid d along the u pper ed ges of the v anes

e .
 AND THE M E A S URE ME N T O E P O WE R 1 81

By connecting the upper and lower floats with a fine

wire chain or preferably a b raided silk cord and
, , , , ,

varying its length we shall obtain the several veloci

,

ties at va rying depths T he mean o f all these observed

.

veloci ties may be ass umed to b e the av erage v elocity

o f the current .

T o obtain the mean velocity in a perpen dicular b y a

s ingl e measurement a floati n g rod is employed
, T his .

ro d may be either of wood or tin in sections screwed

together for convenience ; the lower section being

fitted with a hollow metal cap which is filled with
enough shot or gravel to cause it to sink to the re
quired depth and to maintain a nearly vertical position .

T he immersion of the ro d should be at least nin e

tenths of the depth of the water which should not be,

more than 2 0 to 2 5 feet .

If the channel were of uniform depth and the ro d ,

reached to the bottom without actually touching then ,

t he velocity of the rod wo uld b e ve ry nearly the mean

velocity of all the filaments in the v ertical plane through
which the rod passes A s the rod does not reach the
.

bottom its velocity can only record the mean velocity

,

of the filaments in a v ertical plane to a depth equal to

its immersion .

In general the rod flo at will give for small channels

-

more reliable re sults than those obtained by the use of

the double ball flo at
- .

T o obtain the v elocity or rate of motion of floats ,

two parallel ra n ge li n es are laid o ff on shore from 1 00 ,

t o 2 00 feet apart and the float placed in the current at

,

some distanc e above the first range lines T wo tran

-
.

sit s are usuall y employed for timing the floats o n e ,

1 82 D YR A M O M E TE R S

b eing set on each range In addition two t ime keepers .

-

will be required to take the e xact time on stop watches -

when signalled b y the observer at the transit .

I f the stream is not too wide the passage of the float ,

across the fixed ranges may be n oted by a single o b

server using only a stop watch and if occasion require -
,

it a fi eld glass T he watch is started when the float

,
-
.

crosses the first line then the o b server walks to the

,

lower station and stops the watch the instant the float
passes the range line T he total distance S divide d
-
.
, ,

by the nu m b er of seconds t will give the mean o bserve d , ,

velocity v of the float or

, , ,

O account of the uncertainty o f flo at m e asure m ents

n -
,

d ue to action of the wind local currents eddies and , , ,

o ther causes several observations should b e take n to

,

obtain a fair average value of the velocity .

A pproximate determinations of the mean v elocity

of a stream in any vertical may be made from a single
measurement b y o b taining either the mid depth v e -

l o c ity or the surface velocity and m ultiplying such

-
,

velocity by a coe fficient .

It has b een shown that the curve plotted for the

velocity of the filaments in a vertical will in general , ,

be rep resented by a parabola whose axis is parallel to

and b eneath the surface e x cept when the wind is ,

down stream with a rate eq ual to or greater than the

-

velocity of the current A ccording to H umphreys and

.

A bbot the a x is of the parabola or fil ament of maxi ,

m um v elocity wil l approach the surface o r recede from

,
1 84 D YN A M O M E TE R S

T his
mid depth v elocity will represent v ery closely
-

the mea n v elocity o f the vertical being from o ne to ,

six pe r c en t greate r according to the v elocity o f

,

stream depth and roughness of bed Henc e b y

, , .

taking the di fferent station or division mid depth -

veloc ities and applying a coe ffi cien t of from to

the mean velocity of the sub section will be o h -

tain e d .

T he other method at of measurement from sur

— th

face velocity alone has been employed to a consider

—

a b le e x tent but it must be remembered that the

,

results are only appro x imate and for this reason should
,

b e used only for rough estimates From many e x peri .

ments to determ ine the m ean velocity in a vertical from

its measured surface velocity it has b een found that if
,

the observ ation b e taken when there is no se nsible

win d the mean velocity of the curren t may vary from
,

to of the surface velocity I f a mean value of .

be used for the coe fficient the discharge calculate d

,

from the average of all the surface velocities thus o b

t a in e d may b e assumed to approximate the actual
discharge within a limit of from ten to twenty per
cent F o r o b taining the surface velocity a current
.

meter should be used .

A very old instr u ment for measurin g velocities in ,

v ented o r used b y Pitot consisted si m ply of a vertical

,

glass tube with a right angled bend plac ed so that its

-
,

m outh was n ormal to the direction of flow ( F ig 75 a) . .

T he impulse of the s tream balances a column in the

tu b e the height of which is

, I: where 7} is the
2g
 AND T HE M E A S URE M EN T OE P O WE R 1 85

velocity at the mouth of the tu b e and K is a co e ffi ,

cient determined b y e x perime n t .

A ccording to W eisbach s e x periments a mean val ue

’

of K for velocities varying from 1 to 4 feet per seco n d

is
Pitot e x panded the mouth of the tube so as to
form a funnel or b ell mouth In that case he found
-
.

K : T he objection to
this is that the motion o f
the stream is interfered with ,

an d the velocity in front of

the tu b e is probably not the

same as that of the u no b
st r uct e d stream .

For this reason the tu b e

was ma de converging at the
end so as to avoid interfer
ence with the stream and ,
Fm —P T ' ‘
1 rO r UBE .
75 a
also to prevent os cillations
. .

o f the water column

-
.

O n e objection of the Pitot tu b e in its original form

was the great di ffi culty and inconvenience of r e ading
the height I: in the immediate neighborhood of the
stream surface T his is obviated in the Darcy gauge
-
.
,

which can be removed from the stream to be read .

T his instrument consists of two Pitot tub e s having

their mouths at right angles o ne of which is placed ,

n ormal to the stream W ith the tubes placed in this

.

way it is found that the di ff erence of level It is sen , ,

7}
sibly equal to from which the velocity at a definite
2X

poin t in t he stream may b e ascertained . T he tubes

1 86 D YN A M O M E TE R S

are so arran ged that both can be closed at any in

stant and the instrument lifted out of the water ,

thus permitting the di fference of level to be readily

determined .

T hese readings are however not uniformly con

, ,

stant and a num b er of observations are re q uired to

,

determine an average In o r .

der to facilitate the readi ngs

the tu b es are so con nected at
their upper ends that a portion
of the air may b e sucked out :
this will raise the water in
both columns to an amoun t
proportional to the di ff erenc e
b etween atmospheric pressure
and that in the tu b es It is .

obvious that the di ff erence of

level will remain the same *
.

T h e use o f Pit o t s tube is ac

’

companied with many disad

vantages and it is now rarely ,

employed as an instrument
”
P
for velocity determinations in
M -

running streams .

A modified form of Pito t s tu b e is sometimes used

’

for measuring the velocity of liquids or gases flowing

u nder pressure T his is shown in Fig 75 6 which
. .
,

will be readily u nderstood T he di ff erence in the two

.

legs of the U tu b e is due to the velocity of the cur

rent since b oth branches are su b jected to equal pres
,

See il
a rt c e o n Hydro m e c h i
a n cs , . i
En c Br t .
, v ol . 1111 .
 AN D TH E M E A S UR E M E N T O E P 0 W E R .
1 89

will be readily understood from the following de

scription .

T he plungers A A are closely fitted in parallel

rings T he water passes through the inlet and port
.

I and is admitted under pressure into chamber D at

, ,

one end of each plunger alternately while the connec ,

tion is made between the cha m ber at the other end of

the outlet T hus the plunger in moving displaces its
.

volume discharging it through the outlet T he ar

,
.

rangement is such tha t the stroke of the two pl ungers

alternates the valve actuated by one admitting pres
,

sure to the other T he plungers are brought to

.

rest at the end of the stroke b y the rubber bu ff ers

E E . O n e plunger imparts a rec iprocating motion
to the lever F which operates the cou n ter movement
,
-

through the spindle and ratchet gear as shown -

.

T h u s it will be seen that the counter is arranged to

move the dial pointers once for every four strokes or
-

displacements and unless there be leakage in the

,

parts no water should pass through the meter without

registration for in order to pass through it m ust b e
, , ,

d isplaced by the pl ungers and therefore recorded by

the movement of the lever an d counter mechanism .

T he counter u sually registers in cubic feet one c ubic ,

foot being U S gallons T he counter is read in

. . .

the same way as registers of gas meters -

.

T he following e x ample and directions may be of

use to those unacquainted with the method : I f the
pointer is between two figures the smaller one m ust ,

invariably b e taken suppose the poin ters of the dials

stand as shown in Fig 75d ; starting at the dial .

mark ed 1 0 cubi c feet we get the fi gure 4 ; from the

,
1
9 0 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

ne x t marked 1 00 cubic feet the figure 7 ; from the

, ,

ne x t marked 1 000 cubic feet the figure 8 ; and from

, ,

the ne x t marked , cubic feet the figure 6 ; the ,

pointer on the cubic foot dial being between

- -

the 1 0 and the 1 indicates nothing T he reading is .

therefore 6 874 c ubic feet .

F I G 75 d
. .

T he Hersey disk meter is a ve ry satisfactory illustra

-

tion of the modern type of positive piston rotaries .

T he piston of this meter Fig 75 e is a vulcanized

, .
,

rubber disk provided with a spherical b earing in the

,

centre T he chamber in which it operates is made to

.

conform to the motions of the disk ; the surface of one

section is a portion of a sphere the other two sections
,

are a conical plate and a straight plate respectively ,

the central part of the two plates b eing formed to

accommodate the spherical bearing of the disk which ,

latter divides the cylinder at all points in its movement

into receiving and discharging spaces .

I n o peratio n the w ate r in the receivin g s pace e xerts

19 2 D Y N A M O M E TE RS

measuring chamber into the upper half and thence ,

out through the passage on the s id e of the met e r .

FI G 75fi —T HS L A M BE
. R
T WAT E R M E T E R.
-

T he L ambert m e ter illustr t e d in Fig 75f represents

a .

another form of di k met e r in which t h e x terior con

s -
e

fining wall as u m e s t h form of a pheric l ne T he

s e s a zo .

principle of action is similar to that in the Hersey ,

 AND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T OF PO WE R .
19 3

but the details and construction are somewhat di ff er

ent as will be noticed by reference to the cut
, .

A recent form of water meter has been invented -

by M r Clemens Hersch e l in which a compound

.
*
,

tube provided with piezometers is used to determine

the discharge T his apparatus is constructed upo n the
.

results of experiments by V entu ri whi ch sho w that

when water flows through a pipe of which the section
is contracted and subsequently grad ually increased ,

the pressure in the smallest section is much less than

in the largest on either side of the contractio n and ,

may with s uitable proportions sink belo w the atmos

p he ric pressure s o that it can b e measured
, b y a

vacu u m gauge -
T he velocity in the smalles t section is
.

t heoretically that due to the e ff ective head correspo n d

ing to the di fference between the pressure in the
l argest sectio n before the contraction and that in the
smallest sect ion plus the influenc e of the velocity in
,

the largest section generally very slight T o obtai n , .

the actual velocity the theoretical quantity has to be,

multiplied b y a coe fficient to b e determined b y experi

m ent .

T he V enturi meter Fig 75g is formed of two tru n , .

,

cat e d cones joined at their smallest diameters b y a

short throat piece A t the upstream end and at the

-
.

throat there are encircling pressure cham b ers as shown -

at U and T in which the piezometer tubes are inserted

,
- .

T he di ff erence of pressure at these points is always the

sam e fo r the same velocity of flow whatever the total ,

*
T he V e n tu r i W a te r m e te r T ra n s
- . . A . S . C . E v o l. 10 11 1 ,

Dec . 1 8 8 7. A l so Hydr a u li c Mo t o r s by , G . R Bo dm e r ,
. p .
32 2 .
1 94 D YN A M O M E T E R S

or hydrau l ic pressure may b e ; in practice this has

b een found to be ve ry n early that obtai n ed from the
71
fundamental formula 11 where k corre sponds to
2g

the di ff erence in pressure ( in feet of water)at U and

T an d v is the velocity of flo w in the throat
,
I f no .

F m 75g
. .
—T 1 u V nn rum
'
T una
.

losses of head occur the di ff erence of pressure or head

,

on the v e n turi in terms of the height of a column of

D
’ — D
’

water will be H ,
in which velocity in
2g

the throat and ,

D, velocity in the tube at the point
U .

I n the construction of the V enturi meter the area

a of the tube at U is times greater than the area
, 9 a ,

at the throat T ; hence the head on the venturi is

’
80 v ,
’
8 1 2g

and th e theor etical v elocity thr o ugh the throat is

 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

ca n?"

F 1 0 75 11
. .
—T 113
-
V n rr v m ME T E R.
 A ND THE M EA S UR E ME N T OE E O WE R .
19 7

Zga x a s

from which the actual discharge may b e determined

introducing the coe ffi cient C as b efore that is , ,

Vn
=
,

Q C.

In all cases H is the di ffe rence of level in two

,

col umns of water measured in the piezometers H and ,

H inserted in the t ubes and throat respectively

,
If .

the depression o f the venturi be su ffici nt a vacu um e ,

will be o b tained in the piezometer H “and the suction

will support a col umn of water Ii feet in height in the ,

inverted leg of the pi e zometer tube T he head o n -

.

the venturi H will then be li plus the height of a

, , , ,

col u mn of water in piezometer H measured above the ,

interior crown of throat .

T h e V enturi meter may be connected to a register

in g ap paratus and the q u ntity of water which p asse sa

thro ugh read o ff from a dial as in the case of other

m ete rs previously described .

In this case the pressures e x istin gin the tu b e and

throat are transmitted by small pipes T U to the , ,

register Fig 75 11 where they oppose one another

,
*
.
, ,

and are balanced b y displacement of level of two

columns of mercu ry in cylindrical tube s one within ,

the other T he inner mercury column carries a float

.
,

Ma de i ’
by B u l de r s I ro n Fo u n dr y , P ro v de n ce , R i . I .
19 8 D Y N A M O M E TER S

F m 75 12—1 3 1 1: V ENT URt

. ME T ER
M
m Po u E R S T AT i o
 D Y N A M O M E TERS

F 1 13 75 1 —T 11 E
. .
 A ND THE MEA S URE ME N T O E P 0 WE R . 1 99

f, V, the position of which is dependent on and is an ,

i ndication of the velocity of water flowing through

,

the tube T he position assumed by an idler wheel H

.
,

carried by this float relative to an intermittently rev olv

,

ing integrating drum 1 determines the duration of ,

contact of gears G and F connecting the drum and

counter by which the flow for successive intervals is
,

r egistered .

T he tu b e is usually laid as a part of the pipe line

and requires no more attention than the line itsel f .

Fig 7si shows an application of the V enturi meter for

.

ascertaining the quantity of water delivered to the

whee ls at the power station of the Pioneer El e ctric
Power Co O gden U tah.
,
*
,
.

T he success which has already attended the use o f

the V enturi meter indicates that this meter may be
more satisfactorily used in power determinations in
v olving large quantities of water under varying co n d i

tions tha n any other method .

T he e x periments of Herschel with velocities varying

from six inches to six feet per second through the tubes
show the co e flicie n t of discharge to be remarkably
‘

constant and it is probable that in most cases the

,

error will fall well within a limit of two per cent .

T he accuracy of water meters depends primarily -

upon the rate of flo w although the constructional fea

,

tures and the conditio n of the wearing parts has an

appreciable e ffect upon their sensibility I n all cases .
,

therefore where such meters are to be used for power

,

m ea s urement the instrument should be carefully cali

brate d und e r di ff erent rates of discharge A n y error .

E gi i g N w J l y 8 89 7
n n eer n e s, u , 1 .
2 00 D YN A M OM E TE RS
202 D YN A M OME TE RS

Q
N 8 23 74

«ed scon
es u; mou mu
 AND TE E M E A S URE ME N T OE P 0 WE R . 2 03

i n ferenti al met ers T he loss of head and reduced dis

.

ch arge b y the introduction of a water meter may in -

,

some instances be a serious drawback especially with

, ,

m otors running under full load when the consumption

should fully equal the capacity of the service pipe -
.

T he tests show that the actual loss of head for fi inch -

piston meters when placed in a f inch service pipe

- - -

was about 84% on W orthington C row n and Empire , , ,

an d 72 %for U nion rotary with } inch orifices ; 1 736 for 1 -

W orthington and Crown 1 5 5‘ for E mpire and 856 for , ,

U nion rotary with i inch orifices ; and from -

to
for all four meters with fi inch orifices A flinch -
.
-

Hersey piston mete r showed better results as would

-
,

b e e x pected with a meter of the same size as the

service pipe s For the eight flinch disk meters the loss
-
.
- -

of head was not far from 75 5‘ for } inch ; 9 or m s fo r 1 -

i-
inch ,
these being averages ; and generally conside r

ably belo w I E for { inch orifices T he fi inch Colum

w
.
-
.

bia in ferential meter gave 9 1 56 less for } inch orific e 1 -

,

2 5 56 for i inch and 3 %for fi inch

-
,
-
.

A total of 1 7 di ff erent meters was tested by M r .

Hill and the trifling average variation in errors of reg

,

istry for rates of discharge varying in some e x amples .

as high as 90 to 1 is surprising W hile t he max imum

, .

error with the low rate of discharge obtained through

the 39, inch opening was in some cases e x cessive it i
-
, s

to be noted Fig 751 that for ordinary rates of con

, .
,

sumption the average error is negligible .

T he method of measuring the flow of water over

weirs is that which has usually been mployed in test e

ing the larger hydraulic motors for the reason that it ,

has generally been considered the most convenient

and practicable .
2 04 D YN A M O ME TE RS

T he coefficient s which enter into the formu l a fo r

discharge over a weir v ary to such an extent with
di ff erence s in proportion s that accurate results are
only attainable b y closely followi n g the proportional
dimensions of the apparatus and constructing the weir
and its approaches in accorda n ce with the experiment s
for which a given set of co e fli cie n ts have b e e n deter
min e d.

By thi s m e thod the stream to b e measured is

dammed b y a weir and all the water compelled to flo w
through a rectangular O pening at the top O cc asion
.

ally the weir is suppressed or drowned and the water

is allowed to fall over the whole length of the weir in ,

which case the sides of the conduit or h ead race should

-

b e parallel and vertical fo r some distance up stream-

above the weir .

I f 1: denote the height in feet of the water level -

above the edge of weir measured a few feet back

,
—

fro m the sill b efore the sheet of water begi ns to curve

,
—
down wards L the length of the weir opening in feet
-
,

t he n the theoretical quantity of water discharged per

se co n d can be sh o wn to b e

T he results of experiments however show that the

, ,

actual quantity is less than this there fore a co effi

,

cient m ust be used to determ in e the correct amount .

It has been found that the coe fficie n t varies with the
follo w ing dimensions and conditions
L ength o f weir ;
Height of wate r over weir
2 06 D YN A M O M E TE R S

considered as this tends to increa se the volum e o f

,

water carried over A ir should have free access to the

.

space under the sheet as it flows over the crest .

A more e x act determination may b e o b tained by the

us e of the following coe ffi cient ta b les computed by

Mr Hamilton Smith
. from the experiments of ,

Poncelet L esbros Francis F t e ley

,
Stear ns and
, , ,

others in which a separate coefficient is given fo r

,

varying lengths of weir and under di fferent heights

above crest of weir .

T A BL E V I I .

C O EFF1c1ENT s FO R s C N A RGE O V ER W E IR S: T wo END -

CO NTR T1 NAC O S.

Co e fi cie n t e in fo r m l Qu a e x {L E V zglt .

L L e ngt h of W eir in F eet .

3 4 7

Sm i th '
s Hydrauli cs . Wil e y S o ns, 1 886 .
 AND TH E M E A S URE M E N T OF P O WE R .

h eads in the first col umn are the e ffe ctiv e

T he
heads and in such cases when the water approaches
,

the wei r with a sensible velocity the head Ii due to

'

t hat velocity ( h
’

2
5) must be u sed in connection
with the head 12 over the weir in which case the e ffe c
,

t ive head may be conside red e q ual to I: henc e

Q x 11 W
As anxample of the application of the ta b l e
e ,

the followin g is tak e n from Merriman s Hydraulics

’ ”
.

L e t it be re q uired to find the discharge per secon d

over a weir 4 feet long when t he head It is foot ,

t here being no velocity of a pproach .

F rom the table the co e fl i cie nt of discharge is

fo r It and for I: which gives abou t
fo r 11 7 T h en the
. discharge per sec o n d is

Q 612 xi x x4 X cubic fe et .

I f the width of the feeding can al b e 7 feet and its

-

dept h b elo w the crest b e feet the v e locity he ad ,

-

will be

bu t the vel o city 1) quantity o f water disch arged ,

divid e d by the area of the stream ; henc e

2 08 D YN A M O M E TE R S

the ve locity head then becomes

-

Iz
’
foot .

T he e ff ective head n ow becomes 11 + fo ot ,

and the discharge per second is

Q . 612 xix x 4 x cubic fee t .

As thi s result depends upon the degree of accuracy

with which the quantities used are ascertained and ,

also upon a possible slight error in obtaining the co effi

cient it may be assumed that a probable error of at
,

least one per cent e xists in the final result .

I t will be evident that as the velocity head 11 is -

’

small compared with the head over weir the latt er ,

may be used as the e ffective head with no appreciabl e ,

e rror in selecting a co e fl
,
f cie nt from the table for the
first appro x imation .

T he method of measurement over weirs is often e m

ployed in testing flum e s by constructing the tail race
- -

with a rectangular opening through which the dis ,

charge which flows from the motor is meas ured in the

manner just described .

T he d e termination of the height of water ov e r weirs

requires considerable care for accurate tests on ac ,

count o f the small height generall y involved For .

this purpose som e form of the Boyden hook gauge is -

usually employed .

T he instrument *
shown in Fig 76 consists of a
,
.
,

Made by W 81 L . . E
. G l ur e y, T roy . N Y
. .
Z IC D YN A M O ME TE R S

can he n be read from the v e rn ier

t .

T he instrume n t is supposed to have

b ee n previously set with its vernier at
zero wh e n the point of the hook was
,

e xactly o n a l ev e l with the sill of the

weir .

T he h oo k gauge is ge ne rally enclose d

-

in a woo de n case o r b ox op en at the

top and provided with a s mal l inlet at
,

the b o ttom in order to prev e nt any dis

,

t urbance of the water in the vicinity o f

the hook A s previously st ated t he
.
,

measure m e nt o f the hea d ov er the

weir must be tak e n several feet bac k o f
the cres t whe re the w at e r is l evel
, .

T o al l o w the o b se rvations to be take n

mo re readily the wate r may b e led b y ,

a hos e o r oth e r pip e fro m the bot t o m

o f the rac e way above the weir (up

-

st r eam)into the h o o k gaug e bo x whi ch -

,

m ay be p lac ed at any conveni e nt point

n ear b y .

V ery accurat e re s u l ts may b e o btained

b y the use of a good levelling rod with a -

hook secure d to the foot ; the slide may

be operated by a small gear and rack
which can b e attached to the ro d to
allo w a fine adj ustm ent of the hook .

The total head or fall can b e o b t ain ed

ve ry precisely by the use of a hook at ,

the level of the water in the tail race -

,

se cu red to a grad uated rod lace d b s ide

p e
 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T OF P O WE R . 21 1

a fi xed cylinder with glass tube attached,which is con

n e cte d by means of a rubber hose with the upper water

level By this arrangement the reading on the scale

.

at the water level in the glass tu b e will give the total

-

—
height between the two levels the graduations on the
r o d being a measure of the distance from the point of

the hook *
.

A nother method of o b taining the total hea d is to

run a line of levels from one to the other Permanent .

bench marks being established gauges can then b e set

-
,

in the head and tail races and graduated so that their ,

z ero points will be at some datum belo w the tail race

- -

l evel T he di fference in readings will give the re q uir e d

.

t otal
Simpler methods will suggest themselves and may
be used where less accuracy is requi red as in rou gh ,

e stimates of water power -

.

A s water in most cases where ava ila b le for p o we r

has a commercial value the most advantageous and ,

profitable use of it should be considered .

In this relation not only the e flicie ncy o f the motor ‘

e mployed but the pipes which supply the motiv e

,

power have an important bearing upon the result .

W hen water is delivered to a hydraulic motor

through a pipe or nozzle as in the n umerous class o f ,

small motors fed from a city main the diameter and ,

length of pipe as well as the size and shape o f n ozzle

, ,

largely aflects the w o rk done on the mo tor

'

T he head is not that due to di fference in levels

R H T
. . h ursto n . T ra ns A . . S . M . E .
, vo l . V 111.
Me rri man s H drauli cs
’

{ y p , . 2 88.
2 12 D Y N A M OM E T ERS

between the reservoir and the motor b ut is much l ess ,

on account of losses in transmi ssion due to friction in

the pipes loss at entrance loss due to b e nds and angle s
, ,

in the p ipe changes in cross section and o ther causes

,
-
,
.

A s any loss of h ead is a direct loss of power such ,

loss should be prevented as m uch as the circumstances

in the case will j ustify W here b oth the water supply
.
-

and head are li m ited such pipe should b e put down a

,
s

will avoid as far as possible serious loss in the head or

, ,

supply ; where on the other hand water is abundant

, ,

an d a very considerable head can b e o b tained a loss ,

in this way may b e j ustified to a larger extent to save

c ost of pipe .

T he great e st l oss in long pipes is that due to friction ,

w hich loss may b e deduced approxi mat ely from the

following formula

in which 11 , of resistan ce o f frictio n f a co

height *
,

efl icie n t o b tained by e x periment fo r diff erent cond i

'

tions 1 the length of pipe in feet d its diameter in

, ,

feet and v the velocity of water in feet per second

,
.

T he coe fficient of friction f is n o t constant b ut varies

, , ,

with the velocity and with the diameter and internal

condition o f the pipe .

F r om this it will b e seen that the loss due to fricti 0 1

is independent of the pressure o f the water ; that it is

proportional to the length of pipe ; that it increases
nearly with the square of the velocity ; that it is in
We i sbach .
2 14 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

T he l oss
of head due to resistance as the water e n
t e rs a pipe will vary with the form of m outh piece e m

p loy e d and
,
may b e taken as

fl , = o .
s “
2g

for average cases although with a perfect b ell sh aped

,
-

mouthpiece this lo ss will be zero '

F o r long pipes the loss due to entrance is very sli ght ,

as compared with the loss due to friction .

T he other losses which occur such as those due to ,

change of cross section angular connections curvatur e

-
, ,

of bends and resistance of valves are not so readily

, ,

o b tainable .

W here the radius of curvature is great as compared

to the diameter of pip e and few bends occur in the ,

pip e the loss will be small also where conical redu e

,

e rs are used when changing from one d iameter to

a n other the loss for each change will b e b ar ely ap

,

re c iable and may be neglected

p .

Moreover as the actual conditions are generally

,

unknown these latter losses will have to b e neglected

,

in ordinary computations and the formula for the ,

velocity will then be that obtained for pipes compara

t iv e ly straight smooth and of essentially the same
, ,

diameter .

A ss u mi ng the general formula

we can o b tain the velocity of flow correspond ing to a

give n hydrostatic head from V V 2g if no lo sse s
 A ND TH E M E A S URE M E N T OE EO WE R .
215

occu r in the pipe b ut if the velocity head of -

the iss u
,
7

ing strea m e q ual

52 3 the losses m the pipe will then be
e q ual to the hydrostatic head m inus the velocity head -
,

hen ce e q ual to 11
’

23

T hisloss must be e q ual to the sum o f the losses due

to friction and to entrance ( provided the lesser resist
,

ances d ue to curv ature and other causes be ne glected )

t here for e

li t -
l
F .
t

By su b stit u tin g the valu es previou sly fou nd fo r k ,

and

11, the re is o b t ai ned

2g
. fdx

which is a convenient formula to use in o b tai n i ng the

velocity of flow in straight pipes of uniform diame t er ,

from which the head corresponding to this velocity m ay

b e o b tained b y substit ution in the general formula
2
V
11
55; T he h ead , necessary to overcome the re
 2 16 D Y N A M OM E TE R S
‘

sistanc s in a given length and dia m

e e ter of pip e and to
mai nt ain the velocity 0 may be calculated fro m , ,

If a given supply of water Q be required per second , , ,

the theoretical area of pipe will be A { 71 d therefore

Q 4Q
the v e lo mty m the p i pe will be U
fl ; henc e
2
the theoretical head re q uired to maintain the flow will b e

(1 .
s+ f
25

provided the inner surface of the pipe be reason ably

smooth If an iron pipe be unprotected by any surface
.

coating it will in time become coated with scale or li m e

deposits and more or less tu b ercu lated T hese de po s .

its a ff ect the discharge in a twofold manner : first by

red ucing the area of pipe and secondly by increasing ,

the roughness T herefore to reduce the loss as much as

.

possible it will b e an advantage to cover the inner sur

face with coal tar varnish or some other suitab le co at
-

ing .

I n any case the velocity head of the issuing jet will equ al
-

7)

28
hence if the discharge Q and also the area a of je t , , , ,

be known the velocity U can b e deter m ined fro m

, , ,

Fo r a i
d scuss i o n o f the l o ss due to b e n ds, curv a tu re, re duct o n i in
i
a rea , re s s ta n ce s in l
va ves a n d co c k s , see We i s b ach , C oxe
’
s t ra n sla

ti o n, p age s 874 et seq.

2 18 D YN A M O M E TE RS

T h is co e flicie nt
of discharge varies from ab out
to fo r circular orifices in a thin plate depending ,

u pon the size of orifice and the head For ordina ry .

case s the coe fficient of discharge C , m ay be as

,

s umed .

I t can b e shown further that the ve lo city of flow

through an o rifice in a thin p late is d im inished a b out
t wo per cent b y friction and th at the theor e tical v e lo c
,

ity m ust be multiplied b y a coe ffi cient to obtain the

actual velocity T his coe fficient of velocity C will
.
,

va ry slightly increasing with the head but

, may ,

be assu med to meet most conditions .

I t will b e noticed that the co e fli cien t o f v elocity is

e q ual to the ratio

c oe ffi cie n t of disch arge C

coe ffi cient of contraction C

F ro m these considerations it will be seen that the

circular o rifice in a thin plate o ffers another method of

ascertaining the discharge If the area of rese rvoir or

.

supply tank b e large compared to area of orifice and

-
,

if the head It at centre of orifice in a vertical plane is

, ,

large compared with the diameter of opening the theo ,

ret ical discharge may b e assumed e q ual to

71 d

th ere fo re the act ual di scharge will be CQ ’

Q , he nce
 A ND TH E M E A S URE M E N T OE PO WE R . 2 19

As it is impracticab le to place the buckets or vanes of

a water motor su fficiently near an orifice to utilize the
-

energy of the jet short tubes nozzles or tips are used

, , ,

for this purpose and for these separate coe fficients will
,

have to b e determined .

