G E O M E T R Y A N D P H YSIC S

L E GIU RE R nir MATHE MAT ICS AND Tg E QRE Tl cA p Fiavs x c s, o RMo fi p

’ ’
‘ -
- -

U NIV E R SITY =O F ME L BO URNE

UN W E Rs Lr
’
v PU RE MAELfi
‘
E MN I K CS
-
‘

L OND Q N
 J OH N H E N RY M IC H ELL , F R S . . .

WH OS E H EL P A ND ADV IC E
H AV E B EE N S WI LL INGL Y GIV E N
AT AL L TIM E S M O T ,

AN D TO WHO S E I N S P I R ATI ON

TH E WR I TIN G OF TR E F OL L OWIN G P AGE S WA S L A RGEL Y

I D UE ,

TH I S B OOK I S GR A TE F U LL Y A S C R I B E D
'
.
 PREFAC E

MY obj ect in wr iting thi s bo ok prov i d e a s im ple ex p os ition

wa s to
o f ele m ent a ry V ect o r An al s is a nd t o s h o w h o w it m a y be
y ,

em plo y e d with a dv a nta g e in Geo m etry a nd Mech a nic s It wa s .

th ought unnecess a ry in the pres ent v olum e to enter u p on

, ,

the m o re a dv anced p a rts of th e su bj ect b uilt up on the id ea s ,

o f gr a d ient cur l a nd div ergence V ecto r a lgebra and the

, .

difi er entia tio n of v ecto rs with resp e ct to o ne sc a la r v a ri a b le

furni s h a p owerful ins trument ev en for the higher p a rts of
d ynamics .

The wo rk d o es not cla i m to be a co m plete tex t book in eith er -

Ge ome try or Mech ani cs tho ugh a good d e al of grou nd is c ov ere d

,

in bo th s ubj ects The u s e of v ecto r a na lysi s in the fo rm er is

.

a bund a ntly illu s tr a te d by the tre a tm e nt of the s tra i ht li ne

g ,

t h e p la ne th e sph e re a nd the twi s te d cu rve which ar e d e alt

, ,

with as fully as in m os t elem enta ry boo ks a nd a goo d d eal m o re ,

c oncisely In Mecha nics I h a v e ex pla ined a nd prov ed a ll th e

.

imp o rta nt elem enta ry princip les The equa tions of equilibrium
.

for a rigid b o d y a r e d e du ced fr o m the e qua ti ons of moti on .

This is contra ry to the ordina ry pra ctice and of cour s e is not , ,

r ec omm end e d for y ou ng b eg inners B u t for a stud ent wh o is

.

a b le t o re a d thi s v olu m e it is c e rt a i nly d esira b le t o sh o w th a t

,

t h e principles o f sta tics ar e only p a rticu la r c as e s of the dyna mica l

o ne s, a nd th a t the long line of a rgum ent f ollo w ed by t ex t b oo k s -

in Sta tics to pr ov e th e the o rem s a b out m om ents p a ra llel f or ce s

, , ,

c ou ple s a nd the eq ui li bri u m of b odi es is really unn ece s sa ry

,
.

All the s e the o re m s a r e i mme di a tely d e du cib le fro m the equa ti ons
o f m o ti on of a r i gi d b od y a s sh o wn in Ch a pte r VIII
,
.

Ano ther d ep a rtu r e from the or di na ry pra ctice h as been ma d e

in c onne cti o n with the theo ry o f centr oids Mo st s tudents ga in.

w . V A
. . v ii c
 v iii VE CTOR AN AL Y SIS

their centro i ds thr ough centre of gra v ity B ut

intro du cti on to .

a t a la ter st a e they s h o uld le a rn th a t ce ntre of gr a v ity is only

g
a p a rtic ula r c a s e o f centr o id s a nd th a t a pres ent a ti on o f the
,

s u bj e ct m a y be i v e n which inc lu d es a ll c a ses Art s 9 1 1 were -

g
.
.

writt en with this o bj ect in v i e w It is b e c a u s e mo st stud ents

.

regard centr e of gr av ity a s th e very e ssence o f centr o id tha t w e

c ontinu ally meet su ch ex pre ssi ons a s c entre o f gra v ity of an “

a r ea centre of gra v ity of a cr o s s s e cti on C e ntr o id s o f

” ”
or .

a r ea a nd v o lum e e x ist in their o wn right a nd a r e q u ite ind ep end e nt ,

o f m a ss a nd w ei ght .

In tr ea ting the geo m etry of the str a i ght line p la ne a nd s phere , ,

my obj ect is pri ma rily to ex pla i n th e v ect or m e th o d and nota ti on ,

a nd not t o sh o w their s u p e ri o rity o ver o th e r m eth o d s The .

rea d er m us t d ecide for him self which is prefe ra ble In c onnec .

ti on with twi s ted cur v es the us e of vecto rs s ee m s d ecid edly

,

a d v a nta e o u s In the c a s e of th e p la ne a nd the sph e r e it is

g .

chiefly brevity of ex pression th a t is ga ine d th ou gh a c om p a ris o n

o f the ge om etric al w o rk in Ch a pt ers III a nd IV with th e c orre . .

s po nding the o ry giv e n in b ooks o n a na lytic a l ge o metry will

be i nstru ctiv e to the re ad er Vector s wer e however not des igned

. , ,

for us e in elementa r y pla ne geometr y ; a nd a ny tw o dimens i onal -

geo m etry in the s equ el is i ntr odu ce d m erely by w a y o f ea s y illus tra

ti on of th e v e cto r m eth o d Vecto r a na lysis is intend ed es senti a lly
.

for thr e e di m ens i onal c a lc ula ti ons ; and its gr ea t e st s er v ice is

-

rend ere d in th e d oma ins o f me ch a nics a nd ma thema tical physics .

Aft e r m u ch c ons i d era ti on I d eci d ed t o e m p lo y the dot a nd

cr os s no ta ti on for pr o du cts o f v e ctors This h as alw a ys a ppea re d .

to m e the m o st c o nv eni ent p a rtic u la rly for the tre a tm e nt o f th e

,

li ne a r v ecto r fu ncti on .

D ur ing the prep a ra ti o n of thi s boo k I h a ve be e n gre a tly in ~

d ebte d to Mr J H Michell M A
. . .
,wh o r ea d the MS
. .
, .

a nd pro of s h e ets a nd m a d e m a ny v a lu a b le s u esti n th t

,
gg o s a

h a ve been inco rp o ra t ed in the w o rk I wa s allo we d free us e .

o f his h o nou r lectu r es in Mi x e d Ma the m a tic s P ar t I a t Mel , ,

.

bou rne University a nd it wa s his m a nner o f tr ea ting th e s ubj ect

th a t fi rst led m e to und erta ke the s tu dy of Ve cto r Ana lys is .

His i nter e st a nd enc ou rage m ent in the w riti ng of thi s book

h a v e be en la rgely r espo nsib le for its fi na l a pp ea r a nc e .
 P R E FAC E ix

My th a nks ar e a lso du e t o P r o f
the editor of this . W . P . Milne ,

s eri e s wh o a lso re a d th e MS a nd m a d e m a ny e x celle nt s u

, gge sti ons
.

which I was gla d to a dopt Acting o n his a dv ice I a d d ed th e .

,

Hist oric a l Introdu cti on which will pr ov e int e re sti ng to ma ny

,

read er s I a m also ind ebted to Mr D K Pick en M A Ma ster

. . . .
, . .
,

o f Or m ond Colle e
g for certa i n i ntr o du cto ry id e a s which ha v e
, ,

t o s o m e ex tent infl u ence d m y pr e sent a tio n of th e s ubj e ct And .

I ta k e this o pp o rtu nity of th a nk i ng Mr Ia n W Wa rk B Sc . .

, . .
,

of Or m ond Colle e wh o
g gener ou s ly und ertook th e ta sk of v e rify ing
,

the ex ercis es to ea ch ch a pter and fu rni shing a ns wers where ,

neces s a ry I a m also gr a t efu l to my c ollege fri end D r T M

.
, . . .

Ma cR ober t of Glas gow U ni v e rsity wh o kindly offere d t o re v is e

, ,

th e fi na l pr oo fs .

As t o other litera tu re I h av e els ewhere a c kno wle dge d m y

,

gre a t ind ebt e dness to E B Wils on s Vector Ana lys is which

’
. .
,

w a s m y e a rly i ns tr u ct or in the s ubj ect a nd du rin

g th e writing
of the f o llowing p a ge s I w a s i nfl u enc ed bo th c onsci ou s ly and

un c o nsci ou sly by P rofe s s o r Wils on s book

’
Co ffi n s Vector
’
.

Ana ly s is a no ther Am e ric a n book h as also been fr e qu ently

, ,

cons ulted by the au th o r .

In c onclu s i on I Wish _ t o th a nk t h e Pu blish e r s for their

unfa ili ng c ou rtesy a nd th e P rint e rs for th e ex c ellenc e of th eir
,

wo r k .

C . E . WE ATH E RB U R N .

ORM OND CO E ELL G ,

U N IV E R SITY or M E L B OU RN E ,

A pr il, 1 9 20 .

A ple a for a mo regene ra l us e of V ec to r An a ly s is in Appli ed Ma th e ma tic s ,

’

M a th Ga zette, J
. an . 19 17 .
 C ONTENTS

PA G E

H ISTOR IC A L IN TR OD U CTIO N x v ii
SH OR T COU RS ES x x zv ii

CHAP TE R I .

ADD ITION AND S B T TION U RAC VE CTORS .

E NTR OI S C D .

Sc a la r a nd v ect o rq ua ntit ie s

L ngth ct r
e ve o s

D finiti n f t rm
e o s O
“

e s

Ad diti n nd s btr
o a u a c tio n of v ec to r s . Co mp o ne nt a nd R es ulta nt

Multiplica tion by a nu m be r
R e so lu tion of a v ec t or

Th e u ni t v ec t or s i, j , k
8 . Di i i n f a lin in given r ti
v s o o e a a o

C ntr id ] c ntr f m n p iti n

e o , or e e o ea os o

C ntr id f r nd l m
e o s o a ea a vo u e

C ntr f ma
e e o ss

Rel tiv pb iti n R l ti di pl

a e s o . e a ve s a ce ment . Unif
or m r e la tiv e

C o nc u rr e nt for ces . V e c to r poly gon . L am i s Th eo

’
re m
14 . So lu tio n o f ex a mples
E x EE c r s ns

CHAP TER II .

E LE ME NTARY GE OME T I R CAL ILLUSTRATIONS

APPLICATIONS .

Vec t o r q ti
e ua o n o f a s t a igh t r line
B is ec t r f th
o o e a ngle b etwee n t wo r
s t a ight lines
x ii VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
ART .

19 .r h dr n
Th e Tet a e o

20 1 V t r q t i n f
-
.
pl nec o e ua o O a a e

22 Lin r r l ti n ind p nd nt
. ea e a o e e e of th e o rigin
23 V t r r
. Th r m f
ec o a e a s. eo e or c los e d po ly h ed r a

E XERCISE S

CHAP TER III .

PRODUCTS OF TWO VE CTORS . TH E PLANE AN D

TH E SPH E RE .

Sc ala r a nd Vec tor P r oduc ts .

24 . New use of te rm
p r od uc t a nd mu ltip lication
s

25 . r r
Sca la p od uc t of two v e c to s r
26 . rb v
Th e dis t i u ti e la w
27 . V t r pr d t
ec o o uc of tw o v
ec t o s r
28 . Th d i trib tiv
e s u e la w

Geo metr y o f th e P la ne .

29 . V t r q ti n f pl n r n q
ec o e ua o o a a e =

30 . Di t n f p in t fr m pl n
s a ce o a o o a a e

31 . Pl n th r gh th int r ti n f tw pl n
a e ou e e se c o o o a es

32 . Di t n f p int fr m tr igh t lin

s a ce o a o o a s a e

Geometr y of th e Sp h er e .

33 . V ec to r q e u a tion of a s ph e e r
34 . E qu a tion of th e tange nt pla ne at a point
35 P l r pl n
. o a a e of a point

3 6 Di m tr l pl n f
.
p r ll l h rd
a e a a e or a a e c o s

3 7 8 R di l pl n
-
. f tw ph r
a Sy
ca a e o o s e es . s te m of Sph e r
es with a co mmo n
r di l pl n a ca a e

App lic a tio n to M echa nics .

39 . W rk d
o one by a f or c e

40 . V t r m m nt
ec o o e or tor qu e of a f or c e a b o ut a po int
41 . Ang l r v l ity u a e oc of a rigid b o dy a b o u t a. fi x e d a x is

E XE RC ISES

CHAP TE R IV .

PRODUCTS OF TH RE E OR F OUR VE CTORS .

NON INTE -
RSE CTING STRAIGH T LINE S .

Tr ip le a nd Qu ad r up le P r oduc ts .

42 . rr
T iple p o ducts
43 . S l r tripl pr d t
ca a Vlm e o uc . o u e of pa r a lle lepi ed .
p C opla na r r
v ec t o s
44 . V t r tripl pr d t
ec o e o uc

45 . A l r pr d t f f r v t r
sca a o uc o ou ec o s
 C ONTE N TS x iii
AR T .

46 A . v r pr d
e c to o uc t of f ur ve
o c to s r . R ela tio n b e tween four v ec to s r
47 . Sy s te m fv t o ec or s recip oca l r to a, b, 0

Fu r ther Geometr y of th e P la ne a nd Str a igh t Line .

48 . Pl na es s a tis fy ing v rious conditi

a o ns

49 . C nditi
o o n of inte rse c tion of tw o r
s t a igh t lines
50 . Th e co mmo n per pendic ula r t tw no o on -
inte r s ec tin
g st ra igh t lines
51 . Plu k r c e
’
s c oo rdin t f a es o a str igh t lin
a e

52 . Vlm
o u e of a t tr h dr n
e a e o

Oth er App lica tions .

53 . TWO f rmul
o ae of r
Sph e ical Tr igon om e t y r
54 . R nkin
a e s
’
r
t h e o em for four c onc u rr e nt fr o ces

E XE RC ISES

CHAP TE R V .

DIFFE RENTIATION AN D INTE GRATION OF VE CTORS .

CURVATURE AN D TORSION OF CURVE S .

D ifi er entia tion
'

a nd Integr a tion .

D e r iv a ti v e of a v ec to r wi th r es pec t to a s ca la r v ri bl
a a e. D ifi er e ntia
t ion
D eri v a ti v es of r du t
p o c s

Inte g r a tion o fv t r ec o s a nd pr o d u c t s of v e c to s r
Cur va tur e a nd Tor s ion .

Ta nge nt to a cu rv e at a giv n p int

e o

C rv
u a tu e r . Prin ip c a l no rm l Plana . e of cu rv t r
a u e or os c u la ting

pla ne
60 . B ino ma l r . r
To sion

D efi nite Inlegr a ls .

61 . D fini t in t gr l f v t r f n ti n
e e e a o a ec o u c o

62 . Ill tr ti n
us a o s

63 . Lin int gr l f v t r f n ti n
e e a o a ec o u c o

S f int gr l f
u r ace v t r f n ti n e a o a ec o u c o

E XE RC ISE S

CHAP TE R VI .

K IN E M TI S AND A C DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE .

K inema tics .

65 .
V e lo city a t an ins ta nt . r v
Th eo e m of ec to a ddition Of v elocities r
66 .
A r
cc ele a tion a t a n ins tant r
Th e o e m of v e c to addition of a cce le a
. r r
tio ns
67 . Ta ngentia l a nd no rm l r a es olutes o f ac ce le a tion r
x iv VE CTOR AN ALY SIS

68 . R di l
a a a nd t ra nsv e se r r esolutes of vl e o c ity and ac ce le a tion r
Ar l ea l
point
v e oc ity a b o ut a

Mo tion with cons ta nt a c cele r

a tion

D y na mics .

Mo mentum
‘

N e wt on s
’
Sec ond L a w of Mo tion
Impu ls e of a fr o ce . Im pulsiv e fr o c es

Ac tiv it y o f a fr o ce

r
Th e p inc iple of ene gy r
Mome nt o f m o m e ntu m or a ngula r m o m e ntu m a b out a

P r inc iple of A M .

C ntr l f r
e a o c es

C ntr l f r
e a o ce v a rying in v e r s ely a s th e s qu r a e of t h e di s t anc e
Pl n t y m
a e ar o tio n

C ntr l f r
e a o c e v a r y ing dir e c tly as th e dis t a nce
Mo tion o f a r
pa ticle on a fi x ed cu v e r
E XERC ISES

CHAP TE R VII .

DY NAMICS OF A S STE M OF Y PARTICLE S OF A

IGI B O R D DY .

D y na mics o f a Sy s tem .

Lin r m m nt m f th sy t m
ea o e u o e s e

A l r ti n f th ntr f m
cce e a o o e ce e o ass

Ang l r m m nt m b t p in t
u a o e u a ou a o

M ing igin f m m nt
ov C ntr or o o e s . e e of mas s a s o r igin

E q ti n f mp l i
ua fr o s or i u s ve o c es

K inema tics o f a Rigid B ody .

87 . Mo tio n of a r igid b o dy a b out a fi x ed point . Ins ta nta ne ou s ax is

Of r o ta tio n

88 . Gene r al m o tion of a rigid b od y . Sc r ew m o tion

Sim ulta ne o u s mo tions

D yn a mics f
o a Rigid B ody .

Ang l r m u a om e ntum of a rigid b dy

o . Mome nts pr o d uc ts
in rt i e a

P in ip l
r c a ax es of r
ine tia
K inetic ene rgy Of a rigid b od y
Prin ipl c e Of ene rgy
Mov ing a x es or fr m a e of rfr e e ence

C ri o olis
’
Th e o r e m
E ule r ’
s d y namic al e qu a tions

E XE RC ISE S
 C ON TE N TS XV

CHAP TE R V III .

A C
ST TI S OF A RIGID BO DY .

G
PA E
C o ndi tions of e quilibri m f rigid b dy
u o a o

E quiv a le nt s y s e t m f f r
s o o ce s

P r ll l f r
a a e o c es . C ntr f gr vity
e e o a

C pl C mp
ou es . o os ition o f c ou ple s

P in t r d ti m of fo r C r q
’
o so s e uc o n of a s y s te ces . e nt al a x is . E u iv a le nt

wr n h e c

Nu ll pla ne at a po int
C nj g t f r
o u a e o ce s

Prin ipl f Vi t
c e o r u al W rk
o , or Virt u al V e lo citie s

E quilibr ium f o a s tr in g un d e r a ny fr
o c es

E quili bri m f u o a w e und e r a ny fr o c es

E XE RC ISE S

SU M M AR Y
A E
N SW RS TO E XER C SES I

IN D EX
 H I STOR IC AL I N TR OD U C TI ON

TH E m etho d subj ecting ve cto r qu antities to sca la r algebra

of

by resolu ti on into thre e co m p onents is du e to the French philo

s o pher D e sc a rt e s ( 1 59 6 The need of a calculu s for
o p er a tin
g d irectly on v ecto rs h a s long been rec ogni sed ; a nd
in 16 79 L eibnitz m a d e a n a ttempt a t m eeting the need but ,

w ith little s u cc e ss The pr oblem a ttra cted the attention o f

.

s ub s eq u e nt writer s a nd in 1 806 Ar and sh o w e d h o w a

,g geometric a l
r eprese nt a ti on c o uld be
giv en t o th e c om ple x numbe r This .

r epr e s enta tio n of u nr ea l

q u a ntitie s by c o p la na r v ect o r s h a s
prov ed of co nsi d era ble im po rtance in the th eo ry of com plex
v a ri a b le s but a t the sa m e tim e it ga ve the unfo rt una te i m pres
s i on th a t t h e th eo ry o f r ea l v ecto rs is ne c e ss a rily d ep end e nt on

th a t of complex nu mbers—a n im pr e ssi on which h a s not ev en

yet entirely dis a pp ea red A little la ter in 1 826 a pp ea red th e
.
, ,

B a r y ce ntr iscluzs Ca lc ul by Mobiu s o ne o f the bes t kno wn of ,

Ga u ss s p u pils This wo rk is a fo r er unner of th e m o r e general

’
.

a na ly s i s of
ge o metric f o rm s s ub s equ ently d ev elo p ed by Gr a ss
m a nn .Th e C a lcolo delle E quipollenze d ev is ed by B ellav itis in
1 832 a nd s u b s equ ently enla rge d a ctu a lly d e a ls s ystem a tic ally
, ,

with the geo m etric a dditi on of v ectors and th e equa lity of

v e cto rs .

Th e yea rs 1 843 44 a r e r em a rka ble in the histo ry of m a thema tics

-

f or the a lmo st si multa ne ou s a ppea ra nce of Ha m ilton s Q ua ter nions

’

a nd the Ausdeknungs lekr e of Gras sm ann William Rowan .

Hamilton wa s b o rn at D u blin on 4th Augus t 1 805 His f a th e r , .

,

Archib a ld Ha mi lton h a d m i gr a t ed fr o m Sc o tla nd in his y ou th

, .

Thi s Int r o d u ction is no t es s e ntia l t o th e rg m

a u en t of th e b k
oo . Th e
a uth o rh o pes , h ow e vr e , th a t it will a d d t o t h e vl a ue a nd ge ne ral inte r es t o f

th e w rk
o .

x vn
x v iii VE C TOR AN ALY SIS
The s on ga v e early ev idence of genius being a rema r kable ,

lingui s t a nd d ispla ying grea t m a th em a tic a l t alent He e nt e re d .

