ICAL E LE CTR

for
B E G INNE R S

G E OR G E A WILLOUG HB "
S HOP S UP ERVI S OR
AR T HUR H I LL T RA D E S C HOOL
S AG I N AW M I C H I GAN
,

AR TS PR E SS
PE OR IA, I LLI N O IS
 PR E F ACE

HE E N O R MOUS strides ma de du rin g the pas t few years

inthe a dva n cemen t of electrica l a pp lica tions a n d their n u
r

limited possibilities in the fu tur e ha ve ma de the stu dy of

electricity on e of grea t im p orta n ce The fu n d a m en ta ls a n d
.

the pra ctica l a pplica tions of electricity shou ld be u n derstood

by ev ery m a n wom a n a n d child beca us e they a re su re t o
,
"

ma ke use of them in on e wa y or a n other .

of it s inheren t techn ica l n a tu re this su bject h as

B eca use ,

been ra ther d iffi cu lt t o p resen t in la n gu a ge rea dily u n derstood

by youn g stu den ts a n d workers in t he h ome .

This book h as been wn t t en with the idea tha t it is to be

used in j u n ior a n d sma ll high schools gra m ma r gra de classes
, ,

con tinu a tion schools, other voca tiona l schools a n d in the

,

home ; an d it h as bee n the a im to ma ke it extremely pra ctica l ,

a n d of va lu e in tea chin g electrica l op e ra tions a n d rep a ir giv

,

in g on ly those prin ciples tha t a re of pra ctica l va lu e a n d then

,

on ly in a pop u la r n on techn ica l mann er

,
-
.

The descrip tive ma tter h as been so a rra n ged as to m a ke the

book va lu a ble a s a text in regula r class es where it shou ld su g
gest ma n y thin gs of in te rest to be ob served or a p plied in the
hom e ; or for use in classes in con n ection with electrica l la b o
ra t ory or s hop work or with the problems given in h om e
,

m echan ics courses a n d the like ; or for us e in the h om e in

helpin g to ma ke electrica l trou bles rea d ily u n derstood .
 P REFA C E

The su bject ma tter a n d the sequ en ce of the topics ha ve

be en trea te d in su ch a wa y tha t the b ook a s a whole is we ll
su ite d for u se a s a te xt in cl a ss room s hop a n d l a b ora tory
-
, ,

work . I n a dd ition e a c h p a rt is so c om p lete Within itself th a t

,

the b ook shou ld prove t o be of va lu e as a referen ce b ook on a ll

p ra ctic a l problem s in electricity .

The illu stra tions a n d descriptions ha ve been ma de a s sim

p le a n d cle a r as possible in the h op e tha t they will be rea d ily
u n derstood a n d tha t they will su gges t to t h e te a cher a n d the

stu den t the in n u m era ble a pp lica tion s a n d p roblem s in v olved .

GEO A . . WILLOUGHB Y .
 CONTE NTS
CHAPTER I . E LECTRI CI TY AND E LE CTRI CAL CuR R E NTs . 9

1 . N a tu re of el e ctri city 2 W h y e v ery on e sh ou ld u n de rs ta n d . .

e l e ctrica l a p p l ic at i on s 3 E l e ctri ca l cu rren ts 4 Tr a n s m i s

. . . .

S i on of e l e ctr i ca l cu rre n t s .

CHAPTER I I . E LE CTRI C CONDU CTORS AN D I NS ULATO R S . . 14

5 . C om m on c on d u ctin g m a te ri al s . 6 . C om m on l atin g
I n su

cove ri n gs 7 C o m m on in su la tors . . . 8 . T a ble of con d u cti n g

p owe rs of c om m on m a t e rial s .

C HAPTE R I I I . E LE CTRI CAL PR E SSU R E s . 19

9 .E l e ctrical p ressu re cau se s cu rren t t o flow 1 0 C om m on . .

m e th o ds of su p p l y i n g e le ctri ca l p res su re s 1 1 B rie f d escri p . .

tion of t h e d ry cell 1 2 O p e r ation a n d u ses of d ry cells 1 3

. . . .

B rie f des crip ti on of st ora ge b atte ry 1 4 U se s of stora ge b at . .

t eri es 1 5 C a re a n d op er a tion of a s t or a ge b att e ry

. . 1 6 H ow . .

t o a v oid ru n n in g d ow n a b atte ry 1 7 How t o re m e dy u n de r . .

ch arge d con di ti on of a b atter y 1 8 H ow t o t ake h y drom eter . .

rea di n gs 1 9 Pressu res p rodu ce d b y ge n era tors

. . .

CHA PTER I V THE FLOW . OF E LE CTRICAL CURR E NT ; E LE C

TR I CAL C I RCU I TS . 28

20 Fl ow of e le ctri ci ty v s flow O f w at er 2 1 Wh at a ffe cts t h e

. . . .

flow of e le ctrici ty 22 Re sis ta n ce 23 S im p l e el e ctr i c a l cir

. . . .

cu i ts 24 Th e b ell circui t 2 5 P u sh bu tt ons 2 6 C on n e ct

. . . .
-
. .

in g b ell circ u its 2 7 I m p ort a n t p om t s re g a rdi n g con n e ction s

. . .

2 8 Tr ou bl es in h ell ci rc u its
. 2 9 Rep air in g b ell circu its . . .

CHAPTE R V . B ATTERY-LI GHTI NG CI RCUI TS 39

30 . I m p ort a n ce b attery lighti n g 3 1 Wh y b atte ry lightin g

of . .

s h ou ld be s tu d ie d 32 B ri e f des crip t ion of b a tt e ry l a m p s

. . .

5
6 C ON T EN T S

33 . a b a tt ery l a m p 34 E fie ct Of
Th e m e a n in g of t h e m a rk on . .

op er a tin g a l a m p on t oo h igh v olta ge 3 5 E fie ct of op er atin g 8 . .

la mp on t oo low v olta ge 3 6 W h at de te rm in es t h e v olta ge of a . .

b attery 3 7 H ow b atte ry lightin g circ u its d iner fr om h ell

'
-
. .

circu its 3 8 Pa ralle l a n d s eries conn e ctin g of l a m ps 39

. .
. .

How l am p s a r e d imm ed .

CHAPTE R VI THE HE ATI NG E FFE CI

.
‘
OF E LECTR I CAL
CUR R E NT; PR ACTI CAL APPLI CATI ONS 47 .

40 Th e
. e fie ct s of e e l ct rica l cu rren ts
he atin g e ffect . 41 . Th e
of e l e ctr ica l cu rre n ts 4 2 H ow t h e workin g of e le ctri city is
. .

like t h e workin g of a m a n 4 3 Thin gs a fie ct in g t h e am ou n t of . .

heat gen e ra te d 4 4 H ow t h e ge n e ra tion of h e a t ca n b e re gu

. .

l ate d 4 5 Th e p rin cip le u p on which he atin g devi ces op er a te

. . .

46 S im p l e h e a tin g e le m en t
. 4 7 Th e e l e ctri c fia t iron . . .

CHAPTER VI I . FU S E S AN D T HEI R P URPOS E . 53

48 . Wh y
t dy fu s es ? 49 B rief des crip tion of p urp ose of
s u .

fuses 50 B rie f des crip tion of fus es 5 1 T estin g a fuse

. . . . .

52 A rr an gem e n t of f u s es in h ous es
. 5 3 R e p l a cin g fuses . . .

CHAP I'E R VI I I HE ATER CIR CUI T TROUB LE S ; How To

.
-

DETE CT AND R EMEDY THE M 59 . .

54 . h e a te r circu it 55 A tt a chin g cord used with

C om p let e . .

hea te r 56 Wall re ce p t a cle in to w hich a tt a chm en t p l u g is

. .

s crewe d 5 7 E xte ns ion cord p lu g

. .5 8 C on ne ctions ma de b y -
. .

exten sion c ord 5 9 P ossibl e h ea ter circui t tr ou bl es

. . 60 P l u g -
. .

trou ble a n d re m e dy 61 D e te ctin g a blow n fuse 62 H e ater

. . . .

termin a l de fe cts 63 A tt a chm en t tr ou bl es a n d re me dies

. . .

64 O th e r p oss ibl e tr ou bl es
. 65 B u r n t-o ut h e atin g ele m e n t . . .

CHA P TER I " IN . CAN DESC E NT LAMPS AN D T HEI R USE . . 67

66 E le ctri c
. l a m p s 67 P rin cip l es of in ca n des cen t l am p 68
. . . .

Why a l am p giv es 0 6 light 69 Lam p fil am en t a n d b u lb 70 . . . .

How cu rren t ge ts in to l am p fil am en t 7 1 Me t a llic fil a men ts . . .

72 G as fille d l am p s
.
-7 3 Wa tt a ge m a rks on l am p s . . .
 CON T EN T S

CHAP TE R X . THE O PE RATI ON OF E LE CTRICAL LAMPS 72

74 . I m p ort an ce
b e in g fa m ili a r with l am p op era tion 7 5
of . .

C om p le te lighti n g circu i t 76 P ossibl e lighti n g circuit tr ou bles

. .
-
.

77 Lam p n ot t u r n e d in fa r e n ou gh
. 78 B u r n t out l a m p . .
-
.

7 9 An op e n or dis con n e ct e d switch

. 8 0 A bl ow n fu se or l a ck . .

of p owe r ? 8 1 P oor con n e cti on s in a so cke t

. 82 Fau lts in a . .

fixture 83 O the r p ossible trou bles 84 S h ort circui ts 85

. . . . . .

Tes ts for s h ort circuits 86 Val u e of tests a n d re m e dies

. . .

CHAPTER "I . E LE CTRI CAL MEAS URE ME NTS . . 82

87 . Ne ces sity
t 88 Com m on e l e ctric a l u n its
of u n i s . 89 Th e . . .

v olt 90 M e asu rin g v olts

. . 9 1 Th e am p ere 92 Me asure . . . .

m en t of am p e res 93 Watt s a n d ki l owa tts

. 94 Me a s u rin g
. . .

watts a n d kil owa tts 9 5 Kil ow att h ou rs .96 Me asu rin g .

-
. .

kil owatt h ou rs 97 Rea din g t h e kil owatt h ou r m eter

-
. .
-
.

CHAP TER "I I

DANC ERS I NVOLVE D. IN US I NG E LECTRI C
I T"; How TO AVOI D THEM . 94

98 . Wh y
afraid o f ele ctricity ? 99 H ow it is p ossibl e t o get
be .

a sh o ck 1 00 H ow on e ge ts a s ho ck from a l a m p s ocket 1 01
. . . .

S l ight sh ocks a re h a rm l ess 1 02 W h ere t h e re a l d a n ge r exists

. . .

1 03 E xam p les of a cci den ts

. .
 C HAPTE R I

E LE C TRI CI TY AN D E LE CTRICAL CURRE NTS

1 . l ectr icit y —Th e exa ct n a tu re of electricity

N a t ur e of E .

is n ot defin itely u n derstood a t the presen t time a ltho

m u ch tim e a n d e n ergy h a ve been spen t on it s stu dy I t is .

n ot n ecessa ry h owever t o kn ow wha t it is before on e is a ble

, ,

t o m a ke u se O f it a n y more tha n it is n ecessa ry t o kn ow wh a t

,

wa ter is before it ca n be a p p lied in us efu l wa ys I t is n e ces .

sa ry t o kn ow h ow wa ter a cts a n d for W h a t p u r p oses it m a y be

us ed Likewise those u sin g e le ctricity m u st kn ow h ow it

.
,

a c ts a n d h ow it ca n be d irec t ed a n d con trolled so a s t o do us e

fu l work— su ch a s rin gin g bells lightin g l a m p s hea tin g iron s

, , ,

m a kin g toa st ru n n in g wa shin g m a chin e s etc

, Altho it , .

is n ot kn own exa c tly wha t electricity is it is kn own tha t it ,

a cts as if it were a weightless in visible flu id existin g ev ery

,

where I t is kn own tha t it is n ot a flu id b u t tha t it s a ctions

.

a n d effects resem ble those O f a flu id t o su ch a n exten t tha t it

is u su a lly con sidered a s if it we re on e .

2 . Wh y E veryo n e S h o u l d U n d er st a n d E
l ectr ica l
App lic a t io n s —E lectricity is p roba bly j us t as plen tifu l as
wa ter a n d perha ps m ore so b u t we don t see it We se e on ly it s
’
.

effects These a r e very n um erous a n d a re of su ch va lu e tha t in

.

most cas es it behooves everyon e t o u n dersta n d as m a n y O fthem

as he p ossibly ca n Lightn in g is on e effect of electricity a n d
.

the N orthern Lights a n othe r both O f which a re bey on d the

,

con trol of ma n Ma n ca n n ot con trol the ra infa ll or the ocea n

.

9
 10 P RA CT I CAL ELE C T RI CI T Y FOR BE G I N N ERS

tide N evertheless the wa te r flowin g in a strea m ma y be

.
,

ha rn essed a n d ma de us e of in ma n y wa y s a n d by the u se of ,

pum ps pip es an d va rious other a ppa ra tus it ca n be ma de t o

, ,

serve in m a n y wa ys in the h om e I t s a pplica tions in every .

da y life a re comp a ra tively sim p le a n d very little difficu lty is

en coun tered in it s u se A pip e m a y sprin g a lea k or a va lve
.

ma y n ot O pe ra te properly b u t the re is little trou ble in volv ed

,

FI G . 1 . a p p lication s of e le ctricity —lightin g a h ouse rin g

Com m on ,

i n g a b e ll h e atin g a fla t i ron l ightin g a t a ble la m p li ghtin g a u t om ob ile

0

, , ,

he a dlights a n d op eratin g a fa n
, .

in detectin g rep a irin g or repla cin g either a n d the da n ger in

, ,

su ch ca s es is pra ctica lly n egligible I n the u se of electricity .

,

however there is mu ch more cha n ce for a cciden t an d consid

,

cra ble d ifficu lty will usua lly be en coun tered in detectin g t h e

most sim ple trou bles beca us e electricity itself is in vis ible a n d
on ly it s effects ca n be dete cted These effects m a y be in the .

form of a n electric shock which in som e extrem e cas es ma y

,

ca u se dea th if the us er is n ot fa milia r with the methods of

ha n dlin g electrica l cu rren ts .

Wa ter is on e of the most imp orta n t thin gs in life ; withou t

it we could n ot live E lectricity is on e of the m ost imp orta n t
.
 ELE CT RI CI T Y AN D ELE C T R I C AL CURREN T S 11

p owers in the world toda y an d withou t it civilized people

,

would be lost I t is us ed for O pera tin g street ca rs in teru rba n

.
,

ca rs locomotives street la m p s an d a u tomobile la mps ; for

, , ,

O pera tin g la mps stoves hea t ers toas ters clean ers a n d m a
, , , , ,

chin es an d devices of a ll des criptions in the hom e S om e of .

these are illustra ted in Fi g 1 Is it n ot well then for every

. .
, ,

body to kn ow somethin g a bou t electricity ?

3 . E l ectr ica l Cu rr en t s .
—An
electrica l cu rren t is elec
t ricit y in m otion E lectri ca l cu rren ts a re O f very grea t im
.

porta n ce sin ce it is the movemen t of electricity tha t rea lly

ca uses the effects common ly emp loyed in usefu l wa ys They .

must be led a n d con trolled however before they ca n be , ,

us ed an d it is the lea din g an d con trollin g tha t the a vera ge

,

p erson h as t o dea l with most Thus it is well to star t with.

a descri p tion O f the mann er in which electrica l cur ren ts are

ha n dled or the m ann er in which electricity is tra ns mitted

from on e pla ce t o a n other .

E lectrica l cu rren ts a re so simil a r t o wa te r curr en ts tha t

they can be un derstood most rea dily if the la tter ar e kept
c onstan tly in min d E veryon e is so fa milia r with these tha t
.

it is n ecessa ry on ly to reca ll vari ous sim ple poin ts rega rdin g

them These bein g clea r it is eas y to see how electricity is
.
,

like wa ter in some resp ect sfl bu t un like it in others ; how con

du ct ors ar e like pipes in som e wa y s b u t un like them in ,

others ; h ow p ipes resist the flow of wa ter an d con du ctors

res is t the flow of electrica l cu rren t etc I n this wa y points , .

O f imp ort a n ce m a y be fixed firmly in m in d .

4 . Tr a n s m issio n of E l ectrica l Cu rr en t s .
-
Wa te r is
lly tra nsm itte d from on e pla ce to a n other thru pipes or
usu a

thru hose The pipes ha ve a con tin u ous openin g thr uou t
.
 12 PRA CT I CAL ELE C T RI CI T Y FO R BEG I N NE R S

their len gth th ru wh ich the wa ter flows E lectricity differs .

cons idera bly from wa te r in this respect for it will n ot flow ,

thru a n open spa ce bu t is tra nsm itte d on ly thru a m a te ria l

,

_
ha vin g the powe r of ca rryin g it I t will flow thru a solid
.

wire or b ar of a n y sha pe if it is ma de of a con du ctin g ma te

ri a l (Fig .

o
5 :
FI G 2 . A sh ort p ie ce of p ip e (wa ter
. con du ctor) and e xa m p l es of
solid e le ctrica l con du ct ors .

The con du cto rs m ost comm on ly us ed in the tra ns mission

of electr icity a r e in the form O f meta llic W ir es b u t m a n y O f ,

those us ed in the ma kin g of electrica l a ppa ra tus a n d c on

trollin g dev ices a re in other forms .

S UMMARY OF PRI N CI PLE S IN CHAPTER I

1 . E le ctricity a cts a s if it were a weightless in visible flu id exis tin g

,

ev e ry wh e r e .

2 . Th e a p p li ca tio n s of e le ctricity a re s o n u m e r ous a n d s o im p ort a n t

th a t eve ry b ody sh oul d u n ders ta n d the m .

3 . An ele ctri ca l cur r en t is el e ctricity in m otion .

4 . E l e ctricity is tr a ns m tte d fr om on e p la ce t o a n oth e r b y con

i

d u c t ors wh ich a r e usu a ll y m a de of m et al in t h e f or m of w ire .

Q UE STI ONS
1 . I s t h e e xa ct n a t u re l ctricity defini te ly u n de rs tood ?
of e e

2 . I s it n e cess a ry t o k n ow w h a t e l e ct ri ci ty is b e fore it ca n b e us e d ?

3 . W hy is it im p or t an t th a t ev e ry b ody u n de rs tan d t h e ap plica tion s

of e l e ctri ci ty ?

4 . Wh at m us t b e k n own a b ou t ele ctri city b e fore it ca n b e u se d

in te ll igen tly ?
 ELE CT R I CI T Y AN D ELE C T R I C AL C U RREN T S 13

5 . E n u m erate a s m a n y uses of ele ctricity a s y ou ca n .

6 . Wh y is it r ath e r diffi cult for on e n ot u n ders t an di n g t h e a cti ons

of e l e ctri city t o d e te ct tr ou bl es ?

7 . Wh a t is a n ele ctri ca l cu rren t ?

8 . How d oes t h e tr ansmission of el e ctricity diffe r gr eatly fr om t h e
tra n smission of water ?
With wh at p art of ele ctrical work m u st t h e avera ge p e rson deal

10 . D o y ou kn o w of a n y case wh ere an e el ctrical con du ct or is n ot

rou n d i n t h e f or m of a Wi re ?

SU GGE STI ONS

O bse rv e c arefu lly e v ery l ctrica l

e e in st all a ti on v ou see a n d t rv t o
le arn som ethin g a b out i t .
 CHAPT E R II

E LE CTR I C CONDUCTORS AN D I NSULATORS

5 . Ma t er ia l s —The most com

C o m m o n Co n d u ctin g .

mon con du ctin g m a terials a re m eta ls su ch as copper brass, , ,

iron a lum in u m a n d the like ; b u t ma n y other su bsta nces

, ,

e specia lly when th ey are da mp ca rry electricity quite rea dily

, .

I t is kn own tha t if wa te r is pour ed u pon the groun d it will ,

soa k in to it or in other words it is tra ns mitt ed by t he

, ,

groun d a n d it is kn own a lso tha t wa ter is transmitt ed slowly

,

by wood a n d cloth e specia lly when they a re da mp E lec

, .

tricity is a ls o transmitte d by the groun d by wood a n d by , ,

cloth when they a re da mp There are some su bsta n ces ,

, .

m oreover tha t will n ot let wa ter p as s thru t h em t o an y a p

,

p recia b le exte n t, an d man y of the sa me su bsta n ces will not

pa s s thru them very rea d ily a re ca lled good con d u ct ors ;

those ha vin g the propert y of ca rryin g cur ren t on ly t o a
lim ite d ext en t a re ca lled p oor con du ctors a n d those which do
,

not pe rmit a n y a pprecia ble a mou n t of electric it y to pass thru

them a re ca lled insu la tors

—C ot o
.

6 . C o m m o n I n su la t in g C over in gs . t n a n d s il k

are n ot good if they bec om e d a mp or if there is too mu ch elec

t ri ca l pressure Wires covered with cotton or silk a re u sed
.

qu ite extens ively in electrica l work b u t they a re us ua lly,

sat ura t e d with some mois tur e proof ma te ria l su ch as pa ra ffin

-
.

The wire common ly use d in bell work is covered with a la v e r

 ELE C T R I C C ON D U C T ORS AND I N S ULA T ORS 15

of cotton sa tu ra ted with pa ra ffin Cotton or silk a lon e a re

.

n ot very good ins u la tin g ma te ria ls especia lly if the press u re

,

is high an d on e shou ld n ot thin k tha t beca u se he h as clothes

,

of cotton or silk electr icity will n ot p a ss thru them .

I t is e asy to remem ber these poin ts if the u se of a n um

brella is brou ght t o min d An u mbrella is covered with cot
.

t on or silk to protect it s user dur in g a shower I t serves it s .

pur pose if the shower d oes n ot l as t t oo lon g a n d if it does n ot

,

ra in t oo ha rd If the cloth becomes sa tu ra te d with wa te r

.
,

fi l l , I I I I I I I ]I

FI G . 3S eve r al well-k n own cove rin gs use d for p rote ction a gain s t
.

w a te r a n d sev era l comm on e le ctrica l- con du ctor c ove rin gs o f t h e s a m e

,

kin d of m ate rial .

t h e p erson is lia bleto get d a mp Likewise these ma te ria ls

.
,

a re good for protectin g a ga ins t electricity in som e cas es ,

b u t n ot if they become d a m p .

When it is n ecessa ry t o withsta n d hea vy storms or la rge

qua n tities of wa te r goods of rubber a re used inste a d of those
,

O f cotton or silk R u bbers ru bber boots ru bbe r coa ts a n d

.
, ,

’
ru bber ha ts a re sur e prote ction a ga inst wa te r if they don t
lea k I n electrica l work ru bber is one of the most comm on
.
,
16 P RA CTI C AL ELE C T R I C I TY FO R BE G I N N E R S

c ov erin gs used Wir es us ed in h ou ses a re covered with ru b

.

ber a n d ma n y O f the sm a ller p ieces of electrica l a ppa ra tus

,

h a ve p a rts m a de of h a rd ru bber R u bbers a n d ru bber gloves

.

a r e good protectors a ga in st electricity R u bber c overin gs .

a n d ru bber cloth in g a re u sed mostly a s a protection a ga ins t

the gra du a l flow or lea ka ge of wa ter b u t on ly in few cas es a re

,

they used for reta in in g it within certa in bou n ds .

FI G . 4 C omm on
. f or m s of a
p orce l in u se d in b oth w a te r l c
and e e
t rica l a p p l ica tion s .

7 . C o m m o n I n su l a t or s —When
. desir ed t o hold it is
wa ter in a ce rta in pl a ce it is usu a lly r un in to a porcela in
,

c ov ered vessel—a b a th t u b or a wa sh b owl—beca u s e poree

la in is wa te r proof Porcela in is us e d very exten siv ely for
- .

ins u la tin g p u rp ose s or t o kee p e lec tric a l cu rren ts with in given

b ou n ds Porcela in tu bes a re u sed t o en circle wire s when
.

they p ass th ru wood porcela in kn ob s a re us ed for su pp ortin g

,

wires ru n n in g len gt h wis e of bea m s ; a n d switch bases fuse -

,

blocks a n d socke ts of p orcela in a re v e ry comm on S ome .

exa m p les of p orcela in u se d for these p u rp oses a re shown in

F ig 4 . .
 ELE CT RI C C ONDU C T OR S AND I N S ULA T ORS 17

8 . Ta b l e of C o n d u ct in g P ower s of Co m m o n Ma t e
r ia ls —I n the followin g ta ble a few comm on su bsta n ces a re

a rra n ged a ccord in g t o their c on d u ctin g p owers

G ood Con du ctors Poor C on du cto rs

Meta ls . Dry wood .

Gra p hite . Pa p e r .

S olu tion of sa lts Pu re wa t er .

a n d a cid s . Dry ea rth .