W hen the discharge takes place through a short

cylindrical tu b e whose le ngth is about three times its
diameter it will b e found that under ordinary condi
,

tions there is no contraction of the jet b ut the velocity ,

of the stream is diminished about 1 8 per cent ; hence

the coe fficient of velocity C may be assumed to be
,

for such short pipe when the inner corners are

n o t rou n ded .W hen there is no con tractio n that is ,

when C ’
1 the coe fficient of discharge C w ill equa l
,

C
the coe fficient of velocity since , l C, ; hence the
C
coe fficie n t of discharge in this case will equal It
has b een found that if a conical converging t ube be
used the coe fficient of velocity and of discharge are
,

both v ery much higher than for a straight tu b e and ,

for this re ason such tubes or m o uthpieces are used ,

with certain modifications when it is desired to utilize

,

the energy o f flo w to the b est advantage F rom e x .

p e rim e n t s b y D A u b
'

u isso n and C astel *

o n conical
tubes with varying angles of co n vergence and with
sq uare corners at entrance the co e flf c ie n t of discharge
,

attained its maximum value of for a tube whose

sides converge at an angle of but the co e flf cie nt
of velocity increased continually as the a ngle increased ;
for a tu b e whose angle was 4 8 50 the co e flficie n t of
° ’

velocity was In these e x perim ents the tube

W i b h e s ac .
2 20 D PN A M O M E TE R S

was 5 inch diameter at small end and its length ,

times its diameter .

T he results of Castel s e x periments also sho w tha t

’

under varied heads the coe fficients of discharge and of

velocity were practically constant for the same mouth
piece .

Some e x periments by L espinasse on the canal of

L a n guedoc show the great advantage in using
converging mouthpieces to e ffect an i n crease in the
discharge ; the mouthpieces employed were truncated
recta n gular pyramids feet lo n g the dimensions at ,

one end by feet at the other 44 by 6 2 foot ;

, . .

their opposite faces were incli n ed at a ngles of 1 1 3 8 ° ’

and 1 5 °
and the head employed was 9 59 feet T he . .

e x periments resulted in determini ng a coe fficient of

discharge varying from to
If the m otor to be tested be supplied with several
conic al o r cu rved mouth pieces it is advisable to c al i
-
,

b rate each o ne in order to obtain its coe fficient o f

discharge C , .

By inserting a gauge near the discharge in the sup ,

ply pipe which should be l a rge relatively to the nozzle

-
, ,

t he hydrostatic head may be o bt ained by mu ltiplying ,

the gauge pressure by -

as shown hereafter By .

this means the actual discharge may be obtained by

noting the pressure and calculati ng the theoretical
discharge for the given mouth piece fro m -

"
m
7

then Q X C will equal the actual discharge

’
.

J k Hyd li M u l
ac
’
so n s ra u c an a .
222 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

indicated b y the gauge due to the velocity o f the

,

water in the pipe W hen the diameter of supply pipe

.
-

is large compared to that of the nozzle at discharge

which is usually the case as the velocity and energy of
,

t he water is best utilized by such arra gement n — the

reduction of pressure head is b arely apprecia b le and
-

may b e neglected as t he error from this cause is well

, .

withi n the li m its o f the degree of accura cy attained in

determining other q uantities involved .

W hen however the supply pipe and nozzle do n ot

, ,
-

g reatly di ffer in size the velocity

, in the pipe approache s

m or e nearly to the velocity at the nozzle and the ,

p ressure -
head m ay in such case s di ff e r materi ally fro m

the e ff ective h ead .

I f It e quals the known pressure head and It eq uals -

, ,

the head due to the velocity V in the pipe the n the , , ,

e ff e ct iv e he a d wi l l be

V
.

the v elo city v at the end of the nozzle will the n be

if
23 )
but in ce the same quantity of water whi ch discharges
s

from the n ozzle must pass thro ugh the pipe the ,

respective velocities will be inve rsely proportional to

the sectional areas and hence to the s q uares of t hei r
,

respective d iameters ; that is ,

’
U A D
"
V a d
 AND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T OF P O WE R .

V = 7J X

in whi ch V , A , represent the vel o city of flow

and D ,

are a o f cro ss se ctio n and dia m e t er of pi e ; and U a

p
-
, , ,

and d are the correspondin g val ue s at the o utlet o f

n ozzle .

Substit utin g thi s v al ue of V in the e xpressi o n for U ,

o n the o i t pa the e is obtain d

pp o s e ge r e ,

3
v : C,
5J -

. o

i
fro m which the e ff e ctive head , 11
28 ) , may be cal eu
lated . W hen the diameter of pipe is l arge compared
to the diameter of nozzle at di scharge the rat io , will
be very sm all in which case ,
U C
, V 2} ; will approach
U C , V 2g/1 if the ratio of se ctional areas or ,
g , is less
than one to ten the error in usin g 11 for it will be les s
,
”

than one half of one per cen t and when the ratio is
-
,

less than one to t wenty 12 may be ass umed to e q ual 12

,
”

wit hi n a l imi t o f 02 5 of one per cent — a reate r

.
g ,
2 24 D YN A M O M E TE R S

de gree o f accuracy than can be obtai ne d from the

other fact ors involved .

A s an example a motor is s upplied by a pip e two

,

inches in diameter having a n o zzle whos e di ame te r at

discharge e q uals half an inch the gauge pressu re in the
,
-

p ipe nea r the entrance to the motor e q u als 4 3 po u nd s ,

and the coe fficient o f velocity

A ccordi ng to t he exact formula ,

V 64 4 x fe et pe r second .

F ro m the r xi m at e formul a
app o

C, Vn

we find b y assuming the e ff ective h ead

, , I: e q ual to the
pressure head It -
, ,

.
9 8 V 644 x V 64 4 x

that is , the g ain in using the exact form ul a wi l l only be

U,
‘

or a b ou t two tent hs of one per c e nt which can readily ,

be n e glected wi th o u t sensi b ly affe ctin g the r esult .

2 26 D YN A M O M E TE RS

fo r ive
an y
g n m a chine and usually increase
, s dire ctl y
with the lo ad .

I f 1; act ual e fficiency of motor ,

P ,electric power in watts supplied to motor ,

to use ful m echanica l e ffect of the mo t or the n ,

20 O utp ut
P, I ntake

T hi s e ffi c iency is commonly referred to as the com

m e rcial e ffi ciency and is obviously less with an increas e
,

in the various losses which enter into the running o f a

m otor .

T hese losses are sometimes divided and those due

to eddy currents hysteresis and friction enter as a fac
, ,

tor in determining the e ffi ciency of conversion while

the loss due to resistance in the field and armature
c onductors a ffects the electric a l e fficiency T he product .

of these two e fficiencies is equal to the commercial

e ffi ciency of the motor .

In the measurement of p wer the latter is of chief o

importance and is easily obtained since the total losses

,

are readily determined .

T he electrical e ffi ciencies of a motor hav e little value

from a commercial standpoint A machine may have .

a high electrical effi ciency yet on account of mechan

,

ical imperfectio n s frictio n eddy current s hysteresis

, , ,

and leakage the net or commercial e ffi ciency may be

,

very lo w .

F o r our present p urpose s the commercial e ffi ciency

will b e consid e red as the e ffi cie n cy of t he m achin e .
 AND TH E M E A S URE M E N T O F P 0 WE R . 227

T hee ffi ciency of a motor depends somewhat upon

its capacity and we sho uld ex pect the e ffi ciency of a
,

5 0 H- P motor . to be .materially greater than that of a

2 H P motor b oth working at the same percentage of
-
. .
,

load
T his is clearly shown in Fig 78 which r epresents .
,

the e ffi ciency curves obtained from tests on a 50 H P -

. .

PER GENT OF O
FULL L A D .

F ro .
78 . C unv n or Em c rm c MOT O RS .

and a 2 H P motor respectively Here it will be

-
. . .
,

noted the full load e ffi ciency in the case of the larger

,

motor is 88 per cent whereas in the smaller machine it ,

is only 74 per cent ; at half loads this is reduced to 82

per cent and 6 7 per cent respectively while at one ,

fourth loads the relative e fficiencies are 69 and 5 5 per

cent .

It has b een s t ate d that the e ffi cien cy o f a m o to r

228 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

usually increase s with the load W hil e thi s may be t r ue

.

in gene ral it frequently h appen s that the e fficiency at

,

full load is less than that at s ome fractional part of the

load I f the work required of the motor varies b etween
.

wide limits it is evident that the most economical per

,

fo r m a nce should occur at some point b etween no load

and f ull load ; that is the e fficiency at average load
,

should be a maximum .

U nder certain conditions the average load may be

l ess tha n one half the full load as for inst ance in the
-
, , ,

operation of various machine t ols and cranes driven o

b y independent motors in other cases the average load

may be as high as three fourths or even equal to ful l
-

load In any case the economy of operatio n will b e

.
,

greatest when the ma x imum e ffi ciency occurs at aver

age load .

I n F ig 79 is shown a n e fficiency curv e made from a

.

test of a slow speed motor used on an electric travelling

-

crane T his motor was designed for an overl oad of 50

.

per cent and it was ass u med that the average l oad
,

would be considerab ly less than full load It will b e .

noticed that the e flicie ncy at full load is 79 per cent

‘
,

while that at half load is about 80 per cent ; betwee n

these values the e ffi ciency rises to 82 per ce n t at two
third s the full load and diminishes on either side
, .

T he wide range of loads with little change in the

e ffi ciencies is e ffected by the slow speed of the arma
t ure which reduces the losses due to friction eddy
, ,

cu rrents and hystere s is ; but this is o b tained at the

,

expense of a relatively low full load effi ciency due to -

t h e in cr ease d co nducto r resis tan ce .

2 30 D YN A M OME w a s

Since t he ho rse -
power ex erte d b y the shaft is

we shal l h ave

h ence
33000 xHP . .

1
2 7rN

Bothmechanical energy and electrical energy m ay

be e x pressed in terms of the same units either in horse ,

power o r in watts or kilowatts the practical unit o f

—

electrical power *
.

In the former case it is the product of the torque

times the velocity as already sh wn in the latter it is ,
o

the product of the motor s electromotive force ’

the counter electromotive force O pposing the elect ro

-

Fo r t h e p p
ur o se s o f th e ph y i i s c st t h e to r q ue m a y be ex p re s s e d

in dyn e ce n -
ti m e te r s if t h e fo rce is m e a s u r e d in dy n e s an d t he

i
r a d u s in ce n t im e te r s .

In t h e sa m e wa y th e s p e ed i
m a y be g v e n in ra d a n s pe r i s e co n d

a nd k d w il l b p
the wo r o ne e e x r e s se d in e r gs pe r s e co n d .

Th p i l i f l t m ti f
e ra c t ca un t o e ec ro o ve o rc e , th e v o t , l is one h un
d d m illi
re i m g t h th b l
on t es re a e r t an e a so u te o r C . G . 5 . i
u n t, a n d

th mp
e ai q le re t s h f th
e ua to o n e -
e nt o e i
u n t o f c u rr e n t in the

C G S
.
y .t m.
; t hsw t t h
s e f i e at , e re o re , s e q ua l to "
m C . G . S .

7
10
u f w k p
n its o ord "
g p
e r seco n IO er s er s e co n d __
gra m m e
g8 f
im
ce n t p e t er s d S S P
er T h m
s e co n . ee . . o so n s
’
Dy a
n m o -
E e ct ric l
M hi ac y ne r .
 A ND M E M E A S URE M E N T op P O WER 23 1 .

motive force of supply ) t imes the current flowing

,

the armature .

L et E electromotive forc e in volts ,

I current in ampere s ,

P ,
num b er of watts delive re d to motor ;
74 watt s ; the n
6

th ere fore
74 6
2 1rN r x
33000

I f the spee d o f r otatio n , 21, b e give n in second s t h en

,

2 70 1 1 x 2 71 m .
2 32 D YN A M OM E TERS

C HA PT E R V I I .

I N S T R U M EN T S FO R M EA S U RI N G E L E C T RI C A L PO W E R
.

T HE determination of the e ffi cie ncy o f a moto r

involves in its simplest form both mech anical and
, ,

electrical measurements .

T he output is usually determined by mean s of some

form of friction brake or dynamometer which absorbs
-

the power as already described T he power may also .

be absorbed by running a dynamo from the mot o r ,

which in turn receives the greater pa rt of its electrical

energy from the dynamo thus operated T his m ethod .

will be describe d later .

T he i n take is ascertained b y the use of electrical

measuring instrume n ts such as galvanomete rs includ
-
,

ing voltmeters and ammeters electro dynamometers ,

-
,

electrothermal and electrostatic devic e s and other ,

apparatus .

I t is only of recent years that commercial testin g

instruments have been ma d of a suitable degree of
e

a ccuracy to insure their r liability for the purpose o f

e

the engineer T he galvanometer in its simple form

.

has long been in use in the laboratory but it is not ,

p a r ticularly well adapted to the requirement s of shop

t esti n g
.
2 34 D Y N A M OM E TE RS

the scale By thi s adj ustment an extre m e range o f

.

72 0 divisions can be o btai n ed .

T he T homson galvanometer o n ac co unt of its deli

,

cacy of construction is extre mely sensitive to vi b ra

,

tion and t o magneti c i nfluence Compared to the .

T hom so n the D A rso nv al galvanome ter ( F ig 80)pos

’
, .

Fxc 80
. . G A L V A NO Il m

sesses the great advant age that it is free from o rdi

nary magnetic disturbances and it is also less susce p
,

tible to vibration ; but on the other han d it is less

sensitive and n o t so satisfactory for meas uring high
resistances T he distinctive feature of this instru
.

ment is that the coil is movable and the magnet is fixed

whereas in almost all other forms there is a fixed coil
a n d a movable magnetic needle .

T he movabl e coi l which is usu ally wound o n a light

,
 AND THE M EA S UR E MEN T OF p a WE R . 2 35

me tallic frame is suspended b y a small wire or phos

,

phor b ronze strip which forms one terminal the other

-
,

be ing made through a light spiral spring b elow A .

small mirror is attached to the suspended coil w hich

also carries a pointer free to rotate through a small
angle over a graduated scale In order to strengthen .

the magnetic field a soft iron core is placed within the

,
-

coil which is free to turn in the narro w intense field

,

b etween the poles of the magnet and the iron core .

A s there is no iron in the mova b le parts the external ,

magnetic forces do not disturb the zero of the instru

ment ; it can b e used in any location if placed not less
than ten feet from a dynamo and it is practically inde ,

pendent o f the earth s magnetic field T he instrument

’
.

is also dead b eat that is the intensity of the mag

, ,

netic field in which the coil is situated is such that the

induced currents produce a cl amping e ff ect and cause
the indicator to come to rest at its final position of
deflection almost instantly .

T he freedom from magnetic di stur b ances render s

thi s instrument particularly useful for shop measure
ments of resistanc e and location of faults in circuits
an d electrical apparatus .

T he well kno w n direct current ammeters and volt

- -

m eters of W eston are a modification of the D A rso nv al

’

galvanometer .

In these instruments the magnetic field is produced

b y the poles of a strong horseshoe magnet to which a
cylindrical core of soft iron ( Fig 8 1 )is suitably con .

n e ct e d an annular space is left between the core and

pole pieces which constitutes the magnetic field in which
-
2 36 D YN A M O ME TE R S

the coil rotates T his coil consists of fine wire woun d

.

upon a light rectangular frame of alumin um or copper ,

mounted upon pivots which turn in jewelled b earings .

Flat spiral springs of a non m agnetic alloy are con

-

n ect e d to the fram e ab ove an d b elow it and se rve the ,

.
—
Fl a st d M A T
GN E A ND Co n . no n W ES T O N V O LT M BT BR
.

dou b le purpose of conducting the current to the m ov

ing coil as well as opposing its tendency to rotate A .

pointer connected to the upper end of the coil and

moving over a properly graduated scale indicates the
position of the coil and therefore the strength of the
current to b e measured .
2 38 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

voltmeter may be inserted in the circuit for any len gth

of time without sensibly a ffecting the accuracy of its
indications W ith the ammeters however the inde
.
, ,

n de n ce of outside temperature is not so satisfactorily

p e

maintained ; for thi s reason an ammeter should n o t be

kept in circuit for any length of time if gr e at ac curacy
is desired .

In general there is no essential di ff erence b etween a

,

voltmeter and an ammeter A galvanometer for in .

,

stance if the resistance in its circuit remains constant

, ,

m ay b e used to measure the current strength or volt

age since the current is proportio n al to the voltage
, .

I n like manner any volt m eter which allows current

t o pass through it can be calibrated to indicate am
peres as well as volts U sually however an ammeter
.
, ,

is made with a very low resistance since it is p laced ,

directly in the m ain circuit and ny increased resis t

,
a .

ance reduces the watts in the line .

O n the other hand the resistance of a volt m eter

ought to be as high as possible in order that the cur ,

rent taken by it shall be insignificant However an .

,

ordinary am m eter may be calibrated as a milli volt -

meter because there is a certain voltage corresponding

,

to each value of the current that is since the current ,

strength I varies directly as the electromotive force

, , ,

E and inversely as the resistance R we have accord

, , , ,

ing to O hm s law ’

an d E IR .
 A ND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T O F P O WE R . 2 39

I n a similar manner a voltmeter unless electrostatic , ,

may b e converted into a milli ammeter * -

.

If it is desired to measure larger currents than the

ammeter is a rranged for a k n own resistance may b e ,

inserted as a shunt between the binding posts -

.

If I actual range of instrument in amperes ,

I range desired
, ,

r internal resistance of instrument in ohms , ,

R resistance of shunt to b e used then

T hus if I 1 50 am peres I 300 r , , ,

o hm then R
, o h m also ; each scale division

therefore represents 35} 2 amperes that is the

1 4
, ,

readings m ust be m ultiplied by 2 .

O wing to the increased resistance due to i m perfect

contact the length of wire for a given resistance as
,

determined b y calculation may have to be modified to

obtain a desired result .

T he following practical method as used in the elec

t rical laboratory at the U niversity of Minnesota gives
accur a te results and is convenient to use .

A wire of su fficient carrying capacity a n d any con

v e n ie n t length is connected in shunt around the am

meter terminals as shown in Fig 8 3 In order to . .

insure as perfect contact as possible brass plugs are ,

turned down on one end to fit the ammeter b inding

S ee h pt
c a er on l
E i lM
e c t r ca i i
e a s u r n g- n st r u m e n t s in El e c
tric L igh t i g n ,
”
by F B
. . C k
ro c e r.
2 40 D Y N A M OM E TE R S

posts the other end is drilled and furn ish ed wit h

b inding screws for b oth the main circuit and the shu nt
-
.

T he ammeter is placed in the circuit with t he shunt

r es istance disconn ected A constant load as fo r in
.
, ,

stanc e a nu m be r of lamps is thrown on the circuit and

, ,

a reading t aken ; it is to b e o b se rv ed that the load

should b e as large as possible with in the lim its o f the

Fl o . 83 — U s a
. or A u tum n wrm S m mr Rustsr m cn
'
.

i nstrument ; now the shunt wire is con n ected to the

a m meter through the b rass plugs and adjusted in le ngt h ,

until the readi n g on the instrument is a co nvenie nt frac

t io n al part of the previous readi n g the voltage bei n g ,

the same in each case It will be evident that w ithout

.
,

actually k nowing the magnitude of the resista n ce th us

introduced any subseque nt readi n gs that m ay be tak en
,

with the shunt in circuit will be di rectly pro portional

to the ratio assumed .
2 42 D Y N A M O M E TE RS

I f for instance E
, , 1 00 volts , E, 4 0 v olts and
r 1 8000 ohms the n ,

R 1 8000 2 7000 ohm s .

T he re sistance r is usually known for each instrument .

A mong the e lectro m agnetic devices for measuring

current the ammeters used with the Brush arc machines
and the e arlier form of W estinghouse amm eters are
familia r e xamples .

T he latter consists of a b undl e of so ft iron w ires -

hung from one end of a lever to which a long pointe r

is attached ; a movab le counterwei ght serves as a bal
an cin g force when the current is b eing meas ured .

T he iron core is suspended within a coil o f large

copper wire through which the current passes T his .

instrument is also adapted to alternating currents b y

insulating the wire s in the core in order to prevent the
circulation of induced currents .

A modification of this instrument is also used as a

voltmeter I n the present form of W estinghouse round
'

pattern instruments a flat armature or vane of soft iron ,

to which an alumin um pointer is attached replaces the ,

iron core in the earlier form .

T his vane e x tends through the interior of a heavy

copper coil and is so mounted that one edge of the
,

vane becomes the a x is of rotation the other edge b ei n g,

free to oscillate .

W hen no current is flo wing the free edge hangs

toward the centre of the coil but when current is pass
,

ing the vane is magnetized and the free edge approaches

 AND TH E M E A S URE M E N T OF P O WE R . 24 3

the side of the coil T he amount of rotation depends

.

upon the strength of the current which is shown b y the ,

pointer on a graduated scale .

T he steelyard ammeter illustrated in Fig 8 5 is an

, .
,

interesting piece of apparatus whose principle of action

is similar to that o f the earlier W estingho use ammeters .

In this case a soft iron core inside the copper coil at

-

tracts a n armature attache d to the lever as shown A .

F m 85
. .
-
S r a a xv a nn A u u n
'
. a a.

sliding weight on the other end of the lever serv es to

maintain a b alance when current is passing through the
coil.

T he ad vantages possessed b y the various form s of

electromagnetic measuring instruments are their cheap-

ness and simplicity of construction ; but they do not

indicate definitely near the zero point and with di -
,

rect currents the hysteresis of the iron core causes

the reading to b e less for a given current when the
latter is increasing than when it is decreasing *
.

T his erro r is not material in a station ammeter b ut ,

C roc k e r E l e ct r c i L i gh t i n g,
p .
41 8.
2 44 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

for accurate power measurements it is to o large to be

neglected
“
.

T he C ardew hot wire voltmeter deserves m e n

tion among the various electro thermal devices which -

have b een employed with more or less success T hi s .

instrumen t has b een used e x tensively in commercial

testing especially in England where it has b een received
, ,

with much favor *

.

In this voltmeter the current is passed through a long

high resistance wire suitably arranged in a b rass tube
-

the expansion due to h e ating the wire actuates a small

shaft connecting through a multiplying gear to the
inde x fi nger and a graduated dial perm it s a direct
-
,

reading of the voltage .

T he self induction in this instru m ent is ve ry s m all

-

which is an advantage when measuring alternat ing cur

rents I t is also dead beat and is n o t disturb ed b y
.
,

magnetic influences b ut it absorbs considerable ene rgy

and is not satisfactory at low voltages .

D i fferences in e x ternal temperatures also a ff e ct t he

resistance of the wire but this may be overcom e by ,

calibrating at extreme temperatures and using a co r

rection factor .

A mong the n umerous devices which have been em

ployed for measuring alternati ng currents fe w have
been more satisfactory than the various electrost atic
instruments in use O f these K elvin s vertical electro.
’

static voltmete r ill ustrated in Fig 86 is one of the .

simplest .

S ee p p Th M
a er m t f El t i C
on t e by ea s u r e en o ec r c u r re n ,

Jas. S w i b P n B it i h I t C E
u rn e , l x
ro c89
. r s ns . . . vo . c , 1 2 .
246 D YNA M OM E TERS

T he instru m ent is essentially an air conde n ser having

-

one of its parts movable a bout an ax is so as to increase

or diminish the capacity T he condenser is enclosed
.

in a metal case for the double purpose of protecting

,

the movable part from air currents and from the dis
-

t u rbin g influence of any electrified body other than ,

the fi x ed portion di ff ering from it in potential

, .

It consists of two quadrant shaped b rass plates be-

,

tween which is suspended an al uminum plate carrying

a pointer which indicates the di ff erence of potential
e x isting in the plates W hen the fi x ed an d m ovab l e
.

plates are connected respectively to t wo poi n ts of a

circuit between which a di ff eren ce of potential e x ist s
the plates become oppositely charged ; mutual attrac
tio n is therefore set up and the m ovable plate is de
,

fle cte d T he magnitude of the displacing force is pro

.

portional to the square of the potential di ff erence and ,

this attraction is balanced by a series of weights hung

on a knife edge attached to the lower part of the mov
-

able plate .

T his type of electrostatic voltmeter is capa b le o f

measuring di ff erences of potential from 2 00 to
volts and for this reason it is especially well adapted
,

for high pressure alternating currents although it m ay

-
,

be used with the lower voltages of both direct and alter

n ating currents It is to be noted that any one instru
.

ment is not adapted to the entire range ; for instance

'

one size is designed to m easure from 2 00 to 4 000 volts ,

another from 1 000 to while intermediate size s

are adapted to the intermedi te pressures a .

F o r general work the K elvin m ulticellular electro

 AND THE M EA s UR EM E N T OF p o WE R . 24 7

s tati c vo ltmeter shown in Fig . 87 is a convenie nt

F m 87
. . E u t c r nos rx rxc
' '
V o um -
u r na.

tical instrument well adapted to the needs of the en gi

n eer .T his instrument is intende d for measurin g dif .
248 D Y N A M OME TE R S

fe re n ces in pote ntial varying from 40 to 1 600 v olts

,

distributed over a series of fi v e separate ranges ; it m ay

also be used to measu r e curren t strength by connecting

it in shunt to a known resistance but this latter is n ot,

entirely satisfactory I n this instrument a number of

.

vanes V arranged in two sets are placed parallel to

, , ,

each other upon a spindle which is suspended b y a fi n e

iridio platinum wire from a torsion head at the top of
-

a vertical brass tube T hese vanes m ov e freely b et wee n

.

insulated cells C formed o f b rass plates in metallic con

, ,

n e ctio n with each other and arranged in e q uidistant hor

iz o n tal planes an aluminum poi n ter I attached to the , ,

top of the spindle indicates the di ff erence of potential

b etween the movab le and stationary portions of the
instrument by direct readin gs in volts .

If a single cell were used the suspending wire would

,

have to b e very fine o r very long an undesira b l e

—

featur e in either c ase T he use of several cells pro

.

duces su ffi cient torqu e to permit the employment of a

suspension wire of practical dimension s .

T he a ction of the instrument is identical with that o f

the vertical electrostatic voltmeter already described .

I n certain form s of this instr ument 3 vane is attached .

to the moving armature an d immersed in oil thi s

forms a damping device and prevents too viol ent vi b ra
t ions of the pointer .

A nother a rrangem e nt of thi s voltmeter has a ho ri

z o ntal dial similar to that shown to which an inclined
,

mi rror is attac hed thus permitti ng readings to be mad e

,

at a distance from the instrument .

A v ery sati s fa ctory i n str ument in m any re spec ts fo r

2 50 D yN A M oME TERS

or supported o n a pivot ; electrical connectio n with the

movable coil is made through mercury cups into which -

the end s of the coil dip T wo stationary coils are gen

.

e rally used one consisting of a few turns of large wire

, ,

the other of a greater number of turns of finer wire .

O n e end of each is attached to the binding posts 1 and -

2 respectively F ig 89 and the o the r e nd s are con n e cted

,
.
,

F m 89 . .
—Du nn» : or Eu —
cr xo n m a u ou n nn.

to the merc ury cup c ; a conductor leads from the lower

-

mercury cup a to a third binding post 3 thus complet

-
,
’
,
-
, ,

ing the circuit whether the current enters through the

heavy or the light wire in any case it passes o ut
through the movable coil d é W hen currents are sent .

through the two coils the magnetic stresses tend to brin g

them into the same plane ; this tendency in the present
case is resisted b y a spiral spring one e n d o f which is at
 AND TH E M E A s UR EM EN T O F P 0 WE R . 2 51

tache d to the suspended coil the other being connected

,

to a knurled head which is provided with a pointer that

may be moved about a graduated dial plate A zero -
.

indicator is also connected to the movable coil .

W hen the moving coil is deflected the knurled head

is turned until the pointer on the coil stands at zero ;
the number of degrees or divisions of the dial may then
be read from the torsion indicator and the strength of
-

the curren t determined Since the same current flows

.

through both coils the resultant magnetic e ff ect be

,

tween them must be proportional to the product of the

c urrent in each ; that is the force tending to turn the
,

moving coil varies as the square of the current ; the

forc e of the spring v aries directly as the angle through
which it is t urned : therefore the current strength is
proportional to the square root of the angle through
which the torsion head is turned
-
.

Every instrument must be calibrated and a table of

values of current strength made out for vario us angle s
of torsion .

I f 0 angle of deflection ,

I current in amperes ,

k constant determ ined b y experiment t hen ,

I t is advisable to recali b rate the instrument from

time to time for while good springs are practically
, ,

permanent a poor one according to Swinburne may

, ,
*
,

change as much as one per cen t in a month s time ’

.

l
E e ct r cai lM e a s ur e m e n t s , by J as. Sw i bu
n r ne , p .
44 .
2 52 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

I n using the electro dynamometer care should b e

-

taken that it is kept accurately levelled and free from

outside dist u rbing magnetic in fluences I t sho uld .

therefore b e so placed that when the suspended coi l

swings freely its plane lies in that of the magnetic
meridian T he Siemens el ectro dynamometer is for
.
-
,

m oderate currents a v ery accurate instrume n t when

,

u sed with care but the loss of time in taking readi n gs

,

is a serious disadvantage for in every case the moving

,

coil must first be b rought to zero the amount of ,

torsion not e d an d then the reference table con

,

s u lt e d to determine the current stre n gt h A n ad .

dit io n al disa dvantage is that the instr ument is not

s u sceptible of great accuracy when the r eadings a re

lo w
.

For these reasons the Siemens electro dynamom ete r -

has in many cases been superseded for shop use except

for the measurement of alter n ating currents in which ,

field it still occupies an important position .

It is evident from what has preceded that if both

the fi x ed and the movable coils be wound with fine
wire and a resistance connected in series with the
,

instrument the latter will b e sensitive to small currents

,

and may be used as a voltmeter .

T he W eston alternating cu rrent voltmeter is a modi

-

cation of this instrument in which the coils are so

,

shaped that the movable coil may be rotated throu gh

a wide angle while a pointer attached to it travels
,

across a quadrant scale which gives a direct reading of

the voltage .

T he electro dynamometer may also b e wo u nd and

-
2 54 D Y N A M O M E T E RS

watts as deter m ined from the voltmeter a n d ammeter

,

re a ding by a factor which is eq u al to the c ine of

s, os

the angle of lag *

If the tr u e watts be d ivided by the
.

apparent watts a quotient will be obtained which has

“
,

been called the power factor of the circuit ; it is

evidently equal to cosine However it is not nec ,

essary to determine the angle of lag since the true ,

watts are obtained directly b y the use of a wattmeter .

In an ordinary wattmeter the force acting on the

moving coil at any instant varies as we have seen , ,

directly as the product of the instantaneous pressure

and the instantaneous current so that if the movi n g ,

coil has too much inertia to vibrate with the varying

force the average force will vary as the average prod
,

u ct of the electromotive force and current A watt .

meter assuming there is no self or mutual induction

, ,

therefore measures the power or true watts , .