Trinity College D ublin in 1 824 whe re h e h a d a b rilliant and

, , ,

unpr e c ed ente d c a r ee r His ability wa s s o c ons picu ou s th a t

.

in 1 8 2 7 while still a n un d ergra dua t e he w a s a s k e d t o a pply

, ,

for the va c a nt Andr ew s P ro fes s o r s hip of Astrono m y in th e U ni

’

v er s ity of D ubli n a nd wa s a pp oi nt e d t o the p os iti o n

,
He w a s .

not sp e ci a lly q u ali fi e d a s a pr a ctic a l a s tr o nom er ; bu t the c on

ditions o f his a pp o intment allo w ed h im to a dv a nce the c aus e

of Science in th e w a y he fe lt b e s t a ble to d o so In 1 83 5 while .
,

a ctin a t its m eeting in D ub lin

g a s s ecr eta ry to the ,

he received a knighth ood ; and two years la ter the i mp o rta nc e

o f his sci enti fi c w o rk was rec ognise d by his e lection as P re s id e nt

of the R o y a l Irish Ac a d e m y His m a th ema tic al wo rk c onti nu e d

.

uni nt err upte d till his d e a th on 2nd Septem b er 1 865 a t the a ge , ,

of si x ty .

It often h a ppens th a t we get o ur mos t i m p o rta nt i d eas while

no t f o r m a lly wo rking at a s ubj ect perh a ps while wa lk i ng in ,

the c ountry or by the sea or ev en in mo re comm onpla ce ,

s u rr oundings Fr om a letter of Ha milton s we lea rn th a t on

.
’

l 6th Octob er 1 843 whi le he w a s w alking be s id e the R o y al

, ,

Ca na l on his wa y to pr es i d e a t a m eeting of the Ac a de m y th e ,

th ought flas hed into his mind which gav e the key to a pr oblem
th a t h a d been o ccupying his tho u ghts a nd led to the birth and ,

d ev elo p ment of the s ubj ect of Qu a ternions He a nn ounced .

the discov ery at th a t m e eting of the Aca de my and ask ed per ,

missi on t o re a d a p a per on qu a terni ons a t the n ex t which he ,

.

did o n 1 3 th No v emb er D u ri ng the nex t few ye a r s he ex p and e d

.

th e s ubj ect a nd pu bli s he d hi s L ectur es on Qu a ter nions in 1 853

, ,

while the E lements of Qua ter nions a ppea red in 1 866 s o on a fter ,

h is d e ath .

In Au gus t 1 8 44 a pp ea re d the fi rs t e diti o n of Gr ass m a nn s

, ,
’

L inea le Au s dehnu ngs lehr e a tre a ti s e of ov er 3 00 p ages , Hermann . .

Gunth er Grass mann wa s bo rn a t Stettin o n 1 5th Apri l 1 809 , ,

a nd d i e d a t th e s a m e p la ce in 1 8 77 He held the p o s t of instr u ct or

.

in m a th e m atic s a nd s cienc e a t a gymna siu m in h is na ti v e to wn .

The s ys tem s of Hamilton a nd Grassm ann m ay be rega r d e d as .

th e p a rent s of mod er n Vecto r Ana ly s is The two a u th o rs .

XX VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
c alcula tions Th e i de a s i nv olv ed in th e s ca la r a nd v ecto r
.

u a ntiti s f m ec h n ics n d physics r e m u ch si m p le r th a n

q e o a a a

th o se o f Ha milton s th eory in which im a gina ri e s p la y a la rge

’

p a rt and v e cto rs a nd s c ala rs a ppea r a s d egenera te q u a te r

,

ni ons r a th e r th a n in th eir o w n ri gh t Th e fe eling be c a m e genera l .

th a t a system w a s nee d e d in wh ich t h e i d ea s we r e more simply

r ela ted to th e fa ct s of na tu re Ma th ema tici a ns in v a rious .

c ountri e s th er efo r e began t o a d a pt the r esu lts o f H a milton

a nd Gr a ss m a nn t o th e m o r e ele m ent a ry r e q u ir em e nts ; a nd

a lth o ugh th e s e inve s ti ga ti o ns w er e ca rried o n i nd ep end ently

a nd fr o m d i ff ere nt p o ints Of vi e w the a na lys e s a rrive d a t ar e ,

Id entic a l a s rega rd s th e elem ents a nd functio ns intro du c ed .

It is m a i nly in n ota ti on a nd ter m i nolo gy th a t the diff ere nces

lie. In Ger m a ny th e st a rting p oi nt wa s the Aus deknu ngs lekr e ;
a nd a m o ng th os e wh o c o ntri but ed t o the f o r m a ti o n a nd a d o pti on

of a si mpler a nalysis ma y be m entio n ed Fo ppl Abr a h am , ,

B u ch er er Fisch e r Igna to ws ky a nd Ga ns
, ,
In E ngla nd H ea visi de .
,

d e ser v e s sp e ci a l m enti on w hile in Am eric a P r o f W Gi bbs did , . .

mu ch a dm ir a ble w o rk .

J osiah Willard Gibbs wa s bo rn a t New H a v en Connectic ut , ,

on 1 l th Febr u a ry 1839 H is f a th e r w h o bo re the s a m e na me

,
.
, ,

wa s P r o f e s s o r of Sa cre d L iter a tu re in the Ya le D i v i nity Sch ool

fr om 1 824 till 1 861 Th e s o n entere d Ya le in 1 8 54 and gradua ted
.
,

f o u r y ea rs later a ft er a distinguishe d c a r eer He continued .

his s tu di e s a t New H a ven a nd in 1 863 recei v ed th e d egr ee of ,

Ph D b ei ng th en a pp o int ed T uto r a t Y a le for a p e ri o d of three

. .
,

yea rs At th e end Of this term h e v isited E u ro pe s tu dying

.
,

a t P a ris d u r i n the wi nter Of 1 866 67 a nd a t B e r li n a nd H ei d elb er

g g
-

dur i ng th e e ns u ing t w o y ea rs H e retu rne d t o New Hav en .

in J u ne 1 86 9 a n d tw o y ea rs la t er w a s a pp o i nt e d to th e P r ofes s or
, ,

ship Of Ma them a tic a l Physics a t Ya le a p o sition which h e held ,

till h is d ea t h on 28th April 1 903 AS a n inv e stiga to r in Mathe , .

m a tic al P hysics Gi bbs s oon gav e e vid e nc e Of his p o wers by

,

th e p ublic a t i o n o f s e v e r a l p a p e rs in Th e r m o dyna mics a mong .

wh ich th e well known m em oir On the E quilibr iu m of Heter o

-

geneou s Su bs ta nces h a s pr ov e d Of f unda m ent a l i mp o rta nce

t o P hysic al Che mistry In th e Ele ctr om a gnetic Th e o ry of
.

L i ght a ls o Gibbs d id m u ch w o rk of perm a ne nt v a lu e ; a nd

,
 H ISTO I R CAL IN T R ODUCTION x x i

le a rne d cieties and Univ ers ities bo th in E urope and in Am erica

so , ,

f ormally rec ognis ed the merits of h is contributi ons to s cience .

In lectu ring to s tud ents P rof Gibbs felt the nee d of a sim pler.

fo rm of V ecto r Analys is tha n wa s then av aila ble B eing fa mili a r .

with the wo rk of bo th Hamilton and Grassmann he was able to ,

a d a pt to h is requ i r em ents the b e s t a nd s i mples t p a rts of b o th

s ystem s th us d ev eloping an a na lys i s whi ch he us e d f r eely in his

,

Univ er s ity tea ching In 1 88 1 a nd 1 884 he printed at New Ha v en

.
,

priva tely for the use of his pu pils a p a mphlet entitled E lements ,

of Vector Ana lys is giv i ng a c oncise a cc ount of h is s ys tem

, This .

p a m phlet was to some ex tent circula ted also among other s

speci ally interes ted in the s ubj e ct It was not till twenty y ea rs .

la ter th a t Pro f Gibb s r elu cta ntly c onsented to the formal p ublica
.

tion in a fair ly c omplete fo rm of the v ecto r analysis to which

, ,

he was led .

The relu ctance of P r o fe sso r Gibb s to p ubli s h his syste m

of v ect o r analys i s ce rt a inly did not a ri s e fr om a ny d oubt in his

own m ind as to its u tility or the d e s ir a bility Of its bei ng m o re

,

wid ely employed ; it s eemed ra th e r to be due to th e f eeling

th a t it was not an original contrib uti on to ma thematics but ,

w as a n a d a ptati on for s peci a l p u rp os es of the w or k of o th e rs

, , .

Of m a ny p o rti ons of the wo rk thi s is of c ou rs e nece ss a ri ly tr ue

a nd it is r a ther by the s electi o n o f m eth ods a nd by s ys tem a tiz a ti o n

of th e pre s e nt a ti on th a t the a uth o r h as s er v ed the c a us e o f

v ecto r a na lys i s But in th e trea tm ent of the linea r v e cto r

.

function and the theory of dya dics to which this leads a dis tinct ,

a dv a nce wa s mad e which wa s of c ons equ ence not only in t h e

more res tricte d fi eld of v e cto r a na ly s i s but als o in the b ro ad er ,

th eo ry of multiple algebra in gener al .

”

Mea nwhile in E ngland Oliv er Heaviside was e ngage d in a

s i mila r t a s k His w ork in the Ele ctromag netic The ory led him
.

fir s t to s tudy qua terni ons a s pr o ba bly wh a t he nee d ed t o simp lify

the analys is a nd then to rej ect them a s totally unsuita ble In
,
.

a da pting the r e s ults of H a milto n a nd T a it to his o wn requi re m e nts

he a rriv e d at a v ecto r a lgebr a pra ctically i dentical with tha t

o f Gibbs The diff erence of no ta tion was of cours e to be ex p e cted
. ,

P i f th Bi gr ph i l Sk t h by IL A B m te d in Gibb S i ntifi
. x x o e o a ca e c . u s a
’
s s c e c
Xx ii VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
H e av isi d e p a rtly to th a t em ployed by th e quater
a dhering
nionis ts bu t i ntr o d u cin the a d m ir a b le pr a ctice Of repr e s e nting
, g ’

v ect o rs b C l r nd n ym b l O n recei i n a c o py o f GibbS S

y a e o s o s v g .

New Ha ven p a m phlet Heav isi d e ex pre ss e d h is wa rm a d mira tion ,

a nd a ppr ov a l th o ugh sti ll pr e f erring h is o wn no ta tio n

,
.

Th e w o rk o f Gibbs a nd H e a vis id e d rew f orth d enuncia tions

fr om P ro f T a it wh o co nsid ered a ny d ep a rtu re from qua ternionic
.
,

u sa ge in th e tre a tm e nt of ve cto rs t o be a n e no r mity E v en .

P r o f Gi bbs he wr o te * m u st be r a nk e d a s o ne o f the reta rd ers

”
.
, ,

o f q u a ter ni on pr ogr e ss in virtu e of his p a mphle t on Vector ,

Ana ly s is a s ort o f h e rm a phro dit e m ons ter c o m p ou nd e d Of the

,

no ta ti ons of Ha m i lton a nd o f Gr a ss ma nn P rof Gibb s was

”
. .

w ell a ble t o look a fter him self and in h is r eply Th a d a long way ,

t h e best Of the a rgum e nt He wisely sep a ra t e s the qua te rni onic .

q ue s ti on from th a t Of a su itable no ta tio n a nd argu es p o werf ully ,

a a inst th e tre a t m e nt of v ecto r s by q ua ter ni ons The di s cussion

g .

t h u s begun c onti nu ed for s o m e ye a rs with T a it and other qua ter

,

nionis ts r a nge d on o ne s i d e a nd Gib bs a nd H e a v isi d e on the ,

o ther The co ntributions Of H eav is id e add a h um a n touch

.

t o the c ontr o versy a nd m ak e v ery i ntere s ti ng rea di ng e v en ,

a t th e pr e se nt d a y .

Qu a terni on w a s I think d efi ne d by a n Am erica n s chool , ,

girl to be a n ancient religi ous ceremony

—
Thi s was h owev er .
’
, ,

a co m plete mistak e The ancients unlike P rof T a it knew .

fi

not a nd did not wo rship Qua ter ni ons

I .

It is kno wn th a t Sir W Ro wa n Ha m i lt on d i s cov ered or .

i nv e nt ed a rem a rka ble sys tem o f m a thema tics and th a t s ince ,

his d e a th the q u a t e rni o nic m a ntle h as a do rne d the s h oulders

o f P r of T a it wh o h a s r epea tedly a d v o ca ted th e cla im s of
.
,

Qua terni ons P r o f T a it in p a rticula r em ph a si s es its great

. .

p o we r Si m plicity a nd p e rfe ct na tu ra lnes s o n the one h and ;

, , ,

a nd o n the o th e r t ells the physicist th a t it is e x a ct ly wh a t he

nee d s fo r his physica l p u rp o ses It is als o kno wn th a t phy s icis ts .

with gr ea t o bstina cy h a v e been ca reful ( gene ra lly spea king) ,

t o h a v e no thi ng t o d o with Qua ter nions ; a nd wh a t is equ ally ,

Pr f t th th ird diti n f Q t ni n e ac e o e e o o u a er o s .

l Na tu r e,
”
v ol
4 3 , pp 5 1 1 1 3 . .
-

I E lectr oma gnetic Th eor y , v o l 1 , p . . 136 ( L o nd o n ,

 H ISTO R ICAL IN T O R DUCTION x x iii
rema rka ble wr iter s wh o tak e up the s ubj ect of Vectors a r e
,

( generally s pea king ) p o s ses s ed Of the id ea tha t Qua ternions

is not ex a ctly wh a t they w ant a nd so they go tink ering a t it , ,

trying to m ak e it a little mo re intelligible v ery mu ch to the ,

di s gus t of P r of T a it wh o would preserv e the qu a terni onic

.
,

s tre a m pur e a nd und efi led Now is Pr of T ait right or a r e.

,
.
,

the defiler s r ight ? Opini ons m a y di ffer My own is th at the .

a ns wer a ll d epend s up on the p oin t o f v iew If we put as i d e .

pra ctical a pplica ti ons to Phys ic s and look u p on Qua ternio ns ,

entirely from the qu aternionic p oin t of v iew then P ro f Ta it ,

.

is ri ght th or ou ghly right a nd Qu a ternio ns f urni s he s a uniqu ely

, ,

simple and na tur al wa y of treating qua ter nions Observ e the .

em ph as i s .
”

B u t when P ro f T a it v a unts the perfect fi tne s s and na tu r a lnes s

.

of qu a ter ni ons for use by the phy s icist in h is enquirie s I think ,

th at he is quite wr ong For there ar e s om e v ery s erious d raw

.

b a cks c onn ecte d with qu aterni ons when a pp lied to v ecto rs , .

The qua terni on is rega r d ed as a complex of s calar and v ector ,

a nd a s the pr incip le s ar e m a d e t o s uit the qu a ternion the v e ct o r ,

its elf becom e s a d egr a d ed qua terni on and beh av es a s a qua ternion , .

Th a t is in a giv en equ a tion one v ecto r m ay b e a v ecto r and

, , ,

a no ther b e a q ua ter ni on Or the s a m e v ect or in one a nd the

.

s a m e equa tion may be a v ecto r in one p la ce and a qua ternion ,

in a no ther This a m alga m a tio n of the v ector i al and qu aternionic

.

functions is v er y p uz zling Y ou n ev er know h ow things will .

t u rn out T .

“
Ho wev er things ch a nge d a s ti m e went on and a fter a
, ,

period du rin g which the di ffu s ion of pu re v ectori al analysi s

m a d e mu ch progre ss in s pite of the d i s p a r a ge m ent of the E din
,

burgh s chool of s co rners ( one of wh om sai d som e of my work

a di s gr a ce t o the R o y a l So ciety to m y grea t d elight )
’
wa s , ,

it was mos t gr a tify ing to fi nd th a t P r of Ta it s oftened in h is .

h ar s h j udgments and cam e to recognis e the ex is tence of rich

,

fi eld s of p u re v ecto r a naly s i s a nd t o t olera te the w orker s th e rein

,
.

B es i d es th os e impe rtin ent t a m per e r s T a it h a d to stick up for ,

u a t er ni onics a ga ins t Ca yley for quite di ff erent re asons There

q ,
.

wa s d anger of a tri angula r du el or perh a p s qua dr angula r at , ,

Ibid p 30 1 1 Ibid pp 3 02 3
'
-
. . . . . .
 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS
one tim e but I would not engage in it for one I a pp e a s ed
,
.

T a it cons id er a b ly ( dur ing a little co rresp o nd ence we h a d ) by

di s cla i m ing any i d ea o f disc ov er ing a new sys te m d
I pro fe ss e ly .

d eri v e d my s y s tem fro m H a milt on a nd T a it by elimina ti on

a nd s imp li fi c a ti o n but a ll th e s a m e cla i me d t o h a v e d i ffus ed
,

a w ork in k no wle d e o f v ect o r s a nd t o h a v e d e v i s e d a th o r oughly

g g ,

pra ctical system .

”

E a rly in th e pr e s ent c entu ry when the u tility o f P ro f Gi bbs s

f
.
,

s yst em h a d b e e n pr ov e d by twe nty ye a rs e x perience he c ons ented

’
,

t o it s p ublic a ti on in a m o r e e x tende d f or m Not h av ing the .

leis ur e t o u nd e rt a k e thi s w o rk him s elf he e ntru s ted it to one ,

of his f o rm er p u pils D r Edwin B i dwell Wils on then ins tr uctor

,
.
,

in Ma th em a tics a t Ya le no w P r ofe ss or of Ma the ma tic s in the

,

Ma s s a ch us etts Ins titute of Technology Dr Wils on was allowed . .

fr ee s cope in his pr es ent a tion Of the s ubj ect f l H e f ollowed '

in the m a in the nota ti on a nd m eth od s of Gibb s bu t a do pted ,

Hea v is id e s s u gges ti on of Cla rend on s y mb ols for the representa

’

tion of v ectors Th e su cces s of his u nd ertaking is well known

. .

Pr ofe s s o r Wils on h as also c ontri bu te d t o the v ect o r analysis

of f o ur di m e ns i ons a ri s i n
g in c onnecti on with the the o ry of
R ela tiv ity I .

The pr esent centu ry h as also witness ed the a ppea rance of

a n It a li an sch o ol of v ecto r a nal s ts repre s ented by Pr of R
y , . .

Mar colongo of the Uni v ers ity Of Na ple s a nd P rof C Burali Forti
, ,
. .
-

of the Milit a ry Ac a d e my of T u rin Th eir v ector algebra is .

s ubs ta nti a lly the sa m e a s th a t Of o ther s ch ools with a n inde ,

pend ent nota ti on for produ cts o f v e cto rs ; but b oth in this
a nd in the d iff e r e ntia ti on of v e ct o rs the a u th o r s h av e been

la rgely i nfl u enc e d by the ge om etric f o rm s of Gra s s m a nn and

the B ar ycentric Calculus of MObius For th e linear v ector .

function th ey h av e d ev elo ped th e properti es Of the hom ogr aphie

in pla ce of th e d y a d ic b eing in thi s m a tter infl u ence d chiefly
,

by the wo rk of H am ilton Th e s i m ple r p o rti ons Of their s ys tem

.

wi ll be fo un d in their E lements de C a lcu l Vector iel ( Pa ris 1 9 10) i ,

E lec tr oma gnetic Th eor y , v ol . 3 , p 1 37

.

1 Vector Ana ly s is
'
Y a le Uni r ity Prve s es s , 2 nd ed .

1 Wil s o n a nd L
e wis , P r oc A m er
. . Aca d .
f Ar ts
o a nd Sciences , v ol
. 48
pp 39 1 507
-
. .
 H ISTO I R CAL IN T R ODUC TION X XV

but for a full a ccount the read er is referred to their la rger work ,

Ana lys e Vector ielle Gener a le ( P a ri s

’

It is a pp a re nt the n th a t the pro ce ss es of cu rrent v ect o r a nalysis

hav e s pr ung fr om the w ork of H am ilton and Gra ssm ann The .

o r d er Of d ev elo p m ent of the s ubj ect h a s bee n the o pp os ite of

wh at one might h av e ex pected Supp os e a s u ffi ciently c o m

.

petent ma thema tici an d es ired to fi nd out fr om th e Ca rtesi a n

m a them a tic s wh a t v ector algebr a was li k e a nd its la ws He , .

c ould do s o by ca reful ins pecti on and c om p ari son o f the Ca rtesia n

f o rm ula e He would fi nd ce rt ain com bina tions of sy mb ols
.

a nd qu a ntitie s o ccur ri ng a ga in a nd a a in us u ally in systems

g ,

of three s . He mi ght in trod u ce tenta ti v ely an a bbrev i a te d no ta

ti on for thes e comb ina ti ons After a little pr a ctice h e would
.

perceiv e the la ws a cco rding to which thes e c ombina tions a ros e

a nd h ow they Oper a te d Fi nally he w ould c om e to a v e ry
.
,

com p a ct system in which v ecto rs thems elv es a nd certa in sim ple

functions of v ectors a ppeared and would be d elight ed to find ,

th a t the rules for the multiplica ti on and genera l m anip ulation

of thes e v ect ors w e r e c o ns i d ering the c omp lex ity of the Ca rt e si a n
,

m a them a tics ou t of which h e h a d di s c ov ered them of a n a lm o st ,

incredible Simplicity But ther e wou ld be no si gn of a qu a t ernion

.

in h is re s u lt for one thi ng ; a nd for a nother th er e wo uld be

, , ,

no m eta phy s ics o r a b s tr u s e re asoning requir ed t o est a bli s h

the r ules of m a ni pula ti on Of his v e ctor s This is the m ann er .

”

in whi ch one would ex pect Vect o r Analy s i s to h av e o rigina ted .

B ut it did not a nd its p a re nt a ge h as in ma ny qu a rters c ounte d

a ga in s t it . B ut thi s prej u di ce is r a pi dly di s a pp ea ri ng a nd the ,

s im ple v ect o r m eth ods a r e bec oming m o r e a nd m o re p o p ula r .