SUMMAR Y OF PRI NCI PLE S I N CHAPTE R I I

1 . A good con du ctor is a m ate ria l h avin g t h e p ower of transmittin g

e l e ctri city re a dily .

2 . A p oor c on du ctor is a m a te rial th at p ermits on ly a com p a ratively

s m a ll a m oun t of c u rr e n t t o p ass thr u it .

3 . An in su l a t or is a m a t er ia l th a t d oes n ot p e rm it a n y ap p re cia ble

am ou n t of cur ren t t o p ass thru it .

Cott on silk a n d ru bb er a re com m on in su l a t in g cove rin gs

, , .

P orcel ain is on e of t h e m os t com m on in su l atin g m aterials .

Th e gr ou n d wh e n it is d a m p ca rries cu rren t q u ite r e a dily .

QUE STI ONS

1 .Wha t a re t h e m ost com m on c on du ctors ?
2 .Wh en a re cotton or silk c ov erin gs satisfa ctory ?
3 .H ow ca n t h e in su l atin g p rop erties of th ese m a te rials b e grea tly
ben efite d ?
4 .Wh e re is ru bb er covere d wire m ost comm on ly us e d ?
-

5 .Where is cott on covere d wire m ost comm on ly use d ?

-

6 .Wh a t c om m on a rticle com p ares with t h e cotton or silk cov eri n g ?

7 .How is it e asy t o re m e m b e r th a t ru bb er is a c omm on insu l a tin g
c ove rin g ?
8 .Wh at is t h e m ost com m on in su latin g m ateria l u se d in h ouse
wirin g ?
2
18 PRA CT I CAL ELE C T RI CI TY FOR BEG I NNE R S
9 .E n u m erate a s m an y differen t e le ctrica l de vi ces as y ou ca n th a t
a re m a d e wh oll y or in p a rt of p orce l a in
.

10 . Wh a t is mica ?

Procu re as m an y of ate rials

t he m m en tion e d as y ou ca n or se e if
y ou ca n fin d a n y of the m in a ctu a l u se
.
 CHAPT E R I I I

E LE C TRI CAL PRESSURE S

9 . E lect r ica l Pr essur e Ca u ses C ur r en t t o Flow 4 . om e

of the m a teria ls use d in the tra n sm ission of ele ctricity ha ve

been m en tion ed b u t n othin g h as been sa id a s yet of wha t
, , ,

ca us es the cu rren t to flow thru the con du ctors I t is n eces .

sa ry for the rea der to kn ow wha t is requ ired to m a ke electrica l

cu rren t flow thru a con du ctor or a con du ctin g circu it before

, ,

he ca n expect t o be a ble t o d o m u ch with elec trica l a p pa ra tus

in telligen tly .

B efore considerin g the ca use of the

m ovemen t or flow O f electricity h ow ,

e v er let us cons ider the flow of wa te r

, s pa gy m .

A pipe m a y be fu ll of wa te r b u t n on e ,

O f it will flow u n til p ressu re is su pp lied in

som e wa y This p ressur e m a y be brou ght

.

a b ou t in on e of sev era l wa y s depen d in g ,

u p on the requir emen ts a n d the a va ila ble

equ ipmen t Wa ter or other liqu id m a y be

.

requ ir ed for a n y of severa l d ifferen t p u r

poses If it is n ecessa ry t o fu rn ish on ly
.
me 5 Two com . ,

m et h ° ds ° f su p
a sm a ll sp ra y as for spra yin g Vin es a n d
'

p l y in g wate r p r essu re s
,

the like a sm a ll sp ra y er p u m p is a ll tha t — t h e s p ray e r a n d t h e

s t or a ge t a n k
,
.

is requ ired I f it is desired t o fu rn is h

.

la rger qua n tities of wa ter b u t for ra ther short peri ods of time
, ,

a stora ge ta n k ma y be us ed (Fig I f however a high .

, ,

pres su re or a very grea t a moun t of wa ter is required a pu m p ,

in g sta tion mus t be provided or if possible provision m ust , , ,

19
20 P RA C T I C A L ELE C T RI C I TY FO R BEG I N NE RS

be m a de for p u rchas in g the wa ter from a la rge pu mp in g

sta tion .

To force electricity thru con du ctors we fin d it n ecessa ry to ,

fu rn ish e lectrica l p ressu res in wa y s som ewha t sim ila r to those

u s ed in furn is hin g wa ter p ressu res .

10 . Meth o d s of S u p p lyin g E l ectr ic a l P r e s

Com m on
su r e —E lectric a l pressu re is c a lled volta ge or electromotive
.

force the firs t b e in g ta ken from the n a m e of a m a n Volta

, , ,

who d id a grea t dea l towa rd the devel

opin g O i electricity a n d the s econ d ,

m ea n in g the force th a t ca us es elec

“

”
t ricit y t o move If on ly low pressu res.

a n d compa ra tively sma ll qu a n tities of

cu rren t a re requ ired su ch as in the ca s e

of rin g n d oor bells a n d the like dry ,

cells a re used Then where grea ter .

,

qu an tities of electricity a re n eeded ,

stora ge b a tteries m a y well fu lfill the

requ irem en ts (F ig I f however .

, ,

high volta ges a n d la rge qu a n tities a re

required a sm a ll power pla n t mus t be
,

ins ta lled 0 1 the Power mu s t be Pur

‘

F m 6 Two of t h e
. .

3 1 31 gaging
335 E ‘ ch as ed from a cen tra l p ower s ta tion
1 1 n
.

gg
fi g
ggg g
iggggg g}
s c
e
11 . B r ie f D e s cr ip t io n of t h e Dry
C el l .
—S in ce t h e
ll is on e of the dry ce

most com m on sour ces O f sm a ll electrica l p ressu res it is well ,

to stu dy it briefly a t this tim e .

O ver on e hu n dred y ea rs a go a n exp e rimen t e r n a me d

Volta d iscovere d tha t a n electric cu rren t could be ca us ed
to flow by the us e of chemica ls H e foun d tha t when dilu te
.
 ELE C T RI CAL PRE S S URE S 21

su lp hu ric a cid was pla ced in a glas s tu mbler a n d a strip of

z in c a n d a strip O f c0 p p er susp en de d in it a n electric cu rren t
,

wou ld flow from t h e cop p er t o the zin c if they were c on n ected

b y a con du ctor .

The dry cell of tod a y is the resu lt O f this d iscovery . The

zin c is ma de in the form of a ca n for the
p u rpose of reta in in g the rest of the cell ,

thereby doin g a wa y with the n ecessity O f

us in g a glass tu m bler the c opp e r h as b e en
,

repla ced by a ca rb on stic k ha vin g the

sa m e e ffect a n d the su l p hu r ic a c id h as
,

been repla ced by other chem ica ls in the

form of a pas te in stea d O f a liquid (Fig .

12 O per a t io n a n d Us e s of Dr y C ell s
. .

When ev er a c ell is in use the c hem ica ls in ,

it ea t t h e zin c a n d both che m ic a ls a n d

“ ”

zin c a re gra du a lly u sed u p After these .

ha ve been consu m ed the cell is O f n o m ore

,

S om e 89 032 5 di 2319
1 7 ” 8
us e a n d is u su a lly thrown a wa y
3;
.

tim es if it is extremely cold hea tin g a ce ll cell S h owin g t h e ,

,
c a rb on sti ck t h e ,

will c a us e it t o l iven u p a n d the l ife ca n b e Zl n c con t ain e r t h e

, ,

che m ica ls a n d t h e
e xten ded s l i ghtly som eti mes by rem ov mg oth e r les s im p or
t a m p a rts
the wa x from the t op of the cell a n d pou r '

in g wa te r in t o it I t mus t be remem bered a t a ll tim es tha t a

.

dry cell is ca pa ble of fu rn ish in g electric pressu re on ly while

the chem ica ls a n d z in c a re in good con dition a n d tha t ev en ,

wh ile these a r e in good con dition it mus t be us e d for sh ort

,

pe riods on ly .

Dry cells a re us ed qu ite e xtensively for rin gin g d oor bells ,

ru n n in g clocks , opera tin g spa rk coils etc Often it is foun d

, .
22 PRAC T I C AL ELE C T R I CI T Y FOR BE G I N NERS

tha t one cell is n ot ca pa ble of fu rn ishin g su fficien t pressu re in ,

which cas e s t wo or more a re conn ected in series Tha t is the . ,

ca rb on of on e is conn ected to the zin c of the secon d a n d the

lin e wires to the other t wo term in a ls The pressu re of t wo
.

c ells conn ected in this m a n n e r is d ou ble th a t of on e a n d tha t ,

a fforded b y thr ee is thr ee tim es tha t of a s in gle cell .

13 . B r ie f Descr ip t io n tor a ge B a t t ery —Th e st ora ge

of S .

b a ttery depen ds u pon chemica ls for it s a ction as d oes the dry

cell bu t they a re of su ch a n a tur e th a t they do n ot becom e ex
,

ha ns ted as in the cas e of the la tter I nst ea d O f bein g ma de of

.

z in c ca rbon a n d a chemica l
,

pa ste the stora ge b a ttery is

,

m a de of pla tes of lea d immersed

“ ”
in a dilu te or wea k solu tion
O f su lphu ric a cid When elec
.

t ric a l cu rren t is sen t in to the

ba ttery a chem ica l a ction
,

ta kes pla ce whi ch ca us es a n

elec trica l pressur e to be formed
FI G 8 C om m on s t ora ge b a t
. .
The n W hen the b a tte ry 15
t e r y of t h e ty p e u se d in a u t o m o
,

b l les . con n ected to a n electric circu it ,

the p ressur e thus form ed ca u ses cu rren t t o flow .

poss ible t o m a ke a sma ll s tora ge cell b y p u ttin g t wo

I t is
"
shee ts of ordin a ry lea d in a glass a r filled with a very d ilu te

solu tion of su lp hur ic a cid E lectrica l cu rren t is then forced

.

t hr u t he pla tes a n d the solu tion of a cid

~
On e of the pla te s
.

tu rns brown c olored while the other rema ins the gra y color
,

of lea d This is du e t o the chemica l a ction ta kin g p la ce

. .

At the sa me time the a cid becom es more con cen tra te d or

st ron ger N ow if the sou r ce of cu rren t is disc onn ected
“ ”
. ,
 ELE C T R I CAL PRE SSU RE S 23

and a bell or other sma ll piece O f electrica l a ppa ra tus is

c onn ected t o the t wo pla tes it will be foun d tha t the ba ttery
,

thus formed will ca us e it t o op era te b u t tha t the brown

,

pla te will gra du a lly chan ge color a n d the solu tion will becom e
m ore d ilu te a ga in .

Commercia l stora ge b a tte ries su ch as shown in Fig 8 .

op era te in a m a nn er simil a r t o this b u t their pla tes a re

,

sp ecia lly prepa red a n d the con ta in ers a re u su a lly ma de of

ru bber in stea d of glass Severa l cells a re usu a lly conn ecte d

.

in series in the a vera ge stora ge b a ttery a n d p rovision is ,

m a de for conn ectin g on to the first a n d l ast cell The n u m ber

.

of cells conn ected in this m an n er is depen den t u p on the pres

sur e des ir ed .

14 . of S t or a ge B a tter ie s —Altho stora ge b a tteries

U ses
a re u s ed for sev era l d ifferen t p u rp oses we a re m ost in tereste d
,

in the ir u ses in a u tomobiles beca us e they a re so extensiv e a n d

so c omm on . Pra ctica lly every a u tom obile is equ ipped with a
stora ge b a ttery for lightin g for ign ition a n d for O p era tin g the
,

sta rt in g motor The st ora ge ba tte ry is qu ite a delica te piece

.

of a ppa ra tus a n d requ ires grea t ca re in it s opera tion I t is .

sp oiled ea sily if it is n ot given the proper a tten tion a n d ca re .

I t is imp orta n t then th a t we ta ke u p briefly a t this time

, , , ,

h ow t o ta ke ca re of a stora ge b a ttery .

15 . Ca r e O p e r a ti o n of 8 S tor a ge B a tt ery —The

an d . .

b a tte ry in an a u tomobile requires more a tten tion than a n y

other item of equipmen t beca use O f it s electro-chemica l n a
tu re The ba ttery shou ld be exa min ed tested filled a n d
.
, ,

wiped off on ce a wee k The fluid m ust be m a in ta ined a t a

.

lev el a b ove t h e tops O f the pla tes by a ddin g d istilled wa ter .

Acid sh ou ld n ever be a dded to repla ce eva p ora tion I f the .

24 PRA C TI C AL ELE C T RI CI T Y FOR BEG I N NERS

cha rge in the ba tte ry is a llowed t o run d own t oo low the ,

p la tes a r e l ia ble t o be ru in ed so the sta te of cha rge shou ld be

dete rmin ed when the b a ttery is tested Now as has been .
,

sta ted the stren gth or weight of the solu tion cha n ges with
,

the cha rge so it is p ossible to de te rmin e the con dition of the

,

ba tte ry b y meas u rin g the stren gth of the solu tion in it Th is .

we ight is ca lled specific gra vity a n d is meas ur ed by a n in

“ ”

Th e method of ta kin g
“
stru men t ca lled a hy drom eter .

these rea din gs will be described l a ter .

16 . How t o Avo id R u n n in g Down a B a t t ery .

—An
un dercha rged c on dition of a b a tte ry m a y be the result of ex
t ra va ga n t u se of electrica l cu rren t Short ru ns a n d frequ en t
.

s top s requ ir in g the use of the b a ttery for tur n in g the sta rtin g
,

motor or us in g the c a r la rgely a t n ight so tha t the la mps u se

,

u p m ore cu rren t than is fu rn is hed by the gen era tor m a y be ,

t h e ca us e of this con dition The exh a ustin g of a ba ttery m a y

.

be a voided by refra in in g from usin g the sta rtin g motor more

tha n is a b solu tely n ecessa ry by not blowin g the horn u n
,

n ecessa rily a n d by usin g the light econ omica lly

, .

17 . How t o R e m ed y U n d e r ch ar ged C o n d it io n of a

B tt ery —I i the b a ttery is n ot too ba dly u n dercha rged the

a .
,

remedy is t o drive the ca r for a good d ista n ce a t a good ra te of

s peed B efore th is is don e h owev er the meter on the d as h
.
, ,

s hou ld be n oted a n d shou ld re a d cha rge whe n the moto r is

“ ”

’
ru n n in g a t a fa ir ra te of sp ee d I f this d oesn t show cha rge
.
“
,
”

s om ethin g mus t be wr on g in the cha rgin g c ircu it which m us t

be repaired before run n in g the m a chin e will do a n y good .

18 H ow t o Ta ke Hy dr o m et e r R e a din gs —To ta ke a
.

hy drom eter rea din g (Fig in order to in dica te the con dition
.

of the ba tte ry rem ove the fillin g plu gs or ca p s from on e cell

, , ,
 ELE C T R I CAL PRE SS URE S 25

at a time N ext insert the hy drom eter syrin ge in to the

.
,

fillin g tu be an d dra w en ou gh solu tion t o floa t the gl as s bu lb

ins ide the ins tru men t The rea din g of the level O f the solu
.

tion on the bu lb is the on e desired I f it rea ds . or m ore

,

the b a ttery is considered fu lly cha rged I f it rea ds less tha n

.

it is pra ctica lly d is cha rged a n d mus t be ta ken c a re Of

imm ed ia tely . R ea din gs between these two va lu es give a n
in dica tion of the a m ou n t
O f cha rge in the b a ttery .

19 . P r e s s u r e s Pr o
d u c e d by G e n er a tor s .

B oth the dry cell a n d the

stora ge b a ttery h a v e lim

it e d a ppl ica tions a n d b oth

a re expensive .I t is n eces
s a ry then when high pres
l 3 0 0 FULL"C HANG E D
, ,
-

su res an d la rge qu a n tities

of electrica l power a re re
FI G 9 H ow a h y drome te r re a d
qu ir ed a t a reas on a ble cost in g is ta ken t o de ter min e t h e s ta te of
. .

tha t some other method of ch a rg e of t h e s t ora ge b a tt ery

.

produ cin g pressu re be used I t h a s been foun d tha t it is p os

.

s ible to provide volta ge by the use of ma chin es ca lled gen e r

a t ors which ca n be revolved by en gin es or wa ter wheels a t a

-

sma ll expens e The pressur es produ ced in this wa y ca n be

.

dis tribu ted t o the va rious desired loca tions a n d used for
op era tin g elect rica l devi ces .

The prin ciples of O pera tion of these ma chin es a re t oo com

plica ted t o be ta ken u p a t this tim e a n d it is n ot a bsolu tely
,

n ecessa ry to un derstan d them before on e is a ble to use m a n y

c omm on electrica l devices so we will cons ider gen era tors as if

,

the y we re ba tteries .
26 P RA C TI CAL ELE CT R I CI T Y FO R BEG I N NER S

S UMMARY OF PRI NCI PLE S IN C HAP TER I I I

1 . E le ctrical p ressu res a re re quire d t o m a ke e le ctricity flow thru a
con du ct or .

2 . E le ctrica l p ressu res a r e p r ov ide d b y d ry cells stora ge b atteries

,

a n d g en e r a to rs .

3 . Dry cells a r e s u ita ble on ly for in t ermi tten t w ork .

4 . Dry cells a re us eles s a ft e r t h e ch emica ls a n d zin c h ave b een us e d

up .

5 . S tor a g e
b atteri es m us t b e given very c arefu l atten tion .

6 .Th e s ol u tion in a s t or a ge b a ttery sh ou ld b e k ep t a b ov e t h e p l a tes

b y a ddin g dis tille d wa ter .

7 .A cid sh ou ld n ev er b e a dde d t o a stora ge b a ttery .

8 .C a re sh ou ld b e t a ken n ot t o use t h e s t artin g m ot or on a n a u t o

m obile so m u ch th a t t h e b a ttery is r u n com p l e te ly d own .

9 .A s t ora ge b attery sh ou ld b e insp ecte d weekly .

10 Th e c on dition of a st or a ge b a ttery is in di ca te d by t h e sp ecific

.

gr avity of t h e liqu id in it .

Q UE STI ONS

1 .Wh at is re qu ire d t o ca use ele ctricity t o flow ?

2 .Wh a t a re t h e thr ee m os t comm on m eth ods of su p p ly in g e le ctric al
p ressu r e ?

3 .Wha t is ele ct rica l p ressu re ca lle d ?

4 Wh at a re dry cells us e d for ?
5 .W here a re s tora ge b atte ries m ost c om m on ly use d ?
6 H ow d oes a s t or a g e b a tt e ry d iffe r fr om a d ry ce ll ?

7 .I s it p ossibl e t o re ch a rge a d ry ce ll ?

8 Wha t shou ld b e b orn e in m in d when usin g a d ry ce ll ?

9 H ow a r e c
dryell s c on n e ct e d t o in cr ease t h e p r essu r e ?

10 .
Wh a t ca re sh ou ld b e taken in usin g a s t ora ge b atte ry ?
11 . Wh at is a hy drome ter ?
 ELE CT RI CAL PRE S S URE S 27

H ow is it p ossible t o a v oid ru n n in g d ow n
a st or a ge b attery ?
Wh at a dvan ta ge h as t h e gen e rator over t h e stora g e b a tte ry ?
H ow d o y ou ta ke h y drom eter r ea din gs ?

S UGGE STI ONS

1 . Dry cells a re fre qu en tly thrown away an d m a y b e obt ain e d with

ou t c t
os S e e if y ou ca n get a n old on e a n d
.
“
liven it u p b y chi pp in g
”

t h e wa x fr om t h e t op a n d p ou rin g wa ter in it .

2 . T ea r a n old dry cell t o p ie ces a n d see if y ou ca n le a rn m ore ab ou t

it s p arts th a n is g iven i n this b ook .

3 . I f y ou h ave a n au t om obil e t r y t o l o ca te t h e s t or a ge b a tt ery a n d

,

see h ow m a n y cells a re con n e ct e d in s erie s . Ea ch cell gives t wo v olts .

Wha t is t h e v olta ge of t h e b atte ry ?

4 . Look a t t h e m ete r on t he dash t h e n ext time y ou take a n au to
rid e a n d see if it re a ds charge
“
.

5 . Watch t h e m eter wh en t h e l am ps a re on a n d see if it re a ds dis

ch arge .
”

6 . Th e m e te r d oes n ot re a d whe n t h e sta rtin g m otor is us e d b e ca us e

s o m u ch cur ren t is t ak e n th a t it wou ld b e b u r n e d ou t S ee th a t thi s is
.

tru e b y wa tchin g t h e mete r when t h e m otor is b ein g starte d .

7 . I f y ou h av e a d oorb ell in y ou r h ous e see if y ou ca n l o ca te t h e dry

cells th a t fur nis h t h e p res sure for it .

8 . I f y ou h a v e a d oorb ell a n d ca n n ot l oca te a n y dry cell s it is p ossi

b le th a t t h e b e ll is o p e ra t e d fr om a s m all b ell rin gin g tr a n sform e r con
-

n e ct e d t o t h e l ightin g circu i t . I f this is th ou ght t o b e t h e ca se se e if

,

y ou ca n l oca te t h e tr a ns for m e r .
 CHA P T E R IV

TH E F LO W OF E LE C TR I CAL CU R R E N T ; E LE C TR I CAL CIR CU I TS

20 . F low l ect r icit y vs F low of Wa t er —Ha vin g

of E . .

becom e fa m ilia r with the fa ct tha t electricity is ca used t o

m ove thru ma teria ls tha t a re c on du ctors if electrica l pressur e

FIG 1 0. S h owin g a n im p ort a n t difl eren ce b e t ween t h e flow of w a te r

.

a n d t h e fl ow of e l e ctr i ci ty E le ctricity will n ot fl ow u n less the re i s a

.

com p le te circu it .

or volta ge is su pplied let us n ow cons ider the fa cts su rroun d

,

in g the flow of elec trica l cur ren ts .

The flowin g of elec tricity is like the flowin g of wa te r in

some respects b u t decidedly d ifferen t from it in others
, .

Wa ter will flow ou t of the en d of a p ip e or h ose if p ressur e is

a pp lied E lectricity will n ot flow ou t the en d of a wire or
.

other con du ctor B efore it is p ossible t o m a ke elect ricity

.

28
 FLOW OF E LE C T R I CAL C URREN T S ; CI R CU I T S 29

flow, it is e e ry to provide a c omplete circu it for it ; tha t

n c ssa

is there must be a con tinu ous con du ctor or series of c on

, ,

du ct ors lea din g from on e termina l of a ba ttery a roun d thru

,

the p oin t to which t he cu rren t is tra nsmitted an d b a ck to the

other termin a l "
ust the op p osite is tru e in the cas e of a
.

I llu str a t in g t h e
fa ct th a t wate r fl ows sl owly thru a s m all
"
FI G 1 1. .

p ip e b u t r a p idly thru a la rge on e

,
u s t a s e l e ctricity fl ows s l ow l y
,

th ru a s m all Wi re b u t ra p i dly thru a l arge on e

, .

wa ter circu it formed by m a ld n g t wo connections to a ta n k .

N o wa te r will flow if a closed c ircu it is formed by run n in g a

pipe from the ta n k to the poin t where the wa ter is desired a n d
ba ck to the sa me ta n k a ga in These poin ts a re illustra ted in
.

F ig 1 0
—
. .

21 . Wh a t Aflect s t h e F low
of E l ect ricit y There a re .

thr ee very importa n t poin ts brou ght ou t so far which sh ou ld

be kept in min d constan tly First con du ctors are required
.
,
 30 P R AC TI C AL ELE C T RI CI TY FO R BEG I N NERS

for ca rryin g elec trica l cu rren ts S econ d electrica l p ressu re

.
,

or volta e m ust be s u
g p p lied b y a ba ttery or gen era tor before
electrica l cu rren ts will flow thru the con du ctors Third the .
,

con du ctor or seri es O f con du ctors m ust form a closed circu it

,
,

from on e term in a l of the sour ce of cu rren t to the other or n o ,

c u rre n t will flow .

I t is ffi cien t however to sa y tha t con du ctors pres

n ot su , , ,

s u res a n d closed circuits a re a

ll tha t a re requ ired withou t

I r on Wir e

FI G .12 . S h owin g t h e flow of cu rr en t thru a c opp e r wire a n d a n ir on

win: of t h e s a m e d ia m e te r a n d le n gth w hen con n e cte d t o dry cells of t h e
s a m e ki n d . A b ou t s ev e n tim es a s m u ch cu rre n t flows thru t h e cop p e r
s of t h e t wo m e t a ls
a s t h ru t h e i r on , d u e t o diffe ren t e le ctr ica l p r op ertie .

goin g m ore into deta il as to the other thin gs a ffectin g the flow
of electricity Wa ter fl ows slowly ou t of a sma ll pipe b u t
.
,

ra p idly ou t of a la rge on e Likewise electricity flows slowly

.
,

thru a sm a ll wire a n d ra pidly thru a la rge on e (Fig .