T he Siemens electro dy n amometer used as a watt -

meter is a very usef u l piece of apparatus but its ,

readings need correction T here are two principal .

ca uses of error which limit the application of this in

strument : the first which is the same for contin u ous
,

as for alternating currents is the loss in the wattmeter ,

itself ; the second is that due to the self induction o f -

the shunt circuit when used with alternating currents .

A third error is that due to the distur b ing in flue m es

of e x ternal magnetic fields .

In co n n e ctin g a wattmeter the shunt or pressure coil

may be connected to the line ahead of the series or
K pp A lt ti g C f M hi p l
'
S ee a s t e rn a n
y 4 3u r re n s o
; ac ner , . a so

J
ac k A l
so n s t
’
t i gCe rna t p n 9 u r re n s , . 10 .
 AND THE M E A S URE M E N T OF P O WE R . 2 55

current coil as shown at a in Fig 9 0 or it may b e con

, .
,

n e ct e d on the other side of the current coil at c as in ,

Fig 9 1 ; in either case if the power delivered to the

.

work circuit ce is to be determined the reading will be

Fl o 90 —W
. . ATT T
ME ER C o r mac n o us.

too high sin ce the wattmeter really mea sures the

,

watts ex pended in the circuit as well as that spent in

one of its own coils T he error will however be neg
.
, ,

l i gi b l e except in the measureme nt of small powers b ut ,

Fm .
—W A 1 T M BT BR Cbunncn o ua.

it m ay be practically eliminated b y connect ing the

press ure coil at c as in the second case and employ
, ,

ing a compensating coil which will neutralize the

field to an e x tent proportional to the curre n t in the
pressure coil T hus if a fine wire in series with the
.

pressure coil and having the same number of turns

,

as the c urrent coil b e wound around the latter from c

,

towards a Fig 9 2 so that the current flow will be in

,
.
,
2 56 D Y N A M O M E TE RS

opposit e dire ctio n s the readin gs o b tained b y the

,

wattmeter will now indicate the num b er of w atts de

—
livered to the work circuit if we neglect the inappre ,

ciable loss of curre nt in the resistance coil whi ch , ,

Fm
.
9 2 .
- Coun N sN rm G Con .

how ever may b e readily calculated and subtract ed

, ,

from the reading .

If on the other hand it be desired to measure the ,

power received from a generator or other source of

electrical energy the connections should b e made as in
,

F ig 9 0 which reduces the error to the same e x tent as

.
,

in the previou s case ; but under these co n ditio ns the ,

readings must b e increased .

I f the wattmeter has been cali b rated w ith direct

c u rrents the readings will n t be correct on an indu c o

tive circuit but with proper precautions the error fro m

,

this cause may be made very small if the voltage is not

too low *
I t is necessary that the self in duction of the
.
-

pressure coil be small as compared with its resistance ;

the current coil therefore must have a strong field
, , ,

and the moving coil should b e wound with compara

Marc h 3, 1 894 ; l
a so Sw i bu n
n r e in Proc . Brit .

I nst C E
. . V o l . cx.
2 58 .
D Y N A M O M E T E RS

the coil in a certain zero position from which it will be ,

deflected when current is caused to pass through the

coils .

In using the wattmeter the terminals of the pressure

coil are conn ected in shunt to the circuit while the ,

c urrent coil is connected in series W hen current is .

passing the mutual action of the coils produces a

,

torque which is proportional to the product of the

currents in each coil ; as the c u rrent in the press u re coil
is proportional to the voltage it is evident that the,

torque prod u ced will be proportional to the watts ex

pended in the circ u it ass u ming no self induction in
— -

the shunt coil A pointer is connected to the upper

.

end of the moving coil and a gr ad uated dial is cali

,

brat e d to give a direct reading in watts .

T o secure q u ick readings and to prevent i n j u ry to

the pivots of the pressure coil by reason of violent
shocks to the moving system ca u ed by uddenly ,
s s

cl si n g the circ u it the i n str u ment is provided with a

o ,

cl amping device .T his consists of a light aluminum

disk mounted on the a x is of the moving coil and acted
upon by a spring brake A b utton is provided which
-
.

frees the pointer only when fully depressed when t he

contact is released the needle is held at the point of
last indication and permits very rapid readings to b e
taken .

In order to eliminate any error due to self inductio n -

th e instrument is provided with a non inductive low -

-

capacity resistance which consists of a n u m be r of sheets

,

of mica wound with a thin strip of high resistance alloy -

wir e connected in series with the pressure coil the ,

 AND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T OF P 0 WE R . 2 59

whole being contained in the w attmeter case T he -

.

alloy used has a very low temperature co e fli cien t so ,

that the instrument may b e left in circuit if desired , ,

without appreciably a ffecting the acc uracy of its indi

cations .

T he cu rre nt coil is provided with a compe nsat in g coil

F l a. g
a
—
y Dul c e» : or W as t on WA T I MB T BR
' ' '
.

as sh o wn in diagram F ig 9 3 T his consists of a fine wire

. .
‘

wound over the current coil in series with the p re ssure

coil as previously e x plain ed A n independent binding.

post 1 permits thi s compensating coil to b e cut o ut

, ,
2 60 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

when it is desired to use the instrument with two inde

pend e nt circuits or whe n two separate sources of cur
,

rent are used for cali b ration In this case an e q u ivalent

.

resistance may be su b stituted for the compensati n g coil .

T he load of whatever nature is con n ected across t he

, ,

mains from C to D .

W ith high pressure currents C should always b e con

-

n e ct e d to A or B ; in fact it is generally advisable to

make the connections in this way instead of j oin ing D

with A or B since this latter will bring full pressure be
,

tween the voltage coil and the current coil in the in stru
ment If it is necessary to reve rse the current it is pref
.
,

c rable to chan ge A and B instead of crossing C and D .

T he range of a wattmeter may be e x tended b y in

serting in series with the pre sure circuit a separate non
s

“
inductive resistance called a multiplier T his does .
”

not i n crease the current carrying capacity of the instru

-

ment but simply a ff ects the voltage In using a multi

, .

plier with a wattmeter it is a matter of importance that

the multiplier b e connected between the voltage coil
and the circuit to b e measured so that there will b e
pra ctically no di fference of potential b etween the
voltage coil and the series coil .

Such an arrangement is shown in F ig 94 I f the . .

multi plier were connected in on the same side of the

circuit as the series coil there would be a serious di ff er
,

ence in potential in the wattmeter coils which if ex ,

cessiv e w o uld destroy the instrument .

A nother method of using a wattm ete r on a high po -

t e n t ial circuit is shown in Fig 9 5 in which the voltage

.
,

coil is connected to the low pressure coil of a watt

-
2 62 D YN A M oM E TE R S

designed many of which are highly successful in ope r

,

ation and admirably adapted to their p urpose .

T here are b roadly speaking three classes of e le ctri

, ,

cal energy meters of this character which depend upon

-

or are actuated by ( 1 )chemical action ; ( 2 )clock

work o r weights ; ( 3)electric currents In the first .

case a definite portion of the current to b e measured is

sh unted through an electrolytic cell n d the amount of a

metal deposited or the quantity of electrolyte deco m

,

posed gives a measure of the current passing W hil e

,
.

this form of meter is accurate it possesses the disadv an ,

tage that the plates have to be weighed ; there is no

r ecording feature nor can it be used e x cept on contin
,

u o us currents .

In the second class a clock is made to vary its tim e

by the action of the current on a magnet attached to
the pendulum T he best known form is the A ron in
.
,

which two clocks are used one of which keeps accurat e ,

t ime while the other is accelerated by the action of the

,

c u rrent T he di ff erence in time of the two clocks

.

integrates the work done and gives a measure of the

power I n a later form the action of the c u rre n t
.

winds the clock so that no attention is necessary for

this purpose T hese meters are direct reading and are
.
-

said to be very accurate when used on continuous

current work *
.

T he most important class is included under the third

headi n g and c mprises those meters which operate as
o

motors O f th e se the T ho m son Shallenberger a n d

. , ,

D uncan are well known in tr u ments - s .

S ee W o rdin gh a m on M e te rs in P ro c I n s t C E
. . . v o l . cx.
 AND THE M EA s URE ME N T of ? P 0 WE R . 2 63

T he T homson meter may b e regarded as a form o f

electro dynamometer so arran ged that instead of m e rely
-

indicating powe r it i n t e grates it with r egard to time ,

and in thi s way m easure s the amount of energy that

has passed T he general principle o f all such meters
.

is that of employing a small fraction of the power to

b e integrated to produce motion in an armature I f the .

v elocity of the armat u re can be made e x actly propo r

t io n al to the total energy then the nu m ber of rev o lu

,

tions of the armature in a given time is a corr e c t m ea s

u re of the powe r .

I n this met e r F ig 9 6 two fi x ed coils of heavy co n

, .
, .

ductor are placed one on either side of a drum a rma

t u re which is wound without any iron in its core T he .

mai n current passe s through the fixed coils in serie s ,

and the armature f orms a part of the high resistance -

pressure circuit which is shunted acros s the mains

-
.

A n on inductiv e resistance is also placed in the pre s

-

sure circ u it so that the meter may b e used w ith either

direct o r alternating currents Since there is no iron
.

in the magneti c circuit the driving torque is propor

,

t io n al to the product of pressure and current and is

therefore proportional to the watts If the retarding .

force were strictly proportional to the speed this would ,

give correct readings at once but friction at the bear

,

ings introduces a disturbing influence and must be

counteracted T his is e ff ected by superior mechanic al
.

construction of the bearings and also compensating

,

what remains by means of an additional permanent

driving torque produced by inserting a fine wire fi e ld
,

coil in series with the pressure circuit so that with n o

-
,
2 64 D YNA M oME TE RS

c urrent passing through the series coil but w it h the ,

pressure coil connected in the circuit the friction is

-
,

e xactly balanced T he vertical shaft of the armat ure

.

receives the c urrent thro ugh a small silver comm utator

a n d two delicate b rushes A tta c hed to the lower e nd
.

F m ga
.
—T u o u so n RE C O N
R DI G W A T T MBT E R .

of the spindle is a large copper disk m o unted hori ,

z o n tal ly so as to rotate betw e e n the p les of permanent o

magnets as shown T he reaction between the eddy

.

currents induced in the disk and the m agnetic field

a cts as a brake and constit utes the retarding force .

T he recording mechanism gives the reading in watt s if

2 66 D YN A M O M E T E R S

actly an el l ipse and what is termed a revolving field

,
*

is produced .

T he metallic disk and its spindle tend to revolve in

Fl a .
97.
— O MT
S HAL1 . E N B a no s R A M P E R E - H UR E ER .

unison with the rotary field the torq ue or driving ,

force being proportion l to the square of the curren t

a .

l ph
S e e Po y a se E l e c t r ic C ur re n t s ,
by S . P T
. h om p so n , p . 64 .
 AND TH E M E A S UREM EN T O F R0 WE R .
2 67

T he fan blades pro duce a retarding e ff ect proportional

-

to the sq uare of the s peed so that omitting bearing , ,

friction the driving and retarding forces balance each

,

other at all speeds ; that is the speed of the meter ,

varies directly as the current .

O n account of the general introduction of alter

nating current motors taking currents which may not
-

be proportional to the power delivered the S halle n ,

berger integrating wattmeter was designed .

I n this meter Fig 9 8 a thin alumin um disk consti

, .
,

F 1c 9 8
. .
-
S 11 A 1 L a u aa nc a n I
. NT EG R A TN
I G W an ut mn
‘
.

the m o vable element in which eddy c u rrents are

t ut e s ,

induced by the c u rrent to be meas u red T his latter .

current passes thro ugh stationary coils placed bel o w

the disk and a shunt c urrent proportional to the
, ,
268 D YN A M O M E TERS

electromotive fo rce p asses t hrough a nothe r coil located

,

above the dis k.

T he d esi gn o f the me ter is such tha t the torque

exerted upon the disk is always proportio n al to the
product of the current an d electromotive force multi
plied by the power factor ( the ratio of true energy to
apparent e nergy) I n other words for any power
.
,

factor the torque varies directly as the power tran s

m itte d through the circuit .

A s the tor q ue is proportional to the power pas sing

the meter ( and not to the squ are of the current) the ,

wattmeter starts with less current than is required in

the current meter .

T wo permanent magnets embrace the disk b etween

their poles and e x ert a retarding force directly pro
portional to the rate of rotation T he speed is there
.

fore proportional to the power .

T he co n stant of the instrument is not a ff ected by

changes of temperature since the retarding eddy cu r
,

rents induced by the permanent magnets are a ff ected

by changes of the temperature of the disk in e x actly
the same ratio as those ind u ced by the actuating cur
rents so that no change o f speed results
, .

I n order that an induction wattmeter may operate

accurately on loads having di fferent power factors ,

the shunt field must be e x actly in quadrature with

the shunt electromotive force W ith the usu al form
.

of inductive sh u nt circuit this is impossible as the ,

loss in the shunt circuit can never be m ade zero .

W ith favorable conditions it may be made very small

compared with the apparent energy xpended Meters
e .
2 70 D YN A M oM E TE RS

C HA PT E R V III .

MET HO D S OF M EA S U RI N G T HE PO W E R O F D I R EC T
C U R R EN T M O T O R S .

IT has b een stated that in order to determine the

e ffi ciency of a motor under varying loads it is n e ce s

sary to ascertain both the intake and the output and ,

it has been shown that the commercial e fficiency is

equal to the ratio

It is evident that the di ff ere n ce betwe n the intake and

e

the output eq uals the lo sses so that the e ffi ciency

,

may also b e represented by the ratio :

intake losses
intake
V arious methods have been adopted for meas u ring
the losses separately b ut in most cases the results are
,

only appro x imate .

T he losses which have to be determined are those

due to conduct r resistances in armat u re and fields ;
o

eddy currents hysteresis and friction of various kinds ,

 AND TH E M E A S URE M E N T O F P O W E R 2 71

including brush and air resistance as well as that due

to the bearings Besides these there is a loss due to
.

commutator br ush contact resistance which varies in

-

v e rse ly with the current density ; in low voltage ma -

chines ( 1 1 0 to 1 2 5 volts pressure)this may reduce the

e fficiency f om 1 5 to 2 per cent
r
*
.

T he loss in the armature conductors varies as the

prod u ct of the square of the current times the resist
an ce in the wire P R ; this is not great for light loa ds
but increases rapidly with the load T he same is true of .

the loss in the fi e ld coil s ; but if the pressure in the fi e ld

-

coils of a shunt wound machine is not constant the loss

-
,

will vary with the di fference of the square of the

voltage .

T he losses due to eddy curre n ts increase with the

square of the speed while the other losses incl uding
, ,

hysteresis and friction are assumed to vary directly

,

with the speed .

A s far as fricti n is concerned this may be a correct

o

assumption but in many cases it is far from e x act

, .

In certain machines the fields are so placed as to

e x ert a magnetic attraction on the armat u re shaft
which tends to reduce the weight on the bearings ; as
the intensity of the field varies this pull varies also In .

other cases the conditions are e x actly the reverse of

this.

A n unsymmetrical field whether produced by design

or wear has often a marked e ffect u pon the friction
l o sses at di ff erent loads ; in s uch cases it is incorrect to

“
El ectr ica l Wor ld a n d E ngin eer . V ol . xxx1v . pp .
4 06 , 4 1 7 .
2 72 D Y N A M OM E T E R S

assume that this loss is constant Moreover the char .

acter and condition of the lubricant influenced by the ,

temperature of bearings materially a ffects the coef , e

fi cie nt of friction and hence the friction losses .

T he various losses due to eddy currents hysteresis , ,

F ro .
99 .
—C ON N ECT I O NS FO R T asm an D ra nc r
'
-
c un n a n r
'
Mor o ns .

degree of certainty it is b etter to group them together

,

and determine the total losses due to the stray power

and conductor resistance .

U sually it will be found most practica b le to deter

mine the outp ut directly b y means o f some form of
friction brake or dynamometer T his method is gener .

ally susceptible of greater accuracy than any other and ,

2 74 D Y N A M O M E TE R S
Q

N nu mber of revolutions of armature per

minute ,

P pressure in pounds acting on brake arm -

,

E electromotive force in volts ,

I current in amperes .

Be fore
taking readin gs for any given load the m otor
should be run at such load for a su ffi cient length of
time to obtain the heat e ff ect which materially in flu ,

e n ce s the result .

T he resistance of both armature and fi eld magne t -

coils changes with the temperature so that an in ,

crease o f heat m eans a larger conductor loss Hys .

t e re s is and eddy current losses also vary with the

-

heat of the machine ; the friction of the shaft may or

may not be increased depending largely upon the,

character of the lubricant ; in any case it is important

in testing the motor that it b e war m ed up so as to

approach the normal conditions under which it is to
operate .

T he C om m ittee on Standardization appointed by the ,

A merican Institute of Electric a l E ngineers *

re co m ,

mends that all losses should be measured at or reduced

to the temperature assumed in continuous operations ,

o r in operation under specified conditions ; the stand

ard conditions of room temperatu re being 2 5 C ( 77

-
°
.
°

F ) u nder a barometric pressure of 760 mm

. .

inches) I f the room temperatur e during the test

.
-

di ff ers from 2 5 C the observed r is e of temperature

°
.
,

should be corrected by 5 per cent for each degree C

«
.

T ra n sa ct i o ns , v o l . XV I 1 89 9 .
 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T OF P O WE R . 2 75

It is always advisable to run the motor with both

increasing and decreasing loads since the e ffect o f,

residual magnetism in the field influenced more or less

,

by temperature variations will often produce a slight

,

di ff erence in the input for a given brake load -

.

T he voltage at the motor terminals is maintained ,

constant at its normal pressure by means of a suitable

resistance placed in series with the main circuit or if ,

the current is obtained direct from an independent

dynamo the voltage may be regulated by varying the
,

s trength of the dynamo fields .

I f it is desired to deter m ine the e fficiency of the

motor by measuring the losses instead of the output
, ,

it will be necessary to ascertain first the conductor , ,

losses ; and secondly the stray power ; the sum of

,

these represents the total loss which su b tracted from

, ,

the intake will give approximately the power delivered

,

at the motor pulley .

L et P
,
loss in conductors in watts I R ’

, P stray power in watts

R total conductor resistance ;
,R conductor resistance in armature ;
R, conductor resistance in fi e ld coils ; -

I total current deli vered to motor ;

, I current in armature in amperes ;
I, curre n t in fi e ld coils in amperes
-
.

W ith these assumptions the general formula fo r

e ffi ciency will be
intake lo sses El ( ,
P P,)
int ake
2 76 D Y N A M O M E T E RS

In order to det e rmine P it is n eces sary 0 know t he , .

armature and field resistances R and R, ; of these the , ,

former may b e found b y disconnecting the armature

from the circuit and sending through it a strong cur
rent while at rest A suitable resistance s uch as a
.
,

water rheosta t should be placed in the external ci rcuit

,

so as to limi t the current to the safe car ryi n g capacity

of the armature .

T he drop in potential measured acros s the armature

,

terminals divided b y the current in amperes will give

,

E
the armature resistance ; that is R,
7
. For a lo w.

resistance series fi eld coil R,

is o b tained in a simila r
-

manner ; but for a shunt fi e ld coi l it is not n ecessary -

to place any resistance in the circuit since its own t e ,

s ist an ce is comparatively high I f 1 represent s the .

,

current flowing through the armature and [f that in ,

the fi e ld coils then

-
,

’ ’
P, I R I , R,
,
ff R/.

’
I ( ,
R R)

fo r a series wound motor and

-
,

fo r a sh unt motor si n ce ,

and I,
E
2 78 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

T he values thus obtained are to be added to the I R ’

losses when the speed correspo nding to the current I

is known ; from which the t otal power and the e ffi
cie n cie s may be calculated .

A more satisfactory method is to operate the motor

as a dynamo on open circuit by means of an accurately
calibrated motor dynamometer the fields being se pa
-
,

rate ly e x cited to their normal value as in the p r evious

case By running the motor in this way at various

.

speeds within the ordinary limits and noting the power ,

required a series of values of the stray pow e r losses

,
-

will be obtained which may be plotted into a cu rve

,

for use in determining the e fficiency from the previou s

equations .

However where the speed variation is not e x ce ssive

,

this is a refinement which is questionable in man y

cases since it is probable that the hysteresis and f ric
,

tion losses increase somewhat with a heavier load and

thus o ff set any gai n due to fall of speed .

T he method of testing motors by means of two or

more similar machines first proposed by Hopkinson ,
*
,

may often be used with very satisfactory results In .

this method two machines of similar size and type are

co upled together mechanically either by direc t co n ,

n e ctio n or by belt ; one machine acts as a dynamo and

generates power that is delivered electrically to the

other machine which ru ns as a motor and assists in
,

driving the dynamo T he losses are made up by sup

.

plying power fro m an outside source .

P hil . T ra n s 1 886 . Re pi
r n t s.
 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T O F P 0 WE R . 2 79

T he extra power delivered to the system is m easured

b y m eans of a transmission dyna m ometer and as thi s
-
,

is relatively small compared to the total power of the

motor the results will be sensibly accurate if ordinary
,

care be e x ercised .

K app s modification of this method con sists in sup

’

plying electrical power from another source to balance

the losses in the two machines I n this case (F ig 1 00)
. .

t om— K M r m on
”
F IG . AN : T u na s -maca w : .

two machines of si m ilar t yp e and appro x imate ly the

same power are coupled together so that D runs as a ,

dynamo and supplies current to the motor M ; an aux

ilia ry machine D of the same voltage is connected in
, ,

parallel to the othe r machines and furnishes curren t

fo r making up the di ff erence in current between D and I
2 80 D YN A M O M E T E R S

M
.
,
b e si des exciti n g the fi e lds A rheostat is used to .
*

weaken the field of M so it may run as a motor A n .

ammeter is inserted in the circuit from one brush of D ,

to one of M and a switch 5 perm its the supply fro m

, , ,

the auxilia ry circuit to be led in o n the right and left

respec t ively R eadings are taken with the switch first
.

on o n e side and then on the other ; as the voltage is

t he sa m e in each case the ratio of the two current s is
,

the e fficiency of the combi n ation of the two machines .

A ssuming the losses to be the same in each machine ,

the e fficiencies will be equal : the square root of the

ratio of the two readings wi l l therefore be the e fficiency

of either m achine since the final e fficiency in any case

, ,

where two e ffi ciencies are involved is equal to the ,

product of the separate e fficiencies .

T he method employed in the G en eral E lectric Co m

n y s works at Schenectady is an obvious m o difi ca
’

p a

tion of the above and gives a convenient arrangement

for starting which is a matter of co n siderable impor
tance In this case the voltage of the three machines
.

is regulated by rheostats introduced into each fi eld

circuit T he machines are placed as in Fig 1 00
. . .

A n ammeter and starting rheostat are located be

tween the loss supply D and m otor M ; a second ,

ammeter is connected through a switch placed in the

circuit between the motor M and dynamo D ,
.

T he los s supply D having b een brough t up to ,

v oltage the motor M is started

, .

T his n ecessarily runs the armature of the dynamo D ,

S P T
. . h o m so n
’
s Dyn a m o E -
l e ct . Mac hi ne s, p .
760
.
 D YN A M O M E T E R S

ably by direct connection and power is supplied from ,

o n e to the other assisted by the auxiliary motor which

,

furnishes an a m ount of power equal to the combined

losses in the two machines T he watts delivered to the .

motor dynamometer m ultiplied by its efficie ncy under

-
,

OA U BRAT ED M T O OR
F IG . t on —US E or Ca u s nx r a n M O OR
T .

the given conditions is evidently the power a b so rb e d

, ,

from w hich the e fficiency of either machine may b e

readily determined when the v oltage and curren t in
the motor dynamo circuit is known
-
.

V arious methods are in use for testing motors b y

weighing the torque without using a friction brake ,

which is accomplished by means of certain forms of

dynamometers ; of these the Brackett cradle and
W eb b flo at ing dynamometers are well suited to the
-

purpose .

T heir use involves obvious modifications of the pre

ceding electrical methods together with those m e n
t io n e d in the descriptions of the machines already
give n on pages 1 06 to 1 1 8 .

In testing railway motors a method frequently

 A ND THE M E A S URE M E N T OF R 0 WE R 2 83

adopted consists in connecting two similar machines to

one ax le by gears in a manner similar to that em
,

ployed when the motors are permanently set up in the

cars O ne of the machines is then run both in for
.

ward and reversed directions as a motor while the ,

other which acts as a generator sen ds its current into

, ,

a water rheostat thereby l o ading the motor A fter

-
, .

running this way for some time under di ff erent loads

and speeds during which the motor is given a heavy
,

overload the combination is reversed and the machine

, ,

which was previously run as a motor now becomes the

generator and the test is conducted as in the first case .

T he water rheostats employed for such purposes are

-

of various forms consisting essentially of a water tight

,
-

barrel or box in which two iron plates are suspended in

a very dilute acid bath or salt water solution either o r
-
,

both plates being adj ustable so as to va ry the e x tent

of immersion or distance apart Cast iron plate s are .
-

probably the most satisfactory but ordinarily heavy ,

sheet iron or boiler plate is u sed as being more gener

-

ally available .

T he tank o r box may be either of iron or wood A .

cast iron bo x suitably mounted on porce lain in s ulators

-

makes a good tank which is free from leakage but care ,

must be e x ercised in handling the plates lest they be

short circuited n this account a wooden tank is gen
- o

e rally preferred T he common form of barrel rheostat

.
,

with horizontal plates submerged in salt water is not ,

entirely satisfacto ry for heavy currents owing to the ,

liability of the under side of the top plate to b ecome

2 84 D YN A M O M E TE RS

covered with a gase o us scum which makes the resistanc e

quite variable .

A perforated plate tends to preven t the accumula

tion of the gas ; if in addition to this carbonate of soda
, ,

( washing soda -
) b e used instead of sodium chloride
( common sa l t ) b etter results
, will be obtained .

Mr E J W illis suggests that the electrodes b e made

. . .

from galvanized iron sheets rolled and riveted into a

-

cylindrical form the diameter of inside cylinder being

,

abo ut six inches less than the outer *

.

T he size of tank for a given load depends largely

upon the quantity of water which is used I f an um .

faili n g supply o f salt water is at hand as for instance a ,

dock adjacent to the power house the current dens ity ,

may be as gre at as 1 00 amperes per square foot of

active surface of both plates .

Such a source of supply is not however often avail , ,

able and a lesser current density must be used A s the .

amount of salt in the water is increased from zero to

sat u ration the maximum current carrying capacity is -

also increased but owing to the rapidly changing re

,

s ist a n ce of the plates and the convenience of va rying

the resistance by increasi n g or decreasing the distance
between them any r ules for size of water rheostat based
,
-

u pon area of plate a n d percentage of sol u tion are sus

ce pt ible of widely varying results .

A water rheostat is simply a means of dissipating

-

heat and its capacity is therefore dependent upon the

,

quantity of heat tha t may b e taken up b y the water in

a given time .

Am i El t i i
er l xx
ca n 89 7 p 468
ec r c an , vo . . 1 , . .
2 86 D Y N A M O M E TE RS

a very small quantity of saturated solution added grad ,

ually to the tank will permit a fairly const an t resistanc e

,

to be maintained for any length of time U nder the

, .

fi rst named conditions a given water rheostat will carry

- -

only one half the current that can b e comfortably taken

-

care of with running water I n the latter case ab out

.

1 5 kilowatts per square foot of total plate surface can

be easily handled provided about two cubic feet of tank

volume be allo wed for every square foot of plate sur
face .

W here a more uniform load is desired than is obtain

a b le with a water rheostat an imm ersed wire resistance
-

may be used T his consists of German silver or copper

.

wire wound upon a wooden frame which is immersed

in a vessel of running water By controlling the sup .

ply o f water so that a constant temperature is main

t ain e d within the tank a sensibly constant resistance
will be obtained Since the resistance i n creases about
.

one per cent for every five degrees ( Fahr )rise in tem .

rat u re it will be evident that within given limits the

p e ,

load may also be varied by regulating the temperature

of the water A number of such rheostats made of
.

about 300 feet of N o 1 2 bare copper wire are used in

.

one of the power stations of the Consolidated T raction

C ompany of Pittsburg and it is found that each will
,

safely dissipate 1 2 0 kilowatts 2 2 5 amperes at 5 50

volts .
 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T OF R 0 WE R . 2 87

C HA PT E R I X .

MET HO DS OF M EA S U R I N G T H E PO W ER O F

A LT ERN A T I N G -
C U RR ENT M O T O RS .

IT w ill be readily understood from what has pre

ceded that the measurement o f alternating current s
involves much more complication than obtains with
direct currents since the power is not directly propor
,

t io n al to the product of the readings of the volt and

a mmeter placed in the circuit ( See page .

W ith periodically varyi n g currents and pressures

the product of the c u rrent and electromotive force at
any instant is the rate at which energy is b eing ex
pended o n the circuit at that instant .

By placing a non inductive resistance in series with

-

the circuit to be measured the instantaneous value s of ,

electromotive force and current may be determined

by one of the various methods of instantaneous con
tacts *
.

If the values of the c u rrent and pressur thus o h e

t a in e d be plotted as in Fig 1 02 the product s of the .

,

corresponding ordinates will represent the power

curve as shown in P P P the mean ordinate of
, ,
’
,

See N ih l L b
c o s
’
a o ra t o r y M a n ua l , v o l . 11 . T r an s A
. . I E E
. .

v ol . 1 11 . p . 1 79 ; v ol. x. p .
5 03 .
2 88 D YN A MO M E T E RS

which will g ive the average value of the power ex

£7
pended in the Ce U It in each cycle 2
cos D where
( ,

c and i are ma x imum instantane u s val u es f the o o

current and electromotive force during a complete

period *
.

F 16 . 1 02 , — V OL T A G E, C UR R E NT ,
A ND P o wE R C URV E .

W hile measurements of instantaneous values of al

currents are very useful in furnishing data to

t e rn atin g
the designer or for special investigations they have
, ,

little value in comm e rcial power determinations since ,

such measurements may be obtained more sat is fac

F l mi
e n
g A
, te r n l
a t e C u r re n t T r a n s f o rm e r , v o l. 1 .
p . 1 24,
2 90 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

I current in am peres obta ined by an electro dyna

m o m ete r or ammeter then the mean power in the cir ,

cuit will b e

I
E — ’
( E
S

ZE I
,

most satisfactory results wi ll be obtained when

T he
E is abou t equal to E
,
I f the val ue of the non ,
.

inductive resistance is know n the current need not be ,

E!
measured since I therefore
,
R i

J, (
'
E E.
'

I n orde r to o vercome some of the disadvantages o f

this method Prof Fleming suggested the use of three
.

ammeters or low pressure electrodynamometers con

-

n e ct e d as in Fig 1 04 the power in watts given to the

.
,

circuit b eing measu red by the three ammeter readings .

I f the resistance R is known then the power will b e

, ,

( P 1: a) .