In a dv a nced three d imens i onal w o rk in ne a rly ev ery bra nch of

-

ma th ema tic al phys ics writers a r e finding it almos t indispens a b le

,
.

The la ck of unif ormi ty in the nota ti on for pro du cts of v ecto rs

was mo re or le ss in ev it a b le bu t ma y yet be ov e rc om e
,
In .

A me ric a the d ot a nd cross of P ro f Gi bbs a r e employ ed a lm os t .

with ou t ex cepti on In Ge r many the br a ck et not a ti on is the

.

en er al rule The pr a ctice in E ngla nd is by no me a ns un if o r m

g
.
.

The influ ence of Lor entz s wo rk h as led s ome writer s in the

’

E lectr oma gnetic The ory to f ollo w his ex a m p le in the u s e of

H e a v is id e, loc . cit v ol
. . 1 , p 1 36
. .
 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
br a ckets ; o ther s a dh ere t o the Am eric an u s a g e
The
a uth o r of th ese p a e s c ons id ers Gibb s s nota ti o n e a si e r and much
’

g
more ela s tic e specia lly for the tre a tment of lin e a r v ect or functions
,
.

Gibb s s w ork on d ya di cs is the most original a nd im p ortant

’

p a rt of h is th eory and will be found of grea t s e rv ice in our s econd

,

v olum e .
 CH AP TE R I .

ADDITION AND SU B TR ACTION OF V E CTOR S .

CE NTROID S .

Defi niti ons .

1 . A c
s ala r
briefly a s calar h as ma gnitude but is
quantity , or , ,

not rela ted t o any d efinite d ir ecti on in s p a ce E x a m ples of .

s u ch ar e mas s v olume d ens ity tempe ra tu r e wo rk qu antity

, , , , ,

o f he a t elect ric ch a rge a nd p o te nti al

, To s pecify a sc ala r we .

n ee d a u nit qu a ntity of the s am e type and the r a ti o ( m) which ,

th e giv en quantity be a r s t o this un it s o th a t it may be e x presse d ,

a s m tim e s the unit The num be r m is called the mea s ur e o f

.

the quantity in terms of the ch o sen unit It is th e m ea sures .

d m V v E etc of d ensity m as s v olume s peed a nd ene rgy

, , , , , .
, , , ,

res pectiv ely th at enter into th e e qua tions of physics a nd

,

m ech a ni cs ; and it ca nn ot b e t oo str ongly e mph as iz ed th a t th es e

s ym b ols d eno te only numbers a s in o rd i na ry algebr a , .

A v ector q uantity or briefly a v ec tor h as magnitu d e a nd is , ,

related t o a definite dir ection in s p a ce ; while two v ecto r qua nti

ti es of the same ki nd ar e c om p ound ed a ccording to the tri a ngle
la w of a dditi on s t ate d belo w D isp la ce ment v elo city a cc eler a .
, ,

ti on mom entum f orce electric a nd magnetic intensities a r e

, , ,

ex a mples of v ector qu antiti e s To specify a v ector we n eed not .

o nly a unit qu a ntity of the s a m e kind c ons id ered a p a rt fr om dir ec

ti on and a num ber which is the m ea su re of the original quantity

,

in te rms of this uni t but als o a sta tem ent of its d irecti on ,
.

2 Th ough ordina ry a lgebra is a d equate for the a nalysis of

.

b oth s cala rs and v ector s wh en a pplied to the latte r it is o ften ,

v er y cumbr ous nece ss ita ti ng the m anip ula ti on of two or thr e e

,

e qua ti ons i ns te a d of one a nd th e de c om p os iti on of th e v e ct or

,

W . V A
. . A
2 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [on 1 .

quantities to meet the limita ti ons of algebr a ic analys is Hence .

the des ira bility of an a nalys is which will b ea r to v ectors the

s a m e rela ti on th a t a l eb r a bea rs t o s c a la rs In the latter the
g .

elements of our equations a r e a lwa ys nu mb er s d enoted by ,

v a ri ous s ymb ols In v ect or a nalysis w e r e q uire a s well as these

elem ents inv olv ing both num b e r a nd d ir ecti on—
. , ,

d irecte d numbers
s o t o s pe a k For this p ur p o s e w e c h o os e wha t is perha ps the
.

s i mples t type of v ect o r u a ntity v iz th a t wh os e m a g nitude

q ,
.

is a length A v ecto r of thi s typ e is d ete rm ined by two p oints

.

0 P s u ch th a t the m a gnitu de o f th e v e cto r is the lengt h of the

,

s tra ight line OP a nd its d ir e cti on is th a t fr om O to P

,
This .

v ecto r is usually d eno ted by OP For the pur p os es of analysis ,

a fter we h av e s ettle d th e units o f th e v a ri ou s type s of v ector

quantities any su ch qua ntity c a n be s peci fi ed by a length v ector

,
-

of the type OP p rov id ed th e ir directi ons ar e the same and

, ,

the meas ure of the length of OP is also the m ea sure of the v ector
quantity c ons idered in terms o f its a ppro pri a te unit B riefly .

then , OP ca n be us ed to sp e cify the v ecto r qu antity in measure

and directi on, a nd in thi s w ay a nsw e rs the purp os e of a di rected
num ber .

Hav ing then d eci d e d to u se length v ect ors for our directed -

number elem ents we sh all fi nd it c o nv e nient t o a bbrev i a te the

,

na m e a nd c all them s im p ly vector s To prev ent c onfus ion we . .

s ha ll hencefor th con fi ne th e s u bs ta ntiv e ve ctor to length -

vectors

f
o this type . All other s will be sp oken of as ve ctor quantities .

The pra ctice of most wr iters s eem s to b e in h a rmony with this ,

th ough in the maj o rity of ca ses th e res tricted use of the term
vector is only ta citly a d o pte d * We allo w the wi d er meaning .
,

but here a d opt the na rro we r for th e s a k e of brev ity a nd to av oid ,

all pos s ibilitv of m is und e rst a ndin

g .

3 The module of a v e cto r is the p o sitiv e number which is

.

the mea sure of its length A u nit vector is one wh os e module .

is unity We sh all d enote v e ctors by Clarendon letter s 1 and

.

,
‘

Th t rm e t ew inv nt d by H m ilt n ;
v ec or nd th m ning h
as i ned
e e a o a e ea
t it gr with th n w h
g e a ss
o a ees
j t d pt d Cf L t
e o
n Qe
t n m
e av e us a o e ec u r es o u a er io
L t r 1 p 15
. .
.

ec u e , . .

TF p rp or f writing Gr k l tt r
u oses o nd ript pit l will b f und
, ee e e s a sc ca a s e o
conv n nt t d n t
e ie t r o e o e v ec o s .
 2 3]
, D E F IN ITION S 3

their module s by the co rres p onding ita lics . Th us the v ector s

P Q, QR RS m ay be d eno te d by
, a, b, c respecti v ely an d th eir
,

modules by a, b, 0 . Unit
v ecto rs in th e se directio ns
A
will be d eno ted by 2 b
A

, ,
c
res pectiv ely .

Tw o v ect ors a b a r e de ,

fi ne d to be equa l if they ;

h av e the s am e di re ctio n and

eq u a l le ngth s ; a nd thi s is
F 1 IG
-

d enoted s ymbolic a lly by a b which is th e ref o re equi v a lent =

,
to

th e t w o relati ons at b and a b A zer o v ector or null vector is

= =
.
, ,

one wh o s e m o dule is z e r o All z er o v e ct o rs a r e t o b e rega rd e d

.

a s equa l irr e sp e ctiv e of directi o n

, Lilce v ector s ar e v ecto r s with .

th e sam e directi on Th e v ecto r which h a s th e s a m e mod ule a s

.

a but th e opp o sit e dir ecti on is d efin e d a s the nega tiv e of a a nd

.
,

is d eno t e d by a .

Thus wh ile the v a lu e of a vector d ep end s on its length a nd

,

‘di e
r cti on it is in d ep end ent of p os iti on the vecto r not be ing
, ,

lo ca lis e d in a ny d efi nite lin e A sin gle v e ct o r c a nno t ther ef o r e .

com pletely r epres ent the efi ect of a lo calis ed v e cto r q uantity ,

su ch as a fo rce a cting o n a rigid body This effect d epends on .

the line o f a ction of the f orce a nd it will be s h own later th a t

3 t wo v ecto rs a r e ne c e ss a ry for its s pecifi c a ti on .

3 Wh en v ectors F v ar e us ed to sp e cify v ecto r qua ntiti es such

,

ha s f orce a nd v elo city they will a lw a ys be length v ectors r epr e

,
-

g the m in m e a s ure a nd d irecti on All th e v ecto r s ente ri ng

sis entin .

i nt o our e q u a ti ons will be of the s a m e ki nd For insta nc e in .

,

th e equ a ti on E ma u s ed for the m a the m a tica l ex pressi on of

=
,

Newton s sec o nd la w of mo ti on in is the m ea su re of the m a s s

’

iof the p a rt icle a nd F a v e ct ors r e presenting resp e ctiv ely the

l , ,

r ior ce a ctin g on t h e p a rticle a nd the c onsequ ent a cceler a ti on .

Th e no ta tion mod a or |a| is a ls o u se d for th e m o d u le of a .

4 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS ( on . 1 .

Additi on and Subtr action of Vectors .

The mann er in whi ch th e v ector qu antiti e s o f me chanics

4 .

a nd phy s ic s a r e c omp o und ed is e x pr e ss e d by the tri angle law

of addition which may b e s ta te d a s f ollo w s

,

tha t OP a a nd PR b,
f thr ee points 0 , P R
I a r e ch osen s o
= =
,

ctor s um or r es u lta nt o f a a nd b
then the ve OR is ca lled the ( ctor )
ve .

F IG 2 . .

D eno ting thi s re sulta nt by c we write ,

c =
a +h

b o rr owing the Sign fr om algebr a and us ing the term v ector ,

a ddition for the p r oc e s s by which the re sult a nt c is o bt ained

from the components a and b .

The abov e d efiniti on is not an

a rbitr a ry ma th em atic al assum
p
ti on It is an ex press ion of the .

w a y in which the v ecto r quan

titie s of phys ics and m echanics
a r e c om p ound e d We see also .

th a t the sum of two v ectors

F IG 3
OQ is th e v ector
. .

a =
OP a nd b =

OR d e termine d by the di agonal of the p a rallelogram of which

OP and GO a r e sides. For

PR =
OQ =
b, so th at
Thu s th e tri angle law of a dditi on is i d entical w ith th e p arallelo
gr a m la w i nv o lv e d in the SO c a lle d p a rallelogr am of forces
-

.
”

Fu rther s ince QR OP a it f ollo ws th a t

,

b+a =
OQ + QR =
OR ,
s h o wing th a t b+a =
a +b= r ( say ) .
1 4] ADD ITION AN D SU B TRAC TION 5

a dd to this ano ther v ecto r c bta ining

o

th e re sult

F IG 4
. .

a
glanc e at th e fi gur e s h ows th at this v ector

and the a rgum ent i

o bv o u sly h olds for a ny nu m e b r f
o vecto r s .

H ence th e
Th eor em . The commuta tive a nd a ss ociat ive la ws hold f or the

or der and the gr ouping of the ter ms .

F IG 5
. .

We h av e alre ady s ta ted th at — b is to be unde r s tood a s the

.

ve ctor whi ch h as the s a m e le ngt h as b but the o p po sit e directio n

,
.

[h e s u btra cti on of b from a is t o be und ers tood as the a dd iti o n

‘

)f b to a We d enote this by
.

a b a b) ,
6 VE CTOR A N ALY SIS [C E I.

b orr owing the s ign from a lgeb a r . Thus to s ubtr a t the ve tor
c c b
fr om a, r ever s e the dir ection o f b a nd a dd . If, in the figure ,

OP =
QR =
a a nd Q0 = RP = b

then a

5 Multiplic ation by
. a numbe r . If m is pos itive r eal a ny

number , * ma mea ns the vector in the fm

s a me dir e ction as a , bu t o

times its length . This may be rega r d ed a s the result of multiplying

a by m and s imila rly
ii
r
a is the r esult o f d iv i ding a by m .

greem ent with th e pr e c eding Ar t —

In a ma is then the v ector .
,

in the o pp os ite d irecti on t o a a nd of m tim es its length Thus ,

.
,

t o multiply a v ect o r by a n ega tiv e r ea l number m rev erse ,

its directi on and multiply by m .

From the a b ov e it is cle a r tha t if a a nd b ar e like v ectors , ,

either may be ex press ed a s a multiple of the other Thus .

b =

g a, the num ber

2A bei ng the ra ti o of the length of b to that
of a . In p articula r if a is the un it v ecto r in the di rection of a, .

th en A A A
a da a nd gna' 771, d a ( ) ( ma ) a .

FIG 6 . .

The general la ws of a ss o ci a ti on and di s trib u ti on for scalar

multipliers h old as in o r dina ry a lgebra If m a nd n ar e any .

real number s p ositi v e or nega tiv e it f ollows from the ab ove

, ,

a r gum ent th a t m ( na ) ( mn) a n ma .

( ) ,

a nd also th at (m n) a =
ma na .

Ima gin ry
a a nd c o mple x nu m br e s a r e ex c lu d e d fr o m o ur d is cus sion .
 8 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [c a 1 .

of the equal to th ose of th e o th er ea ch t o ea ch Con

one ar e ,
.

v er s el if two v ect r h e eq u l c m p o nent s they mu st b e equal

y o s av a o .
,

Giv en s ev er al v ecto rs r 1 r r th ey may ea ch be r e

, 2, 3,

into comp onents in the giv en directi ons and ex pres s ed in ,

r1 ala glb
r2 a za y zb 2 20 ,

Their m is
su then
( v i a + gl b 2 1 0 ) + y 2b z gc )
=
( ct l + x 2 + 903 + ( g1
( z1 +z

sh owing th a t v ectors m ay be com p oun d ed by adding their like

comp onents .

7 Th e uni t v ec tor s i j k
. The mos t imp o rtant cas e of
, , .

resolution of v ecto rs is th a t in which the th ree directi ons ar e

'
Z

F IG 8 . .

mu tu ally perpend icula r Th e right ha nd ed s ys tem of d irecti ons

.
-

0 X, OY, OZ repre s ented in the fi gure is found mos t conv enient ;

CY a nd OZ the pla ne of the p a per and OX perpendicular
ar e in ,

to it p ointing tow a rd the r ea d er To a n ob s erv er a t the o rigin 0

.

right h and ed r otations abou t th e ax es OX OY OZ ar e from

-

, ,

Y to Z Z t o X a nd X to Y res pecti v ely

, The unit v ectors .

p a r allel to thes e ax es ar e d enot ed by i j k and if v y z ar e the , , .

, ,

length s of OA OB 0 0 respectiv ely mea s u re d in the s e d irections

, ,
,

the v ector OP is r x i y i zk .
 7 , 8] U N IT VE C TOR S 9

If or , ,8 ,
y ar e the angles which OP ma k es with the ax es cos or , ,

cos 8 cos a r e c alle d the dir ection cos ines o f the line OP ; and
, , y
clearly at = r cos or ,
y C OS B ,
Z C OS
7,

so th a t r ( c os
=
a ) i ( cos ( cos y )k .

Thus the co effi cients of i j k in the rectangula r resolution , ,

o f a unit v ect o r a r e the directi on c osin e s of th a t v ect o r rela ti v e

to the rectangula r a x e s R ecta ngula r c omp onents a r e gener a lly .

term ed r esolutes or res olv ed par ts .

The num bers 58 y z ar e c alled the coor dina tes of the p oint P
, ,

r ela tiv e to th e a x es OX OY OZ It is ob v iou s from th e figur e , , .

th a t O P + A F 2
F P 2 2
,

th at is r x
2
+y + z
2 2 2
,

giv ing the di s tance of P fr om th e o rigin in t e rm s of its c oor di

na tes .

In Ar t 6 where the a x e s ar e o bliqu e x g z ar e s till c alle d th e

. .
, , ,

c oordina te s rela tiv e to th os e a x e s ; but th e ex press i o n for r

in terms of thes e in v olv e s a ls o the mu tual inclina ti ons of th e
a x es ( Cf E x erci s e
. Ar t
. .

Ca rtes i an a na ly s is d eals with v ect ors a nd v ecto r q u a ntitie s

by re s olv ing them in t o r e ct angula r c omp onents In v e cto r .

a na lys i s as far a s p os s ib le
,
w e tr e a t the qu a ntitie s with ou t ,

re solu ti on .

Centroids .

Defi nition . When a vector OP is u sed to speci fy the pos ition

f
o a p oint P r ela tiv e to a nother point 0 , it is ca lled i
the posit on

v ec tor of P f or th e or igin 0 .

8 . To fi nd the point which div ides the j oin of two points in a

giv en r a tio .

Let A, B be the tw o p oints a nd .

a, b their p o sition v ecto r s
r ela tiv e to an o rigin 0 Then AB b — a a nd .
= if R is the p o int
d iv iding AB in the ra ti o m n it f ollo ws th a t

(b —) a .
10 VE CTOR A ALY N SIS [CE I.

The p os iti on v ecto r of R is th erefore

r OR OA + AR
-

= =

a+
m
m+n
( b —) a

na + mb

m+n

F IG . 9 .

9 Defi n
. itions .
*
Given n points whose pos ition vector s r elative

to an or igin 0 a r e a, b, c, the point G whos e position vector is

is ca lled the centroid or centre mean position of the given points

of

If p, g, r, ar e n r ea l number s the p oint G whose pos ition,

v ector w
qb
o h pa
+
rc

p q+r + m

is ca lled the centr oid of th e giv en p oints with as s ocia ted nu mber s T
p, q, r, r espe ctively .

The centroid of two p o in ts A B with a s so ci a ted numbe rs ,

p, q
d i v i d e s the line AB in th e r a ti o q p For in thi s c a s e .

0G pa qb
,

P 9
which prov es the sta tem ent .

R ega rding thi s t r ea t m ent of th e t h eo y r of r

c ent oid s s ee r
e mark s in the
Pr f e a ce .

TTh e term s tr ength m ay be f o und mo r

e v
con e nient th an “
a s s oc iated
nu m e br .
 9] CE NTR OID S 11

Th eorem , The centr oid is independ ent o f the or i

gin o f v ector s .

be a p o int wh os e p osition v e cto r rela tiv e to O is 1 If

L et 0
'
.
.

0 is t a k en a s o ri gi n the p o siti o n v ect or s of the p o i nts A B C

’

ar e a —l b—
, , , ,

l c 1 a nd the centr o i d is a p oi nt G s u ch th a t
’

—l) + q ( b —
-

, ,

p( a l)
OG
’ ’

p +q+r + m

p
-
t
-

g
-— i t
’

—0 G
H ence the p oi nts G G c oincid e a nd the p os iti on found ’
for
centroi d is ind epend ent of the o ri gi n of v ecto rs .

F IG . 10 .

Th eorem . If H is the ce ntr oid o f a s s te

y m of points A B C , ,

mber s p q H f m
’
with ass ocia ted nu r a nd tha t o a s econd s s te
, , , y
, f
o points A
’

,
B
’

, C
"
,
with a s s ocia ted nu mber s p
’
,
’

g r , ,
’

then the centr oid o f a ll th e p oints is th e centr oid f

o the two points

H a nd H with
’
a s s ocia ted nu mber s
d
’ ’ ’
an (p + g +r

Epa
OH ,
JP

an d Sl mi la r ly OH ' '

p + 9
H ence the centroi d of H and H w ith s ci a ted num e s b r
’
a so 2p
a nd Ep
’
res p e ctiv ely is a p oint G su ch th a t

”
’

( Ep ) OH Spa Sp a

H ence G is al o s th e centroi d of th e combined s ys tem of p o ints .

12 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [GH L

theorem h as been s ta ted for only two s ub sys tems o f

‘

Th e -

p oin ts with centroids H and H B ut the s ame a rgu ment ’

.
'

app li e s a nd the the o rem is tr u e fo r a ny number of s u b sy s te m s

-
.
, ,

In c alcula ting the centr oid of the c o mbined s y s te m o f p oi nts ,

ea ch s ub s ys tem may be repla c ed by a s ingle p oint ( its c entroid )

-
»

with a ss o ci a ted number 2 p for th a t su b s ys tem -

.

1 0 Centroid of Area
. Su pp o s e the su rf a ce of a ny fi gu re
.

( not nece ssa rily plane ) to be div i d ed into a la rge number n of

small elem ents Cons i d er one p oi nt in ea ch element a nd with
. ,

th es e n p oints a ss ocia te numb ers pr o p orti onal to the a reas of

the elem ents Su ch a s ys tem of p o ints with a s soci ated nu mb ers
.

h a s a centro id G Now let the num ber it in cre as e i nd efini tely

.
,
l

in s u ch a w ay th a t e a ch elem ent of th e s ur face c onv erges to

a p o int Then the limiting p o siti on of G is called th e centroi d
.

of a re a o f the fi g u re .

Centroid of Volume Su pp o s e a ny s olid fi gur e to be div ided

.

into a la rg e number n of s mall elements Cons i d er one p oint .

in e a ch elem ent and with the s e n p oint s a s s o ci a te numb ers

,
"

pr op o rti onal to the v olumes of th e elements Su ch a Sy s tem .

of p o int s h a s a ce ntr o i d G a nd the limiting p os iti on of G a s n

tend s to infinity and ea ch elem ent conv erges to a p o int is called ,

the centr oi d of v olum e of the figure .

Th e centroids of a rea a nd v olum e of the s impler fi gure s of

plane a nd s olid geomet ry a r e e a sily f oun d by c ons id era ti ons of
s ymmetry with ou t the need of introdu cing v ecto rs Students
, .

of ge om etry a nd mech anic s bec om e f amili a r with thes e re s ults

a t a n e a r ly s t age and we s h a ll not here ente r u p on thei r pr oofs

, .