Then if a short hea vy wire we re c onn ected t o the te rm in a ls

, ,

of a dry cell a ver y la rge cu rren t wou ld flow

, I f th is were re .

pla ced by a n other cop p er wire Oi the sa m e len gth b u t sma ller ,

in d ia m ete r less cu rren t wou ld flow

,
If this were c on tin u ed
.
,

rep la cin g the wire ea ch tim e by on e sma ller in d ia m eter the ,

flow of cu rren t wou ld be less a fte r ea ch cha n ge The sa me .

 FLOW O F ELE CT RI CAL C URREN T S : CI R CU I T S 31

wou ld be tru e if differen t sizes of pip es were conn ected to a

ta n k of wa ter ; bu t if iron wires of the sa me size were su bst i
t u t ed for those of cOp p er on ly a b ou t on e-seven th as m u ch
,

cu rren t wou ld flow in e a c h cas e (Fig The ma teria l of

.

which the con du ctor is ma de h as a grea t dea l to do with the

speed a t which it will ca rry electricity N O two ma t e ri a ls .

will ca rry it with exa ctly t h e sa me ea se N ow if wires twice .

,

as l on g were used , it wou ld be foun d tha t in every cas e on ly

FI G 1 3. . I n dica tin g t h e d ifiere n ce in t h e flow of cu rren t thru a sh ort

wire a n d a l on g wire of t h e s a m e m a te rial a n d s ize I f t h e wire is t wice
.

as lon g , on ly on e-h a lf a s m u ch cu rr e n t wi ll flow thru i t .

one- ha lf as mu ch cu rren t wou ld flow thru them , as illus tra ted

in F ig 1 3 . .

The foregoin g m a y be su mmed u p in the followin g

The a b ility of a con du ctor to ca rry electrica l cu rren t de
pen ds u pon ( 1 ) the dia meter O f the con du ctor or it s cross-sec
t ion a l a rea (2) the ma teri a l of which the con du ctor is m a de
, ,

a n d (3) the len gth of the con du ctor .

22 . R esis t a n ce . —The e f
cts—tha t the e as e with which
s a

the cu rren t flows thru a con du ctor depen ds u pon the size of
the con du ctor the ma te ri a l of which it is ma de a n d it s
, ,

len gth—are of gre a t import an ce an d shou ld be rem embe red

by the stu den t I f these were n ot tru e we wou ld ha ve n o
.
,
32 P RA C T I C AL ELE C T R I C I TY FO R BE G I N N ER S

electri c lights electric toa sters or electric hea ters beca use
, ,

these a ll d e p en d u p on resista n ce for their opera tion

”
.

R esista n ce is the phy sica l prop erty of a ma teria l by virtu e

of whic h the m a te ria l op p oses the flow of ele ctrica l cu rren t .

The res is ta n ce tha t the d ifferen t ma te ria ls offe r to the flow of

electricity va ries grea tly N o ma teria l is a perfect con du ctor
. ,

an d n o m a teria l is a perfect insula to r However s om e ma te

.
,

ri a ls h a v e su ch a sm a ll a m ou n t O f re sista n ce th a t they a re

ca lled c on du ctors a n d others h a ve so mu ch tha t they are

,

ca lled insu l a tors .

23 . S im p le E l e ctr ic a l Ci r cu its .
—Ha vin g lea rn ed the
irn p ort a n t p oin ts rega rdin g electricity, it s tra n smission a nd

it s flow, the rea der is n ow in a p osition to un dersta n d some of

the more simple electrica l circu its a n d perha ps to do some , ,

simple wirin g N O a ttempt will be ma de a t this tim e t o ex

.

pla in Wh y or how the d ifferen t p ieces of electrica l a ppa ra tus

opera te — wh y a bell rin gs or why a l a m p lights—b u t it will be
ta ken for gra n ted tha t if proper conn ection s a re ma de b e
tween the b a ttery a n d the device to be O pera ted su ch as a ,

bell or b a tte ry la mp the bell will rin g or the la m p will light

, .

Sin ce we know th a t a com plete c on du ctin g circu it mu st be

formed before cu rren t ca n flow it is eviden t tha t t wo wires
,

m ust be con n ect ed to every p iece of electrica l a ppa ra tus .

E very circu it mus t lea d from on e side of a ba ttery t o on e side

of the bell or l a m p a n d from the oth e r term in a l b a ck t o t h e
, ,

othe r b a ttery te rmin a l .

24 . Th e B ell C irc u it .
—The
lest m ethod of c on
s im p

n ec t in g a bell t o a dry cell is t o t ou ch it s te rm in a ls t o th os e of

t h e ce ll .The cu rren t then flows directly thru the bell a n d

ca us es it t o rin g S u c h a n a rran gem en t a s this wou ld be of
.
 FLOW OF ELE C T RI CAL C URREN T S ; C I R CU I T S 33

very little va lu e however an d is n ev er us e d I n hous es or

, , .

othe r pl a ces where bells a re us ed a s s ign a ls the b a tte ry a n d ,

the bells are som e d is ta n ce a p a rt This bein g the c ase let u s

.
,

cons ider c on n ectin g a bell t o a dry cell u n der pra ctic a l con di
tions I t is evi den t tha t t wo wires of the proper kin d mus t
.

be run from the bell t o the dry cell If this be don e however
.
, ,

as the l a st c on n ection t o the cell is ma de the bell will st a rt t o

,

rin g a n d will con tin u e t o do so un til the wir e is discon n ected

a ga in or u n til the b a ttery is us ed u p
, To m a ke possible the
.

con trollin g of the bell in su ch a c as e it is n ecessa ry t o lea ve

,

one of the wires d is con n ected from the d ry cell a n d t o tou ch

it t o the cell term in a l when it is desir ed to h a ve the bell rin g

a n d remove whe n it is to be stopped This is of cou rse very
.
, ,

in con ven ien t a n d im p ra ctica l a n d it is n ot d esira ble to h a ve

,

to con trol the bell from the b a ttery .

S u ppose , n ow,tha t we t ry t o prov ide a m ethod whe reby

t h e bell ca n be co n trolle d from a p oin t ha lf wa y between it -

a n d the b a tte ry . The wire tha t h as been left d isconn ecte d

from the cell c an be cu t in t wo a n d the e n d n ea rer the cell
conn ected t o the term in a l withou t c a usin g the h ell t o rin g b e ,

ca us e the circuit is O pen a t the poin t where t he wire is cu t .

All tha t is n ecessa ry to m a ke the b e ll rin g a fter this h as been

d on e is t o close the circu it by tou chin g the b a red en ds of the
wir es a t the poin t where the cu t was ma de Su ch a n a rra n ge .

m en t is sh own in F ig 1 4
. . This provides a m e thod of con trol ,

b u t it is n ot Very sa tisfa ctory b e ca u s e the wire en ds a re

ra ther in con v en ien t t o ha n dle a n d it is n on p ra ctica l in ma n y
-

wa ys . TO ma ke p oss ible the c on trollin g in a sim ila r m a n n er ,

b u t b y a m u ch m ore con ven ien t method the push bu tton h as

,
-

been d e vised which m a kes a n O p en in g in the circu it as d oes

3
34 PRA C TI CAL ELE C T RI C I TY FO R BEG I NNERS

the cu t inthe wire b u t which

, p rovid es a si mple a n d c on

v en ie n t mea n s of closin g it .

25 . Pu sh - B u tton s —Push bu tton s

. ma de in a va
-
a re

r ie t y of form s with wo od ha rd ru bber or porcela in b as es .

, ,

Up on the b ase pla te a r e t wo con ta c t p a rts of sprin gy meta l

(F ig 1 5 B an d C) . They ar e a r
, .

ra n ged in su c h a wa y tha t when n o

pressu re is a pplied to B they re ,

m a in sep a ra ted thereby ca u sin g a ,

brea k in the circu it , which is the

e qu iva len t O f h a vin g the bell d is

c on n ected from the dry cell When .

the bu tton A is pu shed the pa rts B ,

a n d C c om e together an d the circu it

is closed which is the e qu iva le n t of

,
FI G 1 4 . Th e c on n e c "

tio n s I C Q I l re d fo op e r a t con n ectin g to the dry cell Holes

"
'

in g a b e li on a r
.

ry ce ll
p rov ision is m a d e “ , 9 p m? a re provi ded i n the b a se for fas ten
.

m g a n d “10 m g t h e “ cu l t in s ws a n d for wires to be con

a t p oin t A .
g cre
n ect e d to the con ta ct pa rts .

26 . C o n n ect in g B el l Cir cu it s will be seen by t e .

—I t ,

ferr in g to Fig 1 6, tha t when a push bu tton is in sta lle d in a

.
-

bell circu it three pieces of wir e a re requ ired for the com p le te
circu it—
,

o ne from the h e ll t o the pu s h bu tton on e from the -

,

bu tton to the dry cell a n d on e from the bell t o the dry cell
, .

I n a tta chin g the wir e s t o the bell te rm in a ls the cell term in a ls ,

a n d the push bu tton strip s c a re m u s t be ta ken to s cra pe t h e

-
,

wires bright a n d clea n a n d when c on n ectin g t o the s cr ews

,
,

the wires shou ld be ben t in to t h e fo rm of a loop a n d plac ed

Un der the s crew hea d s t o ins ur e goo d con ta ct .
 FLOW O F ELE CT R I C AL C URRE NT S ; CI R CU I T S 35

27 . eg ar d in g C o n n ect io n s —I t
I m p ort a n t P o in t s R .

m ust be born e in m in d a t a ll tim es tha t When ev er c on n ections

a r e ma de good c on ta ct m us t be m a de between the t wo con
,

du ct ors thu s j oin ed beca us e the electricity is forced to go

,

from on e con du ctor to a n other If a con n ection is a ttemp ted

.

withou t ma kin g good con ta ct the cu rren t ,

will not flow beca u se O f the high resista n ce

offered by the poor j oin t To a void this .

t rou ble a lwa y s see tha t termin a ls a n d con

,

n ect in g wi res a re clea n a n d bright a n d ,

tha t good c on ta ct is forme d between the

con d u ctors .

28 .Tro u ble s in B ell C ir cu it s —The

most comm on ca u ses of trou ble in bell cir
cu its a re wea k or worn ou t b a tte ries d irty
-
,

te rmin a ls or loose conn ections on the pu sh t h e t op O f a p ush

b u t t on a n d t h e b a se
bu tton loose conn ecti ons on the bell brea k u p o n w h i c h i t
, ,
s cre ws
in the cir cu it known a s O pen circuit or
'

short-circu ite d wires A short circuit mea ns a conn ection

.

between the wir es before they get to the bell which perm its
the cu rren t t o flow from on e termina l of the b a tte ry to the
other withou t gettin g t o the bell .

29 .R ep a ir in g B el l C ir c u it s —Wea k or wom ou t b a t
.
-

t e ries mu st be repla ced I t is well to ha ve a good bell an d a

.

good b a ttery on ha n d when te stin g for trou bles Try the .

good bell on the b a tterie s conn ectin g it directly to the termi

,

n e ls I f the b a tte ry is good look for on e of the other trou bles

.
, .

The push bu tton shou ld be ta ken a pa rt a n d clea n ed t h oroly

-
.

If the bell does n ot opera te after the b a ttery a n d the pus h

bu tton h a ve been ins pected it is well to try a new bell in the
,

pla ce of the other If this h ell d oe s n ot rin g there m ust be a

.
,
36 P R A C T I C AL ELE CT RI CI T Y FOR BE G I N N E R S

brea k in the circu it or a short, To test for a short (Fig

.
.

dis con n ect on e of the wires from the b a ttery a n d conn ect ,

it t o on e term in a l of a good bell then conn ect the other side

,

of the h ell t o the b a tter I f it rin gs there is a short circu it

y .
,
.

An other wa y to do this withou t the

us e of a bell is to tou ch the wire dis

conn ected from the b a ttery a n d the ,

short on e conn ected t o it for testin g to ,

the ton gu e keep in g them a bou t on e

,

fou rth of a n in ch a p a rt I f cu rren t .

flows a sort of sou r tas te will be n o

,

ticed Thes e te sts shou ld be tried

.

with the push bu tton closed I f a-

.

short is detected it m a y be foun d to

FI G 1 6 D ia gr a m of a
. .
,

sim p le c om p l e te b ell cir be due to cu ttin g of the ins u la tion by

cu it
.

sta ples e specia lly if some poor elec

,

t ri cian h as p u t two wires u n der on e sta ple .

S h o r t Circuit

Ne w Dry Ce ll

FIG 17
. D ia gram s h owin g h ow t o te st for a sh ort circu it Th e
.
.

rin gi n g of t h e tes t b e ll in dica tes a short Th e test b ell m a y b e O mitte d

.

a n d t h e w ire s c on n e cte d t o it p l a ce d on t h e t on gu e .

To test for brea k close the p ush bu tton or short-c ircu it

a ,
-

it ; d is con n ect on e of the wir es from the ba ttery a n d connect ,

 FLOW OF ELE C T R I C AL CU RRE NT S ; C I R C U I T S 37

a bell between it a n d the term in a l from which it h as been

rem ove d (Fig . The n ta ke a test wire a n d a t in terva ls
a lon g the wire s runn in g t o t h e b e ll rem ove a little insu la tion
,

on both wires a n d con n ect the test wire a cross it I f the .

B r oo k
Te s t B e ll

FI G 1 8. D ia gra m sh owin g h o w t o test for a bre a k in a bell circ u it

. .

Th e r in gin g of t h e test b ell wh en t h e test wir e is in t h e first p os i tion a n d

it s failu r e t o rin g wh en t h e Wi r e is in t h e se c on d p ositi on , i n di ca te t h e
brea k .

test bell rin gs t he open in g is n ea rer the ma in bell This

, .

shou ld be con tin u e d un til the vicin ity of the brea k is l oca te d ,

an d then fin a lly the brea k itself .

SUMMARY OF PRI NCI PLE S IN C HAPTER I V

1 . E le ctricity will flow on ly thru a com p lete c on du ctin g ci rcu it .

2 . Th e m ate ria l of wh ich a con du ct or is m a de a n d it s Si ze grea tly

a ffe ct t h e flow of c u rren t thru it .

3 . Resistan ce is t h e p h y sical p rop erty of a m ate rial b y virtu e O f

whi ch i t op p ose s t h e flow o f c u rr en t .

4 . Th e resista n ce of a c on du ct or d ep e n ds u p on it s size it s len gt h

,

a n d t h e m a te ri a l of w hi ch it i s m a de .

5 . Whe n con n e ction s a r e m a de great care m u st b e t ake n t o have

,

t h e con du ct ors cl e a n a n d bri ght a n d t o br in g th e m in t o cl os e c on t a ct.

38 P RA C T I C AL ELE C T R I C I T Y FO R B E G I N N E R S

QUE STI ONS

H ow d oes t h e fl ow of ele ct n crt y di ffe r from t h e flow of water ?
Will e le ctri city flow ou t t h e en d of a c on du ct or ?
Wh a t is n e ces s ary b efore a n e l e ctri ca l cu rren t ca n b e m a de to

Wh at a ffe cts t h e flow of e le ctri ca l cu rren t thru a con d u ctor ?

Wh a t is m e a n t b y res istan ce ?
Up on wha t d oes t h e resistan ce of a con d u ctor dep en d ?
Which h as m ore res is tan ce — ir on or cop p e r ?

Wh a t a re p ush b u tton s a n d h ow d o th ey op era te ?

-

H ow a re p us h— b u ttons con n e cte d in a b ell circu it ?

Wh a t ca re m ust b e t aken in con n e ctin g a b ell circuit ?

Wh ere is t h e b ell u su ally p l a ce d in a h ouse ?

Whe re is t h e p ush bu tton u su a lly fou n d in a h ouse in stallation ?
-

Wh e re is t h e d ry ce ll u su ally p l a ce d in a h ou se ?
Wh a t a re t h e m ost com m on ca u ses of trou ble in h ell circu its ?
How a r e thes e tr ou bles re m e die d ?

SUG GE STI ONS

1 .I f y ou ca n p r o c u re t h e re q u ire d m a te rial s , t ry t h e con n e ctin g of

t h e h ell t o a d ry cell a s d es crib e d in th is b ook .

2 . Try t o con n e ct t wo b ells in s u ch a m a n n e r th a t th ey a re b oth

op e r a t e d a n d con tr olle d b y one b a ttery a n d on e p us h b u tton
-
.

3 . C on n e ct t wo b e lls with a n in dividu a l p us h b u tton for ea ch u sin g

-
,

on ly on e b a tte ry a s is oft en t h e ca s e in a t wo f a m ily fl a t or a n a p a rt

-
,

m e n t h ous e .

4 . C on n e ct on e h ell con troll e d b y e ith e r of t wo p us h b u tt on s a s l s

-
,

t h e ca se wh en p us h b u tt ons a re p l a ce d a t t wo l o ca t ion s
- .

5 .
P u rp osel y p l a ce s om e of t h e trou bles m en tion e d in th is b ook in a
b ell circu it a n d t ry t h e tes ts un til y ou b e com e fa m ili a r with th em .
 C HAP T E R V

B ATTE RY LI GHTI NG CI RCUITS

-

30 . I m port a n ce tt e ry Lig h t in g —B a ttery light

of B a

in g is a t the presen t time O f very grea t importa n ce an d will

un d ou btedly con tin u e to become of even grea ter sign ifica n ce

be ca us e O f it s extensive use in a u tomobile work E very mod .

ern a u tomob ile is provided with electric hea dlights a n elec ,

tri c d a sh light a n electric ta il l ight a n d ma n y a re equipped

, ,

with spot l ights dome l ights etc

, I t is obvious th a t this typ e
, .

of l ightin g will a lwa ys be requ ired a n d tha t it w ill be im p os

,

sible t o su pply the n ecessa ry electrica l pressu re in wa ys othe r

tha n b y the use of a b a ttery or low v olta ge gen era tor beca us e
-

of the n ecessity th a t the com plete system be p orta ble a n d

com p lete within itself .

31 . Wh y B a ttery Ligh tin g Sh o u l d B e S t u died —I t is

eviden t tha t it is well for everyb ody t o lea rn somethin g a b ou t
b a ttery lightin g if for n o othe r pu rpos e tha n to ma ke himself
fa milia r with the lightin g of h is a u tomobile This a lon e is .

su ffi cien t reas on for ma kin g a ca refu l stu dy of this su bject ,

b u t in a ddition to the va lu e of a kn owledge of this work as a p

p lied t o a u tom obiles, it is in va lu a ble in tea chin g the va rious

m ethods of c on n ectin g l a m p s the d ifferen t a rra n gemen ts of
,

switches a n d wirin g ins ta lla tions of va rious kin ds

, The su b .

j cet is on e of very grea t im p orta n ce a n d ca n on ly be tou ched

,

u pon in this book We sha ll ta ke it for gran ted a t this tim e

.

tha t if proper conn ection s a re ma de to the la mp recepta cle or

s ocket the l a mp will light u p prop erly a n d will c onsider
, , ,

39
40 P RA C TI C AL ELE C T R I C I TY FOR BE G I NNE RS

ra ther tha n the dete ctin g of trou bles The

m a in ly , con n ectin g .

la tte r will be ta ken u p in a la te r work .

32 . B r ief Des cr ipt io n of B a t t e ry L a m p s b a ttery .

—A
la m p is on e design ed for u s e with dry cells stora ge b a tteries , ,

or other low volta ge sour ces a n d is so con stru cte d as t o per

-
,

m it en ou gh cu rren t to flow thr u it to c aus e it t o l ight The .

a m ou n t of cu rren t flowin g

thru the l a m p when it is con

n e cte d depen ds u pon the pres

su re a n d the resista n ce in the

,

la mp itself The la mps are .

ma de for use in conn ection

with sma ll recepta cles or s ock
e t s a n d a re p u t in to pla ce ,

af te r the wirin g for them has

bee n completed by turn in g ,

them in to the recepta cles or

FI G 1 9 A v olt l a m p con
-

DUS h in g them in as the ca se

. .

n e ct e d t o a v olt sou rce of

-

p ress u re a dry ce ll
, .

m a y be .

33 . Th e Mea n in g of t h e M a r k ery La m p
on a B at t .

A b a ttery la mp is usu a lly sta mped with a n u mber givin g the

volta ge u pon which it is design ed to opera te A ma rk of .

V on the bas e of the la m p m ea ns tha t it is ma de for

us e on a n electrica l pressu re of volts a n d a ma rk of 6 V
,

m ea ns tha t it is in te n ded for us e on a 6 volt b a ttery On e

-
.

sh ou ld be very c a refu l when us in g b a tt ery la m ps to see tha t

the pressur e a pplied is n ot t oo grea t for t oo gre a t a p ressu re

,

will sp oil them (Fi g .

3 4 E ff ec t of O p e r a t in g a L a m p on Too H ig h Volta ge
. .

The c on n ectin g of a low volta ge la m p on a h igh volta ge bat

- -
 BA TT ERY LI GH T I NG
-
CI R CUI T S 41

t ery lin e is as d isastrous as conn ectin g a toy ba lloon on to

or

an a ir-lin e provided for in fla tin g a u tomob ile tires Car e .

shou ld be ta ken in every ca s e to n ote the volta ge ma rk on the

a n d to ma ke su re tha t the pressu re su pplied

3 V o lt s

FI G . 20 A 3 volt l amp conn e cte d

.
- to a 3-volt s ou rce , t wo dry
ce lls con n e cte d in se ries .

ba tte ry u pon which it is to be pera ted does

o n ot exceed

35 . O p er a t in g a La m p on Too Low Volt a ge

E ffect of .

Le t u s consider wha t wou ld h a ppen if the volta ge of a b a ttery

u pon which a l a mp is to be O pera ted is n ot su fficien tly high ;

tha t is sa y a 6-volt la mp is conn ected to a b a ttery givin g

,

on ly 3 volts pressu re If the pressu re is ins ufficien t, the

.

effect wou ld be the sa me as a n in sufficien t pressur e on a

stream of wa ter t ha t is su ppos ed to ha ve a given velocity .

We kn ow the wa te r would n ot run as fas t a s it is in ten ded

tha t it shou ld li kewise , the cu rren t wou ld n ot ru n thru the
.

la m p with the requ ired S pee d , a n d the la mp wou ld burn

d imly or n ot a t a ll If a la mp does not light up properly
.
42 PR AC TI CAL E LE C TR I CI T "FO R B E G I NN E R S

when good c onn ections a re m a d e it , is an in d ica tion tha t t h e

volta ge is n ot high en ou gh
—A
.

36 . Wh a t Det er m in es t h e Volt a ge of a B a t t er y .

b a ttery is usu a lly cons idered a s se ve ra l cells conn ected t o

gether a n d the tota l v olta ge depen d s u pon the n u mber of
,

cells A sin gle dry cell giv es a volta ge of a bou t

. and a

stora ge cell gives a bou t 2 volts .

The tota l volta ge of a b a ttery is

equ a l t o the volta ge of on e cell
m u lt ip l ied by the nu mbe r of
cells .

The v olta ge of two dry cells

con n ected in series is equ a l t o
x 2 or 3 volt s a n d the volta ge ,

of a three-c ell stora ge b a ttery is

you , 2 x 3 or 6 I f a 3 i
-volt l a mp s to
.

FI G 2 1
. A 6—
v olt l am p con
. be opera te d on dry cells it is evi ,

sfift g f gfitefig
‘
tgfa g fifi gg; den t tha t two cells wou ld be con
e '

ce lls “ mum “ in se ries“ n e ct ed in series (Figs 20 an d .

37 How B a ttery - Ligh t in g C ir cu it s Difi er fro m B ell

—I
.

C ir cu it s b a ttery-lightin g circu its b a ttery switches a re

n

u sed inste a d of push-b u ttons for con trollin g the la m ps .

Then , too in a u tomobile lightin g we often ha ve wha t is c a lled

,

a on e wire system of wir in g

- Th is sta temen t might be m is
.

lea din g to the beginn er b u t is eas ily expla in ed The cu rren t

,
.

d oes n ot flow to a n d from the la m p s thru the sa me wire bu t ,

is led to them thru on e wire a n d the other sides a re c on

,

n ecte d to the fra me of the ma chin e which is meta l an d a c on

du ctor an d in tha t m a n n e r on e wire is don e a wa y with ( Fig

, .
 BA TT E RY LI GH T I NG
-
C I R CU I T S 43

38 . P ar a l l el and of La m p s —B e
S eries C o n n e ct in g .

c aus e of the use of two differen t methods of conn ectin g la mps

on a n a u tomob ile it is a dvisa ble to give a brief descrip tion of
,

thes e t wo methods a t th is time These two methods a re .

ca lled p a ra llel an d series B y c onn ectin g two la m ps in

.

pa ra llel (Fig .

we mea n the con

n e ct in g of the
la m p s by two
wires a n d then
ma kin g the b a t
t ery co n n ections
t o b oth term in a ls FI G 22 A v e ry sim le on e-wire sy ste m Th e
fr a m e of t h e a u tom obile t a kes t he p l a ce of t h e
. . .

of e i ther la mp or oth er wire .