If R is unknown the electromotive force E may b e

, ,

obtained b y placing a voltmeter in the circuit ; in thi s

case since E R I we have
, , ,

( It It )
, , .
I

S ee p p
a er b y P r o f A y r to n a n d D r
. . S u m pn e r b e fo re h i l
P y s ca
S oc i e ty , L l
o n do n , 1 89 1 ; a s o E l ect r ica l Wor l d , v ol. X V p
I I I , 1 89 1 , .

131 .
 A ND T HE M E A S URE M E N T OF R 0 WE R . 29 1

most favorable condition for acc u racy is that in

T he
which the current 1 is nearly the same as ,

In th is method as in the previous one slight errors

, ,

in the instruments may intro duce quite large errors in

the final value s since the formulas contain a functio n
,

H A T M Fm . ro4 . —T RE E - MM E ER ET R O D.

which is the d iff erence of the squares of s everal qua n

tities *
.

I n order to eliminate some of the errors in thes e m eth

ods various modifications have been used sometimes
—
,

two voltmeters and one ammet r and again one volt e ,

—
meter and two a m meters but none of these method s ,

are altogether free from error Probably the latter com .

binatio n in which a voltmeter is used in parallel with

,

the non inductive resistance will give the most sat isfac
-
,

E
tory results . I n this method ( Fig . 1 05 )R replaces
.

F l i
e m ng , E l ect r icia n , Ma y 8 , 1 89 1 ; a l so P li il . M ag .
, A ug . 1 89 1 ,

p . 2 04 .
29 2 D Y N A M OM E TE R S

I,
in the three ammeter method and
’
-
, t he power is
therefore

R, is obtained by opening the circuit at S and ,

m easuring the curr ent throu gh the non inductive re -

s ista n c e together with that through the voltmeter ; the

reading of the latter instrument divided by the current

in amperes gives the resistance R ,
.

Fm . 1 05 . —C O M E1 N ED V OT
L AM M E T ER ME THO D.

A switch placed at 5 permits the readings of the

ammeters to be compared with each other .

T hese methods are often impracticable for com

,

m e rcial testing as it m ay be impossible to obtain the

,

conditions which are necessary to accurate m e asure

ments .

By far the m ost satisfactory results are those o h

ta in e d by the use of a wattmeter placed in the circuit ,

which as we have shown (page

, gives the tru e
 D YN A M OM E TERS

employed in direct current work in which pure ly -

,

electrical measurements are made .

However for commercial det e rminations of power

,

and effi c iency it will be found more practicable and ,

usually more accurate also to measure the output ,

directly by m eans of a fricti n dynamometer o .

I n testing a two or three phase motor some compli -

cation e x ists .

In a two phase system with independent circuits as

-
,

in Fig 1 07 the power may be readily determined by

.
,

su n connect ions use “ mmco on est

Fm . 1 07. —S TA R AN D M as n C O N TO
N EC I NS , F O UR- W I R E T WO -
P HA S E C 1 R c u1T .

connecting a wattmeter in each of the circuits and not

ing the readings ; the sum of the watts in the two cir
cuits is a measure of the real power in the system I f .

the circuits are balanced the power will be twice that ,

in either circuit but this condition can n ot be depended

,

upon ; therefore two wattmeters or their equivalent , ,

must be used O n e instrument however may be con

.
, ,

n e ct e d s u ccessively in each circ u it provided it be done

rapidly so that the load will be practically constant

during the two readings It can be shown that the *
.

See il
a rt c e s by A . D . L un t , E l ect . W or ld ,
v ol. X X II I , 1 89 4 , p .

771 et s e
a; l
a so M B . l o n de li n P ro c E . l e c t r cai lC o ng re s s , C hi ca go ,

1 89 3 , p . 112 ; a sol G 6 r ge s in E l ect R em , . L o n do n , vo l . xxv n I .

 AN D THE M E A S UREM E N T OF R 0WE R . 29 5

real power e x pended in a po lyphased system is equal

to the summation of a series of quantities each found ,

b y o b taining the mean product of the current in each

line conductor b y the di ff erence of potential b etween
the terminal of that conductor and the terminal of some
one conductor nominally selec ted for reference T hus .

in a system of n wires there will be n 1 such products

necessa ry to represent the real p ower In order then .

to obtain the real or mean power e x pended in the

system it is only necessary to ascertain the mean value
,

of each of the separate products by the use of a watt

meter o r any other means of measuring the real watts
,

in a simple alter nating current .

Moreover since in any p o lyphased system the alge

,

brai e sum of the currents at any instant is equal to

zero therefore in the two phase 3 wire system and in
,
- -
,

the three phase 3 wire systems Fig 1 08 the current

- -
, .
,

in any one wire is equal to the algebraic sum of the

TWO PHA E S T H REE PH AS E R

T H EE PHA E S
S
ME H O R A C O NNEC I N TO S . S AR
T O R Y OO NNEOT lONO.

F tc . 1 08 .
—T 11 RE E -
W 1 R E C utc ur rs .

currents in the other two It thus b ecomes apparent .

that the re l power of either system may be measured

a

in identically the same manner so that in each case , ,

given the three line wires and the three terminals the ,

measurement may be carried out with entire disregard as

29 6 D YN A M oM E TERS

to whether a two or three phased system is be ing dealt -

w ith .

T hus in F ig 1 09 two w attmeters are inserted in the

.

circuits A B C in the two phase 3 wire syst e m ; and

, ,
- -

in like manner two wattmeters are placed in the thre e

phase circuit s A B C ’
,
’
,
’
.

I n b oth cases the conn e ctions are identical and the ,

FI G . 1 09 . —T w o - W A TT N ET E R MET R O D .

a lgebraic sum of the wattmeter readings in each system

will give the real power in that system irrespective of
the number of phases .

I n the two phase system if the series coil of the

- -

wattmeter b e connected to the outside wires an d the

return to the pressu re coil as shown the total power -
,

will also b e equal to the arithmetic sum of the watts in

each leg O n the other h nd in the three phase sys
. a ,
-

tem the total power will be equal to the arithmetic

sum only when the power factor is greater than
that is when 515 is less th n
,
If the angle of cur a

rent lag is just equal to one of the wattmeters will

r ead zero and the other will give the total power in
,
29 8 D YN A M oME TE RS

terminals through a number of m e rcu ry cup s so

arranged as to permit eithe r d irec t co n nect io n with

the motor or th rough the instruments as d esired

,
.

, .

Flex ible conductors are used betw een the instrum ents
 A ND THE MEA S UREME N T OF R0 WE R . 299

an d t he circuits to which they are successively con

,

n e ct e d when reading s are to be taken ; j umpers of suit

able size ordinarily constitute a part of each circuit ,

but are to b e removed when the instruments are con

n ecte d in W here great accuracy is required it is
.

advisab le to insert a small resistance in the j umpers

during the test in order to balance the resistances in
the instruments .

W hile two wattmeter readings are su ffi cien t to de

termine the real power the arrangement shown readily
,

permits a simultaneous reading from each of the in

st r u m e nts so that the apparent watts as well as the
,

true watts may be o b tained at onc e if independent

measureme nts be made for each of the three circuits .

It will be noticed that one terminal of the pressure

circuit is connected to the current conductor and
therefore is always in the line whose current is to be
measured I f the current conductor C b e connected
.
, ,

in any two of the lines successively and the pressure

,

terminal inserted in the remaining line the algebraic ,

sum of the wattmeter readings thus obtai ned will give

the true watts in the system T hus if the pressure
.

terminal P b e con nected in 2 while the c u rrent

—
terminals CC are inserted in 1 1 and 3 3 succes
'
— ’ ”

siv e ly the respective wattmeter readings will give a

,

me asure of the true power in the three circuits Since .

it is immaterial which two of the three circuits be

taken for the series coils con n ections it is evident that
-
,

three groups of wattmeter readings may b e obtained ,

a n d these should be equal to each other .

I n order to o b tain the apparent watts in the system

300 D YN A M oM E TERS

it is necessary to determine the sum of the products o f

the current in each line by the voltage b etween the
lines which must b e divided by V 3
,
T hat is ,

the apparent watts

sum of E 1 products in the three circuits

W ith the connections as shown diagram ( Fig

in the .

readings may be obtained with the current con

ductor C successively inserted in 1 1 2
, ,
— ’
and ’

3
’
while the pressure terminal P is s ucce s
, s i
,v e ly
connected across each of the remai ning circuits .

By grouping the readings in tabular form it will b e

seen that six set s of values are obtained three of ,

which are su ffi cient to determine the po wer ; b ut as the

remaining values a fford a check on the work it is de
sirable to take all of the readings as little additional
,

labor is involved .

T he various connecti o ns are as fo ll ows

C in line No 1 and P in 2 or 3 gives e ff ective c u r
.
, ,

rent in 1 and voltage between 1 and 2 or 1 and 3 .

C in line N o 2 and P in 3 or 1 gives e ffective cu

.
, ,
r .

rent in 2 and voltage between 2 and 3 or 2 and 1 .

C in line N o 3 and P in 1 or 2 gives e ffective

.
, ,

current in 3 and voltage b etwee n 3 and 1 or 3 and 2 .

It will be observed that the a b ove grouping als o

contains the con nections for the wattmeter terminals .

By noting the wattmeter readings in each case and

suitably grouping the corresponding val ues the true
watts may be readily determined from any one of t he
302 D Y N A M oM E TE R S

betwee n p and r is equal to the resultant OR 2 a co s

30
O
a which is 30 in
°
advance of a .

F rc . 111.

T he lin e current with this grouping is evid ent ly the

same as that in the coil to which it is connected there
fore ii E the e ffective voltage measured acr oss the
lines and I e ffective current in the line then
, ,

El
apparent watts in the circui t
V3
.

C onsidering the mesh grouping it will b e se en F ig , .

1 12, that the volt age b etween the lines is the sam e as

Flo . 1 1 2.

that existing in the coil to which the lin es are jo ined

the current in the line in this case however will be
, ,
 AND TH E M E A S UR E J I E N T O F P O WE R .
0
3 3

equal to the resultant of the current in two adjacent

coils I f a b c represent the currents in the coils the
.
, , ,

current in lin e N o 1 will equal r R 2 a cos 30

. a V3
°

as b efore ; that is the line wire current is

,
-
times as
great as the current in the coil T hus it will b e seen .

that in star grouping the voltage in the line circuit is

, ,

greater than at the coil termina ls while the current is ,

the same ; with mesh grouping on the other hand the , ,

current in the line wire is greater than in the coil but ,

the voltage remains the same In either cas e the .

apparent watts in any circuit co n nec te d as in F ig 1 1 0 .

E1
will equal
V3
I n hree phase balan ced system connected as ab ove
at -
,

the t o t al apparent watts will e q u al

in an u n b ala nced syste m

sum of E1 product s
V3

W he re nstrum ents may b e in serte d d irectly in

the i
the coil circuits of the ma chine o r transformer second ,

aries or where a neutral point is accessible the sum of

, ,

the wattmeter readings in each of the three legs will

-

give the true po wer in the system ; in the same way

the sum of the pro ducts o f the e ffective current and
'

voltage in each coil w ill give the apparent watts — sinc e ,

 0
3 4 D Y N A M OM E TE RS

in each case the current an d electromotive force in the

individual coils is measured independ en tly I f in Fig . .

1 10 ,
for instance the common point 0 in the star
,

grouping be accessible and if the current conductor of ,

-

the wattmeter b e inserted successively in the three

circuits 1 2 and 3 while the pressure termin als b e
, , ,

connected across 0 1 0 2 and O 3 re spectively

— — —
, , , ,

the sum of the readings th us o b tained will give the

true watts ; so also the su m of the products of the
e ffective c u rrent in the line as measured by an ammeter ,

or an electrodyn a m ometer multiplied by the voltmeter ,

readings taken across the ends of each coil will give

, ,

the apparent watts in the system .

W here much testing is to b e done it will be found

advisable to erect a su b stantial testing tab le equippe d -

with su itable instruments so connected that any desired

com b ination may b e o b tained convenient l y and rapidly
by means of switches and plugs .

Such a testing outfit is shown in Fig 1 1 3 which rep .

,

resents the arrangement used b y the W e stinghou se

E lectric and Manufacturing C ompany at their works in
East Pittsburg .

T he switches shown in the diagram are dou b le

throw double pole dynamo changing switches but for
,
-
,
-
,

convenience o f illustration they have b een drawn as

knife switches ; S m and S m being arranged so that they
-

may b e short circuited across the ends if desired By

-
.

a proper arrangement of the switches and plugs the

i n struments may b e connected to any leg as desired ,

care b eing taken that the remaining legs are c l osed

m e anwhile .
3 06 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

age f th t circ u it T he tr u e watts are O btained s

o a . a

bef re by taking the sum of the wattmeter readi ngs

o

in the two circ u its For a three phase motor the

.
-

connections are precisely similar to those previously

given in Fig 1 1 0 and the m e asurements are made
.
,

in the same way I n e ch case the total current

. a

eq uals the s um of the e ffective currents in the three

legs divided by V 3 .

T he connections are

—2
)
—
3)

where the quanti ty inside the parenthesis represents

the pressure connections and that outside is the leg in
,

which the current is simultaneously read the algebraic

sum of the wattmeter readings in any one of the thre e
groupings above gives the true watts in the system T he .

electrodynamometer is read in all three legs sim ulta

n e o usly w ith the wattmeter readings : when corrected to

give amperes their sum divided by V 3 and multiplied

,

by the mean voltage read acro ss the three phases will

, ,

give the apparent watts that is , ,

a pparent watts
sum of currents in the three legs X mean vo lts
V5

In the W estinghouse Compa ny s works the output ’

for e ffi ciency tests is o b tained by the use of a Prony

brake and flanged pulley to which a constant supply of
cooling water is furnished .
 AND T HE M E A S UR E M E N T OF R 0 WE R .
3 7
0

F or the large r sizes of motor the brake strap is of -

the ordinary cider press type somewhat similar to

-

that shown in Fig 4 b ut in this case the wooden blocks

.
,

do not come in contact with the pul ley surface T he .

ru bb ing surface is a fle x ib le band of sheet brass fastened

at one end to one of the blocks to which the clampin g
scre w is attached the other end b eing free ; b etween
,

this b and and the wooden blocks is a layer of asbestos

to prevent the blocks taking fire .

T he lubricant employed is the heavy dope o r grease

'

, ,

used in street rail way motor j ourn a ls

-
mixed with a ,

F m
. Try —C u m or T EST o r 3- H P T wo
. .
-
r n a sz M O ORT .

littl e dyn am o o il or graphite Motors of 500 horse .

p o wer have b een te sted in this way up to ful l rate d

l o ad
.
308 D Y N A M oM E TE R S

W ith any form of b rake strap which is not co m pe n

-

sa ti n g it is a di ffi cult matter to m aintain an a b s olut e ly

constant l oad on a m otor for any length of time ; there

fore t he brake tes t is continued at full load only for a
short time except with small m otors up to 5 or 6 -

horse powe r
-
.

Fo r co n tin uou s runs as for he at te st s the m o to rs are

, ,

F rc . 1 1 5 —Cv RvEs
. or I mOT R
’
or o-
s HJ ’
. T wo m
-
ass M O .

b elted or direct connected to ge n e rators whi ch

-
, are in
turn l o ad ed as alread y indic ate d .
3 1 0 D YN A M oM E TE RS

C HA PT E R X .

PO W ER R EQ U I RED T O D RI V E MA C HI NERY .

NO W that the electric mot o r is such an economic

factor in po wer distri b ution a knowledge of the powe r
,

required to drive each separate machine or tool is o f

especial importa n ce in the selection of motors to be

used in any given case .

F o r isolated machines and for heavy machines th at

m ay be in occasional use the individual motor is
particularly well adapted as it consumes power only
,

when in operation I t is however necessa ry that

.
, ,

each moto r thus connected shall b e capab l e of supply

ing su fficient power to operate its machin e under the
heaviest as well as lightest loads .

I n certain cases moreover the load is liab le to v ery

, ,

great irregu larity as for instance in metal working

, , ,
-

planers in which the resistance o ffered by the machine

,

at the moment of reversal of the platen is far highe r

than at other times and may be so great as to endanger
,

the armature of the motor U nder these conditions it

.

is necessary to use a motor of much larger capacity

than the average load would indicate .

F ort u nately with electric motors the rated capacity

is usually less than the safe maximum load which is ,
 AN D THE ME A S URE M E N T OF R 0 WE R .
3 1 1

determined either by the heating of the conductors

tending to break down the insulation or by e x cessive ,

sparking at the brushes .

For momentary overloads relatively large currents

may pass thro ugh the coils wi tho ut injury to the insu
lation since the temperature e ff ect is cumulative and
,

requires time for its operation H owever for contin

.
,

uo u s periods of considerable length it is usually uns afe

to operate the motor much above its rated output .

O rdinarily in machine driving the motor is shun t

-

wound and the c u rrent thro ugh the fi eld coils is co n

,
-

stant under all conditions of load ; but to obtain the

be st results with this class of machinery in which the ,

load is intermittent and s ubject to sudden v ariatio ns ,

the motor should be compound wound so as to incre ase -

the torque without an excessive increase of cu rrent in

the armature .

I n many cases with individual motors owing to w id e ,

variations in power required the average e fficiency of

,

the motor may be very low ; for this reason a careful

consideration of the conditions governing each case
indicates that for ordinary machine driving especially -
,

with s mall machines short le n gths of light shafting

,

may b e frequently employed to good advan tage and

the various machines arranged in groups may be
, ,

driven from one motor By this method fe wer motors

.

are required and each may be so proportion ed to the

average load that it may be run most of the time at
its max imum e fficiency W hen short lengths of shaft
.

ing are employed the alignment of any section is ve ry

little a ff ected by local settling of b eams or columns ,
3 1 2 D Y N A M oM E T E RS

and since a relatively sm ll amount of power is tran s

a

m itt e d by each section the shaft may be reduced in

,

size th u s decreasing the friction loss Moreover with

,
.
,

this arrangement as also with the independent motor

, ,

the machinery may oft e n be placed to better advantage

in order to suit a given process of ma n ufact u re ; shafts
may be placed at any a ngle without the usual compli
cat e d and often unsatisfactory devices and setting up ,
-

room may be provided in any suitable location as

required without carrying long lines of shafting through
,

space T his is an important consideration for n o t

.
,

only is the running e x pense reduced thereby but the ,

clear head room thus o b tained free from shafting

-

belts ropes p u lleys and other transmitting devices

, , , ,

can be more easily utilized for hoists and cranes which ,

have so largely come to be recognized as essential to

economical man u facture .

In arranging such a syste m of power distributio n

the average powe r required to drive is of as much
importance as the maximum for in a properly arranged ,

group syste m the motor capacity need not be the

equivalent of the total max imum power required to
operate the several machines in the group but may ,

be taken at some value less than the total depending ,

upon the number of the m achines and the average

period of operation O n the other h and as already
.
,

shown the motor capacity of in de pendently driven

,

machines must n ot only equal the max imum power

required to drive the machine at full load but it must ,

b e capab le of e xerting a greatly increased momentary

tor q ue I n any case large units should be avoided fo r
.
,
3 4
1 D YN A M oM E TERS

published especially during the past few years so that

, ,

at the present time the power re qu ired to drive the

ordin ary machinery in iron and wood working e st ab -

lishm ents is fairly well de term inable when the co n

ditio n s are known .

In order to facilit ate such det erminati o n the author

has tabul ated the result s of nume rous experiments
upon mach i n es of various kinds working unde r di ffe r

ent conditions ; these have been suitably classified for

convenient reference and form the subject matter of ,
-

the present chapte r .

In addition to a large n umber of tests made by the

author the data for this compilation include re sults

“
,

obtained by Ha rtig V auclain and Halseyfi Pike t

*
, ,

D odge § C rocker Co x fl
, l Be n ja m in H C arlse,
n ,
‘

and L emon 11 and others ,

.

By far the most comprehens ive o f such t ests are

those made by Dr Hartig In these e x periments . .

si x ty nine separate machines were operated through a

-

recording transmission dynamometer ; fro m five t o fifty -

tests were made on each machine and the horse power ,

-

V e r s uc h e b e r L e i st u n g
fi un d A rbe its -
V b
er ra uc h de r We rk
z e u g- m a sc hi n e n L e ip z i g
, .

A m er ica n M a c/l in ist Fe b ,

. 6, 1 89 6 .

t i bi al
" S e t p . 2 4 , 1 89 6 .

A ug 6 . and O ct 8 .
, 1 89 6 .

T ran s A . . I . E E
. .
, v ol. 11 1 1 . p . 2 99 .

1[ A m er i ca n M a ck in ist M a y 7 , , 1 89 6 . V

I bicl .
,
J u n e 2 5 , 1 89 6 .

H M a c/
zin ery Ma rc h , , 1 899 .

it G ra du a ti g T h
n i e s s, Un i v ers i ty of W i sco n s i n , 1 89 6 .
( No t pub
l is h e d ) C o ur te sy
. of Pro fe s so r s S to r m Bu ll and D C
. . J k ac so n .
 A ND TH E MEA S URE M E N T ap R 0 WER .
3 5
1

re q uired to drive the machine idle as well as that

required to do usef ul work under various conditions
was carefully determined .

T he character and extent of work done was o b served

in each case and it is much to be regretted that later
,

e x perimenters have not always b een careful to note

with the same degree of care what H artig calls the
performance of the machine which in metal or wood , ,

removing machinery is determined fro m the cros s

,

section of cut or chip and involves the rate of feed

,

and cutting speed : these and the general dimensions

and velocities of each machine enable di ff erent sizes to
be more readily compared .

A nother valuable series of power tests is that con

ducted by Messrs Carlsen and L emon In these tests
. .

over 1 2 0 machines or groups were ex perimented upon

in each case the power was determined by means of a
1 0 H P motor b elted to the machine or countershaft ;
. .
,

a recording ammeter was placed in the circuit and this ,

was checked by a wattmete r read at suitable intervals .

T he voltage was maintained constant during each test .

T he machine or group was run for a definite length

, ,

of time so that the watts noted represent the average

,

power delivered to the motor T he motor was cali .

brate d b oth before and after the tests and the e ffi cie n ,

cies th us obtained were used in determining the actual

horse power delivered to the machine under test
-
.

T he tests made b y Prof D odge also take account of .

the motor losses and b oth the electrical input and the
,

mechanical output are recorded .

I n m any cases where electrical measurements have

3 16 D Y N A M OM E TE RS

b een employed the e fficiency of the mot or has not

been considered ; the e ff ect of this is to inc rease the
ap parent power required to operate the m achine itself
under the stated conditions ; that is a part of the ,

observed power is spent in overcoming the resistances

of the motor and should not ordinarily be charged to
the machine although often of considera b l e value in
,

determining the electrical equipment .

In those cases where the rated capacity of motor is

known the net horse power delivered to the machine
-

has b een estimated in a number of instances the dat a

have permitted fairly accurate e fficiency curves to be
constructed and these have been used in determining
,

the net power In any case where the actual power

.

delivered to the machine has been estimated such fac t ,

is indicated in the tab les .

W here extreme overloading e x ists no attempt has

been made to determine the real power delivered but ,

it is certainly very small as compared with the electrical

inp ut owing to the relatively large I R losses
,
’
.

It will b e noted that some of the tests indicate vastly

more power than might be expected or is shown with
similar machin es .

T here are s e e ral re aso n s for this : I n some shop s

v .

the machines are w orked to their utmost capacity and

cuts are taken out of all proportion to those which
ordinarily obtain ; moreover in certain cases in loco ,

motive shops for instance many of the machines are

, ,

arra n ged with two cutting tools thus greatly increasin g

-
,

the power required ; then again el e ctrical measurements

may include the losses in the motor and shaftin g ,
3 1 8 D Y N A M oM E TE R S

RE C O R D S O F T E ST S .

O bse rv e d Horse -power .

I R O N- W O R K I N G M A C H I N E RY .

De live re d to
LA TH E S .
Mach ine .

Lat h e, 1 3 i h
-
( Z
nci m m m ); p d er an n s ee s
f r o m 5 t o 1 88 r p m . . .

i
R u n n n g d e ( fr o m 1 3 to i l . .
34
i
T u rn n g w rou g t ro n , i h d p th f h i nc e o
c ut ; b
r e a dt h 02 i h tt i g p d
nc ; cu n S ee
hip p
.

25 l bs c . s er

L th 6 i h ( Fl t h )
a e, 1 - nc a er .

R i g i dl w i th b k g
un n n e,i 40 ac e ar s n,

T i g w gh t i
u rn n 3 i h
ro u d p t h f ro n , nc e o

; f
c ut d i h
ee . 02 nc

Tw th o 6 i
o h l th er q i d
1 -
nc a e s, re u re
.
9 1 d an H P .p 22i l y ; t h. l t
. res ect ve e at er
w i g
as t u r n n i i h di 1 ca s t ro n 2 nc es a. 1 ,
i h d pt h f
,

nc e o cu t .

L tha 6 i
e, 1 h by 8 f t ( P t m)
-
nc ee u na .

R i g m p ty
un n n e

T i g m hi t l 5 } l b hip
u rn n ac ne - s e e s. c s
h
,

p er o ur

S m a 9 lb
e, hip p h s . c s er o ur

C h ft t i l d d
o u n t e rs a no nc u e .

L t h 7i i h ; p d f m 6 t 83
a e, 1 - nc s ee s ro
}
o 1

p mr. . .

R i g i dl (f m 6 46
un n n e ro . 1 to .

T i g w gh t i
u rn n i h d p th
ro u ro n , nc e

f o ; b
cu t dt h 04 i h ; tt i g p d
re a . nc cu n s ee

6 1 5 lb hip p 2 s. c s er

L t h 8 i h ( L dg D i ); t i g
a e, 1 - nc o e av s urn n
i pi
ca s t - r o n 3 i h di e ce s nc es a.

A g p w
v e ra fe sh o er t dy or - o ur run , s ea

w k or
A v e ra
g p w w
e hil w ki go er e or n

M xi m m p w d i g t t
a u o er ur n es
 A ND THE M E A S UR E M E N T O F P O WE R .
1
3 9

O bserved Horse -
po we r .

L A T H E s— Con tin u ed .
De l iv ere d to
Mac ine h .

La t h e , i h ( Fi t h b
zo - n c c urg )
; s p e e ds fro m
81} to 3 75 r p m . . .

i
R u n n n g d e ( f ro m i l 1 to .
3
i i hb i hi
.

Bo r n g ca s t ro n , 4 -
nc o re , 5 nc
1 ,
ph
de t o f c u t ; 02 i hf d . nc ee

L th
a e, i h; t i g d b i
21 -
nc ur n n an or n

}
11 i h -
t i nc ll 7 i h
ca s b ;
-
r o n co a rs , -
nc o re
cut i hd p i hf d nc ee ,
1
1 0 n c ee .

A v e rag p w f e 5 h o er or - o u r r un . .

M xi m m p w
a d i g t t
u o er ur n es .

L th
a i h by 6 f t ( Fl th )
e , 2 2- nc ee a er .

Ru i g m p ty f m 7 t 3 H P
nn n e ro . 0 o . .

i g ti hip p h
.

T ur n n 9 lb
ca s ro n , s. c s er o ur
S m
a lb
e , 20 hip p h u s. c s er o r

G p l th
a - 6 i
a h; p d f m
e, 2 t -
nc s ee s ro o
88 r .
p m
. .

Ru n n i i l (f m 04 t 3 3
ng d e ro . o .

T urn i g ti n 3 i h d p h f t;
ca s ro n , , nc e t o cu
b dhre a i h ; di
t f w k 3
1
5 , nc a. o or 1
i h ; tti g l i ty 3 ft p m
nc es cu n v e oc 2 . . .

11 lb hip m d p h
s c s re o ve er o ur
P li hi g 3 4 i
o s h di k w i th m y ti k
n -
nc s e er s c ,

l i t y 64 p m
v e oc r. . . .

L th 3 i h ( P t i ); t i g 3
a e, 0-
nc re n ce urn n
t p
s e p ll y 4
co n e d i h
u e 2 an 1 2 - nc
di m t a 6i i hf
e ers , - nc a ce .

A v e ra g p w f e5 h u o er or -
o r ru n
A v e ra g p w whil w ki g
e o er e or n
M im m p w
ax u d w hil fili g
o er o cc u r re e n
6 i -
h b
nc ar or

G p l th
a -
as i b i gh t p d f m i
e, o- nc , e s ee s ro
t o 11 f pl t 80 i h di a ce - a e nc es a
m e te r .

i
Ru n n n g d e ( f ro m i l . 1 8 to .
72
i
T u r n n g ca s t
b re a dt h 1
1
,
3 2 0 D Y N A M oM E T E R S

O bse rved Ho rse-power .

L A T H Es Co n tin u ed .
De liv ered to
Mac ineh .

i
cu t t n gp d 3} S ee 1 12 } l bs .

chip m d p h s re o ve er o ur

W h l l t h 60 i h p d
ee - a e, -
nc , s ee s f ro m i to
18 p m R
r. i g i dl
. . un n n e . 2 2 to
N t w
o cu s t k e re a en.

F i g l th
ac n 68 i -
h ; tw l
a e, -
nc e ve s pe e ds

f ro m t o 1 40 r .
p m . .

i i l
R u n n n g d e ( f ro m 3 7 t o 8 1 .

i h p h ut ;
.

i c i n 7
T u r n n g a s t r o , 3 , n c de t o f -
c
b re a dth 04 i h
nc ; . k 0
din o f w o r . 1
i h i p
n c e s , c u t t n g s e e d 1 6} f t p m . .

W h l l th
ee 84 i
-
a h; t i g l g
e, -
nc u rn n ar e
wh l ee t tw wh l
ce n re s , xl ; o ee s on a e
one t lt h w h l i ll
oo o e ac ee n a ca se s .

P wo w er m d wh ast i g e as u re en u rn n
ca s t i -
t h p w q i d
ro n ce n re s , t e o e r re u re
b i g g t with
e n t th
re a e r wi th ce n r e s an

ti t
re s , o n a cco u n f h i t o ea v e r cu .

L i gh t t cu
Ex tr e m e cu t
A v e r a ge cu t

A no t h 84 i h
er - nc i
s w n g- a t l h e, t ur n n g i
i h
“
3 2 -
nc c e n t re s .

N o cu t
i hd p f d i h
C ut 3 n c ee , ee T nc

C t } i
u 1 hd p f d i h
nc ee , ee nc

C t } i
u 1 hd p f d i h
nc ee . ee nc .

L h 9 i h ( B m t M il ); tw
at e 0- nc e en es o
l h d b th t ti g ; t i g t
,

t oo -
ea s, o cu n ur n n ca s
t
s ee l d i i g w h l 67} i h r v n - ee s, nc es
di m ta ; } l ti p m i t ;
e er 1 re v o u on er nu e
no l bi ; 8 H P G i bb m t
u r ca n t s o or.
-
. .

M t
o or o nly .

D i i g
r v n h ft co u n t e rs a .