The d eterminati on of centr o id s by i ntegra ti on of v ector s will be

referr ed t o in Ar t 62 . .

1 1 D efi nition
. The c entr oid of mass or c entre of mass of a
.
, ,

s et of pa r ticles of ma s s es m m m3 s itua ted a t th e p oints 1 , 2 , ,

r espectivel is the centr oid with

r1 ,
r2, r3 , y f
o thes e p oints
a ss ocia ted nu mber s ml m2 m3 , , ,

The centre of mas s of the sys tem of p a rticle s is therefore

the p oin t Zmr
Em
'

Wh en th e origin of r i nd r t v e c to s s u e s oo d . th e point wh o s e pos itio n v e c to

r
is rm ay be co nv ni ntly r f rr d t
e e th e e e o as e point r
.
 1 0, 1 1 ] C E N TR OID s 13

It will be Sh own in Ar t 99 th a t this is the p oi nt through which

.

p ass es the lin e of a ction of the resultant of a ny s ys tem of p a r allel

f orces a cting on the p a rticles the fo rce s b eing pr opo rtio nal to ,

t h e mass es o f the p a rticle s It will f ollo w th en th a t th e c m

. . .

a s d efi ned a b ov e is i d e ntic al with the centre Of

gr av ity of the
’

s y s te m of p a r ticle s B eing a centr oi d the c m is i nd ep end ent

.
, . .

of the origi n of v ect or s Als o if the s y s tem of p a rticles be di v i d ed

.
,

into it s ub sv s tems the c m of the wh ole s ys tem is the c m

-

, . . . .

o f n p a r ticles one a t the c m of e a ch s u b s y s tem a nd oi m a s s

, . .
-

e qu al to the t o t al m a ss o f th a t s ub s ys te m This f ollo ws fr om -

t h e s ec ond the o re m of Ar t 9 . .

Fr om th e a b ov e f o rm ula for the c m of a sy s tem of p a rtic le s . .

we may ea sily d edu ce th e u su a l s ca la r equa tions T ak e a set .

o f a x e s thr ough the origin p a r a llel t o th e u nit v ect o rs a b 0 , ,

L et as y 2 b e th e c o o rdin a t e s o f a p a rticle of m a ss m and as y 2

, , , , ,

t h os e of the c m Then the p os iti on v ectors of the s e p oi nts a r e

. .

r va
.
yb zc

a nd r =
x a + yb + i c
The f o rmula for th e c . m is . therefo re
Em ( e:a + yb se )

Th e e qu a l ctors repr es ented by the

ve tw o m em bers of this
e qu a ti on mus t h a v e equ a l c om p o nents . H ence , equ ating th e
c o effi cie nt s of lik e u nit v e ct o rs w e h av e ,

Ema: Emy Eme

2m 2m 2m
a nd thes e f o rm ula e a r e tru e wh eth er the a x e s ar e r e cta ngula r
or ob liqu e .

The c m of a continuous distributi on of matter wheth er a

. .

s u r f a ce or a v olum e di s tri buti on is d efin ed a s follo ws L et ,

.

the dis tri bu ti on be d iv id ed into a la rge numb er n of s m all elem ents .

T ake it p oints one situ a ted in e a ch elem ent and with thes e
, ,

a sso ci a t e n um b er s pr o p orti ona l t o the m a s s e s of the elem ent s .

This s ystem o f n p oints w ith asso ci a ted nu mbers h as a c entr oi d G .

Now let n tend t o i nfi nity in s u ch a w ay th a t ea ch of the elem ents

of m a s s c onv er ges to a p a r tic le Th e lim iting p os iti on o f G is .

c a lle d th e ce ntre of m ass of th e c onti nu ou s d is trib u ti on .

14 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [0 11 1

VVh en th e d ensity the distribu ti o n is unifo r m th e c m

of ,
. .

coinci d es with th e c entro id o f the geo m e tric a l fi gu re o cc up i ed

by the d i s tribu ti o n .

E lementary Ph y sic al Appli c ations .

12 Th e displacement of a p o i nt is a vecto r q u a ntity , a dis

.

p la cem ent fro m A to B b eing sp e cifi ed in ma gnitu d e a nd di r e cti on

by the vecto r AB . And tw o su cc essiv e displa cem ents ar e
co m p ound ed a cc o r ding to the
vecto r la w of a ddition for a
d ispla c em ent from A t o B f ollow ed
by a no th e r fr om B t o C b ri ngs th e
m ov in g p o int t o the s a m e p os iti on
a s a s i ngle d i s p la ce m ent fr om A

to C .

F IG . 11 .
Th e relative pos ition of one

p oint Q to a nother P b oth of ,

whi ch may be in m otion is a v ector qua ntity specifi ed by the

vector P Q An d clea rly . th e rela tiv e p o siti on of Q to a third
point 0 is th e vect o r s um of the r elativ e p os itions of Q to P and
of P t o O ; for OQ OP + P Q =
.

The relative displacement of Q to P du ng ri a ny in ter v al is the

ch a nge in rela tiv e p o sitio n
du ring th a t interv a l If .

then P Q ar e the p os iti o ns

,

o f th e p oin ts at th e be
ginning a nd P Q a t th e
’ ’

, ,

e nd of t h e int er v a l th e ,

ch ange in rela tiv e p ositi on

is d et e rm ine d by th e v e ct o r

d iff e r ence P Q —P Q Thi s

’ ’
.

v ecto r specifi es th e r ela tiv e

d isp la c em ent du ri ng th e
F
i nterval .
12 IG. .

Th e r elative velocity of Q w ith r e sp e ct t o P is the ra te o f ch ange

o f it s p o siti o n r ela ti v e to P a nd t h e r efo r e if u ni or m is d
f etermined
, , ,
16 VE CTOR A ALY N SIS [OIL I.

a nd acting thr ough the s am e p i t is o n P, d yna mic ally equiv alent

to the s ys tem of f orce s and is c a lled th eir r es u lta nt
,
.

The v ector R is d etermin ed by th e vector polygon th a t is a ,

p olygon the length s and di r e cti ons of wh o s e s i d es ar e th os e of

the v ector s F1 F2 F3 ,
This p olygon will not in general
, ,

be clos ed nor will it be plane unle s s the f orces ar e c oplanar

,
.

If A B is the fi rs t v ector and D E th e la st , th en AB is the r esultant

R 5 EF .

Wh en the v ecto r s um of all th e fo rces is z e r o they ar e together ,

equiv alent to z er o f orce a nd a r e s aid to be in equilib rium ;

,

or the p a rticle or b o dy o n which th ev a c t is s a i d to be in equili

,

br ium u nd er the a cti on of the fo rces In thi s c as e the v ector .

p olygon is clos ed And s ince the resulta nt v anis hes the sums
.
,

of the c omp one nt s of th e s ev e r a l fo rc e s in a ny th r ee non c oplanar -

d irecti ons mu s t v ani s h s ep a r a tely ( Cf Ar t Conv ers ely . . .

,

if the s um of the c omp onents of the

f orces v anishes for ea ch of three
no n c o p la na r d ir ecti ons the com
-

ponents of the re sulta nt ar e z er o and ,

th e res ulta nt v ani s hes Thi s then is .

th e ne ce ssa ry a nd s uffi cient c onditi on

fo r e qu ilibriu m of the f orce s .

If thr ee for ces a cting at a p oint

F G 14
I . .

a r e in e qu ilibrium the clos e d v ector ,

p olygon is a triangle Th e v ecto rs F F2 F3 a r e then coplanar

.
1, , ,

a nd the le ngth of e a ch is pr o p o rti o na l to the s ine of the angle

between the other tw o This is Lami s .

If thr ee
’

conc ur r ent for ces a r e in equ ilibr iu m they ar e copla nar and ea ch ,

is pr opor tiona l to the s ine of the a ngle between the other two .

In the c a se of n c on cu rrent f o rc e s let AI, Ag, A3 , A" be ,

the p oints wh os e p o sition v e cto rs a r e PI F 2 F relative , , ”

t o an o ri gin 0 Th en th e v ecto r repr es enting the r esultant is

.

+ 0 A ,,

n . OG ,

where G is the centr oid of th e p o ints A1 , A An , The

f orce s ar e in equi librium if G c oin cid es with O .
 1 3 , 1 4] P H Y SICAL APPL ICATION S 17

14 E
. xamples .

( 1 ) A ma n hour find s tha t the wind

tr avelling E as t at 8 m iles an
s eems to blow dir ectl fr o m the Nor th On doubling his speed he find s
y .

tha t it appea r s to come fr om N E F i nd the velocity of the wind . . .

L et i, repr esent v elociti e s of 8 mile s a n hour toward E a nd N

j . .

r especti v ely Th en th e ori gi nal velo city o f th e man is i Let th a t

. .

o f th e wi nd be x i + i Th en th e v elocity of t h e wi nd r elativ e t o th e
y .

man is
( x i yj ) i
.

B ut this is fr om th e N , a nd is t h er efor e p a r a llel t o j Hence v 1

. .

Wh en th e man doubles his speed th e velocity of th e wi nd relativ e

. .

t o him is
( ti +
a gi)
—2i .

B ut this is fr om NE . .
,
and is th er efor e pa rallel to H ence

y = x —2 —1 .

Th u s th e v elo city of th e wi nd is i j , whi h c is equiv alent to 2 mile s

a n h ou r from N W .

( 2) If two c
con ur r ent for ces a r e r e r es ented
p by n 0A a nd m OB .

r espectivel
y, their r es ulta nt is given by ( m + n) OR, wher e R divides AB
30 W
By r efer ence to Fig . 9 it will be s een th a t
0A OR RA,

OB OR RB .

Hence th e r esultant o f th e forces n OA a nd m OB is

(n RA + m RB ) .

And th e la st p art of thi s ex pr ession is ze o r be cau s e R di v i des AB in

th e r a ti o m n .

(3) P I P 2 , , Pn ar e n points dividing the cir cumfer ence of a

cir cle into it equa l par ts . F ind the r es u lta nt of for ces r epr esented

by AP I, AP 2 , AP ” wher e A is ,
an
y point, not neces sar ily in
the pla ne of the cir cle .

B y th e pr ecedi ng Ar t th e r es ulta nt is r epres ented by n AG, . .

w h er e G is th e centr oi d o f th e poi nts P I, P 2 , Pn And by .

symm etry G coi nci des with th e c entr e 0 of th e circle .

( 4) A par ticle by a nu mber of centr es of for ce, some of

is a cted on

which a ttr act a nd s ome r epel, the for ce in ea ch case va rying a s the dis ta nce ,
WV A . . .
B
18 VE CTOR A N ALY SIS [C E

a nd the intens ities s being differ ent Sh ow tha t the

f di
fi er en t cen t
or
r e .

c le
r es u lta nt d a ll pos iti ons of th e pa r ti
pa s s es thr ough a fi x e
p oin t f or
.

t o s e Of
L et P b e th e po siti on o f th e pa r ticle a nd O 0 , h
th e c ent r es o f fo rce Th e f o rc es o n th e pa r ticle du e t o th e di ff er ent
.

c entr es ar e r epr es ented by

M1 P0 1, M2 P OZ, et c .
,

wh er e M 1 , M2 , ar econsta nt s positiv fo th e centr es th a t a ttract

,
e r

and nega tive fo r th os e th a t r epel Th e r esulta nt force on th e .

r ic
pa t le is
M1 ¢ P0 1 + M2 0 P0 2 + 0 o v '
) PG ’

wh e re G is th e
c entr oi d o f th e p ints 0 0 O with a ss ociated o 1, 2, 3,
num b ers M M I,
r es pectiv ely And th is is a fi x ed poi nt ind epen
2; .

d ent o f th e positi o n o f P .

E XE R CISE S ON CHAPTE R I .

1 Find th e s u m o f th e e to 3 i + 7 i —4k , i —5j v c rs —

8k and
)
6i —2j + 1 2k
.

s c c
Al o al u la e th e m o dule a nd d e o n
. t ir cti cosines of

c
ea h .

2 . If th e po siti o n
v ectors o f P and Q a r e i 3 j 7k a nd bi 2i 4k

r esp ectively fi nd P Q a nd d et er mi ne its dir e ction cosines

,
.

3 If th e v ertic es of a tri a ngle ar e th e p oi nts

.

a 1i + a 2 i + a 3k , b1 i + bzi b3 k a nd cli ez i c 3k ,

t v e ctors d e ter mined by its si d es Find th e lengths of

’

wh a ar e th e
th es v ctors
e e .

4 . Th e posi ti on vectors of th e f ou r poi nt s A B C , , ,

D ar e

a, b, 23 . 3b a nd a
-

2b r esp ectively .

E x pr e ss AC , D B B C ,
a nd C A in t er m s o f a a nd b .

5 If a b a r e t h e ve cto rs d et e r mi ned by two a dj a ce nt si des of

.
,

a r e ula r h ex a o n, w h a t a r e th e v ecto rs d et ermi ne d b t r

g g y th e o h e
si d es tak en in o rd er
A point d escr ibe s a circle u nifo r mly in th e i
6 .

, j pla ne taking
1 2 s e cond s to com plet e o ne r e voluti on If it s i niti a l p o siti on vector .

r ela tive to th e centr e is i, a nd th e ro ta tion is fro m i to j fi nd the ,

po siti o n v ect ors a t th e end o f 1 , 3 , 5, 7 s e c o nd s ; a ls o a t th e end

of a nd 4t s ec o nd s
h .

7 In th e pr ev i ou s
. ex e rcis e fi nd th e velo city vectors of th e moving
po i nt at th e end o f 3 a nd 7 s e co nd s .
I.
] EXE RCISE S ON C H AP TE R I . 19

8 . v elocity of a boat r ela tiv e to t h e wa t er is r epr es ent ed by

Th e
3 i + 4i a nd th a t of t h e wa ter r ela tiv e to th e ea r th by i 3 i
, Wh a t .

is th e v elocity of th e boat r ela tive to t h e ea rth if i a nd j r epr esent

velociti es of one mile an h our E a nd N r espe ctiv ely . .

9 Tw o p a rticles a r e m o vi ng w ith th e s a m e sp eed v

. o ne

a long a fix ed di a m eter o f a circ le a nd t h e o th er r ou nd its circu m

fer enc e Find th e v elocity of th e fi rst r ela tiv e to th e s econd wh en

.

th e r a di u s to th e la tt er m a k es a n a ngle 9 with th e dir e cti o n o f

m oti o n o f th e for m er 9 incr ea s ing [Assu me t h a t va ria ble v elociti e s
, .

obey th e s a m e la w o f c omp osit i on a s u nif o r m v lo ci ti es Cf Ar t e . . .

1 0 Two p a r ticle s i nst a nt a neou sly a t A a nd B r es pectiv ly

.
,
e ,

1 5 f eet a pa r t a e m oving with unifo r m v elo citi es th e for m er towa r d

,
r ,

B at 5 a nd t h e la tt er
per pendi cula r to A B a t as it /s ec . .

Find th eir r ela tiv e v elo city th eir sh ortest dista nce a p a rt a nd th e , ,

i nsta nt w h en th ey ar e nea r est .

1 1 Fi nd th e s um of th e th r ee v e ctors d eter m i ned by th e d ia gona ls

.

of thr ee a dj a c ent fa c es o f a cu be pa ssi ng th r o u gh th e s a m e c or ne r ,

t h e v ect o rs b ei ng dir e cted fro m th at c o rner .

1 2 A p a rticle a t th e cor ner of a cub e is a ct ed o n by fo rc es 1

. ,

2 3 lb wt r esp ectiv ely a long th e dia go na ls o f th e f c e s o f t h e

,
. . a

cube wh ich m eet at th e pa rticle Fi nd th eir r esulta nt . .

1 3 Fi nd t h e h ori z o nt al f orc e a nd t h e fo rce incli ned a t 60 to th e

°
.

v ertical wh o s e r esulta nt is a vertical forc e P lb wt

,
. .

1 4 If th e r esu ltant of t w o forc es is e qu a l in m a gni tud e t o o ne o f

.

th e co m ponent s a nd p er pendi cula r t o it in dir ecti o n fi nd th e o th e r

“

, ,

component .

1 5 Two fo rc es a c t at t h e corner A o f a q u a dri la ter a l A B C D

’
. ,

r epr es ent ed by AB a nd A D ; a nd two at 0 r epr es ented by OB

a nd CD Sh o w th a t th eir r esu lta nt is r epr es nted b y 4P Q w h er e
.
e ,

P Q a r e the mid p oi nt s o f AC B D r sp ectiv ely

, ,
e .

1 6 Fi nd th e c m of pa rticles of m a ss e s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 gr a ms
. . .
, , , , , , ,

resp ectively pla ced at th corners o f a u nit cube t h e fi rst four a t

,
e ,

th e corners A B C D of o ne fa c e a nd th e la st fo ur a t th eir pr o j ec
, , , ,

t ions A B C D r esp e ct iv ely on th e o pp osite f a ce

’ ’ ’ ’
.
, , ,

1 7 Fi nd th e centroi d of th e 3 n poi nts i 2i 3 i

.
ni j 2i 3 j , , , , , ,

18 . Fiv e force s
vertex A of a r egula r h ex agon in th e
act a t o ne

d ir ecti o ns o f th e oth er v ertic es a nd pr oporti onal to th e dista nc es ,

of th os e v ertic es fr o m A Fi nd th eir r es ulta nt .

.
20 V E C TOR AN ALY SIS [GEL I .

19 . If 0 is th e circumcentr e an d 0
’
th e o rth o c entr e of a r
t ia n gle

a nd
'

AB C pr ov e th a t t h e su m of th e v ctors
e 0 A, OB ,
00 is 00
,

th a t t h e su m of OA O B O C
'
,
’

, is 2 ' '

O B, O C
’ ’
AO
'

20 . In t h e pr evi ou s ex ercis e s h o w th a t th e s u m of ,

is AD ,
wh e r e AD
circum circle is a dia met er of th e .

2 1 D E F a e th e m id point s o f th e sid e s of th e tri a ngle A B C

.
, , r , , .

Sh o w t h t f ny point 0 th e sys t em o f c o nc u rr e nt fo rc es r epr e

a ,
or a ,

s ent ed by 0 A 0 B 0 0 i quivalent t o th e syst em r epr es ented

, ,
s e

by 0 D OE OF a cti ng a t t h e s a m e point
, ,
.

2 2 If a b ar e t h e po siti o n v e ct rs o f A B r e sp e ctiv ely fi nd

.
,
o , ,

th a t o f point C in A B pr o du c ed s u ch th a t AC 3 AB
a a nd th at =

of a
poi nt D in B A pro du ced s u ch t h a t B D 2 B A
=
.

23 A B C ar e fi x ed poi nts a nd P a va ri a ble poi nt s uch th at the

.
, ,

r esultant of forces a t P r epr e sent ed by P A a nd P B always passes

th r o u gh 0 Fi nd th e lo cu s of P .

24 AB C is a tri a ngle a nd P a ny p oi nt in B C
. If PQ is the .

r esultant of AP P B P C th e lo cu s of Q is a str aigh t line parallel

, , ,

to B C .

25 . Pr ov e th a t t h e m a gnitu d e of th e r esultant of a n
y nu mbe r of

forces P I, P 2 , P 3 is given by
R2 ZP Z 2 EP , P , cos (P r
Ps) .

26 Fo rc es P , Q a c t a t 0 and h a v e a
. r esulta nt R . If a ny trans
v ersa l cuts th eir lines of a cti on at A , B , C r esp e ctively , Sh ow th a t

R
5 ,
Q '

0A 0B 00
27 B et w e en a ny
. four non copla na r v e ct ors th er e ex ists one -

a nd o nl y
o ne , linea r r elati on .

2 8 P a rticles o f e qua l m a ss a e pla c ed a t ( n 2 ) o f th e co rners of

. r

a r e ul r
g poly go n o f n sid s
a Find t h ir c m e . e . .

29 A li ne AB is bis cted in P I P B in P 2 P B in P a nd so
. e , l
2 3 , ,

1 1
o n d infi nitum
a a nd
pa rticle s wh os e m a ss es a r e m 2 m etc
2 2
.
, , ,
2

a r e pla c ed a t t h e
points P I P P et c Pr o v e th at t h e dista nce of, 2, 3, .

t h ir c m fr o m B is e q u al t o o n e th ir d o f th e di stanc e fr o m A to B
e . .
-

.
 II , 1 6]

CH AP TE R Z
H .

E L E ME NTAR Y GE OME TR ICAL ILLU STR ATIONS

AND APPLICATIONS .

1 5 In
. the present ch a pter we sh a ll cons id er th e v e cto r equ ati on
o f a s tr a ight line one f o r m of v e ct or equ a ti on for a pla ne a nd
, ,

the qua ntity calle d v ecto r a r ea In c onnecti on with th e fi rst.

”

of th es e s om e e x a m ple s a r e ta k en fr o m ele m e nta ry p la ne ge o m etry

, .

This h o wev er is m er ely for the pur p o s e o f i llu str a ti ng th e vecto r

, ,

m eth od a nd not with th e i nt enti on of rec omm ending th e u s e o f

,

v ect o rs in ele m ent a ry ge om etry V ect o rs w e r e d e signe d es senti

a lly for three —
.

dim ens i o na l c a l
c ulations 5 a nd th e a u th o r
e x plicitly dis o wns any a ttem pt
t o rec omm end their u s e in
elem enta ry two dim ensiona l -

problem s es peci ally

,
of

geom etry .

16 . Vec tor equation of a

s traigh t line . To fi nd the

F IG 1 5
. .

the s tr a ight
v ector equa tion o f
line thr ough a given point A pa r a llel to a giv en vector b .