M M pa w n“

FI G . 23 . Two l amp s ( 6 v olt) con n e cte d in p arallel t o a

-
6-v olt
t ra ge b a ttery
s o . Ea ch l a m p O p era tes i n de p en den tly of t h e oth e r .

to the t wo wires I t will be seen tha t if on e of the la m ps is

.

com p letely removed when t h ey a re conn ected in this ma n n er ,

the other is un affected B y se ries con n ectin g two la m p s (Fig

. .

we me an the conn ectin g of on e term in a l of on e to on e

t erm in a l of the other a n d then conn ectin g the b a ttery wires

t o the t wo rema inin g te rm in a ls With this a rra n gem en t .

44 P RA C TI CAL ELE CT RI CI T Y FOR BEG I N N E RS

n either la m p will op e ra te if a n yt hin g ha p p ens to either be ,

c a use cu rren t ca n n ot flow thru on e withou t flowin g thru the

other This com b in a tion is u s ed in con n ectin g the d as h
.

light a n d the ta il light on a n a u tomob ile s o if the ta il la mp is

broken or bu rn ed ou t the das h light will go ou t a lso an d in
,

dica te the tr ou ble All of the ot her la m p s on a n a u tom ob ile

.

a re usua lly conn e cte d in pa ra llel I t m u st be rem e mbered

.

S e r ie s

FI G 24
. Two lam p s ( 3-v olt) con n e cte d in s e ries t o a 6-v olt b a t
.

t ery. Th e f a il u re of e ith e r l a m p t o O p e ra te will c a u se t h e other t o

ce ase t o l ight .

tha t if t wo la mps are conn ected in s eries their volta ge must

,

be on ly on e ha lf tha t of the ba ttery u pon which they opera te ;

-

tha t is if an a u to is equipped with a 6 volt stora ge b a tt ery

,
-

a n d a ll of the la mps are conn ect ed in pa ra llel excep t the d as h

a n d ta il l ights a ll la m p s will be 6 volt except these t wo a n d

-
, ,

they will be 3-volt

—
.

39 .How La m p s A re D i m m e d An other im p orta n t t e

.

u irem en t in a u tom ob ile l ightin g is the m a kin g p oss ible of

q
”
the opera tin g of the la mps either bright or dim
“ “ ”
This is .

a ccomplis hed by cu tt in g down the a m ou n t of cu rren t flowin g

thru the la m ps when it is desired t o ma ke them dim an d giv ,

.

in g them the fu ll requ ired a m oun t when it is desired to ha ve

 BA TT E R Y LI G H T I N G
-
CI R CU I T S 45

them bright Two d ifferen t circu its a re u su a lly provided be

.

twe en the switch a n d the b a ttery a n d a resistan ce is in serted

,

in the on e a s s hown in Fig 2 5

, Wh en the switch is tu rn ed so
. .

the cu rren t m us t be forced thru the circu it con ta in in g the

resista n ce a sm a ller a m oun t gets t o the la m p s which is the
, ,

FI G 25 . S h owin g on e
. com m on m eth od of m akin g p ossibl e t h e l igh t
in g of l a m p s bri ghtl y or d i m ly Th e res mt a n ce ca u ses a d imm i n g
.

of t h e li ght .

equ iv a len t of redu cin g the volta ge im pressed u p on them ,

a n d the y give a dim l ight inste a d of a bright on e .

SUMMAR Y or PR IN CIPLE S IN CHAPTER V

1 . Batte ry l ightin g is a v e ry im p ort an t su b " e ct b e ca u se it is a p

p li e d s o ext en sive ly in a u t om obile wo rk .

2 . Battery l a m p s a r e m a d e for us e on low volta ge .

3 . Batte ry l am p s a re s tam p e d with t h e volta ge u p on which they

a re su p p os e d t o b e op e r a te d
.

4 . C on n e ctin g a l am p t o t oo h igh a v olta ge r uin s it .

5 . C on n e ctin g a l a m p t o t oo low a v olt a ge lin e ca uses it t o b u rn

dim ly or n ot a t all .

6 . Th e v olta ge of a b atte ry is e qu a l t o t h e v olta ge of a sin gle ce ll

m u ltip l i e d b y t h e n um b e r of ce lls.

7 . Th e v olt a ge of a dry ce ll is a b ou t
46 P R AC TI C AL ELE C T R I C I TY FO R BE G I N N E RS

8 . Th e v olt a ge of a s tor a ge
cell is ab ou t 2 .

9 La m p s con n e cte d in p ar all e l m u st b e for t h e s am e v olta ge a s th at

.

O f t h e b a tte ry u p on w h i ch th e y a r e t o O p e r at e .

10 Th e v olta ge of l a m p s c on n e cte d in ser ies m u s t b e e qu a l t o t h e

.

v olta ge of t h e b a tte ry d ivi d e d b y t h e n u m b e r of l a m p s t o b e O p e r a te d

.

11 C on n e ctin g a r e sist a n ce in a l a m p circ u it c a u se s t h e l a m p t o

.

bu rn di m ly .

QUE STI ONS

r Wh ere is b atte ry l ightin g u se d m ost exte n siv ely ?
e Wh y i s it im p ort an t t o h av e a k n owle dge of b attery lightin g ?
e H ow d oes a b a tte ry l a m p difl er fr om a n y oth e r e l e ctri c l a m p ?
HO W 1 8 i t p ossi bl e t o t e ll u p on wh a t v olt a ge a l a m p i s s u p p ose d
'

s
t o b e o p e r a te d ?
5 Wh at h ap p e n s if a n atte m p t i s m a de t o op erate a lam p on t oo
.

h igh a v olt a ge ?
6 Wha t efie ct d oe s op eratin g a l a m p on t o o low a v olta ge h av e ?
.

7 HO W I S t h e v olt a g e of a b a tte r y d e te r m in e d ?
.

8 Wh a t i s t h e v olt a ge of a d ry ce ll ?
.

9 Wha t is t h e v olt a ge of a s t ora ge ce ll ?

.

10 How d o b a tte ry lightin g Ci rc u i ts d i ffe r fr om b ell circu its ?

.

H ow i s it p oss ibl e t o h a v e a on e-W i re l i ghtin g sy ste m ?

‘ ”
11
12 How d o y ou c on n e ct l a m p s I n p a r alle l ?
.

13 . H ow d o y o u c on n e ct l a m p s i n se ri es ?
14 . Wh ere i s t h e s e ri es a rra n gem en t of l a m p s m os t com m on ly used ?
I ow is it p os s b l e t o m a ke l a m p s e ith e r br ight o r d im a s d e
-
i

sir e d
?

S U GGE S TI ONS

1 . Batte ry l a m p s of v arious v olta ges a re av ai lable a t a p rice of

on ly a few cen ts e a ch a s a r e a l s o t h e re cep t a cles a n d switch es u se d with
,

th e m The y a r e ex cee din gly v al u able in te a ch in g m an y con n e ctin g

.

circu its a n d for exp e ri m en tin g p u rp oses I f y ou ca n p rocu re s om e of

.

the m t ry s om e of t h e followin g :
,

2 . O p er ate a 3 v olt l a m p on dry cells

- .

3 .
O p er ate t w o v olt l a m p s on on e d ry cell
- .

4 . C on n e ct a v olt l am p a n d a 3 v olt l am p in su ch a w a y th a t
- ~

th ey ca n b e O p e ra te d from a t wo ce ll b atte ry
- .

5 . Tr y a n y of t h e W i r in g s y s te m s y ou h a v e in y ou r a u tom obile or
in y ou r h ous e .
 C HAPT E R VI

THE HE ATI NG E FF ECT OF LE CTRICAL CURRE NT ; PRACTI CAL

E
APPLI CATI ON S

40 . Th e E ff e ct s of E le ctr ic a l C urr en t s —We a re fa

milia r with ma n y of the resu lts of the a ction of electricity in
m otion a n d ha v e ma de u se of it for some pu rposes su ch as
, ,

rin gin g bells a n d lightin g sm a ll la m ps withou t ta kin g in to ,

c onsidera tion wha t the cu rren t a ctua lly did t o brin g a b ou t

these resu lt s We will sim p ly men tion a t th is tim e the va
.

rion s ef ects O f electrica l cu r ren ts a n d t a ke u p in deta il the

f

m ore sim p le of it s a pp l ic a tions le a vin g the others for l a te r

,

v ol u m es .

Th e e ffe cts of electric a l cu rren ts a re of imm ens e c omm e r

c ia l im p orta n ce their a pp lica tions in usefu l wa y s m a kin g p os
,

sible the rin gin g of bells a n d the op era tin g of other sign a lin g

dev ices ; t h e hea tin g O f fla t irons toasters a n d other hea tin g

,

devices ; the lightin g o f electric la m ps a n d the opera tin g O f

,

electric fa ns was hin g ma chin es street ca rs a n d other elec

, ,

t rica l m a ch in es a n d devices These a ccom p lishmen ts a re

.

du e t o a few effects wh ich m a y be su mmed u p a s follows

Th e h ea tin g effect of electrica l cu rren ts ,

The m a gn etizin g of iron a n d steel when electrica l cu rren ts

a re c on du cte d a roun d them ,

Th e crea tin g of ma gn etic fields a n d ,

The ca usin g of in du ced cu rren ts .

On ly the first of these will be ta ken u p in this book .

41 . Th e H e a t in g E ffe c t of E l ectr ica l C urr e n t s .

—We
f
a re a ll a m i ia l r with the fa ct tha t electric light b u lbs get h ot -
,

A7
48 P RAC T I CAL ELE C T R I C I TY FO R BE G I N N ER S

and the rea der m a y ha ve seen electric fla t irons electric ,

s toves electric toas ters electric hea tin g p a ds electric grills

, , , .

electric p ercola tors a n d t h e like withou t rea lizin g tha t every

, ,

electric a l cu rren t h owev er sma ll ca us es som e hea t The

, ,
.

fa ct is tha t when ev er electrica l cu rren t flows thru a con

d u ctor hea t is gen era ted The a m ou n t of h ea t m a y be
, .

sm a ll h owever a n d in man y cas es it is u n n otic ea ble

, ,
TO .

gen era t e hea t is on e of the prop erties of a n electric cu rren t

whi ch ma kes it O f grea t va lu e .

Fig 26 shows .

d i a gra mm a tic
a lly the hea tin g

effect O f elec
t rica l cu rren t ,

a ltho a stora ge

b a tte ry i s s e l
FI G 2 6 I ll u s tr atin g t h e h e a tin g e ffe ct of e l e c
. .
d om used in this
t rica l cu r ren t
wa
.

y
42 H ow t h e Wor kin g of E l ect r icit y I s Like t h e Wor k
.

in g of a M a m —E ve ry b ody is fa m ilia r with the fa ct tha t

when on e works ha rd or ru ns fas t he becomes wa rm a n d tha t , ,

the ha rder he works or the fas ter he runs the wa rmer he b e ,

comes I n fa ct it is possible when on e is cold t o get wa rm

"
. ,

by movin g a roun d run n in g or exercis in g ,

et it is poss ible .

for a m a n t o work a n d still keep cool if h is ta s k is n ot too

difficu lt a n d he d oes n ot t ry to work t oo fas t The a moun t .

of hea t gen era ted when a m a n works depen d s u p on the dif .

ficu lt y en coun te red in bri n gin g a b ou t the desired effects a n d

cha n ges a n d the speed a t which he expen ds h is en ergy I t .

see ms tha t the flow O f elect rica l cu rren t th ru a con d u ctor has

s om ewha t the sa me effect u p on the con d u cto r as the movin g

 H EA TI NG E FFE CT OF ELE C T RI CAL CURREN T 49

of muscles h as u pon the ma n tha t is it ca u ses t he gen e

his ,

ra tion O f hea t .

43 Th in gs Affectin g t h e Am o u n tHea t G en e r of

a t ed —
.

The a m oun t of hea t gen era ted when a n electrica l c u r

.

ren t flows thru a con d u ctor depen d s u pon the d ifficu lty en
coun te red by the cu rren t in p as sin g thru the con du ctor a n d
the ra te a t which it is forced t o flow ( Figs 2 7 an d tha t is .
,

the hea t gen era ted when electricity is forced thru a con du ctor

F I G 2 7 S h owin g t h e
. . FI G 2 8 . S h owin g t h e a m ou n t of
.

a m o u n t of he a t gene ra te d he at wh en t h e s am e wire a s u se d in
w h en a ce rt ain wire o f F i g 27 is c on n e cte d t o t w o d ry ce lls
.

high res istan ce is con con n e cte d in series or twi ce as mu ch

n e ct e d t o a d ry ce ll .
pres su re A gre a ter a m ou n t of h e at
.

is ge n e ra te d .

depen d s u pon t he resista n ce of the con du ctor a n d t he ra te a t

which the cu rren t is forced t o m ove This bein g tru e it is .
,

p ossible to force considera ble cu rren t thru a la rge wire ha vin g

a low resis ta n ce withou t ca us in g the develop m en t of m u ch

hea t while on the other ha n d it is possible to select a con

, , ,

du ctor ha vin g a very high resis tan ce a n d t o ca use the gen era
tion O f a la rge a moun t of hea t b y forcin g on ly a compa ra tiv e ly
sm a ll a m oun t of electricity thru it .

44 . How t h e Gen era t ion of H e a t Ca n B e R e gu l a t ed .

I t h asbeen shown in the previous d iscussion tha t the res is t

a n ce of a con du ctor dep en d s u p on it s d ia meter ( or cross s ec -
50 PRA CT I CAL ELE C T RI CI TY FO R BEG I NNE RS

t ion a l a rea if it is roun d) ; it s len gth a n d the ma teria l O f

n ot ,

whi ch it is ma de I t is n ecessa ry then on ly to select some

.
, ,

meta l ha vin g a very high resistan c e a n d a very high meltin g

poin t t o pu t it in to som e con ven ien t sha pe a n d to select the
, ,

proper length to ma ke the hea tin g elem en t of a device t o be

,

u s ed for hea tin g pu rposes The se .

leet in g Of the ma teria l moun tin g it ,

in the proper wa y insu la tin g the hea t ,

in g elemen t from the fra me of the de

vice an d ma kin g prope r provision
,

for conn ectin g t o the sour ce of cur

ren t a re a ll problems which a re more
,

or le ss d ifli cu lt The se a re , however

Fm . w
.
,

pr oblem s a risin g in the design a n d

FI G 29
. .I ll u stra tin g
t h e h e a tin g e ffe ct of e le c m a n u fa ctu re of the devices, a n d we
t rica l cu rre n t .Th e fin e
wire b e comes v e ry h ot a re more p a rt icu l a rly in terest ed in
,

a n d t h e l a rge wire t e
a
m ins oo c l b e c a us e of t h e
the ir pr in ciple s ra ther th a n their
differen ce in resis t an ce .

45 Th e Pr in cipl e U po n Wh i ch H e a t in g Device s
—E very
.

O p er a t e c omm on hea tin g device depen ds upon

the gen era tion of hea t by pa ssin g electrica l
cu rren t thru a con du ctin g ma teria l ca lled ,

a hea tin g elemen t ha vin g a very high

,

sist an ce an d a ll tha t is n e ce ssa ry for the

,

oper ti f the dev ice i the FI G 30 D ia

sa tisfa ctory a on o s . .

gram m atical
passin g O f the requ ir ed a m ou n t of elec s ketch of a h eatin g
e le m e n t
TO illu stra te the
.

t rica l cu rren t th ru it .

hea tin g effect of a n electrica l cu rren t, consider the a rran ge

men t shown in Fig 29 Two hea vy copper wires a re con
. .

nect e d to the termin a l s of a dry cell or stora ge b a ttery a n d , ,

 HEA TI N G EFFE C T OF ELE C T R I C AL C URREN T 51

between their en d s is con n ecte d a piece O f ve ry fine wire ,

a b ou t the size of a threa d As s oon a s t h e circu it is c om

.

p let e d a n d cu rren t fl ows thru the con du ctors the fin e wire ,

wi ll b e com e very h ot a n d perha p s bu rn u p wh ile the others

, ,

rem a in cool This is du e t o the fa ct tha t the fin e wire offers

.

a very high resista n ce t o the flow of the cu rren t a n d when ,

electricity is forced thru a con du ctor which O ffers a high

resista n ce the con du ctor becom es h ot The la rge wires O ffer
, .

b u t l ittle resista n ce t o the flow of the cu rren t a n d conse ,

qu en tly rema in cool I t is very im porta n t to u n dersta n d

,
.

tha t this is tru e a n d it is well for the stu den t t o t ry it if the

,

requ ired m a teria ls a re a va ila ble .

46 . S im p le H ea tin g E le m e n t .
—Fig . 30 s hows dia gra m
ma t ica lly the hea tin g elem e n t of

an electric toas ter I t is sim ply

.

on e con tinu ou s p iece of high resis t -

a n ce m a ter ia l in the form of a wir e

or ribb on so a rra n ged tha t it s en ds

c a n be c onn ected to the sou rce of

cu rren t All other hea tin g elemen ts

.

a re sim ila r t o this in prin ciple the ,

on ly d ifferen ce bein g in the sha pe .

I n every piece of he a tin g a ppa ra tus ,

F IG 31 S k e tch of a n
t h en ’ on e m a y exp ect to fi d a n . .

e le ctri c fl a t ir on t oge th e r ,

e e re t n ce ma teri a l a r wi th t h e h e a ti n g e l e m e n t
.

p i c of sis a
u se d in it .

ra n ged I n som e con ven i en t m a nn er

s o the c on n ections ca n be ma de t o it a n d electrica l cu rren t

passed thru it .

47 . Th e E l e ctr ic F l a t iro n —Fig . 31

hows a n electric
s

fla t iron and it s hea tin g elem en t . The resista n ce wir e in the

52 PRA C TI CAL ELE C T RI CI TY FO R BEG I NNE R S

elemen t is woun d a r ou n d a p rop erly sha p ed piece of su ita ble

-

insu la tin g ma teria l a n d it s en ds ar e a tta ched to hea vy meta l

,

lic pieces which proj e ct thru the top of the iron to provide for
ma kin g conn ections t o the sou rce O f cu rren t Other hea ters .

a r e provided for in a sim ila r m a n n e r .

S UMMARY OF PR DICIPLE S IN CHAPTER VI

1 . Th e flow l ctrical cu rren ts cause
of e e se v e r al ve ry im p ort an t
e fie ct s .

2 . h eatin g e ffe ct of cu rren t fl owin g thru a con du ct or is one of

Th e
v e ry gre a t im p ort a n ce .

3 S om e h e a t is ge n e r a te d w h en eve r el e ctricity fl ows thru a con

.

d u ct or .

4 Th e a mou n t Of h ea t gen er ate d depen ds u p on t h e resistan ce of

.

t h e c on du ctor a n d t h e a m oun t of cu rren t fl owin g thru it .

5 .All he a tin g de vi ces a re p ra ctica l a p p lica tion s of t h e heatin g

eff e ct of cu rr en t fl owin g thru a con du ct or of h igh res ist an ce .

QUE STI ONS

1 Wh a t a re s om e of t h e r esu lts brou ght ab ou t by t h e use of ele c
.

t ricit y ?
2 With wh a t efie ct of el e ct ricity a r e y ou m ost famil iar ?
.

3 D escri be wh a t is m e an t b y t h e h eatin g e ffe ct Of e lect ri ca l cu rren t ?

.

4 Up on wh a t does t h e am ou n t of h e a t gen er a te d b y a n ele ctrica l

.

cu rren t de p en d ?
5 Wh a t m u st b e b orn e in m in d in se le ct in g ma te ria l for heatin g
.

e lem en t s ?

6 Wh y on t t h e te rm in als on a fla t ir on get red h ot ?

.
d ’

1 I f y ou h av e a n y h e at in g de vi ces a v aila ble , exa m in e th em ca re

.

fu lly a n d see if y ou ca n tra ce t h e p ath of t h e e le ctrica l cu rren t thru

th em .

2 I f y ou ca n p r o cu re a n y Old h e atin g de vi ce , t a ke it a p a rt a n d see

.

if y ou ca n fin d ou t wh a t is wr on g with it .

3 . I f y ou h a ve t h e op p ortu n ity , m a ke s om e kin d of a h e a tin g d e

v ice , h owev e r sim p l e it m a y b e , so as t o fix t h e p oin ts br ou ght ou t in
this b ook fi rm ly in m in d .
 C HAPT E R VI I

FU S E S AN D THE I R PUR POSE S

48 . Wh y S t u dy F u se s —B eca us e O f the exte ns ive us e of
hea tin g a n d lightin g devices in the hom e it is n ecessa ry tha t
,

e verybod y be s om ewh a t fa milia r with the im p orta n t po in ts

rela tive t o their O p era tion a n d ca re Man y little diflicu lt ies

.

m a y be en cou n tered which m a y be overc om e v ery e asily a n d ,

a t n o gr ea t expens e by on e fa m ilia r with the ir possible ca u s es

,

a n d the m a n n er in which they m a y be overcom e B efore the

.

rea der ca n b e in a position t o detect a n d rem edy a ll of the

p ossible trou bles in the O p era tion Of hea tin g devices he m us t ,

kn ow wha t fuse s a re a n d wha t they a re used for They a re .

us ed in every hous e ins ta lla tion a n d in n ea rly ev ery other

e lectrica l c irc u it except bell a n d sign a l in g c ircu its .

49 . B rief D e scr ip t io n of of F u se s —Fu ses

Pur po se .

a r e s a fety devices pla ced in a n electric circu it for the p ur p ose

O f protection S u ppose for exam ple an a ccidenta l con n ec

.
, ,

tion is ma de between t wo m eta llic pieces formin g the pa rts of

a n electric circu it or th a t the ins u la tion is a cciden ta lly re
,

moved from p a rts of the t wo wires of a circu it a n d they com e

in con ta c t with e a ch other This wou ld form a n ea sy pa th
.

for the electricity beca us e it wou ld n ot ha ve to flow thru the

high resista n ce elemen t of a hea ter or other device a n d c on
-
, , ,

sequ en tly a very la rge cu rren t wou ld pass thru the wires
, .

This might be su fli cien t to bur n the insula tion off the wires or ,

perha ps t o set the h ous e on fire Then t oo a la rge a m oun t

,
.
, ,

O f power wou ld be used u p a n d n o ben efit derived To do .

54 PRA C T I C AL ELE C T RI CI T Y FO R BEG I NNE RS

a wa y with an y possibilities O f su ch a n a cciden t fus es a re c on ,

n ec te d in the c ircu it .

50 . B r ief Descr ipt io n e ha ve in them a

of F u s es —Fu s s

p iece Of meta l which is kn own t o be c a pa ble of ca rryin g on ly a

lim ited a moun t of cu rren t withou t me ltin g Thus if a fu s e .
,

m a rked 1 0 a mp
“
is u sed in a circu it on ly t en a m peres c a n
.
,

be dra wn th ru the circuit withou t meltin g the fuse-wire If .

more than this is forced thru , the fu se

will melt a n d O pen the c ircuit .

FI Is es m a de in
evera l difieren t
ar e s

forms the most common of which is t h e

,

plu g type (Fig This fu s e is ma de

.

so it ca n be s c rewed in t o a recepta cle a s

a la m p wou ld be
. B y doin g th is it is
.
,

conn ected in the lin e in su ch a mann e r

tha t a ll of the cu rren t flowin g must flow
FI G . 32 . Comm on
thr u it If m ore cu rren t is dra wn tha n
.

p lu s fuse .
the fus e is design ed to st an d it sim ply ,

blows a n d O pens the circu it an d n o

“ ”

ha rm is don e except the bu rnin g of the

fuse wire An other type of fus e use d in
.

som e cas es is the ca rtridge fus e ( F ig

F ro 3 3 Cartridg e
.

. .

fuse .
Very sm a ll on es of this type a re
gen era lly us ed in a u tomobile lightin g circu its an d, in som e ,

cas es they are pla ced on the inside of the switch-box cover .

51 . Test in g a Fu se —Som etimes

. it is d esira ble to be
a ble to dete rmin e wheth er or n ot a fuse is good Two fuses .

a re usua lly pla ced in a c ircu it a n d on e ma y blow a n d the ,

other rema in u na ffected I t is n ecessa ry in su ch a ca se to de

.

termin e which of the fus es is the blown ou t one a n d to repla c e

 FUS E S AN D T HE I R P U RPO S E S 55

it with a good on e This c a n b e d on e in a n y of severa l wa ys

. .

A bell a n d a dry cell m a y be u se d as in Fig 34 in which case , .

,

on e wi re is conn ecte d t o the bell a n d the dry cell a n d an other ,

to the bell on ly This wire is .

then held in con ta ct with the

side of the fu se plu g a n d the

bottom of the plu g is held in

con ta ct with the termin a l of
the dry cell or conn ected as ,

shown If the bell rin gs t h e

.
,

’
fu se is good b u t if it d oesn t, ,

the fu se h as been blown .