D i i g
r v n t h ft d i dl m hi
co u n e r s a an e ac ne
D pth
e f 5 i h ;of d i h c ut nc ee 1 ,
1 nc ,

h y t tw t l
eav — cu o oo s . .
32 2 D Y N A M oM E TE R S

O bse r ved Horse -power .

RO LL T U N I N LA -
R G T H E S- Con t in u ed .
De l iv e red to
Ma ch i ne .

s e co n ds ; 1 o - H P . . s h un t- wo u n d m o to r ,
800 prm ,
. v o l t a ge 2 00
. . .

i i
Dr v n g m ac ne w t hi
ro , n o c u t i h ll
M iax m u m c u t 2 } n c e s w de , fi i h i i h nc

de e p , o ne to o l e st .

Ro ll -
tu rn n g i La t h e i h ( C m b i );
61 -
nc a r a

i ll 3 5 i h di
,

s o ft ca s t -
ro n ro nc es a.
pp h i g ; p d f ll
,

su o r te d in o us n s s ee o ro ,

l i i
1 r e v o ut o n n 1 mi n u te
5 d ; 2 s e co n s

5 H P-
h tm t
. . s un o or, 1 000 2 10
vo lt s .

D i i g m hi
r v n wi h ll
ac t ne t ro , no cu 1 to
A v e rag t } ei h cuw id 2i h nc es e, 3
3; nc
d p ee to 3 4. to e st .
E i
xce s s v e c u t } i h w i d ,i h 2 nc es e , 1 1“
5
nc

d p ee 2 . 8 t0 4 8
. to

R ll t
o -
i g L th 6 3 i h ( B m t);
ur n n a e, -
nc e en

d bl b k g
ou e ; t l ll 3 5 i h
ac ea r s ee ro nc es
di a.53 f l g ; ll pp t d i ee t on ro su or e n
h i g ; p d f ll l ti
,

o us n s s ee o ro 1 re v o u on
mi
,

i n 1 t 3 d ;
nu e H P 0 se co n s 10 -
.

h tm t lt
.

s un o o r, 1 000 2 00 v o s .

D i i g m hi
r v n wi th ll
ac t ne ro n o cu
i h
,

M xi m m
a tu ; i h w
cu i d 3 , 1 nc es e, nc
d p ee 10 2
. e st .

R ll t
o -
i g L h 73 i h ( B m t);
u rn n at e, -
nc e en

t i g 48 i h
u rn n l pi i w i th t
-
nc s te e n on ou
i kh d i d
s n ea t ; di
ca r r e t on ce n r e s a . a
j o ur na l bi g t d 8 i
e n h ; u rn e 2 nc es
H P h lt
,

1 o- .t m t . s un o or, 2 10 vo s .

D i i g m hi
r v n wi th w k ac net or , no cu ,

t
s art n i g e st .

D i i g m hi
r v n wi h w k ac t ne t or n o cu .

i h wi d i hd p
,

C t
u 2 nc es e, nc ee to 4 8. to e st.

L g R ll L t h w i t h tw t l t
ar e o a e, o oo s u rn
i g t l
n ll 3 3} i h di d i
s ee ro s, nc es a r v en

b y li h ft 5 f t l g i h
.
,

ne s a 1 ee on 2 nc es
wi th 3 h p li
,

di a g ; d f an e rs s ee o ne
 AND T HE M E A S URE M E N T OF P O WE R .
3 3
2

O bse rve d Harse-p o wer .

RO LL TURN I N L
-
G A T HE S — Con tin u ed .
D e l iv e re d to
Mac h i ne .

sh aft 5 00 1 0- H P . s h un t
pl i li
.

w o und m o to r co u ed d re c t t o ne
sh a ft ; 2 2 0 v o ts l .

Mo to r li ne s h a ft , a n d l h at e
i i g li h ft l
,

Dr v n ne s a a nd t wo to o s 4}
i h wi d t i
nc es e , c u t ng a t fu ll p i ty
ca ac . to e st .

P L NER
A S .

P l an e r , i h b y 4 ft ( B m t
1 7 -
nc . e en
M il ; pl i g es t i an n t k d ca s r o n , s ro e ur
i g t tf m 4
n es 3 i h ; f df m
ro to 0 nc es ee ro
1 t
1 , i h t t { i hd p
o 11's nc ; cu 5o nc ee
A g p w
v e ra ef 5 h o er or -
o u r r un
Ag g p
e ra w ew hil ot l l y w
er k g e a c ua or in
D i g
ur n lr e v e r sa

Pl i
a ne r . 2
4 h b y 6 f t (G
-
y)nc ; i g ra ru n n n
m p ty f m 3 t H P ; t hi d
.

e ro . o . . s e
c r e a se s th l gt h f t k l
as e en o s ro e n
c re a s e s .

P l i
a n ng hi t l h y t
m ac ne-s e e , eav cu
I t hin th w
s ca s e lb m t l e re e re 21 s . e a
re m dp ov e h er o ur .

R i g m p ty m
u nn n e di t i , sa e co n o n s , av e r

ga e
M xi m m p w
a u t l o er a re v e rs a

Pl 4
a ne r , i h 3 f
2 t t b-
l ( B
nc m t 1 -
. a e e en

M il ); tw t l h d b t h t i g;
,

es o oo -
ea s, o cu t n
pl i g t l
an n ti gs ee d; l co n n e c n -
ro no n
b i t;
r ca n H P G i bb 12h tw d . . s s un - o un
m lt
o to r , 2
4 0 vo s .

M o to r onl y
Dr i i
v n g co u n t e r s h a ft
Dr i i
v n g c o u n te rs h a ft a n di dl m hi e ac ne
Fo r w a rd, 18 mp a e re s . .

i g
Du r n re v e rs a l , 6 mp
0 a e re s
B k w d 60 ac ar , mp 20 a e re s .

C t 1 i
u hd p f
»
nc ee ee d3 i h nc
Th h h l
,

y ue eav r s O f cur r e n t a t re v e r s a ,
 2
3 4 D YN A M O M E T E R S

O bser ved Horse

-
pow er .

P LA N BRs Co n tin u ed Del ivered to

Mach ine
.

60 am p e re s, l t as s but a fe w s e c o n ds
a nd th en q i kl yu c an d q u i te s te a d il y
ll
fa s t o t h e n o rm a l v a ue l fo r t h e b k ac
wa r d r u n .

P l a ne r , 3o
-
i h by 8 f nc t .
( Pu t n a m ); pl an
in g c as t i ; ro n re t u r n s p e e d sa m e a s
fo r wa r d .

C ut 15, n c de e i h
{G n c fe e d p ,
-
i h
i h
C ut 3, n c de e , f ly n c fe e d p -
i h
C ut 1 n c dee , fi i h nc fe ed p -
i h
p
A v e ra ge o we r f o r 3 § ho u r r u n -

P l a ne r , i h by 3 1 -
nc f ( B m t 10 t . e en

Mil ); pl i g es i an n t f m ca s t ro n , c u ro
1 t 1 i o h d p; f d i h
» nc ee ee 1 nc
1 , 1 ; .

A v e rag p w e f o f 4 h uer o r ru n o o rs

A v e rag p w e w hil w
o ki g er e or n
P w
o q i dt
e r re u re o r e v e r se

Pl 34
a ne r , i h b y 9
-
f t ( Z i
nc m m m ) . er an n

w i gh e f t blt o 6 lb ; a tt i g e 2 00 s . cu n

sp d ee 11 t 7 ft p m re u r n 1 . . .

Ru i g i dl
nn n e .

Pl i g t i
an n ca s t 6 i h d p;
ro n , cu . 1 nc ee
b d t h 5 i h ; 3 } lb
re a . 0 hip p nc 1 s. c s er
h o ur .

Pl 6
a n e r,
3 i h 6 f-
t ( N il
nc ); ,t 1 . es re u
t o ; pl I i g 3 f t l gth w i th t w
an n 1 . en o
t l dw f d } i h p h ;
oo s , o n- e e 1 nc er ou r
t t l w i gh t
o a et bl 47 lb on a e 00 s .

A v e rag p w e f 5o h u er or -
o r ru n

A v e rag p w e w hilo w ki ger e or n

R i g
e v e rs n .

Pl 36 i
a ne r , h 8 ft t b l ( S ll )
- nc 1 -
a e e e rs ,

b lt l ; t w t l h d b th
.
,

e r e v e r sa o oo - ea s, o

cut t i g ; pl n i g w gh t i an n wi t h ro u ro n

w t ; a er 9 H P G i bb
1 h
- u t w
. d . s s n - o un

m t ; 4 o or lt 2 0 vo s .

M t ly
o or o n .
 3 26 D YN A M O M E TE RS

O bserv ed Horse -power .

PL A NBRs —C n tin u d o e .
De livered to
Mach ine .

q ui c k -r e t u rn p att e r n wt ih l c u tc h re
v e r sa l; t wo t o o lh d -
ea s, b th o c u t t ng , i
pl i a n ngwro u ro n o com o t v e gh t i -
l i
f ra m e s w t ih
wa te r ; 2 0- H P U S
h
. . . .

m o to r , s u n t w o un d -
.

Mo to r on ly .

Dr i iv n g co u n te r s h a ft e st.
Dr i iv ng co u n t e r s h a ft a nd i dl e ma
c hi ne
Fo r w a rd 1 8} f t p m . .

l
,

M o m e n t o f re v e rsa
Re t u r n , 1 1 1 f t p m . .

ph i h i h
.

D e t o f c ut 3 n c ; f e e d 5
1 , nc

P l an e r , i h 4 f t b l ( S ll );
5 6- nc , 2 -
oo ta e e e rs
hi ft i g b l
s n l ; tw lh d
e t re v e r sa o to o -
ea s,
b t h t t i g ; pl i g w g h t i
o cu n an n ro u ro n
wi th w t ; 4 H P
a er G i bb m t 2 - . . s o or ,
h tw d
s un o un .

M t o or on ly
D i i g
r v n t h ft
co u n e r s a .

C t
o u n e rs h f t d i dl m hi
a an e ac ne
F w d 9 ft p m
or ar 1 . .

D i g l
,

ur n re v e r s a
R t 7 ft p m
e u rn , 0 . .
7 5 - 1
D pth f
e t 5 i
o h; f d i h
cu ’ nc ee
1s nc .

T hi d th
s an p i t t gi
e i t ti mp i
re v o u s es ve an n s r uc ve co a r so n

b tw
e th ee n ti f th
e ac hi ft i g b l t d l t h
on o l Th e s n e an c u c re v e rs a . e

l t h pl
c u c h ane r t f ft p m d t bl
a s a re u r n o 35 f t l g 111 . . . an a a e ee on ,

w hi h cq i re t u re s a l H P gl i g t h
re v e r s aft ; . .
, ne e ct n co u n e r s a on

th e th o h d h hi fti g b l t m hi
er an , t f pp ei m t l y th
s n -
e ac ne o a ro x a e e

sa m i w i th
e s ze l i t y f 7 f t p m d t b l 4 ft l g
a v e oc o 0 . . . an a a e 2 . on te

q i
u re s H P d i g . l . ur n re v e r s a .

Pl ane r, 6 i h 3 5 f t t b l ( S ll );
2 - nc -
oo a e e e rs

q i k t ; pl i g w gh t
,

u c 4 t
re ur n , o 1 an n ro u
i l m i f m
ro n o co o t ve ra e s.

M t o or o n ly
D i i g
r v n h ft
co u n t e r s a

E m p t y t bl f w d a e or ar
 A ND THE ME A S URE M E N T O F R 0 WE R .
3 7
2

Pu n aas Conti n ued .

D el iv ered to
h
Mac in e .

p
Em ty ta b e re tu r n l .

p
Em t y ta b e a t m o m e n t o f r e v e r s l i ng
i h
C ut 5 nc de e , 1 nc fe e d, t wo p i h »
h e a ds ,

t wo t o o s l 2L I

P l 76 n c , 3 8 fe e t o n g ( m m e r
ane r, -
i h l Zi
m a n n) ; we g t o f t a e l bs ; i h bl .

i
cutt n g s e e d 1 3 re t u r n 3 0p
ft p m . . .

i
R u n n n g id e , m e a n o we r p l
l i i ph
P a n n g ca s t ron , de t o f cu t 3 n c , i h
bre a dt h
05 i h i h
n c , we g t o f ca s t n g . i
9400 l b s ; 5 2 l b s c s pe r hip
o ur. h .

Pl a ne r , 84 i h 5 f t b d ( S ll ); - nc 1 -
oo e e e rs

utt i g p d 8
,

c n s t ee3 t 1 re u r n o

; 7} H P m t
1 1 b lt d t
. . t o o r, e e o co u n e r

h ft
s a .

D i i g
r v n t h ft d l
co un e rs p ll y a an o o se u e s
D i i g pl
r v n b df w d a n e r- el d or ar , no oa . .

R l
e v e r sa
R tue t p
rn a d s ee .

R e v e rs al .

L d b doa on lb e s .

D i i g pl
r v n b d f w d a n e r- e , or ar
R e v e rsal .

R t e ur n a t p d S ee
R ev e r sa l .

Th be t
a t h w h w li ttl th
ove es s s o o e e

w i gh t f w k
e o t h pl t fi or t th on e a en a ec s e

p w q i dt p
o e r re u re th m hi o O e ra t e e ac ne.

Pl ane r, 9 6 i h f t b d
-
( Bnc t ); 2 0- o o e et s

tt i g p d
,

cu n S ee3 t 12 r e tu r n o

h p
,

1
; t f t
co u n e r s d 5 a S ee , 2 0

7} H P m t b lt d t
. t o or, e e o co un e r

h ft
.

s a .

D i i g
r v n t h ft w i th m hi
co u n e r s a ac ne
b lt e l
s on p ll y o ose u e s

Ru i g m hi i dl w i th 5
nn n ac ne e 1 to ns o n
b d F w d
e : or ar

I t t f ns an l o r e ve r sa
 3 2 8 D YN A M oME T ERS

O bs er ved Ho rse-po wer .

FL A N Ell s— Con tin ued .

De liv ered to
Ma ch ine .

Re t ur n a t S p d ee
l i
P a n n g s te e l ' i h t i hf
:i r nc cu 02 nc e ed .

2 i h t i h f nc cu . 02 nc e e d.
ti g t
,

T he cu t t
n w m d es s e re a e on a
du pli ca te m hi w ith
ac l d f ne a oa o

l bs . o n t he be d .

P l fe e t w de by 9 fe e t
a ne r , 1 0 g , 22 i hi h
fo o t b e d ; 1 5 C 8: C m o to r . . .

A v e ra ge o w e r p . e s t.
Po w e r fo r re v e r sa f ro m cutt n g to l i
re t u r n S t ro k e
Po we r dur i n g cu tt n g s t ro i k e
Po we r du r i n g re t u r n st ro k e .

H E S AP RS .

Sh p a 9} i h with t
e r, i gh d
nc ra v e r s n ea
- -
,

( Ri h d p t t ) C p i t y l gt h
’
c ar s a e rn . a ac : en

3 2 i h b nc dt h 93 i
es, h F r ea nc e s. o ur
s p d f m 5 t 7 t k p
ee s, ro 1 o 2 s ro es er
m i ut ; nt et re ur n 2 o 1 .

R un n n i g m p ty ( f m 7 t e ro . 0 o . 12
Pl i g
an n i t
ca s t i h d p ro n , cu . 2 nc ee
b dt h i h;
,

re a . 02 nc 10
lb hip p h
s. c s er o ur

Sh p a 5 i h
er ,( G l
1 d 8- E b h dt);
nc ou 1 er ar

p w o q i dter re li gh t i d
u re o run var e

wi t h t k d p ds ro e an s ee .

A 6 i h t k p d dt
-
nc s ro 4 e S ee e o 12 , 1
k p mi t q i d
,

an d 7 t 0 S ro es er nu e re u re
f m ro
A 5 i 1 h t k - nc m p d
s ro e , sa e s ee s

Pl an ni g w gh t i 7 ro u t ro n cu . 22
i hd p
nc i hf d
ee , . 01 nc ee .

Pl an ni g w gh t i 4ro u t ro n 1 cu
.
7 i
1 hd p nc i hf d ee . 01 nc ee

Pl i gb 3 i h
,

an n 46 t
ro n ze , cu . 2 nc
d p ee i hf d , . 01 nc ee

A no th 5 i h h p ( Fl th )pl n
er 1 -
nc s a er a er a
330 D Y N A M oM E TE R S

O bserved Horse-power .

S L TTI N
O G -
MA C HI NBS .
De l iv ered to
Mach ine .

S l tt i
o hi 9 } i h t k ; di m
n g - m ac ne , -
nc s ro e a

t f t bl
e er o 4 i h ; l g t di m
a e 2 nc es ar es a

t f w k 4 i
e er o h ; p d f m
or 0 nc es s ee s ro

t 3
12 to k p mi
2 s ro t es er nu e .

R i g m p t y ( f m t 64
un n n e ro . 22 o .

C tt i gu t i
n gl i
ca s h t k ; d pth
ro n , nc s ro e e
-

f o t 6i
cu h b dt h ; l i ty 4
. 1 nc re a . 02 ve oc 1
f t p m 4 & 1b i h
,

. . . m dp s . ro n r e o ve er o ur .

A g p
v e ra w e o er .

W id i ti d t
e v ar a l on ue o re v e r sa s .

S l t t i g m hi
o n -
i h t k 36
ac ne . 1 2 - nc s ro e,
i h t b l O di y m hi h p
nc a e. r na r ac ne - S o

p t f
a te r n l tt w i t h g
o s o k er o o se - n e c

f m ra k m ti
e , cra n ; tt i g w gh t o on cu n ro u
1 ro n .

Mo to r a n d co u n t e r s h a ft
S l tt m p t y
o er e

i h t k
1 2- nc s ro e

8 i -
h t k
nc s ro e

4 i h t k
nc s ro e
-

C t th
u s a re h i t th b l t w ul d e ea v e s e e o
p llu .

S l tt i g m hi
o n -
5 i h t k (S ll
ac ne , 1 - nc s ro e e

) d
e rs
; i m f bl 4 i h
a e te r o
t ta e 0 nc e s , cu

ti g w n gh t i w i th w t
ro u 8 ro n a er 1
t k p mi t ; t
s ro es p d3 t
er nu e re ur n s ee o

; 8 H P G i bb m t
1 -
. . h tw d s o or, s un -
o un
l
,

4 2 0 vo ts.

M t ly
o or on
D i i g r v n t h ft
co u n e r s a 3 e st .
D i i g r v n h ft d i dl m hi
co u n t e r s a an e ac ne ,
d w w d o n k 3 f t p mi t
ar s t ro e 22 ee er nu e
D pth f e t fi o h f dfl i h ; h y
cu nc ,
ee nc eav

S l i o tt n g - m a c hi ne , 1 5 -
i h
nc s t ro k e ( Z im
m m er an n ) D i a m e te r
. of ta bl e 45
i h nc es l
a rge s t i
d a m e te r o f w o r k 70
i h nc es ; s p e e ds f ro m 4 to 4 2 s t ro k e s
 AND THE M EA S URE M EN T O F R 0 WE R .
33 1

O bse rved Ho rse- p o we r .

S L O T T 1 NO - MA c m N E s— Co n t zn u ed
‘

.
De l iv ered to
Mach ine .

p e r m i n u te ; b ac k -
ge are d; r e t ur n 2
to 1 .

i
R u n n n g e m t y ( f ro m 4 3 t o 9 4 p .

i i i h k
.

C utt ng ca s t r o n , 9 3 n c s t ro e , 2 1 -

k
s t ro e s p e r m n u t e ; de t o f cut i ph
i h
nc b r e a dt ,1, n c ; cu tt n g v e lo c h i h i
hip h
,

it y 2 8 1 7} l b s c s pe r our .

p
.

A v e ra ge o w e r
W i de va r at oni i due t o r e v e r sa s . l
L o co m o t i v e l i
f ra m e S o t t n g m a c n e ; hi
cra n k i
mot on w t ih q ik
u c r e v e rs e ;

k
s t ro e 8 i h
nc es h
T e se m a c n e s hi .

h a v e two h
e a ds w t iha to o l
to e ac ; h
i p
n de e n de n t m o t o r to e a c hh
ead T he
h p i
.

o r se o w e r is g v e n fo r o n e m o tor
-
.

M to o r on ly
M to o r an d m p t y m hi e ac ne
H e av y t i w cug h t i n ro u ro n

B l t lipp d w i t h
e S H P e . .

L m ti
o co f m
o S l tti g m
ve hi ;
ra e o n ac ne
pl aner m ti wi t h d g o d hi f t i g
on o s an S n
b lt ; tw h d
e b f o wi th m t
ea s as e o re , o or

t o ea c hh d ea .

Th h e p w f o r se - m t w o er o o ne o or as
M to or on ly .

H e av y t cu s .

Em p t y m hi t m m t f ac ne ai g o en o re v e r s n

Th t e cu q ui i g H P
re lipp d r n . . s e
th b l t
e e .

D ou b l h d L m ti f m S l t
e- ea o co o ve -
ra e o

ti g m
n hi-
( B m t M il ); w i dth
ac ne e en es
b tw e h i g 3 i h ; l gt h
ee n o us n s 0 nc es en
24 f t; eel t i g t w w gh t i l
S o t n o rou -
ro n o

com ti f m
o wi t h w t ; l
ve ra gt h es a er en

of t k 9 i s ro h ; 5} t k p
e nc es 1 s ro es er
mi t ; m xi m m
nu e t k 6i h ;
a u s ro e 1 nc es
sep t m t t a ra e h t l Th o or o eac oo . e

p w gi
o er i f m t
ve n ly s or o ne o or on .
 “

332 D YN A M oME TERS

O bser ved Horse - po wer .

S L O TT I N G - MA C HI NE S - Con tin ued .

Delivered to
Machine .

1 2 - H. P . G i bb s m o to r , shun t -
wo und;
2 40 v o ts l .

M o to r a n d c o un te r s h a ft 4 e st
h i dl hi
.

M o to r co u n te r s aft a n d e m ac ne
Do wn wa rd k g p d s t ro e, cu tt i n S ee 21

R tu e t k p d 6 ft p m
r n s ro e, S ee 1 . .

D p th f t ] i h f d 1, i h
. .

e o cu 1 nc , ee 1 nc .

D ub l h d F m
o e -
eal tt i g M hi ra e s o
-
n ac ne
°

w i dt h b t w h i gs 4 8 i h
e e en ous n nc es
l gth 48 f t ; l t ti g w gh t
en ee s o n ro u
i ro nl m ti f m
o co ; p to ve ra es se a ra e
m t t
o or h t l Th o di g
e ac oo . e re a n s
f m w h i h th h
ro p w w
c l e o r se - o er a s ca
l t d w
cu a e t k f m t
ere a en or o ne o or
onl y ( )b i g f m a h d d
e n ro o ne ea an
h G i
,

( )
b f m t h
ro t ; 9 H P ebb o er 1 -
. . s
h t m t 4 lt
S un o o r, 2 0 vo s .

a.

Mo to r
C o un te r s a f t h 8 e st .
h
C o u n te r s a f t a n d d e m a c n e i l hi
D o wn wa rd, 1 2 fe e t pe r m n u te i
Re v e r s a l
De t pho f c u t n c f e e d 1
1, n c i h . i h .

C o u n t e rs a f t h
h
C o u n te rs a ft a n d d e m a c n e i l hi
Do wn wa r d, 1 2 fee t pe r m n ut e i
Re v e rs a l
k
Re t u rn s t r o e , 36 f e e t pe r m n u t e i . .

ph
De t o f c u t I ‘; n c , fe e d Q n c i h i h .

R I LL I N M H I N E
D G- AC S.

D ill p
r - 8 i h (B
re ss , ); m i 1 -
nc a rn e s re a ng
i i
l t
-h h l
nc i t l t Hi h o es n s ee o nc .

A g
v e ra p w f
e f 3oh er o r ru n o o u rs .
334 D YN A M O M E TERS

O bse rv e d Ho rse- po wer .

D RI L I N L G -
MA C H I NE S Con tin u ed .
Del ive red to
Mach ine .

to i hh l
I f - nc d mi g 1 t o es an re a n 1 o

}
2 i h nc es .

A v e rag p w f
e o h er o r 1 0- o ur run

A v e rag p w w
e hil o t ll y w
er ki g e a c ua or n
M im m p w
ax u d illi g H i o h h l e r, r n -
nc o e

6} i h d pnc es ee .

A i n d d p h
n cr e a se f h l q i e t o o e re u res
m o re p w w i g t th l ggi g f
o er o n o e c o n o

chip s.

R di l D ill m
a a i mum di 6 f t
r ax ra us ee
Z i p
,

( m m m ) ; er d f
an n m 3 t S ee s ro o

69
1 b kg d ac - e a re .

R i g m p t y (f m t 44
unn n e ro 10 o .

D illi g f i
r n h hl nc t i 5 o es 1n ca s ro n , 1 0
f d 5 i hp
ee . 2 nc er

R di l D ill m
a a i m m di 8 } f t
r , ax u ra us ee

( H t m
ar ) ; p ann d f m 3 3 t 34 S ee s ro o 1

b kg dac - e a re .

R i g m p t y ( f m 4 t 78 H P )
un n n e ro . 1 o . .

D illi g
r ni h h l i 2 - nc t i (fl t o e n ca s ro n a
d ill ) 3 6
r f d 6 i h p ee . 1 nc er
mi hip p h ;
,

t ; 8 lb
nu e s y. c s er our ve r
li gh t f d ee . .

Tw pi dl D illi g m hi ( H
o-S n e r n -
ac ne ar
i gt
r n S on ); h f t ; d illons r e ac 22 ee r

i g i w
n n gh t i wi t h
ro u d w t ; ro n so a a er
-

8 0 5 H P m t 4 -
lt . . o o r, 2 0 vo s.

M t o or o n ly
D i i g
r v n t h ft
co u n e r s a

D i i g
r v n t h ft d i dl m hi
co u n e r s a an e ac ne
F d 3 i
ee h p mi t
1 3 nc er nu e

U i g s n i h d ill
o ne 1 -
nc r

U i g s n i i h
o ne Id ill -
nc r

U i g b t h d ill
s n o r s

Th pi dl D illi g m hi
re e S - n e (B r n -
ac ne s e
m t en M il ); l gt h f t ; d ill
es en 21 ee r

i g i w u gh t i
n n ro wi t h p d il ro n so a an o

86 8 H P m t 45
-
lt . . o o r, 2 vo s.

M t o or on ly .
 A ND THE M E A S URE M E N T OF P O WE R .
33 5

O bserv ed Horse pow er -

.

D1 1 L L 1 N G - M A C H 1 N E s — Con ti n ued .
B e nn
Mac h
,“ i ne .
to

i i h
D r v n g co u n t e r s a f t
i i h i l m hi
D r v n g co u n t e r s a f t a n d d e ac ne

i h i
Fe e d 8 4 n c p e r m n u t e :
i h ill
.

O n e i n c dr a v e ra ge
-

T w {l i h d ill
,

o -
g nc r s , a v e ra e

Th i ire eh d ill -
nc r s . .

Sa m m hi e l t di g m h
ac n e as as o n sa e c ar

f w k b t wi h l g d ill
,

a c te r o or u t ar er r s
p t i g th m xi m m w k f
,

re re s e n n e a u or or

w hi h t h m hic w d i g d; 78e ac ne as es ne
r. p m . .

Th re e 2 -
i h nc dr ill s, fe e d 4 5 . i h
nc p e r
m i n ute e st.

M u l t ipl e pi dl D illi g m hi S n e r n ac n e s.

Th f th
r ee o m hi w e se p ac ne s e re O er

t d th
a e g h li h
ro u f t 7 f l
a g ne s a 0 eet on

2} i h di m t
nc wi h t
es h g
a e er, t en an e rs ,
Sp d f h ft
ee o S a 5 H P 2 00 1 -
. .

sh tm t 8
un o or, lt 00 220 v o s.

R unn n i g h ft d d ill p s a i dl
an r - r e s se s e. .

D illi g
r n fl i h h l
se v e n i t hi - p t nc o es n n ar

of 7t 1 1. o
D illi g
r n i i h h l
se v e n i t hi k-
p t nc o es n c ar
of il f b l w
ra s, u se o n

Ei gh t h d M l t ipl d ill ( G
-
ea u y ); d i b y li
e- h ft 5 f t r an tr r ven ne s a 1 ee
l g 2 i h di m t wi th i gh t h g ; p d f li
on 1 nc es a e er, e an e rs s ee o ne
h ft 85 p m T h li h ft i th m i d i i g h ft f th
,

s a 0r . . . e ne s a s e a n r v n -
s a o e
m hi ac f m w hi h t h d ill h
ne , ro d d i cTh w k f e r -
ea s a re r ven. e or o
th m e hi i t h d illi g d m i g f h l i t l gi d
ac ne s e r n an re a n o o es n s ee r e rs
H l p h d i h d l g d by d ill t H i h ; H P
.

o es un c e nc an en ar e r s o nc 1 0- .

h tw dm t l t di t h ft
.

s un -
o un t dt
o o r , 2 20 v o s, re c -
co n n e c e o s a .

M t
o or d li an h f t w i t h f i ti ne s a r c on
w h l i
ee s t t— t ti g
n co n a c s ar n

5 d ill
r t w k
s a or

6 d ill
r t w k
s a or

7 d ill
r t s a
8 d ill
r t w k
s a or
M t w o or t f ffi ias no t p i ty o su c en ca ac .

A 5 H P m t
2 - w . b ti t t d
. o or as s u s u e .
336 D yN A M oM E TE R S

O bserved Horse-power .

D RI LL I N G -MAC HINE S Con ti n ued .

Del iv ered to
Mac h ine .

Ra i Drl ill p
r e sse s T wo S e e r s ra i
-
. ll l
ill p
dr - re s se s w e re o e ra te d t ro u g a p h h
li h
n e s a f t 70 f e e t o n g, 2 } n c e s di l i h
a m e te r , w t ihte n a n ge r s ; s e e d o f h p
h
S a ft 1 5 H P S un t m o to r , -
. . h
800 r p m 2 20 v o ts
. . l .

Mo t o r a n d n e s a f t ( b e t s o n o o s e li h l l
p ull y ) e s
D illi g ix
r n i h h l S -
nc o es in we b of

rail } i h t hi k 1 nc c .

i h h l
,

D ill i g i h
r h s x i
t
-
nc o es in w e b of
rail i h t hi k
, nc c .

Th i e f p w in cr e a s e o o er n th e l a tt e r
ca se i du t t h
s l ggi g e o e c o n o f the c hip s
b l w } i h d p th
e o 4
nc e .

BO RI N G M I -
LL S .

Ho r i t l B i g d D illi g M
zon a or n an r n a
chi ; p i ty } i h di m t
ne ca ac 11 nc es a e e r,

5 i
1 h l g; p d f b i g b
nc es on s ee o or n -
ar

f m 4 t
ro 6 b kg o d1 0 ac -
e a re .