If P is p oint on this str a ight line th e v e ct or AP is p a ra llel

a

t o b a nd is ther e f ore equ a l t o tb where t is s om e re a l nu m b e r

, ,

p o sitiv e for p oints on one s id e of A a nd nega tiv e for p oints ,

on the oth e r v a ryin g fr om p oint t o p o i nt

,
Thus if a is the .
,

p os ition v ector of A th a t of P is ,

r = 0P =
0 A + AP
—a + th
22 V E C TOR AN A L Y SHS L [C H H~

And i ce any p oint on th e giv en stra ight line h as a p os iti o

S n

v ect or repre s ente d by this e u a ti on fo r s om e v a lu e of t we s pe a k

q ,

of ( 1 ) a s the v ect o r eq u a ti on of th e str a i ght line It is als o .

clea r th at for all v alu es o f t th e p oi nt a + tb lies on the giv en line .

Cor . The v ector equ ati on of th e str a ight line through the origin
p a r allel to b is ( 2)
[If ( 90 y z ) a nd ( a “ a ) a r e th e c o o r dina tes o f P a nd A
, , l, 2, s

res pectiv ely referred to rectangula r a x es thr ough the o rigin 0 ,

while b i bzi + b k th e a bov e e qua tion may be written

=
a ,

x i + yi + zk =
a 1i + a 2 i + a 3k + t ( b1 i + bzi + b3k ) .

Then equating co effi cients of lik e v e cto rs

,
on o ppos ite s id es of

thi s equa ti on we d edu ce the r ela tio ns

— —
,

1;
5 a1 y z a

bl b2 b3
which ar e the o rdinary equ ati ons of co o rdin ate geometry for
the s t raight line thr ough the p oint ( a a 2 a 3 ) with direction l, ,

cos ines pr op orti onal to ( b, 6 63 1 ] , 2,

To fi nd the v ect or equa ti on of the s tr a i ght line p a ss ing thr ough

the p oints A a nd B wh o se p os iti on v e ctors a r e a and b we
, ,

F IG 1 6
. .

ob s erv e tha t AB b a =
so th a t th e s tra ight line is one through
the p oint A p a r allel to b 3 . Its v ecto r equa ti on is the r efor e
r a i( h a )
or r =
(1 ( 3)
[If ( a l ,
a 2, a s ) and ( b1 62 63 )
co o r dina te s of A and B
, ar e th e
,

w e find as ab o v e th a t th e equ a ti on ( 3 ) is equi v a lent t o the rela ti ons

— —
z

bl al 62 — 01 2 bs a3
24 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS [e rr 11 .

This is the requi red equa ti on of the bis ector the v alu e of t v a rying ,

a s P m ov e s a lon
g the lin e .

Th e bi s ecto r OP of the su pplem enta ry angle B OA is the

' ’

bi s ecto r of th e angle b etween stra ight line s whos e directi ons

ar e th o s e of a a nd — b a nd its equa ti on is there f o re

r t( a b) .

1 8 Th e Triangle
. .

( i ) The inter na l bis ec tor of the an

gle A o
f a tr ia ngle A B C divides
the s ide B C in the r a tio AB AC .

L et A B c = a nd AC b =
Th e n .
, w th A i as o rigi n, th e i nternal
bis ecto r o f th e a n le A is t h e li ne
g

)
c

b c

was ,

w her e a ccording to our usu al not a ti on b is th e modu le of b and b the

, , ,

corresponding unit v ector Givi ng t th e value . we s ee that

F IG 1 8
. .

s ector pa ss es th rou gh th e point

t h e bi which is the
c entroid of th poi nts B a nd C with a ss o ci a ted numbers 6 a nd 0
e

respectively a nd th er efore lies 1 11 B C dividi ng it in th e ratio 0 : b or

, ,

4 B : AC H nc e th e th eo rem
e .

Sim ila rly t h e ex t erna l bis ector o f th e a n le A is th e str ai h t li ne

g g

wh ich p ass es th r ough th e poi nt ( be c ) .

 1 8 , 1 9] GE OME T I R CAL APPL ICATION S 25

This poi nt is centroi d o f B and C with a ssocia ted numbers

th e
b a nd c, a nd d ivi d es BC ex t er na lly in t h e r a ti o AB AC .

( ii ) Th e inter na l bisector s of th e a ngles o

f a tr ia ngle a r e concur r ent .

Th e point P a t which th e i nt er nal bisector of th e a ngle A cut s

B C is th e c entr oi d of B a nd C with a ss oci a t ed nu mb ers b a nd c .

Th e c entr oi d o f th e th r ee p oi nts A B C w ith a ss oci a ted nu mb ers , ,

a, b 0 th er e for e li es o n AP a nd d ivi d es it in th e r a ti o ( b + c) a
,
.

B ut by symm etry thi s poi nt m ust a ls o lie on th e bis ectors of th e

a n les a t B a nd C H enc e t h e bis e cto rs ar e concu rr ent a t thi s
g .

c ntr oi d
e .

Simila rly it m a y b e sh o w n th a t th e i nt er na l bis ector o f A a nd

th e ex ter na l bis e ctors o f B and
C ar e concurr ent at th e centr oi d
o f th e poi nts A B C w ith a ss o ci

b —c r es pec
, ,

a t ed num b ers a , ,

tiv ely .

(iii ) Th e media ns of a tr ia ngle

ar e concur r ent .

L et D E , F be th e m id poi nt s
,

of th e si d es of th e tri a ngle Th en .

D is th e centr oi d o f B a nd C ;
a nd th e c entr o id of th e t h r ee
F IG 1 9 . .

poi nts A, B , C th erefor e lies on

A D a nd di v i d es it in th e r a ti o 2 1 And by sym m etry th is poi nt .

a ls o li es o n t h e o th er m ed i a ns , a nd is a co m m o n poi nt o f t ris e ctio n .

It is w ell kno w n th a t th is point

is a ls o th e centr oi d of a r ea of th e
tri angle AB C .

19 . Th e Tetr ah edr on .

(i ) Th e j oins of the mid points of

oppos ite edges o
f a tetr a hedr on inter
s ect a nd bis ect ea ch oth er .

Th e m id po i nt of D A is th e c en
tr oid o f D a nd A Th e mid point .

ofB C is th e c entr oi d o f B a nd C .

H enc e th e poi nt of bis ecti o n of th e

li ne j o i ni ng th es e mid poi nts is th e
c entroid of th e four points A B , C , ,

D And by sym metry t his c entr oid

.

F IG 2 0 ' °
is a lso th e point of bisection of th e
If
li ne s j oi ni ng th e mid p oi nts o f th e oth er p airs o f o pp o sit e si d es .

Th e f rm
o u la of fi
Ar t 9 , d e ning th e po s itio n o f th e
.
r
ce nt o id , is to a pply

r th br v
.

e a ti v e
wh eth e a s so c ia te d nu m e s a r e po s iti e o r n g
.
e
26 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [OIL 11 .

a, b,c ar e th e positi on vectors o f A B C r esp ectiv ely r elativ e to D,

th is common poi nt of inters ection i i—
, ,

(a b s

( ) The lines j oining th e

11 v er tices o
f a tetr a h edr on to the centr oids
o
f a r ea of the oppos ite fa ces a r e concur r ent .

Th e centroi d of ar ea N of th e f ce AB C is th e centr oid of the a

th r ee poi nts A B C Henc e th e centroid of th e four points A B C D

, , . , , ,

lies on AN a nd divi d es it in t h e r a t io 3 1 And by symmetry this .

is als o a poi nt of qua dris ection of th lines j oi ni ng th e oth er v ertices e

t o t h e cent roi d s o f a r e o f th e o ppo site f ce s

a a .

It is w ell kno wn th a t thi s p i nt f int ers e ct i on is als o th e centroid

o o

o f v olume o f th e t etr a h ed r n o .

Other wis e Th e l st two th eo rem s m a y be prov ed by means

. a

o f th e v ecto r equa tio ns o f t h straigh t lines th us : R elativ e to D

e ,

a s o rigi n th e mid p oi nts o f D A a nd B C ar e éa a nd and ,

t h e e qua tion of th e str a igh t line pa ssing th rough th es e p oi nts is

Si mi larly th e strai gh t line th rou gh th e mid points of D B and CA is

tb (c a)
2
+ u ‘

)
2

Th es e str ai gh t lines will i nterse ct if r eal v alues of s t can be found ,

which giv e i dentical v alu es fo r Thi s r equir es th e coeffici ents of

r .

lik e v ectors to be equa l in th e tw o ex pr essi o ns ie

— 1— —
. .

s =
1 t; s = t; 1 —s =
1 t,

wh ich ar e s a tisfi ed by s t H enc e th e li nes i nters ect at the

=

p oi nt fla b 0 )
Agai n th e centroi d of a rea o f A B C s t h e poi nt }( a b c ) ; and the i
, .

li ne j oi ning D to this point h a s th e equ a ti o n

Als o th e centroid of a rea of D AC is th e poi nt —( a + 0 ) l

, a nd th e l ne i
j oining this to B is
r =
a + u n — a c .

3
Th es e two li nes inters ect at t h e po n for w i t hich s t 1 ; that = = ~

is th e p oi nt r
F o m th e mme sy try of this r esult the
s econd th eor em follow s .

20 Vector equation of a plane

. .

1 ) To fi nd the vector equ a tion o f the p la ne thr ou h the or i in

g g
par a llel to a a nd b .

If P is a ny p oint on the pla ne its p ositi o n v ector OP is c oplanar

 1 9 , 20] EQ UATION OF PLAN E 27

with a and b and may theref o re be r e s olved i nto c omp onents

,

par allel to the s e a nd ex pre s s e d in the fo rm

r =
sa + tb,

F IG 21
. .

w here s, bers whi ch v a ry a s the p oint P mov es ov er the

t ar e num

plane . Any p oint on the pla ne is giv en by ( 1 ) for som e v alu e s of

s and t and for all v alu es of the s e v a ri a bles th e p oi nt s a + ih lie s

on the gi v en pla ne We may therefo re s p eak of ( 1 ) as the v ector

.

e quati on of the giv e n p la ne .

( 11 ) To find the vector equa tion of the p la ne th r ough the point C

p ar a llel to a a nd b
.

connecting th em
F IG 2 2
. .

Let 0 be the p ositi on v e ctor of C,

B ’ O’ D 18
the giv en plane The v ector . CP is c op
’

may theref ore be wr itten

i) d , ( 2)
i is a va ri able number positiv e ,

OP =
sa
4 th e o pp o si t e si de of th e ori gi n

a s In the pr ev 10 us cas e ’

w ill be f ound in Ar t 43
. on . .
 28 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [OH . 11 .

r =
0P =
OC + CP

Thi s is th e requir ed equa ti on to the plane the number s 3 t , ,

v a ryin m v e s o ver th e p la ne And no p o int off the plans

'

g a s P o .

c an be repre s e nte d by

To find the eq ua ti on o f th e pla ne thr ough the th r ee p oints

A B 0 wh os e p os iti on v e cto rs a r e a b c we ob s erv e th a t
, , , , ,

AB =
b — a a nd AC =
c -
a ;

F IG 2 3
. .

Jl
so th a t the plane is one th r ough A p a ra llel to b a and 0 — 3 .

s equa ti on is theref o re
"

li ne . r =
a +s (b —a )
r =
(1 — s

th e 0}
d (3) inv olv e e a ch two v a ria ble numbers
ations ( l ) ( 2)
,
an

j ommg thi s a na lo oug s to the equ a tio ns of the lines c ons idered
h is for m of the equ a tion
f or a p la ne is not, however ,
Th es e i s
iuor is it the mos t convenient
two l ne Ano ther will be .

is th e 100 t H8 + b r r the sca la r pr oduct o f t wo v ectors h as been

e

s econd th eor em follows .

20 Vector equation of ac P in Fig 2 3 a r e c op la na r

. ) . a nd if the
( )1 T o fi nd th e vector equ g th eir p o siti on v ect or s is w ritten
pa r a llel to a a nd b . sb to r 0,
H P is a ny p oint 0 11 the pla ne h e a l eb a r ic s um of the coeffi cients
g
 20 2 1 ], GE OME T I A R C L APPL ICATION S 29

of the v ector s Is z er o This is the necess a r y and s ufi cient condition

.

tha t fou r points s h ou ld be cop la na r * Th a t it is necessary ha s j us t .

been pr ov ed It is als o su ffi cient ; for a s s um i ng th e conditi on

.
,

s a ti s fi e d in a li ne a r rela ti on betwee n r a b a nd c b
y m akin g the , , ,

c o effi cie nt of r unity a nd d e no tin

g th o s e of b a nd c bv s a nd t
, ,

we obtain the r ela ti on in the f orm

r =
s b + tc ——t) a
s ,

S h owing th at P p oint in the plane AB C

is a .

2 1 As a n ex am p le o f th e u s e o f th is fo r m of th e v e cto r
. e
qu a ti o n
of a pla n e c o nsi d er t h e follo wi ng

Ify point 0 within a tetr a hedr on A B C D is j oined to th e ver tices ,

an

a nd AO, B 0 , C O, D O a r e pr od uced to c ut th e oppo site fa ces in P , Q R , 8 ,

r espec tively , th en 2 1
T
:
.

AP

Wi th 0 a s ori gin let th e posi ti on v ectors of A B C D be a b c (1 , , , , ,

r es pectiv ely o ne of th e s e v e ct ors m a y be ex pr ess ed in t r m s

.
- e

F IG 2 4
. .

of th er th r ee s o th a t t h ere is
th e o ,
a linea r r ela ti on connecting th em
which m a y be w ri t t en
la mb nc + p d O
.

Th e vecto r equati on of th e plane th r ough B, C D , is

-
s —t) a , ( 2)
while th e l ne OP i r ua , w h e e u is = r is a va ri a ble num ber positiv e ,

for pi s
o nt o f t h e l ne w h h lie on t h e i ic oppo sit e si d e o f t h e o ri gi n

An e q iv u a le nt cond it io n will be f ound in Ar t 4 3 . .

30 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS [C H 11 .

of
to A In v irtu e of th e relati on ( 1 ) w e ma y writ e th e e qua ti on.

OP as
u
( mb no pd) ( 3)
l
.

Th is line interse cts th e plane B C D a t a poi nt for w hi ch ( 2) and ( 3)

giv e i d entic al v lu e s for r a nd si n c eab c d a r e no n—co pla na r v ectors
, , ,

th is r equir es y nu
n
a

l
;
l
; l — s
l

F r o m t h es e , by a dd iti on , we h a v e u =
l/( m n + p) , sh owi ngt hat
th e r a ti o
OP u l
AP 1 +u l+ m + n + p

Th e th er ratio s m ay be wri tten down by cyclic permutati on

o of

th e symbols a nd th eir su m is obv iou sly equ al t o uni ty

,
.

22 Linear
. relati on independent of th e or igin .

Th e necess a r y a nd s ufficient condition tha t a linear r elation ,

f y number of fix ed points s ho uld

connecting the pos ition v ector s o a n ,

be independent of the or igin is tha t the a lgebr a ic s u m of the coefiicients,

is zer o .

L et a, , a 2, be the p o sitio n v ectors of the fix ed p oints

a

Al A2, ,
An rela tiv e to an origin 0 and let th e line ar relation ,

be wri tten
Z
ol a 1 +I
c2a 2 =
0 .
( 1)
L et 0
’
be
th er p oint wh o se p os ition v ecto r is 1 ( Fig
a no

Then if 0 is ta k en as origin of v ector s the p oint Am is am —

.

’
l; ,

a nd in or d er th a t the re la ti on ( 1
) s h ould h old for the new origin
a ls o we mus t h av e

—
,

k1 ( a1.
_l +
) k2 ( a z —l) ‘
l ‘
+ kn a n ( 1) =
0,
which ,
in v irtu e of redu ce s to
+ kn = o .
( 2)
Th e conditi on is theref ore necess a r y It is a ls o s ufi cient ; for .

if ( 2 ) holds ea ch v ect o r in ( 1 ) m a y be di mi nis he d by the s ame

,

constant v ecto r 1 and the equ a tion will s till be tru e H ence the
, .

r ela tion will h o ld with O a s origin '

.

23 Vector areas
. Cons id e r the type of v ect o r qu a ntity whose
.

m a gni tu d e is a n a re a Su ch a q u a ntity is a ss o cia ted with each

.

pla ne figure th e m a gnitu d e b eing the a rea of the fi gur e and the
,
,

d irection th a t o f the nor mal t o the p la ne o f the fi g u re This .

32 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [OH .

Wh en th e a reas a r e th o s e of th e fa ce s of a s olid fi gu re they

a r e r e a r d ed a s p o sitiv e rela tiv e t o t h e ou tw a r d d r a wn no r m als
g
.

Henc e th e v e ct o r a rea s of the fa c e s will b e r e pr e s ented by v ectors

in th e d ir e cti ons of th e no rm a ls d r a wn ou tw a r d .

Th eorem . Th e su m of the v ector a r ea s f

o the fa ces of a closed

p oly hedr on is z er o .

Consi d er th e a r ea s pr oj ectio ns o f the fa c e s on any fix ed

of th e
p la ne Som e of th es e a r e p o sitiv e a nd s ome n ega tiv e for some
.

o f th e f a ces h a ve th eir ou t w a r d no r m a ls di r e cte d fr o m th e plane ,

a nd o th ers t o w a r d the p la ne B u t th e s u m o f the a re as of the

.

pr oj e cti ons of th e fo rm er is equ al in ma gnitu d e to tha t of the

la tte r for ea ch s u m is e qu a l t o th e a r ea enclo s e d by the proj ection
o f th e ( s k e w ) p oly on c om p o s e d o f th o se e d ge s o f the p olyhe dron
g
wh ich s ep a r at e the f o rm er f a ces fr o m the la tter H ence the .

s u m o f th e a re a s of the pr o j e cti ons of a ll the fa ce s is z er o and

theref ore the pr oj ecti on of the s u m of the v e cto r a reas is z ero .

And Sin c e thi s is tru e for a ny p la ne of pr oj e cti on the s um of the ,

v e ct or a r ea s is i d entic ally z er o .

E XE R CISE S ON CHAPTE R II .

P r o v e th e follo wi ng by v ector m eth o ds

1 . Th e di a go na ls of a pa r a llelo gr a m bis e ct ea ch oth e r Con .

v er s ely , if t h e d ia gona ls o f a qu a d rilat er al bis ect ea ch oth er it is a

pa r a llelogr a m .

j i
2 Th e o n o f t h e mid o n
. p i ts Si d e s Of a tri a n le is p arallel
of t w o g
to r s f t
t h e th i d id e , a nd o f h a l its leng h .

3 Th four di a go na ls of a pa r a llelepip ed a nd th e j oi ns of the

. e
,

mid poi nts o f oppo sit e ed ges a r e co ncu rr ent a t a common point ,

o f bis e ct ion .

4 In . skew qu adrila tera l th e j oins of th e mid points of opposite

a

ed es bis e ct ea ch t h er Als o if t h e m id poi nts o f th e si des be

g o .
,

j oin d in or der th e fi gur e s o form ed is a p ar a llelogr a m

e , .

5 Sh ow t h at th s u m o f t h e t h r ee v ecto rs d eter mi ned b the

e
y
.

m edi a ns of a tria ngle d ir ct ed fro m th e v ertice s is z er o

e .

6 Th e th r e poi nts w h o s e p o sitio n v e cto rs a r e a b a nd 3 a 2b are

. e
,

colli near .

7 A B OD is a pa r a llelo gr a m a nd O th e p oi nt of i ntersection
'

o f Its d i a gonals Sh o w th a t fo a ny or i i n not ne cess ari ly in the

.

g ( r
 1L ] EXE RC ISE S ON C H AP TE R II . 33

plane of th e fi gur e) th e s u m of th e po siti o n v e ctors o f th e v ertices

is equa l to four ti me s th a t of O .

8 Wh a t is t h e v ect or e q u at i on o f th e str a i gh t li ne t h r ou gh t h e
.

points i —2j + 1: a nd 3k 2j
Fi nd wh er e t his li ne cut s th e plane th r ough th e ori gi n a nd th e
poi nts 41 a nd 2i + k
’

9 No t w o lin es j oi ni ng p oi nts in two no n OOpla nar str a i gh t line s

.
,
-

can b e p a r allel .

1 0 If M N a e th e m id poi nts o f th e Si d es A B C D of a par allelo

.
,
r ,

gr a m AB C D D M a nd B N c u t th e di a gona l A C a t its poi nt s Of

,

tris ectio n w hich a e a ls o po i nts o f tris e cti o n f D M a nd E N r es pec

,
r o

tiv ely .

11 . Th r ee concurr ent str ai gh t lines

OA OB OC a r e pr o d u c ed , ,

to D E F , ,
r esp ectively Pr ov e th at
th e po i nts o f i nt ers e cti o n o f .

AB and D E B C a nd E F CA a nd F D a r e collinea r
conv ers e of th e last ex ercis e—th a t if th e poi nts of
, .
,

12 . Pr ov e th e
i nters ecti on a r e r eal a nd colli near th en D A E B F C a concurr ent , , ,
re .

1 3 Th e i nter na l bis e ct or of on e a ngle of a tri a ngle a nd th e

. t er na l ,
ex

bis ectors o f th e ot h er t w o a e co ncurr ent ,

r .

1 4 Th e m id p oi nts o f t h e Six edges of a cub e whi ch d o not m eet a

.

particula r di a go na l ar e co pla na r .

1 5 Th e Six pla nes wh ich co nta i n o ne ed ge a nd bis e ct th e o pposite

.

I
e d e o f a t etra h ed r o n m eet in a poi nt
g .

1 6 If t wo p a r a llel pla nes a e c ut by

. t hir d pla ne th e lines o f r a
f
inte s ection ar e pa r a llel
r .

1 7 If a t etr a h edr on is c ut by a pla ne pa r a llel to t wo o pposit e

.

e dges th e s e cti on is a p a r a llelo gr a m .