An other m eth od is t o c on F I G 34 S h O Win g a S imp l e ~

m e th od of t e sti n g a f use .

n eet two l a m p recep ta cles i n

series on e after the other a n d t o pl a c e a l a m p in on e a n d the

, ,

fu se in the other If the l a m p lights u p the fus e is good

.
, .

S ee F ig 35 . .

The followin g is a n other m eth od which ca n be used with

little difficu lty bu t which m us t be d on e ca refu lly I t is a
, .

method for use right a t the fuse block Close some circuit
in the h ouse —tu rn on a la m p or hea ter—Open the ma in
.

switch a n d remove the fus e tha t is thou ght to be blown .

S crew a la m p in to the fuse recep ta cle Then close the .

,

ma in switch an d if the la m p lights u p a t a ll t h e remain in g

, ,

fuse is good .

62 . Arr a n g em en t of F u se s in H o u se s
y of the .
—
l m n an

more simple electrica l ins ta lla tions in houses the fuses a re ,

provided for in the b ase u p on which the en tran ce swit ch is

moun ted as shown in Fig 36 I n su ch a n in sta lla tion this
,
. .
,

fused switch is pla ced a t the p oin t where the power wires
56 PRA C T I C AL ELE C T RI C I TY FOR BEG I NNERS

en ter the hou se in su ch a wa y tha t a ll of the cu rren t used in

,

t h e h ous e mus t p ass thru it I n su ch a cas e n on e of th e

.
,

electrica l circu its in the h ou se will fu rn ish power if this switch

is open or if on e of the fus es is bu rn ed ou t or removed .

I n la rger insta lla tions ,

more tha n on e set of
fu ses is u sed Those a t
.

the en tran ce switch are

O f grea t en ou gh ca pa city

to ca rry a ll of the cur

ren t used in the house ,

a n d the others a re pla ced

FI G 3 5 S h owin g a n oth er m e th od of
. .
in in d iv id u a l circu its
test m p a pl “ 8 fus e
'

(Fi g . These in di
vid u a l circu it fu ses a re of sm a ller ca pa city than the en tra n ce
switch on es . They a re usu a lly 1 0 a mp As a n exa mple su p
. ,

pose tha t in on e room O f a hou se a piece of hea tin g a ppa ra tus

is bein g use d wh ile most O f the l a m ps in the
hou s e a re be in g used a t the sa m e time .

N ow if a short c ircuit sh ou ld be formed

,

in a n y of the circu its a ll O f the la m ps an d

,

the hea ter wou ld be tu rn ed O ff by the blow

in g Of a fus e if the sin gle set O f fuses is used
as des cribed a bove . I f however t wo sets
, ,

of fuse s a re pro vided in a dd ition to those a t

the en tra n ce switch on e se t in the lightin g p l e e n t r a n c e

,
“Witch
circu it a n d on e set in the hea tin g circu it ,

on ly one of these wou ld be a ffected by the blowin g of a fus e .

I f two sets of lightin g circu it fuses were provided on ly pa rt of

,

the la mps woul d go out when a fus e is a cciden ta lly blown .

 F US E S AN D T HE I R P URPO S E S 57

53 . R pl a cin g F u s e s G rea t c a re must be exercised in

e .
-

repla cin g fus es for reas ons exp la in ed la ter u n der Cha pter I I " ,

Da n gers I n volved in the Use

“

of E lectricity
”

E nc l ose d s m i e
The en tra n ce .

switch shou ld a lwa ys be open ed

B an h C r*0 c lr t Ul

if poss ible when a n y bran ch fus e

is bein g repla ced a n d if the ma in ,

fus es blow y ou ha d better ha ve ,

a n electricia n repla ce them nu

less y ou ha ve become t h oroly fa

F I G 3 7 Sh owin g a v ery sa t
. .
m ilia r with the poin ts described
is fa ct ory a rran gem en t of e n
tran ce switch a n d fu ses for u se in the cha pter m en tion ed .

in h ou ses The swi tch is e n

When ev er repla cin g fuses it
.

cl ose d Wh en t he s witch is in
.
,
t h e off p osi ti on t h e br an ch
,

ci rcu it fu ses ca n b e rep l a ce d is well t o u se on ly one ha n d a nd

Wi t h ou t d a n ge r .

to keep the other a wa y from

a n yth in g of m eta l conn ected t o t he groun d .

S UMMAR Y OF PRI NCI PLE S IN CHAPTER VI I

1 . Fus es a re s afe ty devices p l a ce d in an l ctric circu it

e e for t h e
p u r p ose of p r ot e ction .

2 . h av e in th em a p ie ce of m e t a l kn own t o b e able t o ca rry

F us e s
on ly a ce rtai n a m ou n t of cu rr en t wi th ou t m elti n g .

3 .Fu ses a re p l a ce d in e ve ry m ain ci rcu it in a h ouse a n d often in

m a n y of t h e br a n ch cir cu its .

4 .G rea t care sh ou ld b e exe rc ised in rep la cin g fus es .

QUE STI ONS

Wh y is it im p ort a n t t o kn ow wh a t fus es a re ?

Wh a t a re fuses u se d for ?
Wh a t m ight h ap p en if t h e f uses we re om itted in a circuit ?
D es cribe t h e p l u g fuse .
58 P RA C T I CAL ELE C T RI CI TY FO R BE G I N N E RS
5 . Wh a t h a p p e n s wh en a fu se bl ows ?"
6 . Wh a t kin d Of fu ses a re com m on ly us ed in au tom ob i le ligh t in g
t
sy s e m s ?

7 . Wh ere a re t h e fu ses u su ally p l a ce d in t h e m ain circu it in a h ou se ?

8 . W h a t a r e bran ch circu its ?
9 . Wh a t a re t h e a dv an ta ge s of h avin g fu ses in bran ch circu its ?
10 . H ow a r e fu ses teste d ?
11 . Wh at m us t b e b orn e I n m in d when re p l a cin g f uses ?

SUGGESTI ON S

1 P rocu re a fu se a n d e xam in e it care fu lly .

2 Try a s m a n y of t h e m e th ods of testi n g a fu se a s y ou ca n

. .

3 S ee if y ou c a n l o c a t e a ll of t h e fu se s in y ou r h ous e
.

4 S e e if y ou ca n l oc a t e t h e fu ses on y ou r au t om ob il e
. .

5 R e m em b er th a t it is q u ite e asy t o ge t a sh o ck while re p la cin g

.

fu se s a n d b e su re th a t y ou a r e p erfe ctly s a fe b ef ore tou ch in g them .

0 S tu d y t h e d a n ge rs in vol v e d in re p l a cin g fu s e s v e ry c a ref u lly

.

wh en y ou ge t t o th a t p ar t of this b ook .
 CHAPTE R VI II

HEATER -CI RCUI T TROUB LE S; How TO DETE CT AN D R E ME DY

THEM
54 . H e a ter C irc u it —To u n dersta n d a ll of
C o m pl e t e
the possible hea ter circuit trou bles let u s cons ider the m a nn er
-
,

in whic h cu rren t is usu a lly tra nsm itted from the p ower lin es
t o the hea tin g elem en t The term in a ls of the hea tin g ele
.

men t a re a tta ched t o pieces proj e ctin g ou t thru the hea ter
fra m e On these a n a tta chm en t is p u shed which m a kes con
.
,

S wd ch
‘

At ta h m
c e n i

He a t e r

. Te r m m o l 5
FIG . 38 . Dia gr a m of t he con n e ction s in a h eate r Cir cu it .

n e ct ion sbetween t h e hea ter term in a ls a n d the wires in a n ex

ten sion cord I n the exten sion is sometim es pla ced a port
.

a ble s witch The en ds of the extens ion cord a re con n ected t o

.

a plu g The plu g is screwed in to a recepta cle a n d the recep

.
,

ta c le is con n ected t o the wires u p on which the electrica l pres

su re is im pre ssed E a ch O i thes e will be described briefly
. .

These con n ections a re shown in Fig 38 . .

55 . Att a c h in g C ord U se d Wit h H e s t on —Fig . 39

shows a n a tta chin g cord for a hea ter circu it the a ppea ra n ce ,

of which is fa m ilia r t o ma n y re a ders To use this cord the . .

a tta chm en t B is pushed in to p la ce on the hea tin g device .

Th is a tta chm en t h a s t wo op en in gs in it wh ich when in pla ce , ,

60 P RA C T I CAL ELE CT R I CI TY FOR BE G I N NE RS

fit ver t wo proje ctin g p ieces of m eta l on the hea ter These

o .

pieces ar e the on es t o which t h e hea tin g-elem en t term in a ls

a re c on n ected C is a switch which is us ed to tu rn the cur
.

ren t O u or off The cord con ta in s t wo flexible wires co vered

.

with rubber a n d then with silk or cotton A is a plu g which .

is screwed in to a recepta cle provided for a cu rren t ou tle t ,

usua lly in a con v en ien t p l a ce in the wa ll .

56 . Wa ll R e cep t a cle I n to Wh ich P l u g I s S crew e d .

“f wd "t
“
The recepta cle in to which ,

the p lu g on the en d of the

cord is screwed con sists of ,

t wo distin ct meta llic p a rts

sepa ra ted from ea ch other
by som e ins u l a tin g ma te r
ia l usu a lly p orcela in , he . t

on e m et a lhc Pa rt 1 5 m
F m 39. Th e a tt a chin g cord
.

n m on ly u e d vr t h a h e a te r the b ottom of the recepta cle

lr f m mh ls om ti
fio s i
t e d m ma n y
.
,

m is a n d the other is in the form

O f a thin shee t a roun d it s side On e of the wires from the

.

s ou rce of cu rren t is con n e cte d t o the b ottom p iece a n d the ,

other t o the side piec e .

57 . E xt en sio n - C or d plu g A (Fig

Pl u g .
—The .

which fits in to the recepta cle con s ists a ls o of t wo meta llic

pa rts insu la ted from ea ch other—
,

on e on the en d of the plu g

a n d the other on it s side These t wo p a rts a re con n ecte d t o

.

the t wo wires in the cord When this plu g is screwed fa r

.

en ou gh in t o the recepta cle to brin g the m eta llic en d in con

ta ct with the piece in the b ottom of the recep ta cle the lin e ,

wir es a re conn ecte d t o the wires in the cord These wires .

form a con du ctin g circuit th ru the switch t o the m eta llic

, ,
 HEAT ER -
C I RC UI T T ROUBLE S 6]

p ieces inthe hea te r a tta chm en t F ig . . 41 s hows a n other ty p e

of plu g which is v ery con ven ien t .

58 . M a d e b y E xt en sio n C or d —When
C o n n e cti o n s .

the a tta chm en t is p us hed in to pla ce on a hea ter a n d the plu g ,

on the en d O f the a tta chme n t c ord is scre wed in to a recep

ta cle a bou t twelve d ifferen t con n ections a re p u t in to pla y

, .

There is a lwa ys a possibility tha t on e or more of them will

gr a dua lly become loose or d is conn ected which together with , ,

others to be described la ter ma y be the ca us e of the fa ilur e of

,

a hea ter t o fun ction properly .

59 . P o ssib l e H e a t er
C ir c u it Tro u bl es .
—All of

the p ossible ca uses of the

fa i lu re of a hea ter t o hea t u p
FI G 4 0 . . Th e p a rts of a p lu g
properly m a y be summ ed u p com m on ly u se d on t he e n d of a n
t
e x en sion cord .

as follows :

1 .The extension cord p lu g m a y n ot be screwed in t o the

-

recepta cle fa r en ou gh t o bri n g the t wo m eta llic pieces in con

t a ct .

2 .A fus e m a y ha ve bee n blown .

3 .The power ma y be shu t O ff .

4 .The hea ter termin a ls m a y be dirty or bu rn t off a n d ,

m a y n ot com e in c on ta ct with t h e m eta llic p a rts in the a tta ch

m en t .

5 .The m eta llic p ieces in the a tta chm en t m a y be d irty

or b u rn t O ff a n d m a y n ot com e in con ta ct with the he a ter
,

termin a ls .

6 .The conn ections t o the meta llic pieces in the a tta ch

m en t m a y be p oor or stra n ds of the t wo wires m a y be tou ch
,

in g ea ch other .
62 P RA CT I C AL ELE C T R I CI T Y FOR BEG I N NE RS

7The con n ections t o the switch m a y be p oor

. .

8 Th e con n ections t o the m eta ll ic p ieces in the p lu g m a y

.

be poor or str a n ds of the t wo wires m a y be t ou chin g ea ch

,

other .

9 O n e of the cord wires m a y be broken

. .

10 The en d s of the hea tin g u n it ma y be d is con n ected

.

from the hea te r termina ls .

11 The he a tin g elem en t m a y be bu rn ed ou t

. .

60 . Pl u g Tro u ble an d R em ed y
plu g on the.
—The
e n d of the extension c ord

m a y n ot be screwed in to
the recepta cle fa r en ou gh
t o brin g the two me t a llic
FIG 41 An oth e r ty p e O f exten
pieces together
. .

sion co rd p l u g wh i ch ca n b e re m ov e d
- If the
ld la (1 l t h ‘1 t tu l n g t h e h ea t er does n Ot h ea t u
'

ihr ea diaii g grt idii oiit of g lié i e ce p p It ,

ta cle .
is best to t ry the plu g to
ma ke su re tha t it is screwed in to the recepta cle p roperly I n .

case of a short circu it stra n ds of the wires in the plu g ma y be

,

con n ected in which cas e they shou ld be sepa ra te d a n d

,

fas ten ed firmly .

61 . D ete ct in g a B lown F u s e — A
blown fu se ma y be
.

the ca u se of the fa ilur e of a hea ter to Opera t e I f there is .

on ly on e fu se bloc k a t the e n tra n ce —tha t is on ly two fu ses ,

on e c a n re a d ily tra ce the trou ble to a bl own fu se or to the ,

la ck of powe r when a powe r c om p a n y is sometim es com

,

p elle d t o shu t down b y tu rn in g on the l ights som e p la ce in

,

the hous e I f they light there is n o la ck of power I f h ow

. , .
,
.

ever there is m ore th a n on e set of fu ses—tha t is more than

, ,

on e circu it
—the followin g m a y be d on e : R em ove the plu g
on t he e n d of the hea te r cord from the re ce pta cle a n d pla ce a
 H EA T ER -
C I R C UI T T ROUBLE S 63

la m p in it s pla ce I f t h e la m p fa ils t o light bu t the la mps a t

.
,

othe r pla ces in the h ou s e d o it is qu ite l ikely tha t on e or ,

,

both of the fu ses in this p a rticu la r circu it h a s been blown

,
.

I n this c a se it is n ecessa ry to repla ce the burn t ou t fuse or

,
-
,

fu ses To do this go to the pla ce where the ma in switch is

.
, ,

O pen it a n d follow the in stru ctions un der S ec 53 Cha pte r

, .
,

VI I Afte r ha vin g repla ced t h e blown fuse try the hea te r

.
,

a ga in a n d if it fa ils t o work tes t with a l a mp a ga in

, , I f the .

la mp lights u p it is certa in th a t cu rren t is a va ila ble a t the

,

re cepta cle a n d tha t som ethin g else is ca usin g the trou ble .

(See Se c .

62 . Hea ter -Te r m in a l Defe ct s hea ter termin a ls—The

ma y be b u rn t O ff or d irty a n d m a y n ot come in conta ct with
,

the meta ll ic p a rts in the cord a tta chm en t To detect this .

trou ble remove the a tta chmen t a n d exa min e the term in a ls
,

on the hea ter They shou ld be clean a n d bright a n d lon g

.

e n ou gh to re a ch well u p in to the a tta chmen t I f they a re .

dirty th ey can be clean ed O ff with a kn ife b u t if they are

, ,

bu rn t O ff it is d ifficu lt t o repa ir them The bu rn in g O f thes e

,
.

termin a ls is ca used by removin g the a tt a ch men t from them

while the cu rren t is tu rn ed on Therefore to a void it a l
.
, ,

wa ys b e su re th a t the curr en t is tu rn e d off before the a tta ch

men t is removed If these ter min a ls are b u rn t beyon d re
.

pa ir it is usu a lly possible t o p u rcha se n ew on es from dea le rs

,

h an dlin g the pa rticu la r hea ter so b u rn ed .

63 . Att a c h m en t Tro u bl es an d R em edies —The m et

pieces in t h e a tta chmen t m a y be bu rn t O ff or dirty so
a llic

they do n ot ma ke a con n ection wi th the hea ter termina ls .

(See F ig To detect
. th is trou ble remove the plu g from ,

the recepta cle a n d the a tta chmen t from the hea te r a n d re

 64 PRA C TI C AL ELE C T RI CI T Y FO R BEG I NNE RS

mov e the sm a ll b olts tha t hold the la tter together I t will .

com e a p a rt then a n d the con dition of these pieces ca n be de

te rm in ed I f they a re dirty or ben t they ca n be rep aired
.
, ,

b u t if they ar e bu rn t Off n ew piec es will be requ ir ed

, These .

c a n be pu rchas ed from a dea ler han dlin g the pa rticu la r kin d

of hea ter bein g u s ed or d irectly from the com pa n y m a n ufa c

,

tu rin g it These t oo a re bu rn t when they a re removed

.
, ,

from the hea te r while

the cu rren t is flowin g
thru them Th ere fore t o .
,

a void trou ble be su re to ,

t u rn the cu rren t off b e

T"“ m “ m M m ,
.e
fore remov in g the a t

b u r n ed ff o t a chmen t The p la cin g

.

of a p orta ble switch in

F I G 42 Th e p a rts of a com m on h e a te r
.

a tta chm en t
.

.
the cord ma kes this very
con ven ien t Wh ile these .

m e ta llic pieces a re bein g ins pected it is well t o see tha t the

,

wires a tta ched to them are held firm ly un der the screw
hea ds a n d tha t they are en tirely sepa ra ted from eac h other .

Conn ection between these wires wou ld ca u se a short circu it .

64 O t h e r P o ssibl e Tr o u b l es I f n on e of the tests de

. .
-

scribed solve the hea tin g problem s, a ll pa rts of the circu it

shou ld be exa m in ed for loose con n ections or broken con n ec

tions I f short circuits a re form ed as might be the case the

.
, ,

fus es will be bur n t ou t as fas t as they a re repla ced un til t h e ,

sh ort circu it is rem oved I t i well if other tests fa il to re

.
s
, ,

move the hea ter cover a n d t o exa min e the c on n ections of the
hea tin g elem en t to the te rm ina ls They m a y be loose or
.

broken If n on e of these solve the my ste ry it is qu ite prob

.
,
 HEA T ER -
C I R C UI T T ROUBLE S 65

a ble tha t the hea ter is bu rn t ou t .

65 . H ea t in g E l em en t —I n sele ctin g the

B u r n t- O u t .

m a teria l for the elem e n t O f a hea te r it is very d ifficu lt t o fin d

,

a ma te ria l tha t will n ot b u rn t o s om e exten t a t le as t whe n it

, ,

becom es very h ot an d a ltho gr ea t ca re m a y be t a ken in the

, ,

selection of hea tin g-elemen t ma teria ls there is a lwa y s a p os ,

sib ilit y of the ir b ur nin g ou t I f this d oe s occu r the hea te r

.
,

will fa il t o O pera te a n d n on e of the foregoin g tests will loca te

the trou ble This will be detected on ly by removin g the ele
.

m en t from the he a ter I f it is foun d t o be bu rn t ou t it must

.
,

be rep la ced with a n ew on e which ca n usu a lly be pu rchas ed

,

from a dea ler or from the comp a n y ma n ufa ctu rin g the p ar
t icu la r he a tin g devic e in qu estion .

S UMMAR Y OF PRI NCIPLE S IN CHAP TER VI I I

1 Trou bles in he a te r circu its a re c u ite likelv t o be du e
.
t o p oor
con n e ction s b u rn t t erm i n als or sh ort ci c i t s
, , .

2 R em e dies for m os t trou bles a re sim p le a n d e as ily a p p lied

.

QuE STI O Ns
1 .
cu rren t tr ans m itte d from t h e l in e Wi res t o
How is l
e em en t
a h e atin g devi ce ?
2 D es crib e t h e a tt a ch m en t cord u se d with a h ea ter
.
.

’
? W h a t is a w a ll r e ce p t a cl e ?

P Wh at is a n exten sion p lu g u se d for ?

P
‘
Wh at trou ble m a y e xis t in a n extension cord p l u g ? -

P H ow d o y ou d e te ct a bl o w n f u s e ?

S W h a t m a y b e w r o n g wi th a h e a t e r t e r m in a l ?

P Wh a t in a h e ate r atta ch m en t m a y ca use trou ble ?

P How ca n these tr ou bles b e re m e die d ?
1 0 Wh a t oth er tr ou bles might b e f ou n d i n t h e circu it ?
.
66 PRA C TI CAL ELE C T RI C I TY FO R BEGI NNERS
11 . H ow ca n t h e bu rnin g of t h e h ea ter termin als b e avoided ?
12 . W ha t is t h e a dv an ta ge in us in g a cord with a s witch in it ?
13 . Wh a t m us t be d one if a h eat er ele m en t is f ou n d t o be b urn t out ?

1 Pro cu re a hea te r cord th a t is con n e cte d p rop e rly a n d remove t h e

"
.

p l u g n otin g ca re fu lly us t h ow it is a tta che d

, .

2 . Re con n e ct t h e p lu g t o t h e cord a s y ou fou n d it .

3 . Do t h e sa m e with t h e a tt a ch m en t .

4 . Conn e ct u p a n ew cord a s soon a s on e is n ee de d .

5 . Try as ma ny of t he tes ts des crib e d in this ch ap t er as y ou ca n .

6 Observe ca refu lly all of t h e heatin g circu it s y ou m ay have

"
.

opportu ni ty t o insp ect a n d see if y ou ca n fi g ur e ou t

, u st why t h e de

f ect s l iste d wou ld c au se t h e heater t o f ail t o Op er ate a n d h ow y ou

,

wou ld detect a n d reme dy th em in each p arti cu l ar ci rcui t .

 C HAP TE R I "
I NCANDE SCE NT LAMPS AND THEIR USE
66 . E l ect r ic La m p s .
—
la mps are devices de
E lectric
pen d ing u pon the hea tin g effect of electri ca l cu rren t for their
ope ra tion I n ca n descen t la mps are u sed so ext ensively a t
.

the presen t time tha t t hey are quite common I n fa ct, p rac .

tica lly every automob ile is equ ipp ed with t hem ; n ea rly all
m odern homes use elec tric lights exclusively an d stree t cars , ,

in terurba n ca rs an d stea m ra ilwa y p as sen ger cars, an d even

stree ts are lighte d by them
, Their use is so extensive even
.

a t the presen t time tha t ha rdly a da y pass es duri n g which

the a vera ge person does n ot ma ke use of them I t is n ot .

n ecessa ry then more tha n to men tion the fa ct tha t every

, ,

body shou ld know somethin g a bou t elec tric la mps a n d their

67 . Pr in cip les of I n can d escen t La m p —L t

. e us con

si der t hen , the prin cip les in volved in t h e ma kin g Of the in

,

ca n descen t la mp I t h as been shown tha t when ever elec

.

t ri ca l cu rren t is forced thr u a con du ctor hea t is gen era ted ,

an d tha t t h e a moun t of hea t so gen era te d depen ds u pon th e

resistan ce O ffered by the con du ct or an d the a moun t of cur

ren t forced thr u a ga in st this resista n ce Then too it ha s .
, ,

been shown tha t the resistan ce of a con du ctor depen ds u pon

the ma teria l of which it is ma de the dia meter or cross-sec
,

t iona l a rea an d the len gth

,
E verybody is fa milia r with the
.

a pplica tions Of the pri n ciples in hea tin g devices The electri c .

la mp is a n other d evice b as ed u pon the sa me prin ciples ,

it s pu rpose , howe ver bein g t o give O ff light instea d O f hea t

, .
68 PRA CT I C AL ELE CT RI CI TY FOR BEGI NNE RS

68 . Wh y a La m p G ives Off Ligh t —E very rea der is n o

.

dou bt fa milia r with the fa ct tha t certain ma te ria ls , especia lly

meta ls give off light when they a re hea ted to a high tempera
,

tu re tha t is a piece of iron, won t. h ot

or ste el will becom e red h ot or
white h ot if it s tem pera tu re is
raised high en ou gh (F ig .

Wh en a ma teria l becom es h ot
en ou gh to give off light in this is 33 33 3 2?$5 2
1

h e a te d W hite h ° t
ma nn er it is sa id to be in ca n
,
‘

descen t a n d it is from this tha t the la m p gets it s n a me in ca n

,

descen t la mp The con du ctor ins ide of the la m p b u lb becomes

.

so hotth a t it is in can descen t or gives O ff light

, Of cou rse n ea rly .
,

a ll m a teria ls
give Off light when
they bu rn bu t it mu st be u n der
,

stood tha t it is n ot necessa ry

tha t a ll of them bu rn before

they a re ca pa ble of doin g so .