R i g li gh t ( f m t 5
un n n ro . 10 o . 2
E l gi g i gi
n ar hh l t i h ; f d
n v -
nc o e o 2 nc es ee

.
33 i h p m i t ; ut t i g l i t y
nc er nu e c n v e oc

3 ft p m
1 t6 . 0 lb w. agh t 0 1 s . ro u

i p h
.

ro n er our .

H i t l
o r zon a B i g m hi ( P tt 81 or n - ac ne ra
W hi t y N d ub l h
ne dt o. 2 o e- ea ra v e rs e
d ill )
,

r .

D illi g
r n fi i h h l i hI d t -
l nc o es n ar oo

t
s ee l g p ,w f
a v e ra5 h e o er or -
o u r r un

A v e rag p w w hil e w k i g o er e or n

M xi m um p w du i g t t
a o er r n es .

H i t l B
o r zo n a i g d D illi g M or n an r n a
chi ( B m ne M il N e b ent es, o or
i g n ,mi g re a d f i g 7 h t 9
n an ac n -
1n c o

i hh l ; f 7h u
,

nc o es r un o 1 o rs.

B i g
or n g p w , a v e ra e o er .
338 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

O bserv e d Ho rse pow er -

.

BO RI NG MI -
LL S Cont i n u ed .

De l ivered to
Ma ch ine .

A no t h er m ac hi ne , f ac i ng fl a n ge s , two
to o s l .

Bo t h m hi b i g ac ne s g t or n , a v e ra e cu .

V t i l B i g m ill ( S ll ); t b l 4}
er ca or n -
e e rs a e
f t di m t ;
ee a t l h d; b i g
e er one oo -
ea or n
cas t t -
l d i t i 3 } ft di m t ;
s ee r ver re s , . a e er
S p d8 ee 5 H P G i bb m t -
. s o or,
lt
.

2 0 vo
4 s.

M t
o or on ly .

D i i g
r v n t h ft
co u n e r s a .

D i i g
r v n t h ft d i dl m hi
c o u n e rs a an e ac ne
D pt h f
e o t 3i h f d i h
cu nc , ee 1
1 , nc

V t i l B i g m ill ( B l dw i L m
er ca or n -
a n oco o

ti ve W k ); t b l 5 } f t di m t ;
or s a e . a e er
o ne t l h d; b i g t i d i
oo -
ea or n ca s - ro n r ve r

h b ; 8 H P G i bb m t
u -
. .
4 lt s o or , 2 0 vo s .

M t
o o r on ly .

D i i g
r v n t h ft
co u n e r s a

D i i g
r v n t h ft d i dl m hi
co u n e r s a an e ac ne
D p th
e f to i h; f d i h t 3
cu nc ee 1
1 , nc a
i hnc f m es tro ce n re
D pth f
e o t 3 i h; f d i h t 7
cu nc ee 1 ;
1 nc a
i h f m t
nc es ro c e n re

I t h f ll w i g t t
n e o f b i g m ill
o n di g wes s o t k wh or n - s re a n s e re a en , en

cu tt i g f
n ,m th fi t ro ly T h e di g f m th fi t
rs o ne on . e re a n s ro e rs

m hi
ac ne
g i fi g f
ve i d b lu re s
g f f d ; b ddi
o r a co n s
y g e ra e ra n e o ee s a n

the t
ne m ta f p w oun s f h t t o th di g f th
o er or t e cu s o e re a n s or e

l g m hi w h
ar er ac t nes ti g fi g m yb en bt i d f no cu t n , u re s a e o a ne or

th e p b b l p w f t h m hi w h
ro a e o er o tti g e se ac ne s e n cu n .

V t i l B i g m ill ( P d); t b l 8 ft
er ca or n -
on a e
di m t ; p d f h ft 8
.

a e er s t ee o co u n e r s a 1 0
p d f S h ft i
ee o co n e s a n s even
t p
,

s e f m 9s, ro36 73 H P
0 to 0 - .

m tp b l t d t 3 i h (l g t)
.

o r e e o 0- n c ar es co n e
p ll yu e ont h f t ; t ti gco u n e r s a s ar n
t orq f
ue o h ft i g 9 8 ft
co n e S a n ear, .

lb ; s. t ti g
s ar q f n h ft to r ue o co n e S a
o ut o f ge a r , 1 25 ft .
-
lb s .

Ru n n i ng i dl e in ge a r , l o we s t S p e ed
 AND TH E M E A S UR E M E N T OF PO WE R .
3 39

O bse rv e d Horse po wer

-
.

BO RI N G - —
m u s Con tin u ed .

D el iv ered to
Mac h ine .

Run n i g i dl n e in ge a r , n e xt t o hi gh t es

s p d ee
i g i dl
.

Run n n e o ut o f ge a r , l o we s t p d
s ee .

Ru n n i g i dl n e o ut o f ge a r , n e xt t hi gh
o

C utt i n g te sts on lo w s te e l;
we g t o n i h
be d a bo ut 1 00 l bs . ; cut t i ng S ee d 8 f t p .

p e r m i n u te .

Ru n n n g m a ci hi ne i dl l w t p e, o es s ee d,
in ge a r .

1 to o l {i h t w nc cu , fi i h f d -
nc ee

l i i h t {f i h f d
,

2 t oo s , -
nc cu nc ee

l i —i h t {f i h f d
,

2 t oo s , nc cu , nc ee

1 t oo l ii h u { i hf d
-
nc c t, f nc ee

l ii h t i hf d
,

2 t oo s, -
nc cu 8 - nc ee
, 1 ,
Wh b l t d f hi gh t p d it
en e e or es S ee
w ou ld q i 7i H P m t
re u re a t t t -
. o or o s ar

t hi m hi f t hi i
.

A m t
‘

s ac ne . o or . o s s ze
w ou ld h wi e bot er il y l g s e u n n e ce ssa r ar e.

V ti l B i g m ill ( P d); t b l
er ca or n -
on a e 10
f t di m t ;
ee p d f u
a e er h ft s ee o co n te r s a
1 95 p d f h f i S ee o co n e s a t, n
t p
se v e n s e f m 8 46 8 l ti
s, ro 1 to re v o u on s

p er m i t m t b l
nu et d t 3 i h o or e e o 0- n c

( l g t)p ll y
ar es t h ft ; 7}
u e on co u n e r s a
H P . h t m t ; t ti g t q
. S un o or s ar n or ue
o f h ft i g 9 8 ft l b
co n e s a n ear .
-
s.

R un n n i g i dl i g l w t p d e n ea r , o es s ee

R un n n i g i dl i g hi gh t
e n e a r . n e xt to es
s p d ee
R unn n i g i dl ut f g l w t p d e o o ea r , o es S ee

R un n n i g i dl t f g xt t hi gh
e ou o e ar , n e o
es t p d
S ee .

Lo ad on be d
l bs No a c a b o ut 1 00 .

cu ra te de t e r m na t o n c o u d be m a de o f i i l
the p
o we r n e ce s sa r y t o S t a r t t s ma hi
c hi
n e o u t o f ge a r , a s a s ta r t n g b a r h a d i -

to be u se d Be ts o t e r w s e s
. a nd l h i lip
run 03 .
34 0 D Y N A M O M E TE RS

O bser ved Horse-p o wer .

Bo a m c -
m u s —Contin u ed .
De l iv ered to
Mach ine .

V ti l
er ca ill ( P d); t b l
Bo r n g- m i on a e 12
f i
ee t p d f
d a m e te r ; s t h f ee o co un e r s a t
18 0 i p d f h ft n ne S ee s o co n e s a
i g l
n re t p f m 90
u ar s e 3 60 s, ro to
m t b lt d
o or 34 i h p ll y ( xt
e e to - nc u e ne
t ol g ) ar t h ft ; 7 } H P
e st on co u n e rs a 1 -
.

h t w d m t ; t ti g q
.

s un - o un o or s ar n to r ue
o f h ft i g
co n e S 3 f t l ba n ear 2 2 .
-
s.

R un n ni g idl i g l w t p d e n ea r , o es s ee
R un n ni g idl i g t hi d f m h gh e n ea r , r ro 1

es t p d S ee .

R un n ni g i dl t f g l w t p d e ou o ear , o es s ee
R un n ni g i dl t f g t hi d f
e m ou o ea r, r ro
hi g h t p d es s ee .

Lo a d o n be d, a b o ut 3000 l bs .

M I LL I N G - MA C HI ES A ND N G EA R
c ur r a ns.

Un i v e r sa l Milli ng m ac hi n e -
, sm a ll ( N o.

1 h p ); m illi g t
Br o wn 81 S ar e n ca s
i 7 tt i g p
,

ro n 0 d 3 ft p m cu n s ee 2 . . .

P w o q i d e r re m hi m p ty u re to r un ac ne e
i d g l y wi h t h
v ar e f f d
re a t t e ra te o ee

( f m
ro t 3 H P . 002 o . 1 . .

C t
u i h d p 3 i h w id m
. 10 nc ee . 1 nc es e, e
di m f d
u ee

Cut 5 i h
. d1p } i h w i
nc d m ee , 1 nc es e, e
diu m f e e d . .

A no t h er s i m il ar m ac hi ne , lli
m i n g cas t
ir o n , 1 1, nc cu t , 1 i h } i h nc i
e s w de , fe e d

1 i h
nc p eir m n u t e .

M illi g m hi

i
n
m illi g i i
t i
n ca s
( B
-
w S h
acp
h l t i hd p
; f t t f d
n
ro n
N ne
-
nc
as es
ro

S o
n

ee
1 “
.
ar
nc
e,
ee
o.

A g p w
v e ra f e h u o er or 2 o r ru
-

Milli g m hi n ( B w
n -
d Sh p
ac e ro n an ar e,
3 4 2 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

O bse rve d Horse -po wer .

M LL N
I I G - M A C H I N E S A ND G EA R
U C T T ERS Con tin u ed .
Deliv er ed to
Mach ine .

G i h t m t i (G ld
e a r -c ut t e r , so- nc au o a c ou

Eb h dt ld t yl );
er utt i g 5
ar ,
o s e c n
pi t h g m
c hi t l ; f ear,} ac ne- s e e ace 2
i h ; f dgfi i h p m i ut
nc es ee nc er n e.

S t dy w k f
ea 5 h or or ours
‘
Milli g m hi n fn t -
l pl g ac d e or s e e at e s , e a re

t o h t w d m t ; di m t f
s un -
o un o or a e er o

cu tt 6 i h ; f
ers 8 i h ;f d nc es ace 1 nc es ee
2 i h p mi nc ; 5 H P es lt er n u te -
. . 2 2 0- v o
m t I u
o or th P.
yd S t l n se at e e n co ee
W k or s.
’
M o to r a n d e m pt y m ac h in e
Mo to r l ti a nd o ne to o c ut ng 13 i h
nc es

wi d 2 i hd p e, 3 ; nc ee

M t o ord t l ti an o ne oo cu t n g 13 i h
nc es
wi d i hd p e, 1
1 , nc ee .

M t w o or p bl as n o t ca a e of do i ng the
w k or d h t d b dl y an ea e a o w ng i to a
i l d
,

t t x
co n s a n e ce s s v e oa .

MI LL N I G- S A W S .

l
C o d sa w -
i h di m t
( Ne wt o n ) 2 0- n c a e e r,
1 i h thi k ; p d 8
,

1 , nc 9 c s ee 1 2
t h ; H P i di i d l h t m t
eet 2- . n v ua s un o or ,
l
.

1 000 2 20 v o ts .

S wi g 9 i
a h il 8 l b p y d
n -
nc ra s, 1 0 s . er ar .
to

Th M illi g w
re e 3 i h di m t
n -
sa s, 0- n c a e er,
i h t hi k d i
nc b y li h ft 3 5
c r ven ne s a
f tl g &i h di m 7h
,

ee on 1g ; nc a e te r , an e rs
p d f li h f t 86
,

S ee o ne s a 0 10
H P h . t w . d m t
s un lt -
oun o o r, 2 20 v o s,
pl d di
co u t li h ft
e r e ct o ne s a .

M oto r d li h f (b lt
an l ne s a t e s on oo se
p ll y )
u e s
D i i g li
r v n h ft d w
ne s wi g a an o n e sa , sa n

7 x i i hIb m -
nc ea s .

D i i g li
r v n h ft t w w ne s h w a o sa s , e ac sa
i g tw
n xfi h h
o l b m
12 -
tnc c an ne ea s,
 A ND THE M E A s URE M E N 7 O F P 0 WE R .
34 3

O bserv ed Hors e-pow e r .

MI LLI NG -
SA W S Con t in u ed .
De l l v e re d to
Mac h ine .

an d o n e sa w , saw ng i 7X Q -
i h nc I

Ho t -
sa w l S l ; 48 i h
fo r S t r u ct u r a te e -
nc
i
d a m e te r , i i h t hi k ; p d 8 nc c s ee 1 00
s h t or h ft b t w
co u n t e r - s a e ee n
m o to r an d w h ft ;
sa 5 H P m t- s a 12 -
. o or,
2 2 0 v o ts , c ur re n tl fro m 1 5 to 3 00 a m p .

Mo to r co u n t e rs h a ft , a n d sa w r un n ng i
i dl
,

e
C ti g
ut 4 X 4 X 3i
n h gl
one 4 -
nc an e
C t i g
u t n xii h fi t o ne 1 0 -
nc a .

C tt i g 9 X i i hIb m
u n — one nc ea .

C ti g
ut x l i h I b m m xi m m
n 20 - nc ea s, a u
an d mi im m l f h t
n u v a ue s o r ea c cu :
Fi t t
rs § mi t cu 2 nu es 2 2 to e st.
, to 42
A th
no t 55 d
e r cu se c o n s 2 2 to
to 79
.
,

H t o -w 3 i
sa h di m t l i h t h i k ;
, o- n c a e e r, nc c
p d 8 ft p
s ee 000 . . 111 .

R i g i dl
un n n e .

C u tt i g 5 i n h d i ( d h t)-
nc ro u n ro n re o
m i ut
,

f d 4 f t p
ee . ee er n e

Bot/r c v r r na s ,
'
N UT -
T A P I N G A NDP
PI PE -
T H REA D I N G MA C HI NES .

S i gl
n l
Bo t a n d N u t Ma c n e ; s e e d o f
e hi p
di e 76 c u tt n g f n c ro n i i h i
b lo t s 2 5 in c h e s o n g , 8 fi n s e d in 5 l ih
mi n u te s .

A v e ra ge p o we r fo r 3 -
h o ur te s t

Bo lt -
( Z i m m
cut te rm S ll t y p ) er a nn- e ers e .

W ill t b l f m i t } i h ; p d
cu o ts ro o 1 nc s ee
f di
o 6 t 58 es 1
p m o r . . .

R i g i dl (f m t H P )
un n n e ro . 12 o . 2 .

C tt i g i i h w h i l
.

u n g t 1 b -
t nc ro u -
ro n o s,

W hi t w t h t h d or t p d f rea , o ne cu , S ee o

di 54
es p m r. . .

Th m
e sa b t p d f die, 36 p m u s ee o es r. . .

Th m
e sa b t p d f die, 6 p m u s ee o es 1 r . . .
344 D YN A M OME TE RS

O bse r ved H orse - pow e r .

BO L T-C U T T E RS , N UT -
Pu m
T A P PI N G A N D
MA C H I NE s—Co n t zn n ed De liver ed t o
'

T H R EA D I N G
Mach ine
.

C u tt i§ i
ng h b l t w ~
nc
g h t i o s, ro u ro n ,
s p
d f diee 58 p m
o es r . .

C g fi
u tt n i i h b l w -
nc
g h t i o ts, ro u ro n ,
s p
d f diee 7 p m o es 1 r . .

N t t ppi g M hi
u -
a th n t p 60 ac ne , r ee a s, 1
3 ( i 1 t t pp d p
00 “ U- 0 0 ] nu s a e er
h ; il b th
ou r o a .

A v e ra
g p w f 4
e h o t er or -
0u r t e s

P ip t h e- di g M hire a 3 i
n h; 3 ac ne , -
nc
H P C . k Wh l m
. ro c h t
e r- ee e r o to r s , s un
w d
o un p d 95 p m b l d t
, S ee 0 r . . e te o
h f
,

t
co u n e r s a t.

R i g i dl
unn n e

C tt i g i i
u n h pip 4 p m I i- nc e, 0 r . .

Th di g
re a i h pip 4 5
n -
nc e,

Th di g 3 i
re a h n p m
-
nc 21 r .

Th di g 3 i h 3 pm
, .

rea n -
nc , 2 r . .

Sp d w ee t g t i as hi l tt oo re a n t s a er

; di
ca s e w b es d e re ur n e .

P ip t h e- di g M hi re a 8 i n h m ac ne, -
nc , sa e
m o to r as a bo v e .

i l i
R u n n ng d e , 1 2 r p m . . .

i i h pip
C utt n g 4 nc e, 1 2 -

h i i h pip
T re a d n g 4 - n c p
e , sa m e s e e d .

h i i h pip
T r e a d n g sfi n c e p
sa m e S e e d -
.

i h i pip i h
,

T he 5 fi nc is ca s n g -
e w t fi ne -

h
t r e a ds— c u t n o t s o h i h
eav y as 4 nc -

re g l pip
u ar t hi l tt t k m e s a er oo o re

th an 5 mp 2 — th p i ty f th
a e re s e ca ac o e
a m m ete r .

P U N c m NG A N D S H E A R I N G MA C H I N E S .

Do ub l e P un c h
S h e a r ( Lo n g A ll
a nd

s ta t t e t ); m o t o r b e t e d d r e ct ; s e a r l i h
i h
in g E n c r o u n d s te e , a s o u n c n g
-
l l p hi
{3
7
n
-
ci h ro un d o e s in i - n c c an neh l i h h l
iro n — 4 at a t me i .

A v e r a ge p o we r f o r 3 §~ h o ur r un .
346 D YN A M O M E TE RS

O bs e rve d Hor se po wer .

PUNcm N G A ND S uu nm o MA C HI NES
Ccm tin ued .
De l iv e red to
Machine .

5 H -
P i .d i i
. d l
n h tv m t b ua l t d s un -
o or e e

t o m hi ac p d f mt ne S 000ee o o or 1
0 lt 22 vo s.

St ti g p
ar n h unc .

P u hi g t h
nc n i hh l i r ee k f -
nc o es n n ec o
ra il i h t hi k
s, nc c to 3 .

Tw oA gl p n h e- d unc D ub l es an one o e
P l t pl a e- ; d i aner b y li h ft 4 5
r ven ne s a

f t l
ee g on fi i h , d i zm t w -
i t
nch a e er,

se v e n h g ; p d f li an e rs h ft S ee o ne s a

7 5 0 p m r; 5 H. P h t w 2 -
d . . S un - o un

pl d di t t li h ft ;
.

m t o or co u e rec o ne s a
2 20 v o lt t s, 0 mp 10 pu h
o 11 a e re s nc
i g d
n ld
o n e co .

M t o or d li an h ft ( b l t ne l s a e s on oo se
p ull y ) e s
O ne m hi ac p hi g h l H i h
ne unc n o es nc
di m t a i
e e r 1ni h g l -
nc an es e st.
Tw m o hi p hi g h l
ac ne s i h
un c n o es nc
di m t a }
e e r 1ni h g l 1 nc an es

Tw p o h un c d d b l pl es a n w k ou e a ne r , or

i gn
M m t f
o en o m g pl re v e rs a ne r to 2 1 t o 24 e st.
Th pl e d p
ane r h an b lt d unc es a re e e
f m
ro t h ft E h p h h
co u n e rs a . ac un c as
tw o 1000 l b fl y w h -
l .
-
ee s.

S m ll C a ppi g hro g n dt m t s ears

; e a re o o or

av e r a
g h te c f w k
a ra c e r oh i g or , s ea r n

h t o t l s ee i h q 1 ; H Pnc s u are 1 . .

m t o o r , 2 2 0 vo lt ; t i df m s cu r r e n var e ro
2t 9} o mp a e re s .

M t o or an d h s i g e a r s , r u nn n . .

M t o or d anh t th S m m
e a rs t f a e o en o

cutti g ( w i t hn h t fi l d il ) s un e -
co s .

M t o or d anh t th S m me ar s t f a e o en o
cutt i g ( w i t h
n mp d fi ld co il ) o un e -
co s

M t w
o or t f fi i t
a s no p i ty o su c en ca ac

t o d th o w k e A ft or mp di g er co o un n
il f th m t th
.

t h fi ld
e e -
co s o t e o or e cu rr e n
 A ND TH E M E A s URE M E N T OF P 0 WE R .
347

O bse rv ed Horse- power .

P UNCH N I G A ND S H EA RI N G MA c m a
Con t in u ed De l iv e red t o
Mach ine
.

wa s re duce d a bo ut 4 am p e re s , but the

m achi ill m i d i ufi i t
n e st re a ne ns c en .

Scr ap h -
s t d di t t m t
e a r s , co n n e c e ; rec o o or
pi i fi tt d w i h lippi g l t h ;
n on e t s n c u c
h i g d
s ear n l d; 5 H P h t o ne co 1 -
. . s un
w d m t
ou n l t
o o r , 2 2 0 v o ts c u r re n va

i d f m 0 t 73 m p
r e ro 1 o a e re s .

M t o o r and h t ti g s ea r s , s a r n
R i g i dl t p d
un n n e, a S ee
C tt i g 4 x i i
u n h l pl t -
nc s te e a e.

C tt i g 7 x i i
u n h t l pl t -
nc s ee a e
C ti g
ut n x Q i h t l pl t
11 -
nc s ee a e
Sh i g t l il 3 i h h i gh 5
ea r n s ee ra s nc es . 2 }

i hb nc i i h t
a se , 1d -
nc re a .

Sh i g
ea r n lb } i h d
st e e i m t a rs 2 1 nc es a e e r.

Scra p h -
sm m hi e a rs, s a p d e ac ne as re ce
i g n , d di
co n n e c t e
t mp d re c to co o un
w d m t
o un ; h i gd o or ld; s ea r n o ne co
m t th
o or m p di g w i t h
e sa e as r e ce n
w i di g hn g d; n lt g 0
c an e vo a e 22 cu r
mp
,

t f
re n m t 5 ro 10 o 0 a e re s .

M t o o r and h t ti g s e a rs , s ar n
R i g i dl t p d
un n n e a S ee
Sh i g 6} x i i h pl
ear n -
nc a te
Sh i g x i i h pl
ea r n 11 -
nc a te
Sh i g t l il m
ea r n s eep di g ra s sa e as r e ce n .

Sh i g t lb
e ar n
} i h
s ee d i m a rs 2 nc es a e te r.

Mo to r I np ut .

C om po u n d
w o un d .

Do ub l
A ng e s ears ( H e s
e l hon es)
-
, ill J
co n n e c te d d r e ct to m o to r i
C o m ar . p i
h
s o n o f S u n t a n d co m o u n d w n d n g ; p i i
40 -H P m o t o r ; v o ta ge 2 2 0 ; s e a r
. . l h
in g do n e co d l .

Mo t o r a nd s h e a r s , s ta r t n g. i
Mo t o r a nd s h e a r s , r u n n ng i
C u tt i ng 6 x 3} xi -
i h
nc ste e l an g e s. l
 34 8 D YN A M O ME TE RS

O bse rv ed Horse-powe r .

P UN C H I N G A ND S u rn a m e MA c m s
Con tin u ed . Del ivere d to
Mach ine .

P l ha te S e a r s , a rge ( Ha r tma n n ); 2 8 ncl -

i h
bl a de s ; s t ro e 3 nc es ; 7 st ro es k i h k
p m i u
er t n e.

M hiac u ne r nn ng i i dl e .

C t i g
u t n i 1 - nc h i pl ro n a te , i
co n t n u o us
cu t a t r a t e o f 3}
S h ea r l
f o r C o d S te e P l a te s , ge a re d to l
1 0- H P m o t o r s u n t wo u n d, 2 2 0
. . . h -

vo l t s , cu r r e n t f ro m 5 t o 77 a m e r e s p .

Mo to r and S h ea rs , s ta r t n g i
i h
Ru n n n g d e w e n a t s e e d i l p
i
C ut t n g 3 } x i n c i h pl a te -

i
C u tt n g 8 X fi n c i h pl a te -

i
C u tt g 4 X i
n 1 i h pl
- nc a te

T h e flo w o f c u r r e n t wa s e xc e s s v e i
q
a n d f re u e n t y l i j n u r e d t h e a r m a t ur e .

A s lippi ng l h
c u tc b q
w a s s u se u e n t y l
p i
ro v de d f o r pi i
n on No i j
n u r y to .

l h
a r m a t u r e o cc u r r e d a f t e r t h e c u t c wa s
adde d . l
T h e re s u t s o f te s t s m a de o n
t h e m ac hine h
t us e u q ipp ih
ed w t t he
slippi l h
n g c u tc ll
we r e a s f o o w s
h i
Mo to r a n d s e a r s , s t a r t n g
i i l h
Ru n n n g d e w e n o n ce u p t o s e e d p .

i
C u tt n g 8 x 1 n c i h pl a te -
.

C ti g 9 x } i
ut n h pl t 1 -
nc a e

C utt i g 9 x H i n h pl t1 -
nc a e

A gln h
e- s wi t h fl y w h l
ea rs , f -
ee o 1 000
p d ; di
oun by
s t h ft 6
r ve n co u n e r s a

f ee t l g i i h di m t on 7 z -
nc a e e r, 00
h pl
,

r.
p m .
g ; m t
2 and d i e rs o o r co u e

re ct t h f; 5H P m t
to co u n e rs a t 1 - . . o or,

225 l f m v o ts , 4 mp ro to 0 a e re s .

M t o o r an d t h ft (b l t l
co u n e r s a e s on o o se

Sh i g
ear n 6} x 4 X fi i o ne h t l -
nc s ee
ang l l d e , co 12 . I e s t.

Hyd li S h i g m hi ( T gy
ra u c ea r n -
ac ne an e

7 i h bl d ; 3i i h
1 -
nck a es -
nc s t ro e

M hi ac i g i dl
n e r un n n e

C tti g 1 x 5 i h fl t i
u n 2 -
nc a ro n
350 D YN A M O M E TE RS

O bser ved Horse power

-
.

G arND 1NG -
11 A cn rN s xv— Con tin u ed
'

.
De l iv ered t o
Machine .

h
w e e l s 9 a n d 1 1 inc h es; 2 - nc i h f ace ;
p
S e e d 1 5 00 r p m . . .

T wo m e n w o r li gh t w kki n g, g or , a v e ra e
h
fo r 1 o u r .

T wo me n wo r g h y ki
w k n , ea v or

Gi d f
r n er or Pl
d Sh p k i
ane r an a er -
n ves

( K i
e rr ck ); p m y w h
cu l 8 i h e er -
ee , nc es
di m ta 800
e e r, p m 1m t b l t d r. . o or e e
di t;
re c bl t l 8i h i
ta e ra v e 1 nc es n o ne
ca se a n d i h i 11 th nc es n an o e r.

A v e ra g p e w i oh t t er n 2- o ur es

T oo l g i d ( G i h l t); i h wh l
-
r n er s o 1 1 - nc ee .

G i di g h p t l
r n n s og f
-
h
o o s , a v e ra e o r 2- o ur

A v e ra g w hil
e w ki g e or n .

G i di g m hi ( L di ); g i di g
r n n -
ac ne an s r n n
h d d t l yli d fr i h h l ;
ar e ne s ee c n er I nc o e
1fi i-
h wnch l ee .

A ve ra g p e w f } h
o er or 2 o u rs .

G i di g m hi ( B w 8 S h p
r n n -
ac ne ro n 1 ar e,
N o. 7i h w h l ; g i di g
-
nc ee r n n cas t
i ro n 2 i h di m t 3 i h l g;
nc es a e e r, nc es on
l h d d t l } i h di m
a so ar e ne s ee 1 nc es a
t
e e r, 8 i h l g nc es on .

A v e ra g p e w f 5 ho u er or -
o ur r n

G i di g m hi ( B w
r n n -
ac Sh pne ro n ar e,
No .

p w f
A v e ra ge h o er o r 2- o u r run w i th 11
i h wh l
nc ee

A noth i m il m hi
er s ar ac ne gr n d n g i i
h d d t l ; wh l p
ar e ne s ee ee s ee d o f 2 2 00
r. p m . .

A v e r a ge p o we r fo r 2} ho ur s

Sa w -
gr n i
de r ; di a m e te r o f e m e r
y w -
h e el
 AND THE M E A S URE M E N T OF P 0 WE R .
35 I

O bserv ed Ho rse power

-
.

G R I N D I N G - M A C H I NE R Y Co n tin u ed .
Del ive red to
Ma ch ine .

11 } i h nc es ; t hi k c ne ss 1 »
i h;
nc v e o c ty l i
5 5 00 ft p m . . . at 1 85 0 r. p m . .

Ru n n i i l ng d e .

h p i g w
S ar en n sa .

P li h i g m hi
o s n d ub l ; m t
-
ac b lt ne, o e o or e
e d di t; 4 i h wh l ; w k
re c 1 -
nc ee s or
c ro wd d h il y e eav .

A v e rag p w f e h o er or 1 our .
M i m m f o di
ax u y w ki g or r na r or n .

V i ti
ar a dd dl g
o ns s u en an ar e.

G i dt
r n fi
s o ne ,
g i d f t l ;3 ne- ra n e or oo s 1
i h di m t 6 i h f ;
,

nc es a e e r, -
nc a ce run

wi t h p ll y t 4 4 d 8 5
co n e u e a 2 0, 1 0 an
r. p m . p . di g l i t i
co r r e s on n ve oc e s 2 000 ,

1 2 00, ft p m
700 . . .

i l i
R u n n n g d e a t 8 5 a n d 1 40 r p m ( w t . . . ih
h
co u n t e r s a f t)
h
C o u n t e rs a f t a o n e l .

Gi i
r n d n g wr o ug t- r o n s to c 2 } nc e s h i k i h
p
b roa d re ss u re o f 5 6 lbs ; v e o c ty o f
, . l i
S to n e 700

Gir n ds t o n e , co ar se - gr ain e d. 43 i h nc es
i
d a m e te r , 1 1 } i h nc es fa ce , 1 50

l i
v e o c t y 1 700 f p m t . . .

R i g i dl
un n n e
k3 i h
.

G i di g w ugh t i
r n n t ro -
ro n s oc nc es

wid wi the, p f 3 lba re ss ur e o 1 0 s .

ag i t th
a ns t e S o ne

G i dt
r n 7 f t
s o ne ,i d i m t 8 5 p m . n a e er, r. .

i g l i ty 9 f t p m
cu tt n v e oc 1 00 . . .

G i di g pl w
r n n g po w f s, a v e ra e o er or

4 h - t t
our es .

A v e rag p w e w hil w oki g er e or n

M xi m um d i g t t
a ur n es
35 2 D YN A M O ME TE R S

O bse rv ed Horse- power

G
.