1 8 If a str a i gh t li ne is d r a w n pa r a llel to t h e ba s e of a tri ngle

.
a ,

t h e li ne j o i ning th e v er t ex to th e int ers e ctio n o f th e dia go na ls o f

t h e tr a p e iu m s o f or m ed bis e ct s th e ba s e o f t h e tria ngle
z .

1 9 Th e str a igh t lines th r ou gh th e mid point s o f t h r ee co pla na r

.

ed ges o f a tetr a h edr n ea ch pa r a llel to t h e line j oi ning a fi d point 0

o ,
x e

t o th e mid po i nt o f th e o ppo sit e ed ge a e concurr ent t a poi nt P ,

r a ,

such th a t OP is bis ect ed by th e centr oid ( of volu m e) of th e tetra

h edr on .

si
20 U ng t h e e t o e qu a io n of a
.
a gh v c r
line Sh o w th a th e t str i t , t
i ts
mid po n o f th e dia go na l of a o mplet e q ua d ila t e a l a r e o llinea s c r r c r
a nd a l o e s st
a bl h th e h a m o n o pe is
o f th e fi gu e r ic pr rty r .
 C H AP TE R III .

PR OD U CTS OF T WO VE CTOR S . TH E P L ANE

AND TH E SPH ER E .

24 . Fr omthe na tu re of a v ector a s a quantity inv olv ing ,

directi on a s well a s m a gnitud e it is i m p oss ib le t o s a y it pr i or i

,

wh at the produ ct of two v ector s ought to be B ut by ex amining .

the wa ys in w hich tw o v e cto r qu a ntiti es enter in to co mbination

in Physics a nd Mech a nics we a r e led t o d efi ne tw o di stinct kinds
of pr o du cts th e o ne a nu m b e r a nd th e o ther a v ect or
,
E ach .

of these pr od u cts is j oi ntly pr o p orti ona l t o the m o d ule s o f the

two vect o rs ; an d e a ch fo llo ws th e d istribu tive law th a t the ,

pr odu ct of a with b + c is equ al to the s um of the pro ducts

of a w ith b a nd o f a w ith 0 We b o rr o w fr om a lgeb ra the term
.

mu ltip lica tion for the pro c e ss by which a pr odu ct is f ormed

fr om two vectors a nd these ar e called the fa ctor s of the pr oduct .

Th e Sc ala r or Dot P roduct .

25 . Sc ala r q u a ntities frequ ent o ccu rr ence which depend

a r e of ,

ea ch u p on tw o v e ct o r q ua ntiti e s in s u ch a w a a s to be j ointly
y
pr op orti ona l to their m agnitu d e s a nd to the c o si ne of their
m u tua l i ncli na ti on An ex am p le O
. f s u ch is the w o rk d one by a
f o rce du ring a disp la cem ent of th e b ody a cted up on We there .
‘

f o re find it c o nv eni ent to a do pt the f o llo wing

Defi ni ti on Th e s ca la r pr odu ct of two vector s 3 a nd b whose
.
.
,

dir ections a r e inclined a t a n a ngle 9 is th e r ea l nu mber a b cos 9

, ,

a nd is wr itten
a °b = a b c os 9 =
b °
a .

An r v
a lte na ti e n o t a tio n f o r th e s c a la r pr od uc t is ( ab ) .

34
 24, 25] TH E S CALAR OR D OT PR ODUCT 35

The or de r of the fa ctors may be rev ers ed with ou t altering the

v a lu
e of the pro du ct Further 6 cos 6 is th e m ea sur e of the
.
,

length of the r e solute of b in the dir ecti on o f a p os itiv e r e ti e

o n ga v ,

a cc or ding a s 9 is a cute or o btus e H ence a h is the pr odu ct of .

°

two numbers which me as ure the length of one of the

, v ec to rs
a nd the le ngth of the re s olute of

the other in its dir ecti on .

If two v ect ors a b ar e per pen ,

dicular c os 6 0 and their s c ala r

,
=
,

produ ct is z er o H ence the con

.

diti on of pe rpend icula rity of two

finite v ect ors is ex pre s s ed by
a -b 0 .

If th e v ecto rs h av e the sa me F IG 2 6
, _
dir ecti on, 9 1, a nd ab ab

—
c os = =
.

If their dir ecti ons a r e opp osite c os 6 1 a nd ab ab The , , .

s c ala r pr odu ct of an
y two unit v ect ors is e qual to the c os in e of
the angle between their directi ons .

Wh en the fa ct ors ar e equ al v ectors their s cala r pr oduct an

is c alled the s qua r e of a a nd is written Thus
,

2
a

the s qua re of a v ector being thus equ al to the s qua re of its module .

The s qua re of any unit v ector is unity In pa rticula r .

,

i2 j2 kz 1,

but since thes e v ector s ar e mutually p erpendicula r

ii °
=
j k °
= ki ° =
O.

Thes e rela tions will be cons tantly employed .

If either f a ct or is multip lied by a number the s c ala r prod uct ,

is multiplied by th a t num b er Fo r .

( )
na '
b = na b cos 9

Since the s cala r pr oduct is a number it may occur as th e ,

numeric a l co efii cient of a v ect o r Thus a bc ( a b) c is a v ector .

°
E '

in the dir ecti on o f c with module a bc The c ombi na ti on a b0 d -

.
° °

of fou r v ect or s is si mp ly the pr odu ct of the two number s ab

and ed
36 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [OH . 1 11 .

If r
inclined at an angle
is qt t o a , the resolu te or resolv ed
p a rt of r in the directi on of a is
r cos
¢a
H ence if r is res olv ed into two c om p onents in the plane of a and r ,

one p ar allel and the oth er p erpendicula r to a thes e c omp onents ,

ar e
—a
a t
2
. a nd r
ar
2
a
a a

res pectiv ely .

Simila rly if any v ector r is r esolv e d into c omp onents p arallel

,

t o the u nit v ecto rs i j k th e se c om p on ents ar e h i h i k r k '

, , , , ,

res pectiv ely and r is their s um Thu s

, .

r =
i ri + j
° °
rj + k r k °
.

26 Distributive Law
. . It is ea s v h ow th a t the dis t ributiv e
to s

la w of multiplic ation h olds for sc ala r produ cts th a t is ,

a -

(b c) a b
-
a o
-
.

F IG 2 7. .

L et OA, OB , B C be equal
res pectiv ely Project
to a , b , 0 .

OB B C , onOA . Then th e length of the pr oj ecti on of OC is the

gebraic
al sum o f the lengths of the proj ections of OB and BC .

Therefore
a
-

(b + c) ON =
a

a ( OM + M N
) a =
OM +a MN
a
-
b an .

R epeate d a pplic ati on of this res ult s h o ws th at the s calar

p rodu ct of two su ms of vectors m a y be ex p anded a s in ordinary
a lgebr a Thu s .

+b
 26] TH E S CALAR OR D OT P R ODUCT 37

In p a rticula r ( a b) 2 a
2
2a h °
b2 ,
while ( a +b )( -
a —b) =
a
2 —b 2 .

As ther us eful p a rticula r ca s e supp os e th a t two v ecto r s a b

a no , ,

a r e ex pre s s e d in t e r m s o f the un it v ect or s i j k Then with , ,

.
,

the usual no ta tion ,

a-b (a 1i az j bzi bak )

a l bl i 0 262
“ “

b
d a 3,

ce the s cala r pr o du ct of two perpendicula r v ect ors is

s in r
ze o .

And bec aus e the di recti on c os ines l m n o f a a r e a / a a zla , , l , , /

a3 a ,

a nd th os e l m n of b ar e bl /b bz/ b b /b it follo ws th a t
’ ' ’

, , , , 3 ,

6 mm
’ ’ ’
cos ll nu ,

where 9 is the angle between the directi ons of a a nd b.

Ex ampl es .

( 1 ) P ar ticles f ma s s es
o m1 , m2 , m3 , ar e pla ced a t the points
A , B , C, r espectivel
y, a nd G is their c . m P r ove tha t f or a ny
.

point P ,
m l AP 2 m ZBP 2 ml AG2 s G2 ( 2 m ) P G2

Ta k e G as o rigin ,
a nd s be th e po sition vector of P
let , a nd r ] , r z,

th os e of A, B , r esp ectively Th en .

z ml r 1 0
—
= .

Als o AP =
s r so th a t
Eml AP 2 2 m1 ( s 2

Ev i ls
2
28 ( Zm 1 r 1 )
°
Em l r ] 2

( Z mflP G2
Z ml AGz .

( 2) In a tetr a hedr on, i two pa ir s of oppos ite edges a r e per pendicu la r ,

f
a nd the s u m of the
the thir d pa ir a r e a ls o per pendicula r to ea ch other
s u a r es on two o
q ppos ite edges is the sa me for ea ch pa ir .

U sing t h e no at ti on of Fig 20 we h a v e A B
.
=
b — a, AC =
c — a a nd

CB =
b — c . Henc e if BD is perp endicular t o CA

W e a ) 0,

th a t is be a
'
b .

And simi larly if ,

DA is p er pendicula r to BC

a (b c) 0 '
,

th at is a b c a
°
.
38 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS [on 111 .

Th u s a
'
b b e c a,
-

w h en ce C
°

(h a ) 0,

sh owing th at D C is perpendicular t o B A .

Fur th er th e s um o f th e s qu a r es o n B D a nd
, CA is
b2 + ( c 2a -
0,

a nd , in virt ue of ( i ) , th is i s th e sa m e a s in th e oth er two cas es .

( 3 ) P r ove tha t if OW , is the mu tua l inclina tion of th e m

‘" ‘h
a nd n
, f
o

a ny four ri on co la na r s tr a i h t
f

p
-

g lines ,

1 co s 9 cos 6 c os 9
c os 6 1 c os 9 cos 624
0
c os 6 cos 9 1 cos 9
c os 6 cos 0 c os 0 1

L et a , b, c , d b e f our uni t v ectors pa r a llel to th e giv en li nes Any .

o ne o f t h es e m a y be ex pr ess ed li nea r ly in t er m s o f t h e o t h ers , s o

th at th er e is a linea r r ela ti on betw een th em wh ich ma y be written

la mb no pd 0 .

For m th e sca la r pr odu ct of ea ch si d e with a Th en, si nce . a

‘
b cos 9
a nd s o o n, w e h av e

la2 ma b na c pa d 0 ° ° '

l + m c os 9 1 2 + n cos 91 3 + p c os

Th r ee si m ilar equ tions ma y be found on f ormi ng th e scalar

a

pr o du ct of ( i ) with b c a nd d su ccessiv ely Th en eli mi nating

, .
,

l m n p fr om th es e f our e qu a t i ons w e h a v e th e r e qui r ed r es ult

, , , , .

( 4) Obliqu coo dina te x es L et a b c be u ni t v e cto rs in th e

e r a .
, ,

posi tiv e dir ecti o ns of th e a es a nd A M th eir mu tual inclinations x , , : 1/ ,

s o th a t
b e co s A on cos n a b
°
=
cos ,
=
,
'
=
v .

If x y z ar e th e o bli qu e coor di na tes o f a poi n t P its po siti on v ect or is

, ,

Th e s qu a r e of its d ist a nc e fr om th e ori gin is

2
r =
( x a + yb + z c ) 2

2 2 2
x
y +z 2yz c os 7\ cos
M 2x y c os v .

Th e s qu a r e of d ista nce b etw een tw o poi nts ( 90 ,

th e
1 y l , z l ) a nd
(v 2 , y z, )
zz is
got by putti ng a , 90 2 for x , etc , in th e a bo v e ex pr essi on . .

Th e an
gle or whi h c O
P ma kes w ith th e x -
ax is is giv en by
90 + y c os V + Z C OS u
co s a .
I
40 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [ C ir -
. 111 .

of t wo fi ni te v ecto rs . In p a rticula r ,
r x r =
0 is tr u e for all

v ecto rs .

If h ow e v e r a a nd b a r e p e rp end icula r a b is a v e ct o r wh ose

, , ,
x

m odule is a b a nd wh os e d ir e cti on is s u ch th a t a b a b f orm a

, , ,
x

right handed system o f mutu ally p e rp endicu la r vecto rs

-
.

If a b a r e bo th u nit v ect ors the m odu le o f a b is the s ine of

,

th eir a ngle of inclina tio n For th e p a rticula r unit vecto r s i j k

. , ,

we h a v e 1 1 i .
:

while i j k —j i x = = \

H m —
,

k i : w

—i k
,

k i x
=
j /
.

Thes e rela tio ns will be c o nstantly em p loyed .

If either fa cto r is m ultipli ed by a num be r their produ ct is ,

multipli ed by th a t nu m ber For .

=
ma b s in 9 n
28 Th e Distributiv e Law
. .We s hall no w sh ow th a t the
dis tri butiv e la w holds for v ect o r pr od u cts a ls o th a t is
+c ) =
ax b ax e .

Su pp o s e fi rst tha t the v ect o rs ar e no t c o p lana r and consider ,

the tri a ngula r pris m wh ose th ree p a ra llel edges h av e th e length

a nd d irecti on o f a and ,

wh os e p a ra llel ends PQR ,

P Q R a r e tri a ngula r with

’ ’ ’

there PQ b, QR c , a nd

fo re P R b + c The sum =
.

of th e v ect o r a r e a s of the

fa ces o f this clos e d poly

h ed r on is z ero ( Ar t .

B u t th e s e a r e represented
by the o u twa rd dr awn

F 29 IG .
no r m a l v ecto r s
.
ém b a nd

éb c for th e tria ngular

‘

end s a nd b a 0 3 for th e o ther f a ce s

,
x
,
x
7 Of thes e fiv e .

v e ct o rs the fi rst two a r e eq ua l in le n th bu t o pp os ite

g in d irecti on .

H enc e th e s um of the o ther thr ee m u st v a nish i d e ntic a lly that is

a
§ 28] TH E VE CTOR OR CR OSS PR ODUCT 41

which is equiv a lent to

c) =
a >< b + a x e .

On ch a nging the Si gn of ea ch ter m we m a v al o s writ e the relati on

( b + c) x
a =
b x
a + cx a .

This pr ov es the di s tribu tiv e law for non c oplana r vector s It -

is needless to r em a r k th a t the o rd er of th e fa ctor s mus t be

ma inta ine d in e a ch te r m ; for a ch ange of or de r is e quiv a lent
to a ch a nge of Si gn .

If the v e cto rs ar e c o p la na r Fig 29 ma y be rega r d ed as a p la ne .

fi gure The tri angle s P QR P Q R a r e c ongru ent and th er efo r e ' ’ ’

.
, ,

the sum of the a rea s of the p a r a llelogra m s P QQ P Q OR B is ’ ’

,
’ ’

equal to th a t of P RR P H ence the rela ti on ’ ’

.

R epe a te d pp lica ti on of thi s result sh o ws th a t the v ecto r

a

produ ct of two s um s o f v e cto rs m ay be ex p and ed a s in o rdina ry

algebr a pr ov i d e d th e o r d e r of th e f a ct o r s is ma int a ine d in ea ch
,

term Th us .

+ b

As eful p a rticula r ca se c onsider two

a us cto rs a b ex pre s sed
ve ,

in term s of th eir r e cta ngula r c om p o nents . Then with th e u s u al

,

no tation ,

ax b =
( a 1i az i a 3k ) ( b1 i s
v~
b3k )
“ abz a i ba ll ( l a i bz “ 26 9k
li “ “

in virtu e of th e rela ti ons pr ov e d in th e pr e c eding Ar t This .

r esult is v ery impo rtant It m ay be writt en in th e d ete rmina nta l

.

f orm
ax b 2
al 61 2 as

bl bz b3
i j k

Thi s v ecto r h a s a m odule a b s in 9 H enc e o n s qu a ring b o th .

,

m embers of th e a bov e equ a ti on a nd d i i i g y

v d n b a b2
we fi nd 2
,

for the s ine of the a ngle between two vector s a a nd b ,

( “I
2
+a2
2
+ a3
2
) ( bl
z
+ 62
2
b3 2 )
42 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . III.

If I m, l, m the directi on cos i nes o f a a nd b

’
r es pec
n a nd
’ ’
, ,
n ar e

t iv ely , this is equ iv a lent to

l m) 2
’

( lm
’
m u)
'
9 ( mn l) 2
’ ’ ’
s in ( nl
2 z
n

It is w orth no tici ng th at if b c na, where n is a ny real number ,

th en
Conv e rsely ,
if ay b =
a <c follo w th a t b c but that b
it d o es no t =
,

d i ffe rs from c by s om e v ector p a r allel to a w hich may or may ,

not be z er o .

Geometry of th e Plane .

29 . E quation of a. plane . L et p be the length of th e per

pend ic ular ON from the o rigin 0 to the giv en plane a nd 11 ,

F IG 3 0
. .

th e it v ector norm al to the plan e h a v ing the direction 0 to N

un ,
.

Th en C7V pii If r is the p o s ition v ector of any p oint P on the

=
.

pla ne r n is the pr oj ection of OP on ON and is therefore equal

,
°
,

to p Thus th e e qu a ti on
.
A
Pn= p
is s a tisfi ed by th e p os ition v ecto r of ev ery p o int on the plane ;
a nd clea rly no p o i nt ofi th e p la n e s a tis fi e s thi s rela ti on We .

m a y theref ore Sp ea k of it a s t h e equ a ti on of the giv en plane

A
.

If n is a ny v e cto r p a rallel t o n a nd theref o re no rmal t o the ,

pla ne the equ a tion may be written

,

r °n up
q ( sa y ) , ( 1)
which we sh all tak e as the sta nda rd form for the equa ti on of a
§ 29] GE OME T RY OF TH E PLANE 43

plane If x y z ar e th e c oor d ina te s of P referr ed to rect

.
, ,

a ngula r a x e s thr ou gh 0 a nd l m n a r e the d irecti on c os ine s of n

, , , ,

the equa ti on ( 1 ) is equiv alent to

my nz p , la:
which is the f or m u s ed in coo rdina te geometry .

Conv ers ely , ev ery equ a ti on of the f or m 1 ) repre s ents plane a .

For if r 1 r 2 ar e t wo p o siti on v ect ors sa ti s fying the equa ti on

, ,

a nd m m any re a l nu m b er s th e v e ctor
’
, ,

a lso s ati s fi e s it Th at is to say if P P 2 ar e two p oints on the

.
, 1 ,

s ur f a ce rep r e s ente d by th e e qu a ti on a n
y p oi nt in the s tra igh t ,

line P 1 P 2 lie s on the s u rf a ce which mu st therefore be a plane , .

Cons i d er the p la ne thr o ugh the p oint ( 1 a nd per pendicula r to 11

If r is a ny p oint on it th e v e cto r r —
.

d is p a rallel to the pla ne

, ,

a nd therefo r e perpend icula r t o 11 Thu s .

(r d) n O
°

or r °n dn
-
.
(2)
Thi s is of the f orm a nd is the equ ati on of the plane
c onsi dered The length of the perp endicular fr om the origin
.

t o the plane is d n/ u It is equ a l t o th e proj ecti on of OD on

-
.

the normal to the p lane D being th e p o int wh os e p ositi on v ector

,

is d .

The angle between two pla nes wh o s e e qu a ti ons ar e

r -n q,
’ '
Pn =
q ,

is equal to the angle 9 b etwe en th eir norm als . B ut

9
' ’
nn °
nu cos ,

so th at the r equir ed angle is

—
f
n1
9 c os
1

nu
}
the inter cepts on the coor dina te a x es mad e by the plane
To find
r n q we o b s erv e th a t if as, is the length of the inte r cept on the
° =
,

(1) ax is the p oin t x li lie s on t h e p la ne a nd theref o re x 1 i n

°

q
-
=
,

showi ng th a t
q

Si milarly , the length s of the intercepts on the other ax es ar e

(
I a nd 21
q
j °
n km
44 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [C H III
.

3 0 D istance
. t fr om a plane We h a ve s e en th a t the
of a poin .

length p of th e p erpend ic ula r ON fr om th e o ri gi n t o the p lane

is S pp s r q ir h r pendicu la r d is ta nce
r n q/ n w u t p e
°
e
q u o e e e e
=
.

of a n
y o th er
p oin t P f r o m th e
’

p la n e C o n si d e r th e p a r a lle l plane
.

through P Th e length p of the p erp end icula r fr om O to this

’
.
’

p la ne is w h e r e r is t h e p o siti on vect o r o f P Therefore

’ ’
.

th e length of th e p e rpe nd icula r fr o m P t o th e give n p la ne is

’

q r n
-

P P
v

Th e ector P M d et er mine d by this perp endicula r is

’
v

In d edu ci ng th e v e for m ula we h av e c onsi d ered the di stanc e

a bo

of P fr o m th e pla ne a s p o sitiv e when meas u red in th e direction

’

o f n th a t is fr o m O t o N
,
The e x pre ssi on f ound w ill therefore
.

b e p o sitiv e for p oi nts on th e s a m e si d e o f th e pla ne as th e ori gin

ne ga ti v e for p o i nts o n the opp o sit e si d e .

F IG 3 1. .

the dis ta nce of P fr om the pla ne mea s ur ed in the dir ection

To fi nd
’

of the u nit v ector b let a p a r a llel t o b d r a w n th r ou gh P out the

’

pla ne in H Then if d is the length o f P H the p o sition v ector

.
’

o f H is I db a nd si nc e thi s p o int lies on th e gi v en p la ne

"

( r db) n
-

q ,

giv ing

This is th e re qu ired d istance .