69 . La m p Fil a m en t an d
B u lb .
—All
common ma t eria ls
FI G 44 Two c om m on
. . forms ha v e a ten den cy to melt when
of c a rb on fil a men ts .
they get hot a n d most of them
,

bu rn freely ifplen ty ofa ir is p rese n t Kn owin g t hen t ha t cert a in

.
, ,

ma teria ls give O ff light when they a r e hea ted to a n extremely

high tempera t ur e it will be qu ite rea dily un derstood tha t if
,

electrica l cu rren t were forced thr u a con du ctor of very h igh

resista n ce it wou ld be possible to ca us e the con d u ctor to give
,

off light, provid in g it is ca p a ble O f withs ta n din g the very high

tempera tur e withou t meltin g or burn in g I t will be clea r, a lso, .

tha t the con du ctor would n ecessa rily ha ve to be limited in

 I N C AN D E SC EN T LA MPS AND T HE I R US E 69

len gth a n d tha t it s d ia m eter wou ld ha ve to be ma de very

sm a ll if the desired resu lts were t o be obta in ed With these .

poin ts in min d the followin g d is cussion

,

will be rea dily u n derstood :

I n in ca n descen t la mps there is a fin e
wire ca lled a fila men t which is hea ted
white hot by a n electric cu rren t The .

light em itted is the sa me as it wou ld be

if the fila men t were hea t ed in som e other
m a nn er I n ea rly experimen ts pla tin um
.
,

was trie d for the fila m en t b u t even tho ,

B se o

it melts on ly when it h as rea ched a tem FI G 45 S ke tch O f

a lam p b ase sh ow mg
p era t ur e a b ou t sixteen tim es tha t of t h e m a n n e r in wh ich

boilin g wa ter it cou ld n ot sta n d the re

,
t h e la m p fil a m en t
qu ired temp era tu re Ca rb on is on e O f
.
‘

the fe w kn own su bsta n ces with a higher meltin g poin t a n d ,

in 1 880 E dison a n d others su ccee ded in ma kin g a la m p with

a ca rbon fila men t t w o forms O f which are shown in Fig 44
, . .

Sin ce the fila m en t wou ld bu rn up a t on ce if there were

a n y a ir presen t it h a d t o be p la ced in a glas s bu lb ou t of
, ,

which the a ir h a d bee n exhausted .

70 H ow C u rr en t G et s in to La m p Fil a m en t —The
.

electricity is led in to a n d ou t of the fila m en t thru t wo short

pla tin u m wires melted in to the glass bu lb a t on e en d (See .

Fig . Thes e pla tin u m wires a re conn ected by copper wires

to the brass colla r a n d meta l t ip a t the bas e of the bu lb This .

b as e when screwed in to the recepta cle or socket ma kes con

, ,

n ect ion with the power wir es The tu rn in g of the la mp in to

.

the socket is the equ iva len t O f conn ectin g the lin e wires to
the en ds of the fila men t .

6
70 PRA C T I C AL ELE C T RI CI T Y FO R BEG I N NER S

71 Met a llic Fila m e n t s —Meta llic filamen t la mps (Fig

. .

46) ha ve ra pidly su ppla n ted the Old ca rbon fila men t on es

du rin g t he las t few yea rs a n d a re perha ps most popu lar a t
, , ,

the presen t time Th ese fil a men ts are ma de of tun gste n a n d

.

O f ta n ta lu m B oth of these m eta ls ha ve meltin g poin ts

.

higher tha n tha t of pla tin u m b u t their resistan ce is consider

,

a bly less than tha t of ca rb on This n ecessita tes the use Of a

.

fila men t mu ch lon ger a n d fin er tha n the on e use d in the old

ca rbon film ent la mps bu t fila men ts of this kin d give a mu ch
,

whit er light an d they do n ot use as mu ch power as the ca rbon

,

on es The lon g filam en ts re qu ired I n th ese la mps are woun d

.

zigza g on a s ta r-sha ped reel O n e d ifficu lty .

with these meta llic fila men ts is their lia bility to

brea ka ge beca us e O f their brittlen ess b u t vas t ,

improvemen ts h a ve been ma de recen tly a n d ,

72 . G a s-F illed La m p s —G as-filled la mps

epla cin g ordin a ry meta l filamen t
are r -
la mps in
some plac es a t t h e pres en t time, a n d ma y b e

come more popu lar in the very n ea r fu tur e I n .

these the fila men t is short a n d the bu lb is filled

with a gas usua lly nitrogen where in other bu lbs there is
, ,

n ot hin g Thes e la mps give more light tha n the ot hers on the
.

sa me a moun t O f power They a re used qu ite ext ensively in

.

-i
t
s r ee l
t i
- ghtin g an d in a few cas es in ho
,
use l ghtin g bu t the
, ,

sma ller sizes a re as yet n ot very sa tisfa ctory

, , Ther e still .

r ema in s plen ty of chan ce for improvin g in can d esc en t la mps .

73 Wa t t a ge Marks on L a m p s Altho n o a ttem pt will

.
—
“
be ma de a t this time to exp la in wha t is mea n t by a wa tt, it
”

is well to mention tha t the wa tta ge of a la mp or the n u m ber

,
 I N CAN D E SC EN T LA MP S AN D T HE I R US E 71

of wa tts b y which the la m p is design a ted is the m eas u remen t ,

"
of the m un t of power required t o ma ke the la m p b u rn
a o
“

tha t is a 60 wa tt la m p ta kes fou r times as mu ch power as a

,
-

1 5 wa tt on e a n d is four tim es as expensive t o opera te

-
Of
"
.

cou rse it gives off m ore light a lso (See Cha p ter I )
, . .

S UMMAR "or PR I NCI PLE S IN C HA PTER I "

1 .E le ctric l am p s dep en d u p on t h e h ea tin g efie ct of e le ctrica l
cu rren t for their op er ation .

2 .Th e fil am en t in a l am p h as a very high res is t an ce a n d a very

high m eltin g p oin t .

3 .Th e a ir is exh aus te d from a l a m p b u lb t o kee p t h e fil am en t from

b u rnin g u p .

4 .G a s fill e d l am p s h ave the ir b ulb s fu ll of gas which for some

-
l

reason m a kes them give off m ore light .

Q UE STI ONS
Wh y is it im p ort an t t o kn ow som ethin g a b ou t ele ct ric l amp s ?
Up on wh at p ri n cip les of ele ctricity is t h e e le ctri c l am p b ase d ?
Wh o in v en te d t h e in can des ce n t l am p ?
How is cu rr en t le d in t o a l a m p fil a m en t ?
Wh at a re t h e a dvan t a ges of m et al fila m en t l am ps over ca rb on
-

Wh at a re t h e dis a dvan t a ges if a n y ?

,

Wh at a re gas filled l am p s ?
-

Wh at does t h e w att a ge m ark on a l am p re p resen t ?

Wh at is t h e difieren ce b etween a 1 5 wa tt l am p a n d a - (SO-wa tt

SUG GESTI ONS

1 .
O b se rve ca refully a n y ele ct ric l a m p y ou m a y se e a n d t ry t o
tra ce t h e p ath of t h e cu rren t thru it .

2 . Try difier en t kin ds of l a m p s a t t h e s a m e tim e a n d ob serve the ir

d ifie r en ces .Th a t is con n e ct a carb on a tu n gs te n a n d tan talu m l a m p
, ,

in t h e s am e circuit or p u t th em in t h e s a m e fixtu re a n d n ote th eir

d ifieren ces .

3 .
Look for t h e wa tt a ge n u m be r on a n y l a m p s y ou m a y see a n d
n ote th e ir brillian cy a n d t h e a n of the ir fil am en t This is usu ally .

rin t e d on a sm all sticke r n e a r t h e b ase of t h e l am p

p
.

4 . Try conn e ct in g u p a n y l a m p circu its for which y ou ma y b e a ble

t o se cu re t h e re qu ire d m a terials a n d e quip m en t .
 C HAPTE R "
THE OPERATI ON OF E LE CTRI CAL LAMPS
74 . wit h La m p O p er
I m por t a n c e of B ein g F a m il iar
a t ion —E lectric la mps a re us ed t o so grea t an exte n t in the
.

home tha t a description of the possible troubles common ly

en coun te red shou ld be of in terest to everyon e Man y occa .

sions ar is e where considera ble in con ven ien ce an d expens e are

FI G 4 7 . .hows a comm on lightin g in stall ation B sh ows on e set

A s .

of con n e ctions in v olv e d in this in st all a tion C sh ows a n oth er m e tho d

.

of con n e ctin g I n t h e fixtu re D sh ows t h e simp le dia gr am of t h e con

.

n e ct ions .

brou ght a b ou t by some simple trou bles which might eas ily be
detec te d an d remedied by a n yon e fa milia r with them I t is .

n ot in ten ded to tell a t this time how to wire a hous e or h ow

, ,

it is wired b u t simply to brin g ou t the simple prin ciples an d

,

to S how how to detect a n d remedy common tr ou bles which

ca us e a la mp to fa il to O pera te
—L t it b
.

75 . Com pl et e Ligh t in g Cir cu itderstood. e e un

a t the beginn in g tha t there must a lwa ys be two complete

 T HE O P E RA T I ON OF ELE C T R I CAL LA MPS 73

con du ctin g circuits b etween ev e ry la mp a n d the sou rce of

cu rren t C onn ections m a y be ma de thru switches fixtu res
.
, ,

sockets plu gs extens ion c ords la m p sta n d s or other c on

, , , ,

ven ien t a pp a ra tu s b u t they mu st be m a de properly before

,

the la m p will light u p (Fig There is a lwa y s a cha n ce

.

for som e little thin g to ha ppen t o a n y of thes e which m a y

keep the cu rren t from passin g th ru the la mp fila m en t a n d it ,

is in some cas es these little thin gs tha t ca us e most of the

, ,

trou bles in hous e lightin g - .

76
. P o ssib l e Ligh t in g-Cir cu it Tr ou b les —B ea rin g the
.

foregoin g in min d a n d reca llin g the simple fa cts rega rdin g

electrica l circu its it will be seen tha t if a la m p is screwed in to
,

a la mp socket or recepta cle a n d it fa ils t o light u p a n y O f the

, ,

followin g m a y be the ca use

( 1 ) The la mp ma y n ot be screwed in to the socket fa r

en ou gh (2) the l a m p ma y be bu rn t ou t (3) the switch m a y be
, ,

Open or d is conn ected , (4) a fus e m a y ha ve been blown (5) ,

the power ma y be shu t off (6) the con n ection s ins ide of the
,

socket m a y be poor ( 7) the wires in the fixtu re m a y be dis

,

conn ecte d ; or in the ca s e of a ta ble la m p or floor la m p W here

,

an exte nsion cord is us ed ( 8) the extension cord plu g m a y n ot

,

be screwed in far en ou gh (9) the wires in the plu g m a y be

,

disconn ecte d (1 0) the cord wire m a y be d is conn ected in the

,

la m p fixtu re .

77 . La m p N ot Tu r n e d I n F ar E n ou gh very .
—I t is
eas y to un dersta n d tha t the la mp must be screwed in to the
socket fa r en ou gh to brin g the meta llic p iece on the e n d of its

base in con ta ct with the piece in the bottom of the socket

( Fig . The rem edy then is to tu rn it in fa rther I t
, , .
74 PRA C TI C AL ELE CT R I CI T Y FOR BEG I NNE RS

so metimes ha ppens tha t the sma ll piece of brass A in the

botto m of the socket becom es ben t d own a n d it is impossible ,

to brin g the t wo pieces in con ta ct however ha rd the la mp is

,

tu rn ed I f this shou ld ha ppen to be the ca se op en the switch

. ,

a n d p ry this little piece u p with a knife or screwdriver ( If .

the switch is n ot open ed y ou ,

will un dou btedly blow a fuse

by ma kin g a c onn ection b e
tween this little piece a n d the
brass Shell inside of the socket
which will ca us e a short cir
cu it the cu rren t goin g thru
,

the kn ife or screwdriver ) .

78 ' B ur n t - O u t La m p
FI G 4 8 Th e in terior of a com
.

. .

m on la m p s ocket Th e d a rk a re as
. I f the la mp is tu rn ed in tight
s h ow t h e p a th of t h e cur ren t .

ly a n d a connect I on Is
ma de ,

b u t still refus es to l ight it ma y be bu rn t ou t ; tha t is the fila

, ,

men t ma y be bu rn t or broken To determin e whether or n ot

.

this is the cas e try a d ifferen t la m p in the sa me socket or

,

hold it u p t o the light a n d exa m in e the fila men t S ometim es .

,

if there is on ly a sin gle brea k in the fil a m en t it is possible to ,

weld the en ds together by givin g the la mp a gen tle t a p while

the cu rren t is on
—S ometime
.

79 . An O p en or Discon n ect ed S wit ch s

there is m ore than on e s witc h in a la mp circuit as in the cas e ,

where severa l l a mps a re sus pen ded from on e fixtu re to ma ke

possible the opera tin g of a n y or a ll of them (Fig On e .

shou ld be certa in th a t both the wa ll switch a n d the key

switch in the socket a re closed A push bu tton switc h is

.
-

closed when the white b u tt on is pus hed in a n d a key switc h ,

 T HE O P ERA T I O N OF ELE CT RI CAL LA M P S 75

lly sn a ps as it is tu rn ed O ff tha t is it gives a sort of a

us u a
,

click when it is tu rn ed O ff a n d m a kes n o soun d as it is tu rn ed

on .The key usua lly tu rns a little ha rder when tu rn ed on
tha n when tu rn ed off .

FI G 49 . . A comm on in st all ation . Th e wa ll tch con trols b oth

s wi
la m p s , a n d t h e key switch es con trol the m in dividu ally A di agra m of .

t h e con n e ctions is giv en a lso .

If the wa ll switch is d isconn ected or if the conn ection s ,

t o it a re loose it is p ossible tha t cl osin g a door or j a rrin g the

,

switch in a n y wa y m a y c a us e the la mps on it s cir cu it to go

ou t or to flicker I n su ch a c as e re m ov e the switch c over a n d

.
,

fas ten the wires firmly u n der the screws in the switch te rmi
n a ls . These wires a re in p la in View a n d this a dj ustmen t ca n
,

be ma de very eas ily withou t d a n ger .

If the wa ll switch is foun d to be a ll right a n d the ke y ,

swit ch tu rn ed on a n d still the la mp refu ses t o light when

,

pla ced in the socket a n d if there is on ly a S in gle socket the

, ,

fa u lt ma y be tha t listed in N O 6 Se c 76 If however t h e

.
, . .
, ,

fixtur e in to which the la mp in qu estion h as been p l a ced is for

m ore than one la mp try the other sockets in the sa m e fix
,

tu re If the la mp lights in a n y of them t h e fa u lt m ust b e N o

. , .

6. I f it fa ils t o light in a n y of them the trou ble m a y b e tha t

,

liste d N o 7 . .
76 PRA C T I CAL ELE C T R I CI T Y FO R BEG I NNER S

80 . or La ck of P ower —If there is on ly

A B lown F u se .

a sin gle circu it in a hous e on e set of fus es a n d n on e of the

, ,

la mps light u p when their switches are closed either a fus e ,

h as bee n blown or the p ower h as bee n tu rn ed off I f a ny .

la mp in the hous e lights when there is on ly the on e set of

,

fu ses these ca nn ot be t h e ca uses of the trou ble (Fig 5 0 A)

,
.
, .

FI G 5 0
. Tes tin g for a l a ck of p ower or a bl own fu se A rep resen t s
. .

a sim p le e n tran ce s witch a rran gem en t , a n d B a n arran gem en t p rovidin g

for t w o circu its Th e fixtu res a r e su p p ose d t o b e in d I e ren t room s of
.

t h e sa m e h ou se If t h e l a m p lights a s s h own with a rr an ge m en t A , t h e

.

a re a ll right If with a rr a n ge m en t B , on e of t h e bra n ch fuses m a y

flfi
us .

e iown .

If, however there is more tha n on e fu sed circuit in the hous e

,

(Fig 5 0 B ) a n d the l a m ps on on e circu it light bu t n on e on on e

.
, ,

of the others it is a lmost a su re in dica tion tha t a t leas t on e

,

fus e h as been blown I f a blown fuse is dete cted an d re

.

pla ced ta ke specia l ca re to see tha t it d oes n ot blow a ga in as

,

soon as the switch is closed I f this h a ppe ns at short circu it

.
,

is ca us in g the trou ble a n d m ust be t a ken ca re of before p u t

tin g in a n ew fu s e will do a n y good .

81 . P o or C o n n e c t io n s in a S o cket .
—I f there is on ly a
single socket on a pa rt icu la r circu it a n d a ll previous t ests
ha ve fa iled to revea l a n y fa u lt the trou ble is qu ite likely to be
within the socket itself I t WI ll be n ecessa ry in su ch a c ase
.
, ,

to open the switch in the wa ll or, p refera bly t h e m a in , ,

 T HE O P E RA T I ON OF ELE CT RI CAL LA MPS 77

swi tch to rem ov e t h e socket cover a n d t o look for loose con

, ,

n e ct ions If howev er m ore tha n on e socke t is pla ced a t this

.
, ,

p a rticu la r pl a ce a n d a la mp will light u p in n on e of them the ,

fa u lt is m ost likely t o be tha t listed un der N o 7 Se c 76 If .

, . .

t h e la m p l ights in a ll of the sockets on a fixt u re b u t on e the ,

fau lt mu st be in the socket or it s con n ection s .

82 . F a u lts in a. Fixt u r e —If severa l la m ps a re provided

for on one fixtu re a n d n on e of the sockets will fu rn ish cu rren t
to a good la m p it is most likely tha t the wires in the fixtu re
,

ha ve become d iscon n ected or burn t This occu rs very ra rely .

,

however except in ca ses where hea ters a re con n ected t o

,

lightin g circu it ou tlets S ometimes the Wires in the fixtu re

.

a re n ot l a rge en ou gh t o c a rr y a ll of the cu rren t requ ired by a

hea te r a n d they a re b u rn t ou t It is for this reas on tha t

, .

specia l recept a cles S hou ld be provided for hea ters .

I f this ppea rs t o be the ca us e of the trou ble exa min e a ll

a ,

of the easily a ccessible j oin ts in the fixtur e first a n d fin a lly

-
, , ,

those un der the ca n op y or other a rra n gem en t on the ceilin g

, ,

or wa ll These j oin ts will be fou n d t o be soldered a n d cov

.

ered with ta pe b u t a brea k ca n u su a lly be detected b y pu llin g

,

gen tly on the wir es withou t rem ovin g the la tter .

83 . O t h e r P o ssib l e Tro u b les —I f n on e of the fore goin g

.

tests revea l the d ifficu lty it m a y be tha t—in su ch cas es as

,

ta ble-la mp a n d floor la m p ins ta lla tions—e xtension cord c on

- -

n ect ions a re poorly ma de or ha ve become l oose or tha t the ,

conn ections Within the la m p sta n d a re p oor If this is su s

-
.

e ct ed a pply the te sts to these in the sa m e m a n n er a s e x

p ,

pla in ed in the d is cussion of hea tin g circu its an d in the first

pa rt of this cha pter .
78 PRA C TI C AL ELE CT R I CI T Y FO R BEG I N N ERS

84 . Sh or t Cir cu it s .
—The
foregoin g tests a n d remed ies
properly a pplied in the order given shou ld ordin a rily ta ke car e
of the problems a risin g in the a vera ge home There is h ow .
,

”
e ver the possib ility O i formin g a short in a cir cu it ( Fig
“
.
,

which ca us es the blowin g ou t of a fuse or fus es This has .

been men tion ed

un der the stu dy

of hea tin g a n d in

Sec 61 ,bu t n eeds

.

a more exte n ded

description a n d
exp l a n a t io n a t
t h ls tim e
Five p ossible cau ses of sh ort circuits
.

FI G 5 1
.

1 T ou chi n g of b a re wire s e n ter in g a l a m p 2

Short Clr cu l t s
. . .

Wire n ot wrap p e d a rou n d con n e ctor on e n d of e x

ten sion p lu g 3 Wires tou ch in g in si de of a n ex
. .
ll y t h u su a
ten sion cord p lu g 4 A n ail s crewdriv e r or t h e
-
. . ,

like in a so cket or re ce p ta cle 5 Loose or p oor

. . re su lt in the
con ne ction s I n a s ocke t .

blow mg of fuses ,

m a y be ca used by a n y of severa l con ditions Acciden ta l con .

nect ions ma y be ma de b y l oose con n ections in a socket ma kin g ,

it possible for two wires t o tou ch e a ch other ; by wea ri n g Off

insu la tion ; by brea kin g of in su la tin g ma teria l or a n y thin g ,

else which wou ld ma ke p ossible a n eas y pa th for the elec

t ricit y I f a short cir cu it h as been formed the fus es will be
.
,

blown as fas t as they are repla ced I t is possible tha t some .

of the lights a re a ll right when su dden ly j us t as a switch is

, ,

closed or a la m p tu rn ed on they a ll go ou t This in d ica tes

, .

tha t there is a sho rt circu it in tha t p a rticu la r pa rt of the lin e ,

an d it mus t be left open or the S h ort removed before it wou ld

do a n y good to repla ce the fuses .

I f this shou ld occu r a fter d a rk, and it is desired to use the

 T HE O P ERA T I ON OF ELE C T RI CAL LA MP S 79

la m ps tha t n ight O r to postp on e the rem ovin g of the Short

circu it it is n ecessa ry on ly t o lea ve the on e cir cuit O p en a n d t o
,

p u t in a n ew fuse I f a fuse mu st be p la ced in a circu it a t n ight

.

when a ll o f th e lights a re ofi light a ma tch or ca ndle before mak

,

in g a n a t temp t t o remove or in sert it . More tha n on e p erson has

recei ved a severe sh ock while tr in t o r e la ce a
y g p fu se in th e dark
"I I )
.

(See Cha pte r .

A illus tra tes a n in s t all ation with a sh ort circu it in on e

bra n ch a n d t h e p rop e r a rran s m e n t for tes tin g for it ; B , t h e lightin g
dimly of t h e tes t l am p a n d t e on e in a good circu it ; C , t h e lightin g
brightly of t h e tes t la m p a n d t h e failu re of t h e lam p in t h e defe ctive
circuit .

85 . Test s for S h or t Cir cu it s .

—It is n ot a lwa y s possible
to dete c t the loca tion of a S hort circuit as eas ily as has been
in dica ted in which cas e it will be n ecessa ry to test for it
, .

The a u thor be lieves tha t the followin g method used by him is

as s a tis fa ctory as a n y a n d it is very S im ple a n d in expensive
, .

This explana tion is for a sin gle circuit inst a lla tion bu t ca n be ,

a pplied in a n y circu it .

O pen the en tra n ce switch a n d remove the fuses repla cin g ,

them with on e good fus e a n d a n ord in ary la mp Close the .

ma in switch a n d tu rn on on e by on e every bra n ch of the cir

, ,
80 PRA CTI CAL E LE C T RI CI T Y FO R BEG I NNERS

cuit n otin g the brillia n cy of the la mp on tha t bran ch (If

, .

there is only a recepta cle in som e bra n ches turn a la mp in to ,

it ) On e very bra n ch circuit tha t is a ll right the la mp or

.
, ,

la mps will light u p d im ly as will a lso the on e in the fus e

, ,

recepta cle When the circu it in which the short has been
.

ma de is rea ched the la mp in the circu it will n ot light up b u t

, ,

the one in the fus e recepta cle will light u p brightly (Fig .

After the circuit in which the S hort has bee n formed h as

been loca ted the ma in switch shou ld be open ed a n d a ll pa rts
,

of the a ppa ra tus in the circu it inspected for possible short s

su ch as broken p a rts worn insu l a tion etc The short cir cuit
, , .

ca n be removed by tighte nin g down loose wires repla cin g ,

broken pa rts coverin g b a re wires with friction ta pe or wha t

, ,

ever else ma y be n ecess a ry .

86 . Va l u e of Test s an d R e m edies —I f a ll of the fore

goin g tests a n d remedies a re stu d ied ca refu lly a n d a pplied
properly there is n o reason why every house own er ca nn ot be
,

his own elect rician I t is im porta n t tha t every person be

.

a ble to do this kin d O f work beca us e of the expens e a n d in con

venien ce in volved in bein g compelled to hire som eon e els e t o

do it Then t oo considera ble time is fre qu en tly lost in

. , ,

wa itin g for some little repa ir j ob tha t ca n be ta ken ca re of

withou t cost a n d with very litt le trou ble b y som e member of
the fa mily .