WO O D WO RK - IN MA C HI N ER Y .

Deliv ered to
W O O D -
LA T HE .
Mac hine .

Pa tte r n -m
ak l th m ll w i g but er s
’
a e, s a s n
h y p tt ; p d 9
eav a e rn s ee 00
m t o orb l t d di t t l t h
e e re c o a e.

M t idl
o or e
D i i g l t h i dl
r v n a e e .

T i g
u rn n d p pl i h di
s e a so n e o a r, 1 2 nc es
a m t i h t
e er, -
nc cu .

m k F i g l th
’
P tt
a e rn -
a 3 i her s ac n -
a e, 2 o
nc
f pl t ; w ill w i g
a ce - a e i h ; s n 1 00 nc es

s p d f m 44 t 4 8 p m
ee ro o 0 r . . .

Ru i g i dl ( f m 5 t
nn n e ro . 1 o

F i g 4 i
ac n h di k pi h i h d p th
o- n c s , ne , w
y
- nc e

o f t; b
cu dt h 0 i h ; l i ty f
r ea . 2 nc v e oc o

rim 2 5 00

Co y p i l h ( Bl h d t y p ) f
n g- a t e anc ar e or
t ur n n i g h m m h dl p k a e r- an es , s o es,

e t c. ; w ill w i g 5 i h di m t 4 5
s n nc es a e er ,

in c h l g ; p d f w k 6 t 40
es on s ee o or o
o f c ut te r , 2 3 00.

Ru n n i ng i dl e ( f ro m 7 t o 44
. 1 .

T ur n in g a s h a xe - h and es l
WO O D -
L
P A NE RS , MA T C HE RS , A ND S HA P
[ NO - M A C H I N E S .

W oo d - pl i h; p d f k i
a n e r, 1 7
- nc s ee o n ve s
235 0 p m r 4.
7 f t
.
p m i ut. or 00 . er n e
i m f ti l l i t y
c rcu e re n a v e oc .

R un n n i g i dl e .

Pl an ni g i h pi b d d pt h f
1 1 - nc ne o ar s, e o
cu t 4 i . h f d 4 ft p m i ut
2 nc , ee 1 . er n e .

W d pl
oo -
j i t 4 i h ( yl i
ane r or o n er, 2 -
nc c n
d er m hi ) ; h
ac d f d; b l t p ll y
ne an ee e u e

4 i - h di m t 5 i h f ; p d f
nc a e er , -
nc a ce S ee o
k i 3
n ves tt i g p
2 00 d 4000 cu n s ee
m t b l t d di t t k i f
o or e e re c o n e
c y li d n er.

M to or o n ly .
3 54 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

O bser ved Horse-pow er .

WO O D -
PL A N E RS , MA rc n s xs '

, A ND S HA P
1 NG N A c n 1 s- — Con t in u ed De l iv e red to
Ma c h ines
.

Pl i g
an n se a s o n e d o a k , c u t 11, i hd p
nc ee
i h
20 nc es w de , i 12

W o o d s ur fa ce r-
24 i h ; W hi t
nc ne y s
’
pa t
i th l i g bl ll
,

te r n w e e vat n ta e and ro
fe e d ; s e e p d o f k i 8 75
n ves 1 r .
p m . or
i g p d
.

2 2 50 ft p m . . . c u tt n s ee .

R u n n n g dl e i i
l i
P a n ng 1 1 nc i h pi b d d p h f -
ne oa r s, e t o
i h
cut f , n c , f e e d f p m 10 t . .

Woo d pl -
6 i h (W ith b y R gg
ane r, 2 -
nc er u
Ri h d p k i 35
,

); c d f ar so n s ee o n ves 00
r. p m . .

Pl i g G gi pi
an n d m pl by
eo r a ne an a e 2

4 i h nc g p w ; 3 h t
e s , a v e ra t e o er -
o ur es

i ti dl g
,

var a dd ons su e n an ar e

M xi m m p w
a u o er

W d pl
oo -
d M t h 6 x 4 i
ane r h an a c e r, 1 -
nc

( Gl C en) h f t 70 ove
p s a 0 tO
ut t
c 5 i h di m
e rs id 6 i h nc es a e te r , s e nc es
di m t ; pa d 36 e er 9 b i s ee 00 1 cu c
f ee th m l k hip p h e oc c s er o ur to
Th h ml e k w q it w t e oc as u e e .

W d pl
oo -
d M ld ; 8 i
ane r h 4 id an o er - nc -
s e
m l di g m hi
o ( Eg );
n ll f d;
- ac ne an ro ee

d i i g h ft
r v n t p stt a 1 1 00 0 cu er

5 i -
h di m t 4
nc p m a b i e er, 000 r . . . cu c
f t w hi
ee pi hip p h f d
te - ne c s er o ur , ee

25 ft p m . .

W o o d- pl d M ld ; 3 i
ane r a n hh y o er 1 -
nc ea v

4 -
i d s m l d ie g m hi w i t h ll f d
o n ac ne ro ee

( R b i
o ) ; 7 5
n sonp m f t h h i 1 0r . . . o e o r zo n

t l k i
a 8 p m
n v es , 1 f h ti l 00 r . . . o t e ver ca .

R unn n i g i dl e
S f i g 9 i
ur a c n h pi b d d pt h f -
nc ne oa r , e o

cut i h f d 7 ft p m nc , ee . .
.

Edg M l di g
e d S h pi g M hi
o n an a n ac ne

( Z i m m m ) ; er t i l pi d lan n v er ca s n e 2 000
tt i g l i ty cu f t p n ve o c 2 02 0 ee er
 AND THE M E A S UR E M E N T OF PO WE R .
355

O bse rved Horse po w er

-
.

WO O D -
P L A NERS , M A T C HE R S A N D S H A P ,

1 NG - M A C H 1 N E s— Con t i n u ed De live re d to
Mach ine
.

i
m n u te ; c u t te r 3 } n c e s dia , 1 } - i h . i h nc
fa ce ; 6 c u t t n g f a ce s , 3 fo r r g t i -
i h and

l
h
3 f o r e f t a n d r o ta t o n -
i .

Run n n i g i dl e
C utt n gi s o ft wo o d m o d l i ng, fe e d 4 f t .

Ca rv e r and l
M o de r ; sp d f ee o c u t te r

5 2 50 r .
p m m o to r b l t d di
e e re c t to
pi dl
.

c u tt e r - s n e.

Mo to r on ly .

Dr i i
v n g cu tte r i dl e
tt i
C u n g gr o o v e , c r c u a r s e c t o r , 2 n c e s i l i h
w 1de , i h p
nc de e , 3 } fe e t pe r m n ut e i
hi pi
in w te ne .

W d h p
oo (
-
B s M hi a W k) er uss ac ne or s
tw h d; k i
o 3} ieah di s n ves nc es a.
tt i g } i h h d m pl ; h pi g
,

cu n 2 - nc ar a e s a n
t o ligh t s t m pl t ; b t h cu r v e on e a e o

h d i
ea s n u se .

A v e ra
g p w f 4 he t t o er or -
o ur es

WO O D -
BO RIN G , M O RT I S I N G , AND
T E N O NI NG M A C H I N ES .

W o o d b o r i n g Ma c hi n e ;
-
s p eed o f bit 3 75
h an d fe e d ; m o t o r be l te d to
bit -
s h a f t.

Mo t o r ly on .

D i i g m hi
r v n i dl ac ne e

B i g 4 i
or n h h l i d k -
nc o e n s e aso n e oa ,

10f t p mi t
ee er nu e .

W d b i g M hi ; b l t p ll y 8
oo -
or n ac ne e u e
i h di m t 3 i h f ; p d
nc es a e e r, -
nc a ce s ee

75 0 h d f d; m t b l t d an ee o or e e

t m o hi h ft ac n e- s a .

M t
o or only
D i i g m hi
r v n i dl ac ne e . .

B i g
or n i h h l i k f d
1 -
nc o e n oa , ee

i h p mi
nc es er n u te
B i g & i
or n h h l i k f d 8}
1 nc o e n oa , ee
i h p mi t
nc es er nu e
356 D Y N A M O M E TE RS

O bse rv e d Horse-powe r .

WO O D -
BO R I N G , M o nr re c , A ND T EN
O N1N G M A C H N ES
I -
Co n t in u ed De l iv e re d t o
Mach i n e
.

G an g Bo r i
hi ( W illi m W hi t
n g- m a c ne a s, e
m b l d di t ; fi h it
o to r e te re c ve s
d i r ve n by 6 i h b l ; p d f bit -
nc e t s ee o s
2 000 d i h bit 1 s
7 “
: an -
nc s .

B i g h d m pl
or n ar 2 i h t hi ka e 1 nc es c ,

f d6 fee p mit er n u te

Fi t t mi
.

rs en f th
n u te s g o run e a v e ra e
p w w o er as
Th mm
e a h wd e te r s pp i b l o e no a rec a e
difi e re n c e wh h bi w et w ki g er ts e re or n
o r ru n n n i g i dl e .

H i or zo n a t l W d m ti oo d B i g -
or se r a n or n

m hi ; w ill m t i 8} i h d p
ac ne or se nc es ee
by i h l g ; 86 t k p
11 nc es on s ro es er
mi t
nu e.

R i g m pty
un n n e .

C tt i g m
u n i ft w d } i
o r t se 1 n s o h oo 1 nc es

wid e, t hi k f c t i h m
n e ss o cu nc , ean

cutt i g n l i t y 9 ft p m i t
ve oc 0 . er nu e .

H i or zo n a t l W d m ti oo dB i g -
or se r a n or n

m hi ac ; will m
ne ti 8} i h d p or se nc es ee ,

11} i h
nc l g ; esp d f onm 4 t s ee s ro 00 o

55
1 0 r p . . 111 .

R un n ni g i dl ( f m 6 5 t e H ro . o .

B i g 4 i
or n h h l i pi
-
nc o e n ne 1 000
f d 7} i h p mi t
,

ee nc es er nu e .

T e no n d M ti
an (Z i m m m or ) se r er ann
w ill t t
cu 6} i h l g; p d
enon nc es on s ee
f
o tt
cu f t
e rs 45 or p m eno n 1 0 r . . .
,

cutt i g n l i t y 4 5 ft p m i t
v e oc 00 . er nu e.

R un n ni g i dl e

C tt i g t
u n i pi 5} i h l g
enon n ne nc es on

by i h d p ; f d (by h d)f m
nc ee ee an ro

6 i nc h t ft p m i t
es o 2 . er nu e

T enon d M ti
an ( H t m
or ); ill
w se r ar ann

cut t 8} i
e no n h ; p d f k i nc es s ee o n v es

2 000 r .
p m . .
35 8 D YN A M O ME TE RS

O bserved Horse -pow er .

Ce uL A x S A ws . A ND BA ND S A W S -
Con
t in n ed Deliv e re d to
Mach in e
.

S p e ed 2 200 r .
p m . . or 81 00
ar bo r p llu ey 3 i h di m t
-
nc a e er, 5 i h nc
- -

fa ce ; a nd h f d; 7} H P
ee o
. . s h t un
w o u n d m o to r b l t d di t e e re c to sa w

ar bo r .

Mo t o r on ly
Mo t o r a n d sa w de i l
R ippi g n se a so n e d h e a rt - o a k 3} i h nc es
t hi k c , 12 ft p m
. .

C r o ss -
i
C rc u a r S a w , 1 6 nc e s d a m
cu t l i h i
e t e r ; 1 780 r p m o r 75 00 f t p m
. . . . . .

Sa w ngi pi ne 1 } x 1 2 i hnc e s a v e ra ge

p o w e r in 1 h '
o u r s run
i pl i h
S a w n g m a e 3 x 1 2 nc e s ; a v e ra ge
p o w e r in 1 h ’
o u r s r un
V i i i
a r a t o n s s u dde n ; m a x m u m p o we r .

Ci l S w 4 i h di m t ; t hi k
rc u a r a , 2 nc es a e er c
ness i h ; p d 74 f t p nc s ee
’

00 . . 111 .

R i g i dl
un n n e o

R ippi g 7} in h pi 7 ft p m
-
nc ne , . .

R ippi g 7} in h h 4 ft p m
-
nc as , . . .

Ci l Rip w 4 i h di m t ;
rcu a r -sa
, 2 nc es a e er

Sp d 5 ee p m 1 00 94 r. . . or 00
h d f d; m t b l t d di t t
an ee o or e e re c o

7 i - h p
nc ll y w u h f t
e o n sa - S a .

M t d i i g w i dl
o or r v n sa e .

Rippi g d h k 6 i h
,

n t
s e a so n e ea r -
oa nc es

t hi k c ft p m 10 .

R ippi g d w hi t pi 6} i
.
,

n se a so n e h e ne nc es

t hi k c 5 ft p m 1
Rippi g d y ll w pi i h
. .
,

n s e a s o ne e o ne 2 nc es

t hi k 4 5 ft p m
c , . . .

Ci l R ip w 8 i h di m t ;
rc u a r -
sa 2 nc es a e er

p d
,

S ee p m1 2 00 8 8 f t p m r . or 00 . .

b p ll y 5 } i h di m t b y 8 }
. . .

ar or u e nc a e er

i h f ; h d f d; m t b l t d
nc a ce an ee o or e e

t w h ft
o sa - s a .

M t o o r an d w i dl sa e .
 AND THE MEA S URE M E N T OF P 0 WE R .
3 59

O bser v ed Ho rse po w er
-
.

C I RC UL AR SAW S A ND BA N D S A W S -
Con
t i n n ed .
De l iv ered to
Machm e .

Rippi g n s e a so n e d h e a rt - o a k 7} i h nc es

t hi k ; f c eed 1 0 ft p m
. .

Ci l S
rc u a r i h di m t ; t hi k aw, 35 nc es a e er c
n e ss i h ; p d 775 ft p m
. 12 nc S ee 0 . . .

R i g i dl
u nn n e

Ripp i g 7} i h pi 9 f t p m i t
n -
nc ne , ee er nu e
R ippi g 7} i h h 5 f t p mi t
n -
nc as , ee er nu e .

Ci l S w 6 i h di m t
rc u a r a , 0 nc es a e er .

S wi g
a i h d k l g f d 33
n 2 1 - nc re -
oa o s, ee
6 q f t f f t 2 s u a re ee o s u r a ce cu

p erm i t nu e

S wi g 5 i
a n h h l g f d 43
1 -
nc as o s, ee

54 s q u a re fe e t o f s u r f ac e c u t
pe r m in
u te
ih
S a m e w t fe e d o f 4 5 f t p m . . .

i
S a w n g 6- n c re d o a k o g s, i h
f e e d 70 l
ft .pm , 3 5 s q ua re f e e t s u r face cu t pe r
. .

mi n ute

i h h l p
Ba n d S a w , 2 8 n c b a n d w e e s ; S e e d -

4 80 r p m o r 3 5 00
. li l
n ea .f e e t pe r
i l p ll i h i
.

m n ute ; b e t u e y 1 2 n c e s d a m e -

ter i h
3} n c h
f ac e ; a n d f ee d; m o to r
-

l h
,

b e te d to sa w- S a ft .

M t o or only
M t d
o o r an w i dl sa e
R ippi g n d k 3 i h thi k
s ea s o n e oa nc es c
mi
,

f d } f t p
ee 2 t ee er nu e
R ippi g n d pi 3 i h t hi
s ea so n ek ne nc es c ,

f d4 f t p
ee mi t ee er nu e
C t
r o s s - cu d k 3} i h se a s o n e oa nc es
t hi k f d4 f t p
c , mi tee ee er nu e

B d S w 34 i
an h b d wh l ; w
a -
nc an ee s sa
bl d
,

a i h by i h ; t ti g p d
e Tl, nc nc cu n s ee
1 3 50ft p m . . .

Ru n n n g d e i i l .

i
S a w n g dr y o a k 9} i h nc es t hi ck ih
w t
fe e d o f I } 82 s q u a re f e e t s ur

f a ce pe r o u r h
360 D Y N A M O ME TE ES

O bse rv ed Horse-pow er .

C I RC ULA R S A W S A N D BA N D S A W S -
Con
t i n n ed De l iv e re d to
Mach ine
.

Ba n d S a w , 3 6 n c i hb
a nd whe e s ; m o to r -
l
b l
e te d d r e ct ; 3 1 0 r p m i
o r 2 9 00 f t . . .

i
.

p m c u t t n g S e e d ; s a w n g 2 i
g p
- n ch
i
h pl
. .

a rd m a e , w o r k cro wde d .

A v e r a ge p w f 4} h o ter t or o urs
'
es

V i i
ar at o ns w dd ; m im m
e re su en ax u

p w o o o o o o
ero o o o Q s s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B dS w 4 i
an a h b d wh l ; p d
, 2- n c an ee s s ee

35 p m
0 r 3 8 5 f t p m ; b l t p ll y
or 0 e u e
-
. . . .

h di 5 i h f ; h d f d;
. .

1 6i nc es a. ,
-
nc a ce an ee
m t b l t d di t t
o or e w h ft
e re c o sa -
S a .

M to or on ly .

M to or an d w i dl sa e
Rippi g n d k
se a s o ne i h oa 12 nc es

t hi k f c d3 f t p ee mi t ee er nu e .

t ti g k 8i h
,

C ro s s cu -
d n se a so ne oa , nc es
t hi k f c d5 f t p ee mi t ee er nu e

R ippi g li i h t hi k
,

n k ve oa 10 nc es c ,

f d3ee f t p . mi2 tee er nu e

B dS w ( R
an a w)7 i h b d wh l ;
e sa , 2 - nc an ee s

S p d 6 pm 3
ee 1 0 r . . b lt . or 000 e
p ll y 3 i h di 8 i h f ;
u e 0 nc es a. ,
-
nc a ce
p w f d; m t b l t d t
o er ee t o or e e o c o un e r

s h ft a .

M to or an d w i dl sa e . 12 . 1

R ippi g n d h } i
S e a so n e h t hi k as 10 nc es c

mi
,

f d6 f
ee t p t
ee er nu e .

R ippi g n d w hi t pi
s e a so n e 6} i h e ne 1 nc es

t hi k f c d f t p ee mi 10 ee er n ut e
R ippi g y ll w pi i h thi k
,

n e o ne 12 nc es c ,

20 f t p ee mi t er nu e .

S w F m
a ra4 i h e, 2 - nc .

M hi
ac i g i dl
ne ru n n n e .
r

Tw l e ve w tt i g b i
sa h l g 6
s cu n rc o s, 1
i h d p f d6 i h p mi t
nc es ee , ee nc es er nu e
F t
o u r ee n w t i g sa h l g s 5 cu t n as o s, 1
i h d p f d7 i h p mi t
nc es ee , ee nc es er nu e
Tw enty i gh t w tti g y ll w pi
-
e sa s cu n e o ne ,

2 3 i h nc d p f d4 i es h p mi
ee , ee nc es er n.
362 D YN A M OM E TE E S

O bserved Horse-power .

s C RLL A Nsous I RO N- wo uxxNC MA

011 1 NBS
- — Contin ued De l ive re d to
Machine
.

i
S de wa ys o n ( 1 6
h pl
A no t e r at e 55 nc i h hi k 4 f 8
t c . t .

h l
inc e s x 2 1 f t o n g, r o e d ll id w y . s e a s

P l t pl
a e- i g M hi an n ac ne .

R un n n i g i dl e .

Du i gr n l r e v e r sa
Pl i g i h x 4 ft pl t
an n 1 - nc 1 -
. a e

F o un d y T m b li g b
r l i h di
u n - arre 20 nc es
ft l
,

m t
a bye er g 2 . on .

A v erag p w f e h t t wi th b x
o er or I - our es o
f u ll .
92 H P. .

F u d y T m b li g b
o n r l 36 i h di
u n -
a rr e , nc es
m t
a by 4 ft l
e er g p m . on , 1 2 r. . .

A g
v e ra p w f e h u t t
o er or 1- o r es
Th t m b li g b
e l wu ly h lf n -
a r re as on a
f ull m k i g
, h i p ull t h wh
a n a e av e r an en
m o re f ull y l d d oa e .

C RA a A ND EL RV A T O R S .

2 - to n E l e v a to r ( Re e dy C hi cago ); , S p e ed
of l 5 0 f e e t pe r m n u t e ; 1 0
e e v ato r i
H P Fo r t W a y ne m o to r ( s m o o t - co re
. . h
a rm a t u r e )
, 1 800 r p m e te d to . b l
co u n te r s a f t h .

R unn in g e m ty , e e v a t o r a t r e s t p l .

i
R un n n g e m t y , u p p
i
R u n n n g e m t y , do wn p
i i
Ra s n g t o n ( m o t or 1 600 r m . p . .

i
Lo we r n g to n ( m o to r 1 780 r m p . . .

i i
Ra s n g 1 to n ( m o to r 1 5 80 r m . p . .

i
Lo w e r n g 1 to n ( moto r 1 840
i
R a s n g 2 to n si .

l
5 to n E e ctr c T ra v e n g C ra n e
-
i lli .

N0 o a d l
Ru n n n g m o to r o n y i l .
 AND THE MEA S UREMEN T OF P 0 WE R . 6
3 3

O bse rved Horse-power .

C RA NRS A ND E L E V A T O RS — Con tin ued .

Machine .

Mo t o r w i t h cl ut c h es
i
Br dge , s ta r t n gi .

i i
Br dge , r un n n g 300 f e e t pe r m i t nu e.
i ll
T ra v e r s n g t ro e y
i
Ra s in g o o h k
i h k
L o we r n g o o .

ih
Lo a de d w t 85 00 o un ds p
i i
L ft n g at 8 fe e t pe r m n u te i .

i
Lo wer n g a t 8 fe e t pe r m n ute i
i ll
T r a v e rs n g t r o e y .

i
Br dge , s ta r t n gi .

i i
Br dge , ru n n n g 3 00 fe e t per m i t nu e .

6 t
- on Ji b C ra n e .

N l do oa i gm t
: run n n d m hi y o or an ac ne r
on ly
C l ut h c p es o en
R i i g h
a s n k oo

L w i gh k
o er n oo

T i g t ll y
r a v e rs n ro e

R t ti g
o a n cr a n e
L d d w i th
oa e p d ou n s
R i i g l
a s n d oa
L w i gl d
o er n oa .

T i g t ll y
ra v e r s n ro e
R t ti g
o a n cra n e .

t
1 0- o n El t i T ec r c lli g C ra v e n ra n e .

R i i g
a s n lb t f t p s mi . t a 10 ee er nu e
R i i g
a s n lb t f t p s mi . t a 20 ee er nu e
R i i g
a s n l
1 0, 2 00 t f t dt . a 20 ee an ra v

i g t ll y t
e rs n ro e f t p a mi t 2 00 ee er nu e .

L i ft i g 6 n lb000 t 4 f t p
s mi a t 0 ee er nu e. .

L i f ti g 6
.

n lb000 t 4 f s t
. d t a 0 ee an ra v e rs

i g t ll y
n ro ef t p 2 00 mi t ee er nu e

t
I o- o n Ji b C ra n e .

N l do oa i gm t
: r un n n d m hi y o o r an ac ne r
on ly
C l ut h c p es 0 en

R t ti g
o a n c ra n e

T i g t ll y
ra v e r s n ro e .

R i i g ha s n k 4 f t p mi t
oo 0 ee er n u e. .
 6
3 4 D YN A M O ME TEE S

O bserv ed Horse -p owe r .

C RA NRS A ND EL Rv A r o ns —Contin ued .

Del ivered to
Machine .

L o w e r i n g ho o k p d sa me s ee
R i i g h k f t p m i ut
.

a s n oo 10 ee er n e
L w i gh k m p d
.

o er n oo sa e s ee
L d d wi t h
oa e t ons :
R i i g l
a s nd f t p oa 10 ee er
L w i gl d t m p d
o er n oa a sa e s ee .

T i g t ll y
r av e r s n ro e
R t ti g
o a n cr a n e

L d d wi t h
oa e t o ns

R i i g l
a s nd f t p mi
oa t 10 ee er nu e
L w i gl d t m p d
o er n oa a sa e S ee
T i g t ll y
ra v e r s n ro e
R t ti g
o a n cra n e

15 t- El t i T
0n lli g C
ec r c ( S h w);
r av e n ra n e a
th m t re e ; 4 H P m t o o rs h it
1 -
. . o or on o s
i g t i
n -
75 p m
ra n , 2 t f ll l d; 8 %
r. . . a u oa 2
fi i
e y tc e ncli ttl b l w f ll l d
a a e e o u oa
8 5 t f ll l
,

0 ad u oa .

R i i g b
a s n k 3 60 f t p m i t
oo 0 . er nu e .

L w i gh k
.

o er n oo

R i i g
a s n lb ft p m s. . .

L w i g
.

o er n lb s.
R i i g
a s n lb s .

L w i g
o er n lb s .

R i i g
a s n lb s.
L w i g4
o er n lb 0 , 000 s .

T i g t ll y li gh t
ra v e r s n ro 5 ft p m
e , , 12 . . .

2 0. 000 l bs . 1 02
l bs . 1 03
l bs .
92
T ra v e r s i ng b ri dge , li gh t , 2 00 ft p m
. . .

2 0, 000l bs . 1 93

30, 000 l bs . 1 86
l bs . 1 85

h i l
T h e m e c a n ca e fi cie nc y o f o s t n g h i i
i
t ra n a t f u ll l
o a d is 6 8 756 ; S i n ce t h e .

i
e ffi c e n c y o f h i i
o s t n - m o t o r is
g 805 a t
fu ll l oad t h e t o ta
, l
e ffi c e n c y is 5 5 5 i
a v e ry h g i h i
e ffi c e n cy f o r m ac n e ry o f hi
t hi h
s c a r a ct e r .
366 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

G p f 5 m hi d i
ro u o by 41 P 5 0 lt m t ac B lt n es r v en 10 0 -
vo o or : o
h d w ki g { i h i
. .

ea er D ill p
or 8 i h; g d 3
n on l
l
-
nc ro n . r -
re s s , I -
nc an
i h d ill d illi g l D b l p h d h i g m hi ;
nc r s. r n s te e . ou e un c an s ea r n -
ac ne

{ i f h p h 3
nc l pl P h d
u nc h ; i h q , S te e a te . un c an s ear -
nc s u a re
p h }i h
unc l pl
, 1
1 P h d h ; h i g gi h
-
nc S te e a te . u nc an s e ar s ear n -
nc
di
ro un f t ti m
ro n , o ur a a e .

A v e ra
g p w d li e d t h g po er e v e re o t e ro u

d i g 4 h
ur n -
H P
o u r r un . .

G ro u p hi i th C k W h l f
o f 20 m ac y d i by ne s n e ro c e r- ee e r ac t o r r ve n

l 75 p m T hi g p itd f
,

Io H -
P m o to r ,
. 1 1 0 vo ts , 0 r . . . s ro u co n s s e o
8 l th illi hi pl h p i
.

4 m
a g mes , 3 d g d n -
ac n e s, a n e rs an s a e r s, 2 r n
t
S o ne s , ti l h ft g i di g m hi
1 d 3
ver m ll t l ca -
s a r n n -
ac ne , an s a oo s.
Th g m b
e a v e ra f m hi i g w 3 em t
nu f th er o ac nes run n n as 1 , os o e
l th b i g i
a es th g te n p t f th ti m n u se e re a e r ar o e e .

De liv ered to
Mac h ines .

A v e ra ge p o we r fo r 5 -
h o ur te st 3 3 . e st.

G ro u p of 16 m ac hi nes a nd 90 fe e t i h h ft i g
of 2 - nc i g t
s a n run n n a
2 00 r .
p m
T h e m ach n e s c o n s s e
. . o i i t d f 9 l th f difi t a es o e re n
i i
s z e s , r a n g n g f r o m 1 2 to 2 2 n c s n I -
i h wi g ; pl 4i h by 6 a ne r, 2 nc es
f e e t 2 s a e r s , I s- n c h p i h
s tro e ; 2 u r k p i gh t d ill p f r -
re s s e s , o n e o

h
t e m a 24 n c ; 1 N o I i h
B -
n - . . S m illi g m
. hi d l
ac ne , a n s e v e ra
ll l h pw f ull p ity ll
.

sma to o s W e n t h e gro u a s run a

. t it s ca ac a
l hi b i k w di t i b t d
,

t h e a r ge r m ac nes e n g in u se , e or th w as s r u e as
fo ll o ws :

Horse -
pow e r
Del iv ered to Mac ines h .

Li ne s h
l y ( b y dy m
a ft o n na o m e te r )
T hi t y b l t
r dl ep ll s an o o se u e ys
S i xt m hi
ee n m pt y ac nes , e
C tt i g m t l
u n e a .

Of w hi h c H P is
. . re q ui r e d for th e s h a ft in g a n d H P
hi k hi hi
. .

f o r th e m a c ne s a t wo r In t . s te st th e m ac nes we r e wo r k
in g a b o v e t h i e r n o r m a l r ate .
 AND TH E M E A s UR E M EN T O F P 0 WE R . 6
3 7

G ro u p hi
of 1 d m ll li gh t i g dy
5 m ac ne s m Th g an p s a n na o. e ro u
i
co n s i h by 8 f t pl
s t e d o f o n e 36 pl i g -
l ti g
nc a ne r, an n s te e ca s n s,
i ht i h d p f d i h
.

ti g p d 8f p 1
cut nc o nc ee , ee 3, nc , cu t n S ee 1 t . er
mi t ;
nu e 5 i h h p pl i g t i
1 -
nc li gh t t ; 3 i h
s a er an n ca s ro n , cu 0 -
nc
l t h b i g 5 i h di i h t ; h
a e, or n -
6 i
nc h l th a.i bl - nc cu t re e 1 -
nc a e s, v a r a e
w k ; twor i h p dl h o 12t w-
ki g ; 5 i h
nc s ee -
at es no or n 1 -
nc t u r re t
l h li gh w k ; 8 i h d ill p
at e , t d illi g fl
or — i h h l i
2 -
nc r -
re ss r n nc o es n
l w k
s te e ,
w d d; or m ll i ti d ill ( S l ); N
cro e s a se n s ve r a te o. 2
i
un v e rsa l m illi g m hi ; p h p n w ill p- ach i h ne unc -
re ss , un c 12 nc
di k li gh
s h i w k ; 36 i h g i d t
t s e e t - ro n t l g i di g or -
nc r n s one , oo -
r n n
k w d d; m y g i d d b ffi g w h l
, ,

w or c ro e e er r n er an u n ee .

A n8 K W -
. l t dy m w l
. 1 1 0- v o i hi i t ; t hi m
na o as a so r un n t s un s a
hi
c fne i hd urn s t f 4 li gh
e d4 6
c u r re n p i or a re ts a n 0 I c . . n ca n
d l m p ll
e sce n t a i g d i g th t t s, a r un n n ur n e es s .