 3 0, 3 1 ] GE OME T RY OF TH E PLAN E
The equa tions o
f the p la nes bis ecting th e a ngles between two given
pla nes r -n q
'
t u
°

q
ar e o bta ined fr om th e f a ct th a t a p oi nt o n either bisector is
e qu id i s t ant fr om th e t w o p la ne s Si nce we c onsi d e r p erp endicula r
.

d ista nce a s p os itiv e when m ea s u re d in th e dir e cti on fro m the

o ri gin t o the p la ne for p o ints o n th e plane bi s ecti ng th e a ngle
,

in which th e o rigin li es the perpendicu la r d ist anc e s wi ll h a v e th e

,

s ame si gn bu t for p o i nts on the oth er bi s ecto r opp o site Signs , .

Hence if n n a r e dir e cte d from the o ri gi n t o w a r d the p la ne

’

in ea ch ca s e for a ny p oi nt r on the bis e cto r of the a ngle in

’
,

which O li es w e m u st h a v e
_r n l !
_ r l nl
g
. .

q
I
n it

An d ince this relati on is s a tisfi ed by ev ery p oint

s th e b i s ecto r
the equa ti on of this pla ne is
—
I

Z
’
r -

( n n ) ,
}

Si mila rly the equ a ti on o f the other bis ecto r is

A A
q
r +
n n

X
!

31 . Planes th rough th e intersection of two plane s . Consi d e r

t w o g v en i planes r °n =
q, ]
j
’ ’
r n -

q .

Th en the equa ti on r (n An ) q Aq ~
(2)
’ ’

is th a t of a p lane perpendicu la r to n An And if a ny vecto r r ’

.

satisfi es ea ch of the equa ti ons it also s a tisfi es th is H enc e .

a ny p oint o n th e li ne of i ntersecti on of the given pla ne s li e s o n

th e plane repre s ente d by which is th er efore th e equ a ti on

of a pla ne thr o u h thi s li ne And by giving a s u itable re a l v a lu e
g .

to A we ca n m ak e it repr e s ent a ny p la ne thr o u gh th e i nte rsecti on

for the norma l to the p lane v iz n An c a n be gi v en a ny d ir e cti on
’
.
, ,

in the p lane of n a nd n For insta nc e the p la ne m ay be m a de

’
.

to p a s s thr ough a ny p oin t ( 1 by ch oos i ng A s o th a t

a n— xn ) q—
' '
xq =
,

that is
 46 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [C H 111 .

Th e equ a tion of the line of inter s ection of the p la nes ( 1 ) ma y be

f ound a s follo ws This li ne is perp end icula r to bo th 11 and n
.
’

a nd is th e r ef o r e p a r a llel t o u m Th e perpe nd ic ula r ON from

'
.

t h e o ri gin t o th e li ne is p a r a llel to the p la ne o f n a nd n so that

’
,

ON
’ ’
ln ln ,

wh ere l l ,
’
ar e re al num bers . B ut i ce N lies on
s n bo th planes ,

this v ector m u st s a tis fy b oth th e equ a ti ons ie . .

’ ’

( ln ln ) -
n q
( ln =
q
F rom thes e two equa tions the v alu es d etermined
’
o i l and l ar e as
’ ’ ’ ' ’
z z
qu gn u qu qn n
° °
’
l ’
0

l ’ ’
” n/ (n n
Z 2 2 2 2 2
(n n o
) ” n o

)
The line ofi nt ersecti on o f th e p la nes is a li ne throu gh N pa rallel
Its eq u a ti o n is theref or e
’
to n n -

r ln ln
' ’
tn n x
’

where t is a v a ri a ble nu mb er and l l h a v e th e v a lu e s found ab ov e

, ,
’
.

Di stanc e of a point from a li ne To find the perp endicular .

di s t a nc e of a p o int P fr om the
’

str a ight line

r =
a + m ,

where cto r
b is a u nit v e .

L et P A b e th e p oints whose
’

p o s iti o n v ector s a r e r a resp ectiv ely ’

,

a nd P N th e p erpe nd ic ula r fr om P
’

to the gi v en li ne Then .

P A
’
=
a r ’

a nd p N
'
z =
P A2
’
—NA 2

F IG 3 3 '
~
( 2
) { (a
b ( 1)
. .

a r

This e qu ation giv es length p of th e p erpendicular PN

’
.

As v ecto r
—N A
. a
P N P A
’ ’
=

( a —fi —b ( a —3n
r r

a nd pis th e m o dule of thi s v ecto r .

Other th eo r em s r ela ting t o th e ge o m etry o f the p lane and

th e str a i ght line wi ll be c o nsi d e red in the n ex t ch a pter after
,

pr odu cts of th r ee v ectors h av e be en d ea lt with .

48 VE CTOR A N ALY SIS [C H 1 11 .

th e m ea ning of which w ill be a pp a r ent pres ently Co rr esp o nding .

to th e s e tw o r o ots th er e a r e t w o p o i nts o f inte rsecti on P Q s u ch , , ,

th a t DP t a nd D Q t Th e pr odu ct of thes e r o ots is equal

=
1
=
2 .

t o th e a bs olu t e t er m o f ie . .

DP DO F
Thi s is ind ep end ent of b a nd is th er ef o r e th e s a m e for all straight
,

li nes th r o ugh D If the p oi nts P Q t e nd t o c o i nci d enc e a t T the

.
, ,

str a igh t line be co m es a ta ngent a nd w e h a v e ,

D T2 =
DP .

Th u s F ( d ) m ea s u res the
ta ngent fr om D to the
s q ua e o n r th e
s u rf a ce of th e sp h er e a nd a ll s u ch t a n ents h a ve the sa m e len th
, g g .

In p a rticu la r F ( O) lt is th e s qu a re on th e t a ngent fr o m th e
,
=

o ri i n If O is Within th e sph e re h is nega tive a nd the ta ngents

g .
,

fr om O a r e im a gina ry Th e ta ngents fr om D ar e generators

.

of a c o ne ca lled t h e ta ngent cone h a v ing its v e rte x a t D and

, ,

envelo ping th e Sphere .

3 4 E quati on of th e tangent plane at a point

. If D is a p oint .

o n th e s u rf a c e of the s phere F ( d ) O a nd one r oot of the equ ati on

, ,

( 3 ) is z er o In o r der th a t th e lin e ( 2 ) Sh ould t o u ch the surface

.
,

the o th er r oo t a lso mus t be z er o for a tangent line i nters ects ,

the su rf a c e in two c oinci d ent p o ints If then b oth r oots Of ( 3) .

a r e z er o
b d C 0 °

( ) 2
,

sh owing th a t the tangent line is p erp endicu la r to the r adi us CD .

If r is a ny p oi nt on th e ta ngent li ne thi s c ond iti on is equiv a lent to ,

(r c) =
O
.
(5)
This equati on r epr es ents a pla ne thr ough D perp endicular
t o C D ; sh o w i ng th a t a ll t a ngent li ne s thr o u h D lie on this
g
pla ne wh ich is called th e ta ngent p la ne a t D Ad ding the
, .

z er o
qu a ntity F ( d ) to t h e fi rst m em ber o f we m ay write the
e qu a ti on
r d c~r d k O ( ) ( 6)
-

w hich we s h all take a s th e stand a r d f orm o f th e equ a ti on of

the ta ngent plane at th e p oint (1 .

We can now i nterpret the a b ov e co nditi on for reality of the

r oots o f For b ( d — c ) is th e pr oj ecti on o f C D a lo ng b D
-

b ei ng a ny p oi nt a nd F ( d ) is the sq ua re of the pr oj ecti o n of CD

,

o n th e t a n e nt D T Hence for re ality of th e r oo ts th e a ngle of

g .
 34 3 5]
,
GE OM E T RY OF TH E S H E P RE 49

incli nation of the line ( 2 ) with D C m u st be les s th an th at of th e

tangent with D C Th a t is to s a v th e line ( 2 ) m us t lie withi n
.

th e ta ngent c on e fr om D .

Since a ta ngent p la ne is perpend icu la r t o t h e r a diu s to the

p oint of c onta ct th e s q ua re of the perpendicu la r fr om th e centre
,

C to a ta ngent p la ne mu st b e e q u al t o a H ence the condition z

tha t the p la ne r n -
=
q s hou ld tou ch the spher e ( 1 ) is tha t

(
9
7b
(7)

Fu rther ,
if
pher es c ut ea ch other a t right angles the
t wo s .

tangent plane t o eith er at a p oi nt o f intersection p a s s es thr ough

the centre of the other H ence th e s qu a r e on th e line j oi ning .

th eir centres is equ al t o th e s u m of th e squ a res on their r a dii .

If then th e e qu a ti ons of the t wo s pheres a r e

r
2 —2 r -c k =
0,
]
J
’ ’
r
2
2r -
c k 0,

the con dition tha t they s h o uld cut or tho ona ll

g y is

(c
’ ’
2 2
) 2
c a +a

— —h +
c
2
c
’
2
h
’
,

tha t is 2c c ’ ’

(k k ) 0
°

3 5 Polar plane
. i t The tangent p la ne at th e p oint d
of a po n .

t o the sphere wh o s e e q u a ti on is ( 1 ) is represent ed by If

thi s plane p a s s es thr ou gh th e
p oint h the vector h mu st
,

s a tisfy ( 6 ) th a t is
h d
°
+ k = 0 .

Fu rther , ev ery p oint s u ch a s d ,

the tangent pla ne a t w hich

p ass es through h s a ti sfi es this ,

rela tion a nd th eref ore lies on H

,

th e pla ne wh o s e eq u a ti o n is
F IG 3 6 . .

r -h

This is called the pola r plane o f th e p oint h Sin ce th e term s

inv olv ing r m ay be written r ( h —
.

c ) the p la ne is perpend icula r -

,

to the s tr a ight line j oining the p o int h to the centre o f the s p h ere .

D
50 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [C H III .

If th is
stra ight line cuts the p ola r pla ne a t N th e l ng e th of the
,

p erpendicula r CN fro m C to the p ola r plane is ,

by Ar t 30, .

—k + h) a
2

« (h —re CH
’

w her e H is the p oint wh os e p o siti on v e ctor is h Thi s Sh ows .

th at N a nd H a r e invers e p oints with re sp ect t o the Sphere .

Th e p ola r pla ne of H cu ts th e sph er e in a circle a nd the line ,

j oining H to a ny p oin t on this circle is a tangent lin e All such .

ta ngent lin e s together f o rm th e ta ngent cone from H to the s phere ‘

Th eorem 1 . If the pola r pla ne of the point H passes thr ough G ,

the pol ar p la ne of G passes thr ough H L et h , g b e the p o siti on

.

vecto rs o f th e tw o p oints Then if .

g l ies on th e p ola r plane
of h it mu s t s a tisfy ( 9 ) th a t is
gh
- —c + k =
0,

a ndthe symm etry of thi s rela tion s h ows th a t h lie s on the polar
plane of g .

Th eorem 2 . Any s tr a ight line dr a wn fr om point 0 to inter s ect

a

a sph er e is cu t ha r monica lly by th e s u rf a ce a nd the

pola r p la ne of 0 .

Ta ke the p oint 0 as o rigin a nd let ( 1 ) be the equa ti on

, of the
s u rf a ce Then by
.
, the p ola r p lane o f O is
( 1 0)
The equa ti on of the str a ight lin e through 0 p a ra llel to th e unit
v ect or b is r tb a nd the v alu e t of t for the p oi nt R a t which
=
1

thi s lin e cuts the p ola r pla ne is giv en by

tl b c .
k .

Simi la rly the e t and t of t for the p oints P Q at which

v a lu s 2 3 ,

the sa m e line cu ts the sphere a r e the ro o ts of the equa ti on

t2 2 tb °
c + k =
0 .

1 1 t2 + t3 2b c 2
H en ce
t, t, t2 t3 k t,

B ut t1 , t2 , ta m ea s u re th e le ngths of OR OP , OQ res pecti v ely ;

a nd th e r ef o r e
+ _
0P 0Q OR
’

which pr ov es th e th eo r em .
 GE OME T RY OF TH E S H E P RE 51

X 36 Diametral plane Co nsid er a ga in the p o ints O

. . f inters e cti on
of the Sph e re ( 1 ) with the s tr a i ht lin e
g
r =
d + tb , ( 2)
through the p oin t (1 p a ra llel to b . The roots of the e qu a tio n ( 3 )
will be equ al a nd opp os ite if
b (d °
c) 0,
and ( 1wi ll then be the m id p oint of the ch o r d j o ining the p oints
of intersecti on Thi s equ a tio n sh o ws th a t a ll p o ints such a s d
.
,

bisecting ch o r d s p a r a llel to b lie on th e p la ne wh o se e qu a tio n is

,

b -
(r c) 0 .

This plane which p a s s es thr ough the centre of the sph ere and is
,

p erpendicula r to the ch o rd s it bisects is c alled the diametr a l pla ne ,

of the s phere for ch o r d s p a r a lle l to b .

Fur th er if r is any p oint on the s tra ight li ne

, the a b ov e
conditi on for equa l a nd o pp o site ro o ts o f the qu adr atic in t s h ows
r —
that d d < >(
-

which is th e equ a tio n of a p la ne thr ough th e p o int d perpendicula r

to th e line j oin ing d to the c entr e of the Sph e r e Thu s a ll chord s .

of th e spher e w hich ar e bis ecte d by the p o i nt D lie in the p la ne

, ,

thr ough D perpendicula r to C D .

3 7 Radic al plane of two sph eres

. If the ta ngents d r a wn fr om .

th e p oi nt ( 1 to the t w o sph e res

F(r ) z r
2 —2 r °c

f
’ ’
k O
’
F (r ) E r 2
2r °
c

ar e equal in lengt h ,
F ( d) F ( d)
'
th at is

2d °

(c c) ’
= k k
’
.

Thus the p oint (1 lies on th e pla ne wh o se eq u a ti on is

2r -
( c —
k
’
.
(11)
This is called the r a dica l pla ne of th e two Spheres It is per pendi .

onla r to the str ai ght line j oining their ce ntre s a nd the ta ngents

oi dr a wn fr o m a ny p o i nt on it t o the tw o spheres a r e eq u a l in length .

If the s pheres intersect a ll the p o ints of in ters ecti on lie on th e

,

radica l pla ne For any v alu e of r s atis fying the equ a tions o f
.

both sph eres als o sa ti sfi es F ( r ) F ( r ) 0 which is th e equa tio n ’

=
,

of the r a d ic a l p la ne .
52 V E C TOR A NAL Y SHS . [C H . HL

W sh all n cons i d er a s y s tem of spher es with a common r a dica l

ow
—
e

l
a n L e t 0 b e t h e o rigi n a nd A B the t w o p o i nt s a a
p e .
, ,

r esp e ctiv ely on th e su rf a c e of the sph er e wh ose e qu a ti on is

r
2 =
a
2
Consi de r th e sph e res wh o se c entres lie on th e s tra ight
.

li ne A B a nd wh ich c ut th e a bo ve Sph e r e o rth o gonally

,
The .

F IG . 37.

centr e of any one of th es e is a p oint ma where m is a real number , ,

p o sitiv e or nega tive a nd th e equa ti o n of th e s phere is then

,

r2 —2m r -a + k =
0 .

B ut b v if this cu ts th e sph ere r a o rth o gonally we must 2 =

2
,

h a ve It a =
H enc e the requir e d sy s t em of s pheres is repre s ented
2
.

by the e qu a ti on r 2mr a 0 2
( 12) °
,

m d enoting a re al nu m ber p o sitiv e or nega ti v e Th e r a dius of

,
.

a sph e r e of the sy s te m d ep ends on the v a lue of m the s quare ,

of the r a d i u s b ei ng

c
2 —h = m 2a 2 ( m 2
l) a z .

Th u s th e Spheres incr ea se in si z e a s th eir centre s get further

fr om th e ori gi n Sinc e th e s qu a re Of the r a diu s m u st be p ositiv e
.
,

the v alu e of m cannot lie between 1 For th e s e lim iting v alues .

of m th e r a d i u s of the s phere is z e r o the c e ntr es Of the v anishing ,

sph eres being A a nd B Th e se p o ints a r e ther efo re called the

.

limiting points of th e syst em o f s p h er e s .

Th e r a dic a l pla ne of the tw o sph e res c o rresp ond ing to the

v alu es m and m is in Virtu e of
l 2 ,

2r ( m1 a-
m 2a ) 0,
th at is r s 0 .
,

which is th e plane thr ough the ori gin p erp endicula r to AB and ,

is th e sam e for all p airs of s ph er es Th u s th e sy s tem of s pheres .

 3 7 , 3 8] G E OME T RY OF TH E S H E P RE 53

has co mmon ra dic a l p la ne If C 1

a . an d C2 the centres of
ar e

the s pheres for the v a lu es m a nd m 1 2 , an d R1 a nd R their r a d ii

2 ,

R1 2 R2 2 =
m
( 1
2
1) a 2 m
( 2
?
1 m 2

0012 00

w hich is a rela tion Sh o wing h ow the r a dical pla ne div i de s th e

j oin of the centres of two sph eres .

The limiting points A B , inver se points with r es pect to a ny

ar e

spher e o f the s ys tem . For if C is th e ce ntr e ma , a nd R the ra d ius

of a ny spher e ,

AC B C .
(m a . +a ) ( m 2
1)a2 R2 ,

which pr ov es the sta tem ent It follows th a t the p ola r pla ne of .

either limiti ng p o int with resp e ct to any sph ere of the system
, ,

pass es thro ugh th e o th e r limiting p oi nt a nd is perpendicula r ,

to the line j o inin g them .

X 3 8 If F ( r ) 0 and F ( r ) 0 a r e th e equa tions of two spheres

.
=
’
=
,

then > r '

r F( ) . F ( ) 0

represents a s phere
a ls o being a n a rbitra ry numb er
,
. Fo r ,

on div isi on b
y ( 1 k ) this e qu a ti on t a k es th e f o r m
c — lo —Ali
’
Ac
2 _” .

(b a h( t

1
( 13 )

which repr es ents a s pher e wh o s e centre is the p oi nt ( 0 ( 1 A)

on th e str a i ht lin e thr o u h the ce ntres of the tw o giv en sph e res
g g .

It is ea si ly Sh o wn th a t a ny tw o s ph e r e s giv e n by for d iff erent

values Of A ha v e a r a dic a l plane
2r °
(c ( 14)
which is the s a m e for a ny two sph ere s a nd is the ra dic al plane ,

of the two ive n Sph e res H e nc e the e qu a ti on for re a l

g .

v alu e s of r epres ents a sys tem of spheres with a c omm on r a d ica l

plane perp endicula r to the line of c entres
,
.

If the t wo s ph e r e s F ( r ) 0 a nd F ( r ) 0 i nt ersect th e r a d ica l

’
= =
,

plane and all spher es of the sys tem ( 1 3 ) p a ss thr ough their circle
of intersecti on For any v alu e of I s a tisfyi ng th e equa ti ons of ‘
.

both sphere s cle a rly s a ti s fi e s both ( 1 3 ) a nd

 VE CTOR A N ALY SIS [err III .

Applic ation to Mech anic s .

39 Work done by a for ce A fo rce a cting o n a p a rticle does

. .

w ork wh en th e p a rticle is di s pla ced in a directi on w hich is not

p erpendicular to th e fo rce The wo rk d one is a s ca la r qu antity
.

j ointly pr op o rti onal to th e fo rce a nd th e res olved p a rt of th e

disp la cem ent in th e d ir e ctio n of the f o rc e We ch oos e the unit .

qu a ntity of w ork as th a t d one wh en a p a rticle a cted on by unit ,

f or ce is dis pla ced unit d i s tance in th e dire ctio n of the force

, .

H ence if F d a r e v e ct o rs re pres enting the f o rc e a nd the di s pla ce

, ,

m ent re s pecti v ely incli ne d a t a n a ngle 9 the m e as u re of the

, ,

wo rk do ne is Fd c os 9 F d =
°
.

Th e wo rk done is z er o only when d is p erpendicula r to F .

Su pp os e nex t th a t th e p a rtic le is a cte d on by s ev er a l f orces

P F2
I, , F Then du ring a displa cem ent d of th e pa rticle the
n .

s e p a ra te f o rces d o qu a ntities of w o r k F d F d E d The ' °

l , 2 , n .

to tal wo rk d one is n

EN1
ar r d R, -

a nd is ther ef or e the sa m e a s if the s ys tem of f orc es w ere replaced

bv its resultant R .

Note . A for ce r epr esente d by the v ector F may be conveniently

r e er r ed
f to as a for ce N o mis u nder s ta nding is poss ible, f or our
C la r endon s ymbols a lwa
ys denote
length -

v ector s . Simila r ly we ma y
spea k o
f a displa cement d, or a

velocit v, we ha ve a lr eady
y as

done point r
f
o a .

40 Vector moment
. or torque
of a forc e
The v e ctor moment .

( or bri e fly the m om ent ) of a

force F a bou t a p oint 0 is a
v e ct o r qu a ntity re la te d to an

a x is thr ou gh 0 perpe nd ic ular to

the pla ne conta ining 0 and the

F 3 IG 8
lin e of a cti on of the fo rce
. .

Its .

magni tu d e i s J om tly pr o p o rti onal to the f o rce a nd the er endi

p p
c ula r d i s t a nce ON u p on its li ne of a cti o n Th e m om ent or tor que .
56 VE CTOR A NALY SIS lC H . III
.

In gr ee m e nat w ith t h e a bov e we a d opt th e f o llo wing

D efi niti on The moment a bout the or igin of the vector v loca lised
.

in line thr ough the p oint

a r is the v ector r x v .