SUMMARY OF PR I NCI PLE S IN CHAPTER "

1 Lightin g trou bles a re qu ite likely t o b e d ue
. t o p oor con ne cti ons
or s h ort circui t s .

2 Trou bl es a r e ea sily dete cte d a n d rem e die d

.
.
 T HE O P E RA T I ON OF ELE C T R I CAL LA M PS 81

Q UESTI ONS
1 . Wh y is it im p ort an t th at e ve ry b ody be fam ilia r with l ighti n g
op e rations ?
2 . Wh at a p p aratus is in v olve d in t h e a ve ra ge lightin g circuit ?
3 . E n um era te t h e p ossible lightin g circuit trou bles
-
.

4 .Why is it th at f ail u re t o t u rn t h e l a m p in to t he re cep ta cle fa r

en ou gh m a y ca use it t o f ail t o light ?

5 .What m a y b e wr on g in a l am p re cep t a cle ?

6 .Wh y is it n e cessary t o op en t h e switch wh en workin g on a lam p
re cep ta cle or socket ?
7 .Wh at caus es a la m p t o bu rn out ?
8 .How ca n a b u rn t ou t or br oke n fil a m en t b e de te cted ?
9 .How is it p ossible s om e tim es t o r e p air a br oken fil ame n t ?
, ,

10 H ow ca n y ou te ll w h eth er a switch is on or off ?

"
.

11 .I f a f use bl ows us t a s s oon a s it is r e p l a ce d wh a t is t h e tr ou ble ?

,

12 .How a r e p oor con n e ctions in t h e s ocket de te cted ?

13 .Wh at m a y b e wr on g in t h e fixtu re ?
14 .Wh a t a re S h ort cir cuit s ?
15 .Wh at h app ens wh en a sh ort circuit is f orm e d ?
16 .How is a sh ort circuit de te cte d ?
17 .H ow is it rep aire d ?
18 .Wh a t sh ou ld be done if a fus e m us t b e rep l a ce d at night ?
19 .How is it p ossible t o use p a rt of t h e l am p s in a h ouse ev en t h o
the re is a sh ort circu it in som e on e circu it ?

S UGG E STI ONS

1 . Try as m a ny of t h e tests des crib ed in this ch ap ter a s y ou p ossibly

ca n .

2 Tr y t o re p air a br oke n l am p fil am en t
"
. .

3 . Man y tim es u st b e fore t h e fil am e n t in a l am p b u rn s t h e inside ,

of t h e b u lb b e c om e s p a rtl y cov e re d with a s ort o f d a rk su b s t a n ce S ee .

if y ou ca n n oti ce this on a n y l a m p a n d wa tch it t o se e h ow l on g it l ast s

a fte r this b egins t o a p p e a r .
 CHAPTE R "I
E LEC TRI CAL ME AS UREME NTS
87 . Ne cessit y of Un it s discussions we
. So far in our

ha ve spoken in a ra ther gen era l wa y a bou t electrica l qua n ti

ties a n d su ch te rms as volt s a mperes a n d wa tts ha ve b ee n
, ,

use d more or le s s in defin ite ly An a ttempt will be ma de a t

.

the rea der a workin g kn owled ge of t h em a t least .

Man y of the common units of measu rmen t su ch as the

cen t n ickel dime , qua rter ha lf-dolla r an d dolla r use d in
, , , ,

S pecifyin g va lu es , a n d the in ch foot ya rd a n d mile us ed in

, , ,

specifyin g len gths ,

a re so fa m ilia r to

most of us tha t we
seld om stop to
FI G 5 3 . E xam p les of comm on units of think an d t o rea l
.

m ea su re m en t .

a re u n i s of
t measu remen t (Fig Su ppose, for a n instan t
.
,

tha t we h a d n o su ch un its We wou ld be compelled to use

.

su ch st a te men ts as a bushel of pota toes is worth qu ite a

lot ; a ya rd of cloth is worth a little more ; a hou se a n d lot

are worth ma n y tim es as mu ch
”
an d so on withou t be in g , ,

a ble to mea sur e t h e va lu e or to tell an yon e els e wha t it is .

Then too in tryin g to express len gth, we would ha ve to use

, ,

su ch expre s sions as lon g lon ger short, etc , an d it wou ld be

, , .

a lmost impossible to ma ke these measur ements a t a ll defin ite .

To do a wa y with any su ch in con ven ien ces va rious un its of ,

measur emen t ha ve bee n esta blished which a re a stan da rd

 ELE C T RI CAL M EAS URE M E NT S 83

us ed by everyb ody in th is coun try a n d in some of the foreign

coun tries the un it O f va lu e be in g the dollar a n d the un it of
, ,

len gth the foot .

I t is j us t as n ecessa ry to ha ve un its of meas ur emen t for

electrica l a pplica tions as it is in a n y others t o ma ke possible ,

the definite m eas ur emen t of va lu es The more common of .

these will be d iscussed from a pra ctica l stan dpoin t with S pe

cia l stress pl a ced u pon their use ra ther than their origin .

FIG 54
. Two com m on s ou rces of e le ctrica l p ressure
. an d dia gra m
m a t i ca l wa ter p ressu res of simil a r v a lues .

88 . l ect r ica l Un it s —The most comm on

Co m m on E .

u nits u sed in electrica l work a re the volt the a mpere the , ,

wa tt the kilowa tt a n d the kilowa tt hou r while som e of the

,
-
,

less comm on ly u sed on es a re the ohm the fa ra d the m a xwell

, , ,

etc We a re more pa rticu la rly in terested in the first four

.
,

beca us e they are use d so c ommon ly a n d we S ha ll limit our,

d is cussion to them a lon e .

8 9 T h
. e Volt — The volt with which we a re som ewha t
.
,

fa milia r in a gen era l wa y is the u n it by which electrica l pres

,

sur es a re meas u red When ever volta ge is S poken of, elec

.

t ric a l pressu re is referred t o Comm on volta ges a re : d ry

.

cell ,
a s tora ge cell 2 ; comm on light in g a n d he a tin g c ir
,

cuits 1 1 0 ; c omm on power circu its 220 or 44 0 ; a n d ma n y

, ,

street c ar c ir cu it s 550
-
,
.
84 PRAC TI CAL ELE CT R I C I TY FOR BEG I NNE RS

We ha ve lea rn ed tha t the volta ge ma rk piece of on a n y

electrica l a ppa ra tu s is pla ced there so the u ser will kn ow the

press ur e u pon which it is su pposed to be u sed The volta ge .

a pplied ma y be le ss than th a t given on a n y electrica l device ,

b u t it s hou ld n ot be m ore For ins tan ce ma n y la mps or fla t

.
,

irons ha ve a 1 1 8 V or a 1 20 V ma rk on them
- They a re ex
-
.

pect ed to be used on 1 1 0 volt circu its a n d a re ma de this wa y

-

so tha t if the pressu re which is in most cases fu rn ished by a

, , ,

gen era tor becomes a few volts too ,

high the a ppa ra tus bein g u sed will

,

not be b u r n t ou t .

Mea sur in g Vol t s —

90 . B eca use .

of the fa ct th a t most electrica l pres

sur es a r e sta n d a rd ; th a t is 2 6 , , ,

V l fm l
o e c r
1 1 0 220 etc ; it is n ot usu a lly nec
, , .

neg fifbofgfggg f:
‘
5335 e ssa r y to measu re volta ges except in

amm e te rs in ele ctrica l cir specia l work I t is kn own tha t the .

curts .

volta ges of cells a re a dded when the

cells a re con n ected in series so they ca n be ca lcu la te d withou t
d ifficu lty I f however it becomes n ecessa ry t o meas u re the
.
, ,

volta ge of a b a tte ry or gen era tor a ll tha t is requ ired is to con ,

n eet the termin a ls of a meter kn own a s a voltm eter to it s , ,

termin a ls or to wires run n in g from them in a man n er som e ,

wh a t simil a r to th a t of conn ectin g a bell or la m p t o a lin e .

(See Fig .

91 . Th e Am p er e —I t
little more d ifficu lt t o
. is a

un derstan d j ust wha t is mea n t by a n a mpere bec au se

the a mpere is the u n it of ra te of flow of cu rren t ,

bu t a brief description will proba bly ma ke the term

sufficien tly clea r .
 ELE C T RI CAL M EA S URE ME N TS 85

The a mpere is the un it b y which we express how fas t

electricity is flowin g in a circuit ; tha t is if on e hell requ irin g a
,

certa in a moun t of electricity is conn ecte d to a b a ttery the ,

electr icity will ha ve to flow thru the wire fas t en ou gh t o kee p

the bell fully su pplied or it will n ot rin g The speed or ra te
, .

a t which it flows is exp ressed as so ma n y a mperes N ow if a. ,

secon d be ll of the

n ect ed t o t h is
sa me b a tte ry cir

tha t in order to
“ ”
fe e d e n o u gh
electricity to both
be l l s to m a ke
th em r in g th e ,

c u rre n t wo u l d
ha ve to be twice
as grea t ' t ha t 13" FI G 55 I llus tr a tin g t h e flow of cu rren t thru a
. .

circu it co n ta inin g on e la mp a n d thru a circuit

,

t h e electr ic ity con ta in in g t w o lam p s Also simil a r ca ses in t h e

.

fl ow of w a te r .

wo u l d h a ve to
flow ou t of the b a ttery twice as fas t or the a mpera ge wou ld
be twice as mu ch Fig 55 shows this with la mps instea d
. .

of bells Ta kin g a defin ite exa m ple it is kn own tha t

.
,

an ordina ry mediu m sized la m p requ ires a bou t

-

a mp ere flowin g th ru it s fila m en t to ma ke it light u p .

N ow su ppose tha t the re a re three la mps conn ected

,

to on e fixt ur e in to which t wo ma in wires run .

Th e cu rren t must be flowin g in these wires a t the ra te of

thr ee times or 1 a m pere s .
86 PRA C TI CAL ELE CT R I CI T Y FO R BEG I NNE RS

92 Mea su re m en t of Am p er es —I t is im possible t o
. .

d etermin e a mperes in a mann er simila r t o tha t used in deter

minin g volts beca us e the ra te a t which cur ren t flows in a cir
,

cu it depen ds u pon the pressu re a n d the resis ta n ce Offered by

the circuit I t S hou ld be remembered however tha t a n
—
.
, ,

ordin ary 1 1 0 volt la mp of mediu m size requ ires a bou t 1 /2

a mpe re a n d th a t the tota l n u mber of a mperes requ ired by
,

severa l su ch la mps on on e circu it will be the n u mber of la mps

mu ltiplied by
On hea tin g devices, the n umber of a m peres ta ken is ma rked
on the na m e pla te Thus a ma rk of . on a fla t ir on mea ns
,

tha t the fia t iron will dra w a mperes when con n ected to a

pres sur e of the va lu e a lso sta mped on the na me pla te :tha t is ,

a 1 1 0 volt -
a m p ir on will dra w
,
- a mperes when con
.

n ecte d t o a 1 1 0 volt lin e -

.

Fuses, we a lrea dy kn ow a re sta mped with a nu mera l

as ,

represen tin g the nu mber of a m peres they are ca pa ble of ca r

ryin g withou t blowin g “
The su m of a ll of the cu rren ts
.
”

bein g dra wn a t a n y on e time thru a set of fuses must n ever

a dd u p to more tha n the ca p a city O f the fuses For exa mple .
,

su ppose tha t in a h ous e where there is on ly one ma in circu it

protecte d by l o a m pere fuses a hea ter dra win g 6 a m peres is

-
,

bein g used a n d tha t a n a ttempt is ma de to us e a

, a mp - .

fla t ir on in som e other room or on some other bran ch circuit ,

a t t h e sa me time The tota l n u m ber of a mperes tha t would

.

ha ve to pass thru the fuse s wou ld be 6 plus or N ow ,

the fuses will ca rry on ly 1 0 a mperes so as soon as the a ttempt ,

to use the iron is ma de they will blow This of course, .

, ,

wou ld shu t the hea t e r off a lso a n d it would n ot O pera te a ga in

,

un til the fuse s h a d bee n repla ced There wou ld be a grea t .

 ELE C T RI C AL M EA S URE M EN TS 87

a dvan ta ge in ha vin g the fuses blow in su ch a case however , ,

a n d it is for su ch cas es tha t they a re O f grea t va lu e beca us e ,

the la rge a moun t O f cu rren t a m pere might be su ffic ien t

, ,

to bu rn the insula tion off O f the ma in wires in the hous e a n d

to set it on fire When lar ge a moun ts of cu rren t must be
.

us ed specia l provision mus t be ma de b y ins ta llin g bra n ch

,

circu its a n d la rger m a in wires .

Wh en it cu rren t is flowin g
is n ecess a ry t o m e as u re how fas t
in a circu it a meter kn own a s a n a mm eter is used (F ig
,
.

I t is conn ecte d in the circu it in the sa me m ann er as a p us h

b u tton is conn ected in a bell circu it ; tha t is , in series The .

most common use O f the a m meter in every-da y a pplica tions

is in the a u tomob ile where it is pla ced on the d a sh a n d con
n ecte d in the stora ge-ba ttery c ircu it to give a rea d in g of the

n u mber of a m peres flowin g in t o or ou t of the stora ge b a tte ry .

93 . Wa t t s an d Kil owa t t s —The

wa tt is the u n it b y
.

which power or a b ility t o do work is meas u red I t ma y seem .

stran ge tha t n either volts n or a mperes give a measu re of

power b u t n either does The a mpera ge of d ifferen t pieces of

, .

a ppa ra tu s on the s a me cir cu it give a n in dica tion O f the p ower ,

bu t n ot the ac tu a l power A brief description will ma ke this

.

more rea dily un dersta n d a ble I believe , .

Su pp ose th a t la rge ste el ta n k is pa rtly filled with wa ter

a

an d a ir th a t is forced in to it un til the pressu re is very h igh .

N ow if the ta n k is com p lete ly cl osed the pressu re wou ld re

, ,

ma in there in definite ly bu t it a lon e wou ld be of n o particu la r

,

va lu e in so far as power is con cern ed The on ly ma nn er in .

which it could be ma de servicea ble would be t o drill a hole in

it an d a tta ch a pipe t o the ta n k a n d p ermit the wa ter to flow
ou t . Th e flowin g of the wa te r un der the pressur e wou ld do
88 PRA CT I CAL ELE C T RI C I T Y FOR BE G I NNE R S

work if proper ar ran gemen ts wer e ma de for usin g it a n d the ,

power it wou ld ha ve wou ld depen d u pon the spee d a t which

the wa ter was permitted to flow ou t I t will be seen tha t t wo .

thin gs a re n eces sa ry for power—pressure an d the flow Of the

wa te r .

I n electrica l work, the sa me is tru e There ma y be a n y .

a moun t of volta ge bu t it a l on e does n ot repre sen t power

, .

E lectricity mus t flow before it is ca pa ble of doin g a n ythin g ,

an d the fast er it flows t h e more it is ca pa ble of d oin g

, I t is .

eviden t then tha t volts a n d a mperes combin ed a re n eces sa ry

, ,

for a measur emen t of power beca use the volta ge is the meas
ure of the pressur e an d t h e a mpera ge is the measur e of the

ra te a t which the electricity flows .

S in ce in ordin a rye the nu mber of wa tt s of power dcliv

us s

ered to a circuit is so la rge tha t it might run up in to figures

which a re in con venien t to ha n dle the un it more c ommon ly,

use d is t h e kilowa tt which is equa l to 1 000 wa tts

, .

94 . M easurin g Wa t t s a n d Kil owa t t s —The nu mber .

of wa tts of power required by a la mp is usua lly prin te d on a

sma ll p iece of pa per a tta ched to the b ase or n ea r the to b as e , .

“ ”
A l a mp ma rked GO-wa tt requ ires fou r times a s mu ch power
“ ”
as on e ma rked 1 5-wa tt a nd consequ en tly costs fou r
, , ,

tim es a s mu ch to opera te La mps are ordin a rily dist in

.

guish ed by th eir wa t ta ge ; tha t is we sp ea k of 1 5 wa tt 40

,
-
,

wa t t 60-wa tt an d l oo-wa tt la m ps These n u mbe rs are t h e

,
.

m eas ur e of t h e power require d to opera te the la m ps or t he

power used by them when they a re opera te d .

Ordin arily, it is not kn ow how man y wa tt s are

necessa ry t o

required for the opera tion of a piece of elect rica l a ppar a tus
unless it is d esired to dete rmin e it s cost of opera tion I f it is .
 ELE C T RI C AL M EAS URE MEN TS 89

desired t o kn ow the p ower requ ir ed by hea ters a n d t he like ,

the number of wa tts ca n be determin ed by mu ltiplyin g the

volts by the a mperes For exa mple if a hea ter is ma rked
.
,

1 1 0-V—5
“
the n u mber of wa tts it wou ld use when
conn ec te d t o a 1 1 0 volt lin e will be 1 1 0 x 5 or 550
-
, .

I f this were to be exp ressed in kilowa tts it wou ld be 550 ,

d ivided by 1 000 or 5 5 or a little over

, . a kilowa tt
,
.

When it is n ecessa ry to meas u re wa tts a n ins tru men t ,

kn own as a wa ttmete r is us ed bu t in common a pplica tions , ,

its use is very lim ite d .

95 . Kilow a t t H o urs -
.
—Upon
ca refu l thou ght it will be ,

see n th a t n on e of the foregoin g u n its ta ke in to considera tion

the len gt h of time power is used This m a y n ot be clear , bu t .

consider the followin g : A m a n ma y be ever so stron g an d

powerful bu t his va lu e is meas u red by the len gth of time he
,

uses h is stren gth to a n a dva n ta ge ; tha t is if som e on e hire s ,

him to work the p a y he gives depen ds u p on the len gt h of

,

time the ma n works His stren gth is on ly a meas u re of his

.

a b il ity t o be of va lu e I f he is very stron g he m a y be worth

.
,

per hour or if he is n ot SO stron g he m a y be worth on ly

, ,

50 c en ts per hour His p a y however will depen d u pon this

.
, ,

ra te a n d the n u m ber O f hours he works I f he works two .

hours a t per hou r he will get x 2 or , while h e ,

wou ld get if he should work five hours .

Likewise tim e mus t be ta ken in to considera tion in ca lcu

,

la tin g the va lu e a n d cost of electrica l power The u nit most .

common ly u sed is t h e kilowa tt -hou r which a s the n a m e in d i , ,

ca tes is the expen din g of on e kilowa tt of p ower for on e hou r

, .

96 M ea su r in g Kil owa t t H o u r s —
. The nu mber of kilo -
.

wa tt-hour s of power used in a n y circu it ca n be ca lcu la ted by

90 P R ACTI CAL ELE CT RI CI T Y FOR BEG I NNE RS

mu ltiplyin g the nu mber of kilowa tts bein g used by the n um

ber of hours use d ; tha t is if t en 1 00 wa tt la mps

,
- a re us ed
’ ’
from 8 O clock un til 1 0 o clock, the
nu mber of kilowa tt-hours wou ld

be 1 0 x 1 00 x 2 d ivided by 1 000 or ,

2 Su ch ca lcu la tions are of little

.

t u rned frequ en tly an d

on an d O ff

are u sed for on ly a few minu tes at

times a n d for hours a t other tim es ,

so a mete r has been devised which
FI G 57 Comm on kil o
rea ds d irectly in k ilowa tt - h ou r s
. .

wa tt h ou r me te r
- This .

m e te r is usu a lly p l a ce d
(Fi g . These meters are used p ea r t h e gn t ra n ce switch
"1 “ use i n st a lla t mns
.

a lmost exclusively in the m eas ur o

ing of the power consumption in the home an d in fa c

97 . R ea din g t h e Kilowa t t - H our Met er —It i

. s impor
ta n t t ha t every person usin
g electrica l power be a ble t o
re a d a kil ow a tt - h o u r
meter beca use of the fa ct
tha t power compan ies
bas e their cha rges for
power u pon t he r ea din gs
ta ken from it Thus I t Is .
,
FI G 58 S h owin g t h e dia ls on a kil o
. .

watt h ou r m ete r t ogether with th eir often desrra b le to be a ble

-
.

dire ction of r otation

to check the rea d in gs
.

ta ken by the represen ta tive of the compa n y .

I t will be e by stu dyin g the regist er d ials of a mete r

se n

(Fig . tha t the poin ter a t the extreme right, while ma kin g
on e re volu tion in a clock -
wise direction registers 1 0 kilowa tt
,
 ELE C T R I CAL MEA S URE M EN T S 91

hou rs ; tha t the on e on the left of this while m a kin g on e revo ,

lu t ion in a coun ter clock-wis e direction registers 1 00 kilo ,

wa tt hours tha t the third from the right while ma kin g on e

-
,

revolu tion I n a clock-wise direction registers kilowa tt ,

hou rs a n d tha t when on e on the extrem e left ma kes on e revo

,

lu t ion in a c oun te r clock wise d irection it registers

-
,

kilowa tt h ou rs While the first the on e on the extrem e

-
.
,

right ma kes on e complete revolu tion the on e n ext t o it is

, ,

passin g from on e n u m ber

t o the n ext an d while tha t
on e is ma kin g a complete

rev olu tion the on e n ext

,

t o it is passing from on e
nu mber to t h e n ext etc , .

l4 5
The 1 0 poin ter will ha ve
to revolve 1 0 tim es Wh fle FI G 5 9 Meth o d of re a din g a kil o
. .

wa tt h ou r m e te r b y re a din g fr om l e ft
-

the 1 00 pointer is revolv t o r ight t akin g t h e sm aller nu m be r on

,

e a ch dial .

m g o n ce a n d th e 1 00
,

poin ter will ha v e t o ma ke 1 0 com p lete revolu tions b e f o r e

t h e 1 0 0 0 c o m p letes on e revolu tion
, A l ittle stu dy will .

S how , then tha t in rea din g the meter it is possible to

,

sta rt a t the left a n d rea d the sm a ller n u m bers on t h e

four dia ls (Fig This is a gen era l ru le t o follow b u t is
.
,

qu ite likely t o be fou n d ha rd t o a p ply in c as es where on e of

the p oin ters is very n ea rly d irectly ov er a n u m ber For ex .

a mple ( F ig su ppose the 1 0 p oin ter is j ust bey on d the 9

.
,

the 1 00 pointe r is a lmost dire ctly ov er t h e 2 the poin ter ,

is j us t pas t the 8 a n d the , poin ter is n ea rly t o the 2 .

The rea din g m ight be ta ken as when it shou ld be

Wh en ever a p oin ter is n ea r ly directly ov er a nu m b e r it is

,
92 PRA CT I CAL ELE C T R I CI TY FO R BEG I NNER S

bes t to sta rt a t the right a n d t o rea d ba ckwar d on the d ia ls ,

then it is possible to tell wha t the p oin ter n ea r the nu mber

shou ld be rea d To illus tra te ta ke t h e exa mple a bove The
.
,
.

rea d in g on the 1 0 dia l is 9 which in dica tes tha t when it has

,

moved jus t a little far

ther to the 0 the poin ter
, ,

on the 1 00 d ia l will be di

rect ly over a n u mber In .

this ca se the n u m ber is 2 , ,

b u t from the loca tion of

Is I 9 the poin ter on the first ,

FI G 60 Me th od of re a din g a k il o
. . j u st pa st the 9 it Will be ,
wa tt h ou r m ete r whe n on e of t h e p oin t
-

e rs is a l m os t dire ctly o v e r a n u m be r s ee n tha t the rea din g is

.

I n this ca se 1 8 t a k e n fr om
3
£ 5 ql
5 : still 1 even t h o it a p pea rs
,

to be 2 The sa me reas on .

in g shou ld be a pp lied if a n y of the other poin ters a re very

n ea r a n u m ber .

S UMMARY OF PRI NCI PLES IN CHAPTER "I

1 Un its a re re qu ire d in ele ctrical a p p lica tion s t o m a ke p ossible
.

definite m e asu rem en ts .

2 Th e m ost com m on e le ctri ca l u n its a re t h e v olt t h e a m p ere t h e

. , ,

wa tt t h e kil owa tt a n d t h e kil owatt h ou r

, ,
-
.

3 Th e v olt is t h e u n it of ele ctrica l p ressu r e

. .

4 Th e a m p e re is t h e u n it of r at e of fl ow of e le ctrica l cu rren t
. .

5 Th e w a tt is t h e u n it of e le ctrica l p ow e r
. .

6 Th e kil owatt h ou r is t h e u n it u p on wh ich p owe r ch a rges a re

.
-

b as ed .

QUE STI ONS

1 Why is it c a ry t o h av e ele ctri ca l u n its ?
ne ess

2 . Wh a t is m ean t b y v olt a ge a n d wh a t a re some com m on exam p les ?

3 . How is v olta ge m e as u r e d ?
4 Wh a t is m e an t b y a m p e ra ge a n d what a re som e com m on e x
a m p les ?
 ELE C T RI CAL MEASU RE MEN T S 93

5 . H ow is t h e t ot al a m p e ra ge in a circuit determ in e d ?
6 . H ow a ream p eres m easur e d ?
7 . W h a t I S m e an t b y a watt ?
8 . Wh a t I s a kilowatt ?
9 . How ca n wa tts b e d e te rm in e d ?
10 . Wh y is it n e ces sa ry t o h av e s u ch a u nit as a kil owa tt h our ?
-

11 . H ow a r e kilowa tt h ours m e asu r e d ?