Th i w d i by 5 H P 5
e un t as lt hu t w d m t
r ven a 1 -
. 00- v o s n -
oun o or,

1 2 00 t d t li h ft b y 6 i h b l t T h h ft w
co n n e c e o ne S a -
nc e e s a as

i h l h
.

2} nc d i 6 f t a. g 9 , g 0 dee t onp m an e rs , a n ra n a 2 20 r . . .

m hi d i th h h
,

A l l th b e a w o ve g ac t f t
ne s e re r ven ro u co u n e r s a s
ex pt th g i d t
ce e p hp r n d ill p
s o ne , d dy m unc -
re ss , r -
re ss , a n na o.

Motor I n put .

Ma xi m um p w q i d t p t o er re u re o O e ra e

t hi g s p i l di g dy m w
ro u nc u n na o, as .
to H P . .

p w w m d wh
,

Th b e a ov e o er as e a s ur e en

th e w k w or id b l y b as th co n s e ra a ove e
u l t ; m
s ua ra e m hi w i o re ac ne s e re n
o p tie ra d t h dy
on m w
an t e na o as r un a
its f ll l
u d oa .

D y m b l th w fi
'

na o- e t ro n o to
Pl a ne r,3 i h l t ho- n cd t w 6 i h a e , an o I -
nc
l th
a th b l th w 3 li gh t
es, o er e ts ro n 0
w k d i t mi t
,

or an t n er t en
Wh i g pl
e n r e v e rs n m m t y a ne r , o en ar
M t o or an d li h ft b l t 3 ne s a , e s 0 ”
36 8 D Y NA M O M E TE RS

C HA PT E R X I .

A N A NA LY S I S O F T H E PO W ER R EQ U I RED T O D RI EV
L A T H ES .

BY comparison of the preceding d ata it will be

a

observed that the total power may be divided into

two parts one of which is necessary to drive the
,

machine itself ; the other to perform useful work

, .

T he latter depends upon a number of varying condi

tions the principal factors being in most cases the
, , ,

nature and quantity of material removed I f this be .

referred to a common standard as for i n stance the ,

weight of metal or volume of chips removed per hour ,

then a measure of the power required for the same or

similar machines may readily be calculated when any
other rate of production is involved T he following .

analysis of this work as carried o ut for a number of

,

lathes indicates that the method might profitably be

,

e x tended to include machines of all kinds or at least ,

those machines which use cutti n g tools in one way or -

another ; for it is evident that the power required to

operate mere f rm changi ng machines can not be
o -

readily compared by referring to their output .

A mong cutting tools the drilling machine seems to

- -

o fi e r an e x ception to the general rule that the power

'

required to remove metal is proportional to the volume

or weight of chips cut in a given time In this case the .

depth of hole has much to do with the power re q uired

370 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

A noth e r
cause of variation in this portion of the
power absorbed will be found in the driving belt : a
tight belt will increase the friction very considerably .

Hence to obtain the greatest e fficiency of a machine ,

that is the ratio of useful work to total power ab

,

sorbed we should use wide belts and run them j ust

, ,

tight enough to prevent slip T he belts should also

.

be soft and pliable otherwise power is consumed in

,

bending them to the curvature of the pulleys .

A nother point in this connectio n sometimes ove r

,

looked is the relative diameter o f cone pulleys A

,
-
.

belt may be wide enough and loose enough to run well

on the larger steps of the driven shaft but on the ,

higher speeds may be altogether too tight T he wri te r .

has in mind a small lathe in which it was necessary to

let out the belt three q uarters of an inch when chang
in g from the largest to the smallest step on the cone
p ulley .

A third cause is the variation o f journal friction due -

,

to slacking up or tightening the cap screws and also -

,

the end thrust bearing screw W hen one man runs a

- .

lat he so that a pull on the belt will revolve the spindle

half a dozen times and another man screws down the
,

bo x e s of the same lathe so that he can only move the

w in dle by a series of tugs with both hands on the belt ,

. dynamometer is needed to S how that the powe r

s

w g wb e d will be di fferent in the two cases .

T he power necessary to drive the lathe over and

a bove that required to turn 05 metal or do useful
work is o ften increased by setting up the tail stock -

centre too hard or by letting the centre run dry

, .

I n o ne of the writer s e x periments it was noti ced th at

’
 AND T HE M E A S URE M E N T O F P O WE R .
37 1

th e power absorbed constantly increased and wit h no ,

perceptible change in thickness of chip or condition

of tool T he cut was smooth and clean yet the dyna
.
,

m o m e te r showed nearly three times the power ordi

na rily re q uired T he tool was withdrawn from cut
.

with very little change in the pressure ; a drop of oil

on the dead centre h o wever instantly caused the line
-
, ,

to fall b ut the normal pressure was reached only

,

when the centre was eased a little Subse q uent trials .

showed concl usively that the ordinary running power

could be more than doubled by careless ness at this
point .

Hartig s investigations show that it re q uires less

* ’

t otal power to turn o ff a given weight of metal in a

given time than it does to plane o ff the same amount
and also that the power is less for large than for small
diameters T his latter fact is readily understoodwhen
.

we consider that the faster we run a lathe spindle the -

more power it re q uires provided we do not consider

,

the inte rvention of intermediate gear shafts ; when -

back gears are used the power will be less with the
,

belt running upon a given step of the cone pulley than -

if the gears were thrown out although such power may,

be greater than that re q uired to produce a greater

n umber of revolutions of the spindle when runnin g
without back gears .

T his is clearly shown in T able I X which gives the ,

actual ( measured )horse po wer re q uired to drive a lathe

-

empty at vary ing n umbers of revolutions of main

spindle .

V h fib L i t g d A b its V b u h de We k g
ersuc e er e s un un r e - e r ra c r r ze u

m hi en
asc n .
372 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

T A B E 1x L .

HO RS E -
PO W ER FO R S MA LL LA rn ss
'
.

W ith ou t Bac k G ears . Wit h Back G ear s .

Ho rse-powe r R emarks
R ev o l utio ns
.

r e q u ire d t o
o f S p in dl e
driv e
e mpt y .
per m in u te .

12
"
h b il t by Zim
lat e u
m m er f Ch m
an n , o e
nit G m y
z, er an .

S ma ll l th a e b uil t
by Z i mm er man n .

N w m hi
e ac ne .

I 7} l th b ilt by
"
a e u
Z imm m N w er an n . e
m hi ac ne .

20
"
F i t hb
c urg at e . l h

26
"
l th b il t by Zim
a e u
m e rm a n n .

Ho rse -
po w e r great er t h h
an s o ul d be th e case , o n acco u n t o f be l t r ubb in g o n

back gear
-
h h
o l low s af t .

T he only e x ception is the series of values given f or

the 1 2 inch lathe which show a larger horse power w h W

-
,
-

the b ack gears are thro wn in .

I t will be noticed that the relative speeds of the

s pindle in this lathe are not prope rly proportioned ,

there b eing practically only four variations of speed

, , ,

Whereas th er e shou l d be six .

374 D Y N A M OM E TE R S

the point A and diverge with difi e re nt degrees o f

,

rapidity T he lines for the 1 2 and 2 0 inch lathes are

.
- -

paralle l for a portion of their length and show the ,

least increase in horse power for a give n increase in

-

s peed T he lin e fo r the I 7} inch lathe falls a way very

.
-

. 35 0 40 0 “
FIG . 11 6
. —H O RS E
-
PowE R R E Q U1 RE D T O D E1V E S M A LL LA m
'
s s.

quickly which shows a rapid increase in power for a

,

given increase in number of revolutions T he average .

for the four lathes represented is given in the line A B ,

which strikes the base line for horse power at the poin t
- -

about 09 5 corresponding to which the revol utions per

.
,

minute 0 .

I f we wish to find the horse powe r for any given -

speed say 80 revolutions per m inute we have simply

, ,
 A ND THE MEA S UREMEN T OF P 0WE R .
375

to draw a line parallel to the base line from the point

80 on the revolution scale until it cuts the line A B ,

the distance cut o ff D C or what is the same thing O E

, , , ,

will give the horse power direct In the assumed case

-
.

it is 1 9
. A s A B was chosen as the mean of all the
lines represented the horse power measured upon it
,

can only appro ximate the actual which in the e x trem e , ,

cases 1 2 and 1 7} inch lathes will vary m ore and more

,
-
,

as the speed increases I f we let H P horse power . . .

,
-

necessary to drive lathe empty and N n umber o f ,

:

revolutions per minute then the equ ation for the li ne ,

A B will be

HP
. .
,
2 1V .

In the same way we can plot s imilar curves fo r the

power necessary to drive the lathes empty when the
back gears are in from this we can assu m e an average
and find the equatio n of the line as before W ith the .

same notation previously given this e q uati o n for lath es ,

under 2 0 inche s swing is

HP . .
. + 0 006 1V . .

T he larger lathes vary so m uch in construction and

detail that no general rule can be obtained which will
g ive eve
, n appro x imately the power required to u n , r

them and altho ugh the form ulas j ust obtained sho w
,

th at at least horse power is needed to start the -

small lathes for which the line A B has been drawn

, ,

F ig 69 there are unquestionably many A merican

.
,

lathes under 2 0 inches swi ng working on a co ns umptio n

of less tha n 05 horse power
.
-
.

T he amount of power r e quired to remove metal in a

376 D YN A M O M E TE RS

machine is also variable but determinable withi n mor e

,

accurate limits T he shape and condition of tool the

.
,

hardness of material to be c ut the rate of fe ed and ,

depth of cut all a ffect the final result

, .

E very machin ist has some special form of lathe tool -

,

gro und to some particular angle and with a given ,

amount o f rake — not measured but ground so it will ,

look right which will give the cleanest cut and turn
—
,

o ff the metal qu icker than a ny ot h er tool in the shop .

O n e man u ses a round nose tool with n o top rake for

- -

cast iron and with a coarse feed and square chip

-
,

( depth of chip eq u al to the breadth ) turns out con

side rabl e work during the day .

A nother use s a diamond point or some other form , ,

which he gri n ds and sets a little differently from every

one else and he too turns out a large quantity of
, , ,

work For w rought iron steel or brass it is the

.
-

, , ,

same ; every man has his own form of tool which he

co nsiders will do the best and quickest work .

W ithout entering into the question of which is the

b etter form of tool to use in a given case we shall ,

assu m e ordinary conditions and try to ascertain how ,

much power is absorbed by a lathe in removing metal ;

the power required to run the lathe will not be in
cluded in this discussion A s a means of conven ient .

comparison the work done has been reduced to the

,

weight of metal removed or that would be removed in , ,

one hour provided all conditions remained the same

, .

R eferring agai n to D r Ha rt ig s researches we find

’
.
, ,

in connection with a I 3} inch l the that the greatest -

a ,

amount of work done pe r hour was pounds o f

wrought iron removed under the following condition s
-
3 78 D Y N A M OME TERS

narily o b tain ed we i n fe r th at the iro n was m uch harder

, ,

o r the tool in p o o r c ondition or perhaps b oth afi e ct ,

the result .

F o r a h e avy turning a nd facing lathe 50 inches swing ,

treble ge ared as a result of twenty experi m e nt s C

, ,

was found to be 02 7 fo r cast iron.

-
.

F o r a n other hea vy lathe 56 inches dia m e ter of fac e ,

plate C was fo und to b e 03 1 fo r cast ir on as a res ult

,
.
-
,

o f twenty four e x peri m ent s

-
.

A small lathe of 1 2 inc hes swing turn in g wro ught iro n ,

-

at the rate of pounds per hour at a v elocity of ,

feet per minute b readth of cut, 0 1 8 inch thickne ss .

,

of chip 062 i nch re q u ired 2 1 hors e pow e r

.
, Fo r .
-
.

t his lath e
C 04 5 for wrought iro n
.
-
,

02 8 for cast iron -

.

F rom these and other data we fi nd that the h o rse

power required to turn o fi metal can b e o b tained if we
'

know the amount o f chips removed per ho ur by usin g ,

the fo rmula
HP . .
,
C W,

in which s uit ab le values o f C o b tained from the fo re

going are
030 for cast iron
.
-
,

03 2 for wrought iro n

.
-
,

04 7 for steel
. .

A s we should infer the size of lathe and there fo re

, , ,

the diameter of work has n o apparent e ff ec t on the

,

cutti ng power as shown by the constant C I f the

, .

lathe be heavy the cut can be increased an d co nse ,

quently the weight o f chips increased but the value of ,

 AND T HE M E A S UREME N T OF P 0WER . 3 79

C appears to be abo ut the same for a given metal

through several varying sizes of lathes .

Mr J F Hobart working on this line a few years

. . .
,

ago published some interesting results in the A mer ica n

,

"
M achini st from whi ch the writer has computed the
,

average w eight of metal removed per hour and the ,

correspo nding useful horse power the horse power

— - -

required to run lathe empty being neglected from — ,

w hich the values of C ih the subjoined T able N o X ,

'

.
,

have been obtained .

A ll the e x periments were conducted on a 2 0 inch -

Fitchburg lathe ( previously mentioned in T able I X ) ,

and the metal cut throughout was cast iron -

.

T A BL E X .

HO RSE -
P O W ER REQ U I RED T O REMO V E MET A L I N A 2 0- I NC H LA T HE .

T ool used .

i
S de to o l . 125 . 01 5 .
34 2 . 02 5
Di am o nd 125 . 01 5 . 2 18 . 02 0
Ro und 125 01 5 352 I4 95 02 3
h
. . .

L e ft a nd ro und
n o se
5 125 01 5 237 02 6
l
. . . .

S q uare fa ce d to o !

ro adb 015 1 25 255 02 8

l
. . .

q
S ua re face d to o
04 8 04 8 2 00 01 8
l
. .

S q uare face d to o
b road 1 25 . 01 5 24 6 . 02 7

S ee A mer ica n M ao/l in is t S e p t

, . 11 a nd 1 8, 1 886 .
3 80 D YN A M OM E TE RS

An xaminat io n o f the ab ove tab le shows that an

e

av erage of 2 6 h o rse power is re q uired to turn o il 1 0

.
-

p ounds of cast iron per hour from

-
which we obtain the ,

average value of the constant C 02 4 . .

A s wil l be noticed most of the c uts were ta k en so ,

that the metal would b e reduced in diameter ; with

a broad surface cut and a coarse feed as in N o 5 the , .
,

power required per pound of chips removed in a given

time was a m a x im um ; the least power per un it o f
weight removed b eing required when the chip was
square as in N o 6
, . .

T he work of R H Smith who cond ucted similar ex

*
. .
,

erim e n ts in E ngland on a 2 inch lathe ( 4

I } in h cen ~
p 9 c -

tre) has also been cast into the same form with the
,

average results sho wn in T able X I .

L
T A B E XI .

HO RSE PO W ER
-
REQ UR I ED T o REMO V E MET A L IN A 2 9 I NCH
-
LAT HE .

Metal .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

“
S ee Cu tt i ng T oo l s, by R . H Sm
. ih
t , C asse ll 81 C o .
, Lo n do n , 1 884.
3 8 2 D Y N A M O M E TE R S

For a cut under ordinary conditions which w o ul d

remove 6 pounds of cast iro n 5 pounds of wrought iron
-
,
-
,

or 3} pounds of steel Chips per hour the horse power

,
-

necessary would b e practically the same .

CX W= . 02 6 X 6
Cx . 15

CX

As previously shown the power necessary to run

,

t h e lathe empty will vary fro m about 05 to 3 H P . . .

which should b e ascertained and added to the useful

horse power to o b tain the total po wer expended
-
, .
 INDEX .

A bso rp tio n
CC CC

A ir -
i
res sta nce , m eas ure me n t o f .

l b k
A de n ra es f or oco m o t v e s l i .

A ld G en, eo . I . , a bso rp ti on dyna m o m e te r .

A lt ige r n at n -
curre n t m o to rs, m e asu re m e n t of p o we r o f.

A lt ige r na t n cu rre n ts, m easure m e n t of.

A m m e te r
A m os an d A ppo ld co m p ti g dy m m
e n sa n na o e ter .

Am p h m e re - o ur e te r, S h ll b g
a en er er

A ly i f p w
na s s o o e r re q i dt d i l h
u re o r ve at es . .

A gln f e o

A pp t w tt
a re n a s

A f
rc o t i fl co n ac t, n ue n ce o f

A ro n wa ttm e ter

Babco c k G , . H .
, on p o wer to dr ve i m ac hi n e to o s . l
Ba n d sa ws 0 0 0 0 0 C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Ba rre l
tum b li n g , fo r fo undry, p o we r to dr i ve .

Ba r rus , on p o we r re qui red to d i r ve s h f ti

a ng .

Batc h ld
e e r, t ra n s m s s o n i i
Beaum o n t , W W . o n ca p ii ac t e s o f

Be li t ng, coe ffi c e nt o f i fr i c tio n o f

po we r t rans m itd t e
 8
3 4 IN D EX .

Bel t- b ra k e

B l
e t, spe cifi c duty of .

B l
e t tra n s m i i ss o n

hm k
Be nc f f
- w tar , use o . or a er

Bl k f
oc f i ti sb k m or il f r c o n- ra es , at e r a o .

B l t p w
o t- cu te rs , d i o er t o r ve

B i g m hi
or n ( w d
-
)p w d
ac i n es oo , o e r to r ve . .

m ill s

Bo yde n h o o k
Brack dl e t t cra e

B k bl k m t i l f
ra e- oc s, a er a o

B k
ra p e , ro e

B bbi g f i
ra ss as ru n sur ace n

B mp
raue r co ti g b k dy m m e n sa n -
ra e na o e te r .

B k idg L P
rec enr wi h d ill e, . te s t s t r s. .

B igg b l t
r mi i
s dy m m t
e t ra n s ss o n - na o e e r.

li
C a br a te d m o to r dyn a m o m e te r
as

Ca li b i ra t o n o f dy n a m o m e te rs .

C a rde w ho t w - i re v o lmt
t e er .

Car l se n a n d L e m o n, pw o e r re qui r d t d i v e o r e m ac hi ne r
y .

i l ff t f
C e nt r f uga fo rce , e ec o ,
w i t h b e l t i ng .

h i l
C e m ca m e te rs
Ci l w ( w d) p w
rcu a r s a t s oo ,
o er o

C ffi i
oe ff i i fb l i g
c en t o r ct o n o e t n .

C ffi i
oe f di h g
c e n ts w i or sc ar e o ver e rs .

f di h g d oi sc ar e an c o n t ract o n

Cl k
oc d wi h w m
us e t a tt e te r

C mm
o i l ffi i y e rc a e c e nc

C mp
o i gb k e n sa t n -
ra e

Cor k , use o f, fo r b r ke a

C o tto n be t li ng fo r b a ke r

C rad e l
cra ne s, p o we r to drive o s O Q O C O O O O O Q O O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

C urre nt lag .

Cutt i n
g
Dyna m o me te rs , Ro ya l A gr i cul tu ra l
spigr n ,

, T h m
at a

V an W i n kle p o wer

, wate r
W e bbe r ba lan ce

Effect i v e e le ct ro m o t v e i fo rce
Effic i e n cy , co m m e rc il a

wate r
E l e ctr cai lp o we r, m e as ure me n t
Ele ctr ic m o t o r as

E l e ctr c i m o to rs, i
e ffi c e ncy

El e ct ro

El e ct ro

El e ct ro s ta t c i
El ev a to rs , pw o e r to drtv e
Em e rso n h k
oo

Eme rso n , o n us e o f h ll o o w b rake

Em e r so n pw lo e r s ca e

Em e r y w h l p we e s, o e r to dr i ve .

Fischinge r, tra n s m s s o n -
i i
dyn am o m e te r .
F la the r hydraul ic
F la the r re co rding
F l mi g
e lt
n i g
,
on a t e rna t n curre n s .

Fl i g dy m m t
oat n na o e er .

Fl o a ts , m as c u r re n t -
e ters .

F i J
ra n c s , xp im t as w i
.
, e er e n s on e rs . .

F kf t El i l Exhibi i t
ra n or t
e ctr ca t o n, e s ts a . .

F kli I tit
ran n wi h T h m dy
ns u te te sts t at a n a m o m e te r.

F i ti
r c b k on- ra e
N
fo r v c r tica l S h aft
 IN D EX . 3
3 7 .

Frictio n facto rs , flo w of wate r in

Fr i i
ct o n l osse s in l
e e ctr c i
l o ng

m eas ure m e n t of

of be lt in g, co e fi c ie n t o f .

ro ll e rs in Rappa rd
F o r mu l as , use o f fo r de te rm
, i i n ng

Fro ude , Wm .
, abs o r pt i on

G pw
e a r- cu tte rs , o er

G fl t f
e a rs , e pw q i d '

ec o , on o e r re u re .

G l El i C m p y m th d f
e n e ra e c tr c o an , e o o t e st n g i m o to rs .

G i bb G s, m q ip m t
eo on o to r e u en . .

G iddi g C M t ti dy m m
n s, . rac o n- na o e te r .

G i di g m hi y p w t d i
r n n ac ne r ,
o er o r ve

G i dt
r n s o ne s,

G p m hi
ro u s, ac ne

G p ytm f
ro u s s e o

H h tt t l y d dy m m t
ac e e s ee ar na o e er .

H mm
a p w di
e rs, o e r to r ve .

H ti g p w
ar q i d t d i m hi
, o e r re u re o r ve ac ne r
y .

mi i dy m m t ra n s ss o n - na o e te r .

Heat te sts .

i ih p p i
He n r c s, r o o rt o ns fo r frict icn b ra e s -
k .

h J
He n t o rn , p
T , o n o we r re qu r e d t o dr v e s a ft
. . . i h i ng.

hl l V
He rs c e C em e n s e n tur i wate r me te r
, ,
-
.

He rsey wate r
H ill J
, W , o n te s ts o f wa te r m e te rs
. .
-
.

Ho b art H o n o we r re q u red to dr v e at e s
, J . p i i l h
k
Ho o gauge -
.

ll
Ho o w b ra e s tra s k -
p
Ho pki
n s o n b e t t ran s m ss o n dy n a m o me te r
,
l i i -

met h o d o f te st n g i m o to rs
- i
Ho t w re v o t m e te r C a rde w l , .

li
Hydr au c m o to rs te s t n g o f i
tra n s m 1 ss io n -
dy n a m o m e te r
Hydro sta t i h c e ad .
3 88 I N D EX .

i
I nd cato r, us e o f, w i h dy
t n a m o m e te r . .

In di i d l
v ua

In f i lm
e re n t a e te rs .

l nfltie nce o f a rc o f co n ta ct

I n s t r um e n ts fo r m ea su r i l
n g e ec t r ca i l
I n te gra t i ng

I n te r m tte n ti
I ro n w o r
-
ki ng m ac hi n e ry, p o we r t e s ts

J b D S
aco us, . o n ro p b k dy m
e- ra e na o m e te rs .

J mi
a A d
eso n , n re w , o n ro p b k dy e- ra e na m o m e te rs .

J lfi i
o urna r ct o n , e ff e ct o f, in

K a pp co m p i
e nsa t n g- b ra k e dynam o m e ter .

e ffe ct o f s p e ed

me t h od o f te s t n g i m o to rs .

K e v l i
n s e e c
’
t ro s t a tlc v o t -
m e te rs. i l

Lambe rt wate r
La the s p we r re qui red to
,
o dr i ve

, w o od
L m o n and C arl se n p o w r re qui r d to d i v e
e , e e r m achi n e ry .

Len gth o f bra ke a r m -

.

Le wi s W expe ri m n ts w i th
,
.
,
e

Loco m o ti ve m e th d f a bs rb i n g p w r
,
o o o o e

L n g pipe s l s se s in
o , o

L o ss s in ele ctr i c
e 2 2 5 , 2 71 ,

l o ng pip e s.

Lub rican t fo r f i i
r ct o n

,
use o f so a p s uds

M a c ne hi
i
M a ch n e s b e l ted by gue ss wo r k .

i
Mach ne ry o we r re q u red t o dr
, p i i ve .

Ma tc he rs ,

Maxim u m o a d o n m o to rs l
Me a s ure m e n t o f e e c tr ca l p o we r l i .
39 0 IN D EX .

Po lyphased sys te m , m eas ure m e nt of p o we r in .

Po te n t il a ,
dro p
Po we r de te r mi ne d b y width of b e t l
P o wer facto r .

Po we r re q ui re d to dr i ve

Sh fi a t ng

l h at es
“turn o ff m e ta l
Po w e r m e te r, V a n
- W i nkle .

P o we r -
sca e , l Em e rso n
P ro n y fr i i b k dy ct o n - ra e n a m o m e te r

P ro n y b k W t
ra i gh e, es n o us e , fo r i
e n g n e - te s t ng. i .

N ( 6 H ( C
l i
e e ct r c - m o to r- te s t n .
g i
Pro p i o rt o n s i ti b k
fo r fr c o n- ra es

P unc hi g n an d h i g m hi
s e ar n -
ac nes , p o we r to dr i ve .

Pur d lue o co m ti m
o ti g ve , o un n of .

Ra d a dr i l ill p w t d i s, o er o r ve

Ra il d ill pr p w t di
- re s se s , o er o r ve

Ra il w y m t t i g f
a o o rs , est n o .

Ra pp d
ar b k dy m,
m t ra e na o e er . .

Reco r di g dy m m t
n Fl h -
na o e e r, at er

watt me te rs -

Re co rds of te sts o f p o we r to dr i ve m ac hi n e ry .

Regu l a to r ( das hp - ot )fo r b ra k es

Re gn i e r, s pi r n g- dy n a m o me te r .

i
Re s sta n ce , wate r .

w i re .

no n '
induCtive s e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e s s s s s s s e s s a e e

R e y no ld s, m o d fi ca t i i o n of Fro ude w a te r -
b rak e
Rh e o s ta ts , water .

Ri hc a rds, C . B . a bso rp ti on - dyn am o m e te r .

R bio n so n - Rie hl é dy namo m e te r

Ro d floa ts
-

Ro lli n g- m ill f h or s ee t m e ta l p , o we r t o dr ve i
Ro lls fo r pl b di a te - en ng,

R o n tur fll n g latDCS s
-
s e s s s s s s e o e o o o o o o . .
 INDEX .
39 1

Ro pe
l
Ro ya A gr cultura S o c i l i e ty s
’
dyna m o m e te r . .

l
Ru e s fo r be t ng li .

S a ws, i l
c rc u a r ( wo o d)
, p o we r to dr ve i 35 7
ba n d, 359
fo r i ro n , 34 2
S c re w m a c hi ne , 32 1
l
S e f- co o l i ng b ra k es 52
S e lf -
i i
re g s te r n g t ra c t io n - dy n a m o m e te r 77
S h ft i
a n g, p o we r r e q ui re d to dr i ve .
4. 9
S h ll
a e n be rge r am p r
e e -
h o ur m e te r 2 66

i n te gra t n i g wa tt m e te r -
2 67

S hp pw
a di
e rs , o e r to r ve .
328
S h pi g m hi
a n ( w d)-
p w t d
ac i nes oo , o er o r ve 352
Sh i g m hi
e ar n -
ac ne s , 34 4
Si me l dy m m
e ns e e ctr o - na o e te r

S l ti g m hi
ot n pw -
d i ac ne s , o e r to r ve . 3 30
Sm i h H t ffi i
, f di h g w i
co e c e n ts o sc a r e o ve r e rs 2 06

R H p w q i d t d i l th
. .
, on o e r re u re o r ve a es. .
3 79
S p d
oa fsu l bi t
s , u se o , as u r ca n .
50
S p ifi d y f b l t
ec c ut o e . I 3
Sp d ee i g s, cutt n .
3 80
Sp d ee i i i m ff t f
va r a t o n s n o t o rs . e ec o 2 77

S p i g dy m m M i ’
r n na o e te r , or n s . 74
76
S ta r a nd h
m es - co n n e c t io n s 29 4 , 3 02
S te am -
en gi i di
ne n ca to r as dyna m o m e te r 1 48

S te e ya rd l a mm e te r . 243

dyn a m o m ete r 85
S tray po wer 2 72 . 2 75 2 77. 2 9 3

i
S w n bur ne , Jas .
, l
o n e e ctro - dyna m o m e te r 251

I . Ho rse -
p o wer and fr i i
ct o n o f s h fi a t ng .

II . W i dth an d v e o c l i ty of bel ti ng .

I II . i
D me n s i o ns fo r P ro n y b ra k s e .

IV . Ca p iy ac t of fr i ti b k
c o n- ra es

V . T es t of s ma ll h yd li m ra u c o to r .
39 2 IN D EX .

Effect of i n cre as ng il o ad fo r g ve n no zz i l e. .

C oe fi cie n ts fo r di h sc a rge o ve r we rs i
Fr i tic on facto rs f i or ro n pip es . .

Ho rse -
p o we r fo r sm a ll l th a e s. .

Ho rse . p o we r re qui re d to re m o ve m e ta l , 2o -
i h nc

l tha e .

Ho rse -
p o we r re qui red to re m o v e m e ta l ,
2 9 - nc i h
l at he .

Ta bl e , te sting . .

T at hm l
a ,
be t tra ns m i i
ss o n dyn a
-
m o m e te r .

Ta ppi g m hi
n - ac ne s ( n ut ) , p o we r to

Te mp t fi
e ra u re , e e ct o n m o to r
T eno n i g m hin -
ac ne s , p o we r to

T e s t ing dire ct- curre n t

i l ph
S ng e - a se

t wo - a nd th re e - ph a se

T es ts of p o we r re q ui red to dr i ve

two - ph ase

wate r m ete rs -
.

Th o m so n re fl tiec ng

Th re e

- l
vo t m e te r

T o rq ue , de fi n ii t o n of

T o w ne , H R . . , ex p im
er e n ts o n

T ra ct i on

T ran sm i iss o n -dynam o me te rs

0l 6C
bel t .

Brac k e t t cra d e l
Br ggs i .

ca lib ra te d m o to r

cra dl e

Eme rs o n p o we r- sca e l
Flathe r h yd li rau c

Flathe r di g
re co r n 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
39 4 IN D EX .

W a te r rh e o s tats
-

W a ttme te r A ro n s ,
’
c ocl k .

co n n e ct o n s i
m easure me n t l
o f a ternat ng- cu rre nt . i

,
h
t e o ry o f
Th i
’
o m so n s reco rd ng

W e sto n
Watts ,
l i
re at o n o f , to h o rse - p
o we r

W e bbe r ,
b l a ance dyn am o me te r .

We bb e r ,
S .
, on l i i
a rge fr ct o n- b ra k e dyn a m o m o te r
on p o we r r e qui red to i h i
dr v e s a ft n g
W e bb fl oa ti ng dyn am o m e te r
We igh t o f chips re mo v ed in lath es .

W ei r measure m e n ts
W e i rs co e fi cie n ts o f dis ch arge fo r
, .

W esti n gh o use a m me te rs
W esti ngh o use Electric Mfg C o m pan y s .
’
i
tes t ng- ta ble

W h ee l l a th es p o we r re q ui red to dri v e
-
, .

Willi s E J o n wate r
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en t s s -
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“
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