-

12 . Des crib e t h e d ia l of a ki l owa tt h our m e te r

-
.

13 . H ow d o y ou re a d a kilow att h ou r m ete r ?

-

14 . H ow s h ou ld a kil ow att h ou r m e te r b e rea d wh en on e of

-

p oin te rs is a l m os t dire ctly ov e r a n u m b e r ?

15 . Wh at is t h e v alu e of be in g able t o re a d a m ete r ?

SU GGESTI ONS

1 . N ote t h e a m m eter on y ou r a u t om obi le a n d see if y ou ca n re a d it .

2 . Look a t t h e n am e p l ate of e v ery p ie ce of h eati n g a p p ar atus y ou

s ee a n d fin d ou t h ow m a n y a m p e res it dr a ws .

3 . Look a t t h e watt m ark on t h e l a m p in y ou r b asem en t a n d fi gu re

ou t h ow m a n y kil ow a tt h ou rs of p ower w oul d b e waste d if y ou sh ou ld
-

leav e it on all n i ght .

4 . W ork ou t a n y of t h e p roblems in volvi n g p owe r th a t y ou ca n

thin k of or fin d in othe r b ooks .

5 . M a k e a ca re fu l s tu dy of t h e di al of a kil owatt h ou r m eter a n d

-

m a ke a dr awin g of it .

6 . Mak e dr awin gs of kil owatt hou r m eter dials on sm all sh eets of

-

p a p e r a n d p l a ce t h e p oin te rs in diff e r en t p osition s. Th en f oll owin g

,

t h e ins t ru ct I ons given in this b ook wr it e d own t h e c orre ct r e a din gs

, .

7 . T ak e t h e re a din g O f t h e m e te r in y ou r h ou se on t h e d a y th at t h e
m e te r m a n does a n d see if y ou r rea din g ch e cks with h is wh en y ou get
y ou r b ill .

8 . O bse rv e all of t h e m e te rs y ou h av e a ch an ce t o a n d see if y ou ca n

te ll wh at the y a re us e d for a n d wh at t h e rea dI n gs a r e .
 C HAPTE R "I I
DAN GERS I NVOLVE D IN US I NG E LECTRI CI TY ; How To AVOID
TIIE M
98 . Wh y B e Afr a id of E lect r icit y .
— ce
Sin it is a well
known fa ct tha t electric shocks a re sometimes d a n gerou s it is ,

well to ta ke u p the ma n n er in which it is possible to receive

them a n d t o S how a lso h ow electricity ca n be ha n dled with
, ,

a bsolu te sa fety There see ms t o exist a n a tu ra l fea r of elec

.

t ricit y on the p a rt of ma n y a n d a feelin g tha t they a re lia ble to

be electrocu ted a t a n y m om en t while they a re us in g electrica l
a pp a r a tus. Of cour se these a re u n fou n ded in most cases
, ,

b u t we a ll kn ow there is the p ossibil ity of gettin g a shock if

electrica l a ppa ra tus is not han dled properly This is how .
,

ever on ly a stron g poin t in the proof tha t everybody shou ld

,

kn ow somethin g a bou t electricity a n d it s a ction s .

Let us consider thes e poin ts in a sim ple a n d ord in a ry ma n

n er with the hope th a t they m a y be m a de clea r Wa ter as .
,

we a ll kn ow is on e of the n ecessities of l ife I t is us ed for

, .

drin kin g pu rposes ; it is used for clea nsin g ; we b a the in it ; we

go rid in g on it a n d it is sprin kled on ou r ga rdens a n d la wns
"
, .

S ometim es it is us ed for power pu rposes a lso et if on e .

,

fa lls in to too mu ch of it a n d is un a ble to get ou t he drowns , .

This d oes n ot mea n however tha t when ever wa ter is used

, , ,

there is a possibility of bein g drown ed a n d ve ry few fea r it , .

People kn ow h ow to us e wa ter properly .

The chief d ifferen ce between the use of wa ter a n d elec

t ricit y is th a t everybody is fa milia r with the former b u t very ,

few with the la tter A b a by d oes n ot rea lize the d a n ger of

.
 DA N GERS IN US I NG ELE C T R I C I T Y 95

pla y in g in wa te r un til he lea rn s tha t h e m a y drown if he fa lls

in where it is t oo deep More people ha ve been drown ed
.

tha n ha v e been ele ctrocu ted There is a b solu tely n o d a n ger

.

in volved if electricity is us ed properly b u t if the us er is n ot ,

fa miliar with it s a ctions h e ma y brin g a b ou t the p ossib ility

,

of a hea vy cu rren t passin g thr u h is body wh ich might in ex

trem e cas es ca us e dea th I n the followin g d is cussions a n a t

.
,

tempt will be ma de t o S how j ust wherein the d a n gers lie in

ma kin g us e of this won derfu l power an d to tell how to a void
them a b solu te ly .

99 . How I t I s Po ssibl e t o G et a Sh ock .

—F irst let
, us

un dersta n d tha t before on e ca n get a shock he mus t ma ke ,

possible the flowin g of electrica l cu rren t thru his body ; tha t is ,

the body or pa rt of it mus t form a pa rt O f a n electri ca l cir

, ,

cuit This ma y be brou ght a bou t by tou chin g the termin a ls

.

in a n electrica l ou tlet or the b a re wires in a n electrica l syste m .

Then t oo it is b ar ely p ossible in som e cas es expla in ed la ter

, , , ,

for this t o be brou ght a bou t by tou chin g a n electrica l te rmi

n a l or the fra me of a piece of electrica l a p pa r a tus while in
, ,

close c on ta ct with the groun d or with s om e con du ctin g ma te

ria l con n ecte d with it The hu m a n body is n ot a very good
.

con du ctor of electricity however a n d rela tively high volta ges

, ,

are requ ired t o force cu rren t thru it A person cou ld hold .

on to the termin a ls of a stora ge ba ttery or a dry cell in defin it e

ly withou t feelin g a n y effect wha ts oever b u t press u re s as low ,

as those a ff ord ed by thes e a re n ot su ffi cien tly high for hea tin g

an d lightin g a n d b a tte ries a re t oo expens ive so we fin d gen

, ,

era t or c ircu its m ost comm on ly us ed a n d the pressu re is

usua lly 1 1 0 volts seven ty five times tha t O f a dry cell This
-
, .

pressu re a ltho n ot d a n gerous is sufficien t t o force consider

, ,
96 PRA C T I C AL ELE C T R I CI T Y FO R BE GI NNE RS

able cu rren t thru the b ody if good con ta ct is ma de with the

con du ctin g circu its To ca us e very gr ea t ha rm elec tricity
.
,

m us t p ass thru the e n tire b ody which is ord in a ri ly pra ctica lly
,

im possible except as in cas es m en tion ed la te r .

1 00 . How O n e G et s a S h ock fro m a La m p S ocke t .

-
Ii
a person while repa irin g a la mp socket or ta mperi n g with it
, , ,

while the cu rren t is on tou ches the little piece in the bas e
,

an d a t the sa me time the S hell of bras s on the inside he will

, , ,

get a little shock whi ch will simply ca use h im t o jerk his ha n d

a wa y . Then too it is possible tha t he might get a slight
, ,

shock by tou chin g this little piece a n d the ou tside of the

socket if on e of the wires ha ppen ed to be tou chin g it a cci

den ta lly N either of these shocks wou ld be d a n gerous an d

.
,

this is pra ctica lly a ll tha t ca n ha p pen in ordin a ry cas es except

possibly in the ba th room the kitchen or in the b as emen t Of
, ,

the house a n d in thes e on ly as des cribed la te r I t is possible

, .
,

tha t in som e cas es b a red wires or loose conn ections ma y

,

ma ke slight shocks p ossible but they a re n o m ore dan gerous

,

tha n those received from a socket or recepta cle .

I t will be see n then tha t there is very little chan ce for an y

, ,

thin g more than a light shock in the ordin a ry use of elec

t ri ca l devices .

1 01 . Sligh t S h ocks Ar e H ar m less

y of the com .
—M an

pa ra tively few a cciden ts occu rrin g in the hom e a re du e to

fright ra ther tha n t o the electric shock Ma n y persons a re .

sca red by a little tin ge of electricity which prob a bly does

them more good tha n ha rm S om e peop le n ea rly go wild .

when they sca rcely feel electrica l cu rren t a n d ma n y of them ,

ima gin e they ha ve received a n electric shock when they ha ve

r eceived n othin g of the sort This excitemen t is du e la rgely
.
 DANGERS IN USI N G ELE CT RI CI T Y 97

to the fea r of electricity Th e wri te r h as tested hun dreds of

.

lightin g a n d hea tin g circu its for cu rren t by tou chin g the
termina ls with the thu mb a n d forefin ger of th e right ha n d ,

an d h as n ever felt an y evil effects I n fa ct the fee lin g is a

.
,

ra ther pleasa n t on e He does n ot do this however un less he

. , ,

is a bsolu tely su re tha t he is n ot in con ta ct with an y con du ct

ing ma te ria l runn in g to the groun d a n d tha t he is not sta n din g
on a da mp b as emen t flo or This is men tion ed on ly for the
.

pu rpose of sh owin g tha t ther e is very little da nger in volved

in ha n dlin g or repa iri n g hea tin g a n d lightin g circu its in the
hom e If y ou receive a S hock while doin g some work, simply
.

forget it a n d open the switch the ma in one prefera bly a n d

, ,

exa min e the a ppa ra tus y ou a re usin g for ba re wires loose con ,

n ect ions or for a place where the wir e has come in c on ta ct

with the fra me .

1 02 . Wh er e t h e R e al D an ger E xist s -
I n the lar ger
villa ges a n d cities where power is fu rnished by a p ower com
pa n y or where it is transmitted from some dista n t gen era tin g
plan t it is usua lly car ried un der a very high pressur e which is
,

redu ced before it is distribu ted Then too there are usu a lly
.
, ,

electric street-ca r lin es which O pera te on high volta ges I n .

su ch ca s es it is sometimes possible to rece ive a S hock if c on

, ,

dit ions ha ppen to be j ust right if on e a ttempts to tu rn on a

,

la mp while sta n ding in a b a th t ub while lea nin g a ga inst a gas

,

stove or a sin k, while sta n din g on a da m p base men t floo r or ,

to t h e grou n d Any possibility of this ha ppen in g can be

.

a voided by ta kin g proper preca u tions whic h will prob a bly be

,

ma de clear in the followin g d iscussion

The groun d especia lly
, when it is da mp will ca rry elec
,
98 PRA C TI C AL ELE C T RI CI TY FO R BE G I N N E RS

t ricit y if the pressu re is grea t en ou gh I n cities where there .

ar e gas or wa ter pip es u n der the groun d these form a go od ,

con du ctin g circu it for electricity One of the wires of a n .

electric circu it m a y be conn ected to the grou n d thru a pipe ,

or in a n y other man n er withou t a ffectin g the flow of cu r

,

ren t The fa ct is tha t for reas ons un explaina ble here in a

.
, ,

grea t ma n y cas es a conn ec tion is m a de pu rp osely between on e

side of a l in e an d the groun d The gr oun d then ma y be in
.
, ,

con ta ct with on e side of severa l d ifferen t circu its which m a y ,

ha ve excee d in gly high or exceedin gly low pressu res on them ,

or with b oth kin ds withou t causin g ha rm .

This ma y seem stra n ge to some b u t consider the street-ca r,

lin es The ra ils which a re pla ced u pon the groun d are on e
.
, ,

of the con du ctin g sides of the circuit j ust as on e of the wires

runn in g t o a la m p is on e The other S ide is the wire u pon
.

which the trolley runs E very time on e ste ps u pon the ra il

.

then he comes in con ta ct with on e side of a high-volta ge lin e

, .

N o cu rren t will flow however un less a conn ection is ma de be

, ,

tween the ra ils a n d the wire I f n ow a wir e were ac ciden t

.
, ,

a lly t ou chin g the trolley wir e a n d it S hou ld be tou ched by one

stan d in g on the groun d the c u rren t might p a ss from the ra il

,

’
thru the groun d to the person s feet thru h is bod y to the wire , ,

a n d thru the wire to the trolley wire an d he might re ce ive a ,

severe shock .This would depen d u pon the complete n ess of

the conne ctions a n d the d a mpn ess of the groun d There is .
,

n evertheless a possib il ity tha t the person might receive a

,

fa ta l Shock in this ma nn er .

In hou se we often ha ve an a rra n gemen t somewha t simila r

a

t o the street car lin e in ma n y respects a ltho it d oe s n ot ha ve

-
,

the sa me a ppe a ra n ce Two wires run in to it on e of which

.
,
 DAN G ER S I N U S I N G ELE C T R I C I T Y 99

h as prob a bly bee n conn e cted t o the grou n d a t som e d ista n t

poin t I f this be tru e the wire so con n e cted m a y be cons id
.
,

ered the ra ils a n d the other the trolley wire There is a p os .

sib ilit y th a t this secon d wire is in c on ta ct with som e h igh

volta ge lin e ou tside of t h e house ; perha ps tou chin g a trolley

or other h igh volta ge wir e I t will be see n then tha t if su ch
-
.
, ,

should be the cas e a person in close con ta ct with the groun d

, ,

or a con du ctin g ma teria l run nin g to it might receive a fa ta l ,

shock if he shou ld ta ke h old of or com e in con ta ct with a n y

, ,

piece O f electrica l a ppara tus which ha ppen ed t o be c onn ec ted ,

by a cciden t t o the u n groun ded wir e I t is in this mann er

, .

tha t pra ctica lly every fa t a l a cciden t h as bee n brou ght a b ou t

in the h ome or s hop .

1 03 . E xa m ple s
of A cc iden t s The followin g cases a re
.
-

kn own b y the a u thor t o ha v e ha ppen ed a n d a re giv en on ly t o

show h ow they were brou ght a bou t a n d h ow the y m ight ha v e

bee n a voided
A girl was ta kin g a b a th one even in g when som eon e ca lled
her Sh e h a d forgotte n whether or n ot S h e h a d looked the
.

door a n d rea ched t o tu rn on a light so S h e might se e As she .

tou ched the la m p socket sh e received a fa ta l shock This

, .

wou ld n ot ha ve ha ppen ed if sh e h a d been ou t of the b a th t u b .

B u t sh e wa s prob a bly in con ta ct with the pipe con n e cted

with the t u b a n d the wire inside of the socket was proba bly
loose a n d in c on ta ct with the ou tside shell .

In the r case the fu s es we re blown d u rin g the even in g

an o , ,

lea vin g the house in d a rkn ess an d the m a n of the hous e wen t
,

in to the b as em e n t in the d a rk a n d felt a rou n d with h is han d

t o fin d the fus es an d t o p u t n ew on es in As h is han d c a me in
.

con ta ct with the m a in term in a ls he was e lectrocu ted This

, .
1 00 PRA C TI C AL ELE C T RI CI T Y FO R BEG I NNE RS

cou ld ha ve been a voided if he h a d ta ken a light of som e kin d

a n d h a d stood on a cha ir or som ethin g whi ch woul d com

p let e ly in su l a te him from the grou n d .

I n a n other cas e which ha ppen ed in a shop a ma n ca u ght

, ,

h is t oe a n d fell j ust as he was a b ou t to close a switch of the

open typ e His han d a cciden ta lly ca me in con ta ct with the
.

lin e te rmin a ls a n d he rea ched for a wa ter pipe to keep himself

from fa llin g When his han d ca me in con ta ct with the wa te r
.

pipe he was electrocu te d This wou ld n ot ha ve ha ppen ed

, .

ha d he kept a wa y from the pipe .

Thes e thr ee a cciden ts a re a bou t the on ly on es occu rrin g in

this part of the coun tr y in the pas t five yea rs a n d a re of ,

course ext reme cas es E ven these few possibilities for a cci
, .

den t a re bein g don e a wa y with as ra pidly as possible by

ma kin g u se O f en closed switches by conn ectin g switch boxes ,

a n d motor fra m es to the gro un d a n d by va rious other meth ,

ods of sa fety so tha t a t the presen t time there is very very

, ,

litt le d a n ger in volv ed I t is well however to kn ow tha t in

.
, ,

some few ca s es a cciden ts a re possible a n d to ta ke pa rticu la r

,

pa ins t o a void a n y chan ce of brin gin g them a bou t .

S UMMAR Y OF PR I NCI PLE S IN CHAPTER "I I

1 . I t is im p oss ible t o w ea ve a sh ock l
u n ess t he b ody is m a de p art
of a n e l e ctri ca l circu it .

2 . l ct ri ca l s h o cks a re h arm less

S light e e .

3 . S e ve re sh o cks a r e im p ossible e x ce p t in e xt reme ca ses wh e re on e

is s t an din g on a d a m p b ase m en t floor or in con t a ct with a wa te r or gas
,

p ip e .

Q UE STI ONS
Is l ct ri city
e e rdin a rily em p l oy e d in t h e home dan gerous ?
as o

How is it p oss ibl e t o get a sh ock fr om a l am p socket ?

 D ANGE RS I N US I NG ELE C T RI CI T Y 1 01

"I
s n wh a t
th er m an n er m ight on e get a sh ock ?
o

e Ar e slight e l e ctrica l sh ocks h a r m fu l ?

h
s Wh ere d oes t h e re al dan ger e xis t in a hom e ?
as Ar e a c d en t s in h omes v e ry c om m on ?
e Tell in y ou r own words h ow a n a cciden t might o ccu r .

8 . Des crib e a n y a cciden t y ou ma y h av e h ea rd of a n d see

exp l ain h ow it m i ght h av e b e en av oid e d .

S UGGE STI ONS

1 . Alway s b e ca re ful wh en y ou tu r n on a l am p in a b a th room -

,

kitchen or b as em en t .

2 . B efore y ou atte m p t t o rep air a p art of a n e l e ctrical circu it ,

es p e cially in a n y of th e s e p l a ce
s
, op e n t h e m ain s witch.

3 . Wh en y ou rep la ce fus es in a br an ch circu it O p e n t h e m ain s witch

if p ossible .

4 . I f it is ev e r n e cess a ry t o re p l a ce t h e m ain fuses in a b a se m en t b e

su re th a t y ou a re in su l a te d from t h e gr ou n d a n d th a t y ou us e on ly on e

h an d .
1 02 PRA C T I C AL ELE C T R I C I T Y FOR BE G I NNE RS

I N DE "
A C on n e ctin g b ell circu its
A cciden ts e xam p les of
, 99 C on n e ctin g , im p ort a n t p oin ts
A m p ere defin iti on of
, 85 re gardin g
Am p eres m e asu re m en t O f
,
86 C on n e ct ion s , se ries
A p p li ca ti on s of ele ctri city 10 C on n e ct ion s , p a r a ll e l
Atta chm en t tr ou bl es in he ate rs 63 C on n e ction s m a de b y ext en sion
c ord 61
C ord e xten si on
, 59
Base l am p
, C ove rin gs in su l a ti n g
, . 14
Batte ry l a m p s C ove rin gs r u bb er
, 15
Battery l a m p m arks
-
Cu rr en t efie ct s of
, 47
Batte ry l a m p s on t oo h igh v olt C u r ren t h e a tin g e fie ct O f
, 47
a ge C u rren t h ow it ge ts in t o s l a m p
, 69
Ba tte ry l am p s on t oo low vo lt Cu rren ts tra n smission of
, 11
a ge

Batte ry li ghtin g D
Ba tte ry v olta ge of a
, D es cr ip tion of a s t or a ge b a tte ry 22
.

B ell ci rcu its . D e te rm in in g t h e v olt a ge of a

B ell cir c mt s bre a k in , b attery
B ell circu its c on n e ct in g of
, D e vice s for h ea ti n g
B e ll circu its re p airi n g , Dimm in g l a m p s
B ell circu it sh ort in a , D ry cell
B l own fu se dete ctin g a, Dry cell op e ra tion
B re a k in a b ell circu i t Dry ce ll u ses
B u rn t ou t he atin g el em en t
-

B u rn t out l a m p
- E
E ffe cts of cu rren t
0 E le ctricity flow of , .

C a re of s t or a ge b a tte ries E le ctrici ty im p ort an ce of

,

Ce ll , dry E le ctricity n atu re of

,

Circu i t E le ctricity da n ge rs in u se of
,

Circu its b e ll
, E le ctrici ty wh y b e a fr aid of
,

Circ u i ts , h e a te r E le ct ri c l am p s
Ci rcu it , lightin g E le ctrica l cu rren ts
Ci rcu its , tr ou bl es in lightin g E le ctri ca l p ressu re
C on du ct ors E lem en t b u rn t ou t
,
-

C on du ctin g m a te rials E le m e n t he atin g

,

Con du ctin g p owe rs , t a ble of E n tran ce switch .

 I N DE " 1 03

Exten sion cord 1

Exte i o cord c 0 n n e c t 1 o n 8
ma r
séln
y
I m p ort a n ce of ele ctricity
I n su l atin g c overin gs
I n su l a t ors

Fau lts in fixtu res

Fi l a m e n t s
Fl atiron "5 0 1 11 8 .

Fl ow of ele ct i ici t y
Flow thru sm all wire
Flow thr u l a rge wire La m p s b atte ry 40
Fl ow thru sh ort wire La m p s
,

67
Fl ow thr u l on g wire Lam p b ase 69
Fl ow thru iron wire Lam p b u rn t ou t - 74
Fu ses
,

Lam p s dimmin g of, 44

des crip tion of Lam p fil amen t 68
Fu ses de te ctin g bl ow n
,
La m p s ga s filled,
- 70
Fu ses in a h ou se Lam p h ow cu rr en t ge ts in t o 69
,
Fu ses p u r p ose of
,
La m p O p eration im p ortan ce of 72
,

F uses re p l a cin g o f
,
Lam p socket 74
Fuses testin g
, La m p s wa tta ge m a rk on
,
70
La m p wh y it gives O ff l ight
,
68
G Lightin g circuit 72
G a s -fille d l a mp s Lighti n g cir cuit trou bles
- 73
G en erators
M
Ma rks on battery l a m p s
He at gen e ra tion of
, Me asu rin g a m p e res
H e at re g u l ati on Me asu rin g k ilowa tts .

H e ate r ci rcuit s Me asu rin g kil owa tt-h ou rs

He ate r cord Me asu rin g volts
H e ate r tr ou bles M e asu rin g wa tts
He ate r term in al de fe cts
-
Me talli c fil a m en ts
He atin g dev ices Me te r re a din g k il owa tt -h ou r
,

He atin g e fie ct o f cu rren t
'

.
Me te r kil owa tt h ou r
,
-
.

Heatin g e l e m en ts
He atin g e le m e n t b u rn t ou t
,
-

H ea tin g p rin cip l es of

,

H y dr ome ter . N a tu re of ele ctricity

Hy dromete r re a din gs N u m b e rs o n f u s e s
1 04 PRA C T I C AL ELE C T R I C I TY FOR BEG I NNERS

0 S t or a ge b a tte ry
O p era ti on of dry cells 21 S t or a ge b a tte r y O p e r a tion
O p era tion of s tora ge b a tte ries . 23 S t or a ge b a tte ry r u n down
,
-

O n e wir e s y ste m
- 43 S t or a ge b a tte ry u ses
S witch e n tra n ce
,

P S witch tr ou ble in
,

Pa rallel c on n e ction s S witch w a ll

,

Plu g e xt en sion cord

,

Plu g trou bles T

Porce l ain T a kin g h y dr om ete r rea din gs
Pr ess u re e le ctrica l
, T est for s h ort in b ell circuit
Press u re su p p ly in g
, T est for br ea k in h ell circu it
Prin cip les of he ate rs T ests for s h ort circuits
Pu rp ose of fu ses Te stin g fu ses
Pus h bu tt ons
-
Tr an smission of c u rr en ts
Trou bl es in b ell circuits
Trou bles in h e a te r circu its
Rea din gs hy drom e te r
, Trou bles in p l u gs
Re a din g kil owatt h ou r -
Tr ou ble s in lightin g circu its .

Re ce p t a cl e
Re gu l a tion of h e at U
Rep ai r n g b ell ci rcu i ts
i U n its com m on e le ctrica l
Re p l a cin g fu ses ,

Un its n e ce ssity of
Resis tan ce U ses of dr y cells
R u bb er cove rin gs Uses of s tora ge b a tte ries
S
S e ries con n e ctions
Volts
S h o cks , d an ge r ous
Volts , m e a su re m e n t of
S h o ck from l a m p s o cke t
S h o cks , h ow p ossible t o get
S h o rt circu it s .
W
S h o rt circu its , t es ts for Wa ll re cep t a cle
S h ort in a b e ll circuit Wa ll s witch
S ocke t , l a m p Wa tts de fin ition of
, .

S o cke t , p oor c on n e ctions in Watt a ge m a rks on l a mp s

S p e cifi c gr a vity . Watts me a su re m en t of
,