41 Angula r veloc ity of

. a rigid body about a fi x ed ax is . Con
sid er th e m otion of a rigid bo dy ro ta ting a bou t a fi x ed a x is ON at
the ra te o f w ra dia ns per s eco nd It will be sh own in Ar t 87 th at .
.
,

if one p oint 0 of the bo dy is fi x ed the ,

ins ta nta neo u s mo tion of th e body is

o ne of r o t a ti on a bou t s u ch a n a x i s

thr ough 0 every p oint o n th e ax is ,

bei ng i ns ta nt a neou s ly a t rest For the .

pr es ent we ta k e the r o ta ti on as giv en

a b o u t th e a x i s ON The a ngula r v elo .

city o f th e b o dy is uniqu ely s pecifi ed

by a v ect o r A Wh o s e m o du le is a nd to

wh o s e directi on is p a r a llel to the ax is ,

a nd in the p os itiv e s e ns e rela tiv e to

th e r ot a ti on
F 9 IG . 3 .

L et 0 b e a ny p o int on the fi x ed a x is P a p oint fi x e d in th e

'

bod y r the p os iti on v ecto r o f P rela ti v e to O a nd P N per pendi

, ,

c ula r t o th e a x i s of r o t a ti on Then th e p a rticle at P is m oving .

in a circu la r p a th with c entre N a nd ra di u s p P N ,

Its v elo city =
.

is th er efo r e p erpendicula r t o the p lane OP N and of m a gnitude

A
pw
= ’
r w s in P ON . Su ch
elo city is r epr e s ented by th e v ector
a v

A t th e s ens e of th is vect or being the s a m e a s th a t of the velocity

x
,
.

In o th e r wo r d s th e velo city of the p a rticle a t P is

,

v A x
t .

E x ampl es .

(1) A
igid body is spinning with a n a ngu la r v elocity of 4 r a dians
—
r

per s econd a bou t a n a x is pa r a llel to 3 j k pa ss ing th ough the point r

i + 3j k F ind the velocity of the par ticle a t the point 4i 2j + k
. .

R ela tiv e to th e giv en po nt i on th e ax is of rota tion th e p osition

v ector o f th e pa rticle is
r =
31 —
5 ] + 2k .

Th e v ctor specifyi ng th e a ngula r velocity is

e

4( 3j
—k l
k) “
4
—
T k"
| 3i VE
 41 ] APPL ICATION TO M E CH A NI C S 57

Hence th e velo city of th e pa rticle is giv en by

4 )
6” 51 + 2k )
V 10
4
—
( 3j
i —9k) .

x/ fi
This r epr es e nts a s peed of i v g l
12 a rox i mately
pp , in th e dir ec ti on
of th e vector A x t .

( 2) L a ws of Reflection Refr a ction of Ligh t L et n, a , b, c b e

a nd .

u nit v ectors , th e fi rs t no r m a l t o th e s u rfa c e of s epa r a ti o n o f t w o

media , a nd th e o th ers in th e dir ect i o ns of th e i nci d ent r efl ect ed ,

a nd r efr a c t ed r a ys th e law s o f r efl e ct i on a nd r efr a cti o n a r e sp e cifi ed

by x a n= b n,»

Ha m
'
a nd y c n
x

respectiv ely , wh e re pt , u
,
’
ar e th e i ndices of r efra ction for th e tw o
medi a .

For t h e fi rst e qu a tio n m a k es t h e i nci d ent a nd r efl ect d rays

e

coplanar with th e norma l, a s w ell a s th e a ngles of incid ence and

refl ection equ al Th e s econd m ak es th e i ncid ent
. a nd r efr a c t ed

r ays copla na r with th e nor mal, a nd a ls o giv es

’
s in i =
p Sin r
[a ,
.

wh e re i a nd r ar e th e an
gles of i ncid ence a nd r efr ction r es pectively
a .

E XERCISE S ON CHAPTER III .

Give vector ia l s olu ti ons of th e following

1 . p er pendicu lars let
Th e fa ll from t h e vertic s
of a tri a ngle to e

th e opposi te sid e s a r e co ncurr ent .

2 Th e perp end icula r bis e cto rs of t h e sid es o f a tri a ngle a r e

.

concurr ent .

3 Th e v ect or a r ea o f th e tri a ngl wh o s e v ertic es a r e th e p oi nts

'

. e

a b c is
, ,

4 Th e a r ea of t h e tri a ngl fo r m ed by j oi ni ng th e mid poi nt

. e

of one o f th e non
pa r a llel si d es o f a tr a pe i u m to th ex tr emi ti es z e
-

of th e oppo sit e si d is h alf th a t of th e tr a pe ium

e z .

5 Wh a t is t h e u nit v e ctor perp endicula r t o ea ch o f th e v e ct ors

2i — —
.

i k ? Ca lc ula t e t h e Sine o f th e a ngle b etw een

'

j + k a n d 3i + 4
th es e two v e cto rs .

6 Fi nd th e t or qu e a bo u t th e poi nt i 2j k of a force r epr es ented

bv 3 i + k a cti ng th r o u gh th poi nt 2i —j 3k
.

e .
58 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [GEL

7 Sh ow t h at t wi ce th e v e cto r a r ea of a clo s ed pla ne p olygon is

.

equ iv ector ia l wit h th e s um of th e tor qu es a bout a ny pomt of forces

r epr esented by th e si des of th e polygon tak en in ord er .

8 Fi nd th e e qu a ti o n o f t h e str a i gh t li ne
. th r ough th e po n i t (1 ,

e u a lly incl
ined t o th e v e cto rs a , b, c
q .

9 . str i t i is e qually i nclined to th r ee coplanar straight

If a a gh l ne
lines ,
r c r to th eir pla ne
it is pe pend i ula .

1 0 If a po int is quidista nt fr o m t h e v ertice s o f a ri gh t a ngled

. e
-

tria ngle its j oi n to th e mid point of t h e h ypot enus e is p erpend icular

,

t o th e pla ne o f th e t ri a ngle .

1 1 Fr om a n e ter na l poi nt 0 a per pend icu lar ON is d r a wn to

. x

a plan a nd a no t h r GM t o a s tr a i h t li ne P Q in th e pla n e Pr ove

e, e
g .

th a t M N is p er pendicula r to P Q .

1 2 Find t h e two v cto rs wh ich a e equ a lly i ncli ne d to k a nd a r e

. e r ,

p erp endi cula r to a ch oth er a nd to i + i + k

e .

1 3 Th e s um Of th e s qu a r es n th e ed ge s of a ny tetr a h edr on is
. o

e qua l to fo ur t im es th e s u m o f th e s qu a r e s o n t h e j oi ns o f th e mid

poi nt s o f Oppo sit e e d ges .

1 4 P r ov e t h a t in a ny p a r a llelo gr a m th e s u m o f th e s qua r es on
.

t h e dia go na ls is t wic e t h e s u m o f th e s qu a r e s o n t wo a dj a cent si des

t h e di ff e r ence o f t h e s qu a r e s o n th e dia go na ls is f ou r t i mes th e
'

r e cta ngle contai ned by eith er of th es e sid es a nd th e proj ection of

t h e oth er u p o n it nd t h e d i ff er ence o f t h e s qu a r e s o n t w o a dj a cent
a

Si d e s is e qu a l to t h e r e cta n le c o nta i ned b

g y ei th er d i a go na l a nd th e
pr oj e cti on of th e o t h er u po n it .

1 5 Sh o w t h a t in a r e gula r t etr a h edr on th e perp endicu la rs fr om

. , ,

th e v er tice s to th e o ppo si t fa c s m e et th o s e fa c es a t t h eir c entroi ds

e e .

Find th e a ngle betw een two fa c es and th e a ngle between a face ,

a nd a n e d ge w hic h c ut s it .

1 6 Fi nd th e e qu ati o n of t h e pla ne th r o ugh th e point 2i + 3 j —

. k
per pendicula r t o th e v e ct o r 3 i 4j 7k .

1 7 Fi nd th e e qu a tio n o f th e pla ne pa ssi ng th r ou gh th e ori gin

.
,

a nd th line o f i nt ers e cti on o f P a p a nd r b g

e : ° =
.

1 8 Sh ow th a t t h e poi nt s i —j + 3k a nd 3 ( i + j + k ) ar e equi distant

.

from th e pla ne r ( 5i 2j 7k ) + 9 0 a nd on oppo site si d es of it

°
=
, .

1 9 Find th e e q ua tio n o f t h e line o f i nters e cti o n o f r ( 3 i —

.
j + k) 1 ° =
,

a nd r (i 4j 2k ) 2
°
.

20 D et er mi ne t h e pla ne th r ou gh th e p oint i + 2i k , which is

. —
per pend ic ular to th e li ne o f i nt ers e cti o n o f th e pla ne s in th e pr ev i ous
ex ercis e .

i . a . s pec i e d fi by t h e s a me v ec t o r .
III .
] EXE RC ISE S ON C H AP TE R III . 59

21 Fi nd th e
. perpendi cula r dista nce of a cor ner of a unit cube from
a dia gona l not pa ssi ng th r ou gh it .

22 Sh ow t h a t t h e s u m o f th e r e cipr o ca ls o f th e s qua r e s of t h
. e

interc epts o n r e cta ngula r a e s m a d e by a fi x ed pla ne is th e s a m e fo

x r

a ll syst em s of r ecta n ula r a x es wit h a

g giv en o ri gi n .

23 Fi nd th e coo rdina t es of th centr e o f th e s ph er e i nscri bed in

. e

t h e tetr a h ed r o n b o u nd ed b y t h e pla nes

r °i = 0, r
°
j = 0, r
'
k =
0, a nd

24 Sh o w th a t
pla nes r ( 2i + 5j th e r (i — j a nd
° °
.

r
'

( 7j 5k ) 4 0 h a v e a co mm on li ne o f int ers ect i on

=
.

25 Th e li ne of i nt ers e ctio n o f P 0 2j
. .
3 k ) 0 a nd r ( 3 i 2j k) 0 '

is equally i ncli ned to i and k and ma kes a n a ngle l s c o 3 wi th j , i

‘
l
.

26 Fi nd t h e lo c us of a p oi nt whi ch m o v e s s o th at t h e di ff er enc e
.

of th e s qu a r e s o f it s dis t a nc es fr o m t w o giv en poi nts is c onst a nt .

27 Find th e lo cu s o f a poi nt a bo u t wh ic h two giv en copla na r

.

forces h a v e e qu a l m om ent s .

28 Th r ee f orce s P 2 P 3 P a c t a lo ng t h e si d e s A B B C CA t
.
, , , ,
e

s ectiv ely o f a n e q ui la t era l tri a n le A B C Fi nd t h eir r es ult a nt a nd

p g .
,

t h e poi nt in wh ich its li ne o f a ctio n cut s B C . a

29 A particle a cted o n b y const a nt forc es 4i + j

.
, 3k a nd Si + j — k ,

is di splaced fr om th e p oint i + 2j + 3k to th e poi nt 5i + 4j + k Find .

th e total w o rk d one by t h e f orc e s .

3 0 Sh ow th a t a ny di a m et er o f a sp h er e s u bt e nd s a ri gh t a ngle
.

a t a poi nt on th e s u rfa c e .

3 1 Th e e qua ti o n of a Sph e r e wh ic h h a s t h e poi nts g h a s t h e

.
,

ex tr emi ti e s o f a di a m et er is ( r

3 2 Th e lo cu s o f a po i nt th e s u m o f th e s q ua r e s o n w h o s e dista nce s
.
,

fr om n giv en points is consta nt is a sph er ,

e .

33 Th e lo cu s of a p o int w h ich m o v e s s o th a t it s dista nce s fr o m

.

t wo fi x e d poi nts a r e in a co ns tant r a ti o n 1 is a Sph e r e Als o s h o w .

th at a ll su ch sph er e s for diff er ent va lu es of n h a v e a Commo n

, ,

radi cal pla ne .

3 4 Fro m a po int 0 a stra i gh t li ne is d r a wn to m eet a fi x ed sph er

. e

in P In OP a po i nt Q is ta k en so th a t OP OQ is a fi x ed r a ti o
. Fi nd .

t h e lo cu s o f Q
‘

35 Fi nd th e inv ers e o f a sp h er e with r es pect t o a p oi nt ( i ) ou tsi d e

.

th e sph er e ii ) on its s urfa ce

,
.

36 Th e d ist a nce s o f tw o p oi n ts fr o m th e c entr e Of a giv en sph er e

.

a r e prop orti ona l to t h e dist a nc es o f th e p oi nts ea ch fr o m t h e

po la r
plane of th e oth er .
60 VE CTOR A N ALY SIS [C H . III
.

37 . Th e sph er e w hi h c cu ts F(r ) = 0 a nd rth o gonally

o

s cuts
al o F (r ) orth o
go na lly .

38 . If, fr om point on th e su rfa c e o f a sph er e strai gh t li nes

a ny ,

a r e d r a wn to th e ex tr emi ti e s o f a n d ia m et er of a c onc entri c sph er e

y ,

th e s um o f th e s qu a r es on th e s e li ne s is c nsta nt o .

3 9 Fr om th e r elati ons
.

—yt
J
1
V r
‘ ‘
V,

[ ]
v 'r
t
’
_ t
y 2
6

wh er e v
2
, prov e th e r eci pro cal r ela tions

( Th es e formula e o ccur in th e th eory of R ela tivity ) .

40 Pr ov e th a t in a li nea r r ela tio n c onn e cti ng th e p o siti o n ve ctors

.
,

of any num ber of c opla na r poi nts th e a lg br a ic s um of th e co effi ci ents

,
e

is z er o (th e ori gin not bei ng in t h e pla ne of th e points ) .

on . 1v .
, 42 , 431

C H A P TE R IV .

PR OD U CTS OF THR E E OR FOUR VE CTOR S

NON—
.

INTE R SE CTING STR AIGH T LINE S .

P rodu cts of Th ree Vector s .

Since th e
cr oss pr o du ct b e of the v e ctor s b c is itself a ,

v ect o r we m a , y f o rm with it a nd a thir d v ect o r 3 b oth the sc ala r .

pr odu ct a ( b c ) a nd th e v ector pro du ct a ( b c ) Th e fo rm er is

° x
x x
.

a num ber a nd the la tter a

v ect or Su ch trip le pr odu cts

.

ar e of fr equ ent o ccu rrenc e ,

a nd we s h a ll fi nd it u sefu l t o

e x a min e their pr o pertie s .

43 Scalar tr iple product

.
,

Co nsid er the p a r a ]
lelepiped wh os e c o ncu rrent
ed es 0 A 0 B CC h a v e th e
g , ,

lengths a nd dire cti o ns of the

F 40 IG
v ect or s a b c resp e cti v ely
. .

, , .

Th en the v ecto r b c which we ma y d enote by n is perp endicula r

x
, ,

t o th e fa ce OB D C a nd its m o du le n is the me a su r e of th e a rea

,

o f th a t fa ce If 6 is the a ngle b etween th e di recti ons of n a nd a

.
,

the tri ple pr odu ct a b c a n cos 9 V ( )

°
x =
,

where V is th e me asu r e of the v olum e of th e p a r a llelepiped .

The tr iple pr odu ct is p os itiv e if 9 is a cute th a t is if a b 0 f orm , , ,

a ri ht h a nd e d s y s te m of v ect o rs
g
-
.

Th e s a me re a s onin g s h o ws th a t ea ch of the pr od ucts

a nd c ( a b) is equ al t o V a nd theref or e t o the o ri gi na l pr o d uct
-
x
,
.

The cyclic o rd er a b c is ma i nta in ed in ea ch of thes e If

, ,
.
,

61
62 VE C TOR A NALY SIS [OH . IV .

h owev e r th a t ord er is ch a nged th e sign o f th e pro duct is ch anged .

—c b it follo ws tha t
, ,

For si nc e b c x ~
-

V =
a
-
(b x
c ) =
(b x
c )
-
a =
( cx b) -
a =

h ~e a ( x ) ( a c r

)
°
b —b ( a - x
)
e

=
c- a x ( b) —c
Thu s the va lu e of the pro du ct d epend s on th e cyclic o r d er of the
fa cto rs but is
, independe nt o f the pos ition of the dot an d cr os s .

Thes e ma y be inter cha nged a t p lea su r e It is u s ual to d enote the .

a bov e pr od u ct by [abc ] which in dic a te s th e three fa ct or s and ,

th eir cyclic o rd er Then .

[abc ] [acb] .

If th e three v ecto rs a r e c o pla na r th eir scala r triple pr oduct

is z ero . Fo r b o is then perpendic ula r to a a nd their s ca la r
w
,

pr odu ct va nish es Th us th e v a nishing of [abc ] is th e conditio n

.

tha t the v ector s s h o uld be copla na r If tw o o f the v ectors ar e .

p a r a llel this c ondition is sa tisfi ed In p a rticula r if two o f them .

,

a r e eq ua l the pr odu ct is z e r o .

E x pressi ng th e v e ctors in term s of th eir rect angula r com

ponents a a i + a i + a k and s o on we h a ve
,
=
1 z 3 , ,

label ai ( bzcs 63 02 ) “a lbeci bl c3 ) da ( bi c a bee r )

“I “2 as

b1 b2 b3

This is the well kno wn ex press ion for the v olu m e o f a p a ra llele
pip ed with o ne co rner a t the origin Mo r e gener a lly if in terms .
,

o f thr ee non c o p la na r v ect o rs 1 m n we writ e

-

a =
a 11 + a z m + a 3n ,

a nd s o o n , it is eas ilv sh o wn th a t
[abc ] a1 a2 as [lmn] .

b1 b2 b
( 31 02 c3

Th e pr o du ct [ij k ] o f three recta ngula r u nit v e ct ors is o b v iously

, ,

e qu a l t o u nity .

44 Ve ctor tri ple produc t

. Consi d er nex t the cro ss product .

o f a a nd b e, V i z
P
.
 VE CTOR A NALY SIS [C R IV .

Produ cts of Four Vectors .

45 . A t of four v ectors The pro du cts alrea dy

s alar c produc .

c onsi d ered a r e u su ally s uffi cient for pr a ctical a pplica ti ons But .

we o ccasionally m eet with produ cts of fo ur v ectors of the f ollo wing

types .

Consi d er th e s c ala r pr odu ct of a b and C d This is a number .

ea sily ex pressible in t erms of th e sca la r products of the i ndiv idual

v ect o r s For in v irtu e of the fa ct th a t in a s cala r trip le product
.
,

th e dot a nd cr o s s ma y be i nterch a nged w e ma y wr ite ,

a- ( b dc °
b cd) °

a eb° d a db c
°
- -
.

Writing this result in the form of a d et e rminant , we h av e

we a
°
d
bc °
bd -

46 A . ve ctor product
e t the of four ve ctors .
*
Cons i d er n x
v ect o r pr odu ct of a h a nd e d : Thi s is a v ector a t right angless x

t o a b a nd theref ore c oplana r w ith a and b

x
, Si mila rly it is co .

pla na r with c a nd d It mus t therefore be p a rallel to the line of .

i nters ecti on of a plane p arallel to a and b with ano ther p a rallel

to c an dd .

Toe x press the produ ct ter ms of a a nd

in b, regar d
it as the v ector triple pr odu ct of a , b and m where m d ,
=
. Then
(a z
b) x
( ef d) ( ax b) m x =
a° mb h ma °

[acd] b [bwa
Si mila rly , rega rding it a s the v e cto r triple produ ct of n, c a nd d,
where n =
a h we ma y write it
>

—
,

( a \
= n dc°
n °
ed

E qu a ti ng thes e t wo e x pre ss ions we h av e a rela ti on between the

four v ectors a b c d v iz , , , , .

[bcd ] a [aca] b [abd] c [abc ] d =

O
.

Th e br k ac et not atio n f or t h e a bv
o e
p r od uc t s o f th r ee a nd f ur ve t r
o c o s is

-
( c d)
x a nd
 45, 46 , 47] PR ODUCTS OF F OUR VE CTOR S 65

Writing r ins tead of d we ma y ex pres s , a ny v ecto r r in terms o f

three other v ecto rs a b c in the f or m , ,

[r bc] a [r ca [r ab] c
( 4)
[abc]
which is v alid ex cept when th e d enomina tor [abc] v a nish e s th a t ,

is ex cept wh en a b c a r e co plana r , , .

47 Reciproc al sy stem of v ectors to a b c

. In t e rms of th e , , .

v ectors a b c d efine d by the equ a ti on s

' ’ '

b x
c cx a

[abc]
’

[abc]
we may write the rela ti on ( 4) a bo v e ,

r r a a
-
’
r -
bb
’
r -
cc '
.

The v ectors a b c a r e c a lled the r ecipr oca l sys tem to a b c

’

,
'

,
’

, , ,

which ar e a s su med non co p lana r so th a t the denom inator [abc] -

does not v ani s h The r ea s o n for th e na m e lies in the Ob vious

.

relations a a bb 1 °
’
'
’
.

They als o p ossess the pr o perty th a t the sca la r pro du ct of a ny

o ther p a ir of v ect or s o ne fr om e a ch syste m is z er o For insta nce , , .
,

'
a -
b =
O ,

s ince in the num era to r t wo fa ct o rs of th e s calar trip le product

, ,

a r e equal Sim i la rly 0 b

’
. 0 ° =
.

The symm etry of the a bov e r ela ti o ns s h ows th at if a b c ’

,
’

,
’

is the recipro c a l system to a b c th en a b c is the r e cipr oc a l , , , , ,

s ys te m t o a b c H ence a ny v e cto r r ma y be ex pres s e d in

’ ' ’

, .

te rms of a b c in the f o r m
' '

, ,

r r aa°
’
r '
bb
’
r -
cc ’
.

Th e ystem of u nit v ecto rs i j k is ea s i ly s een to be its o wn

s , ,

reciprocal and we h av e alrea dy pr ov ed for this cas e the r ela ti on

r r
-
ii r' jj r °kk .

Th e s ca la r
trip le produ ct [abc] f o rm e d fr om thr e e non copla na r ,
-

v ecto rs is th e r e cipro c a l o f the pr odu ct

,
f orm ed fr om the
recipr ocal s ys tem For .

b [b b]
]
e a t

ax y
c , ex a, a x
3
[abc ] [abc] [abc ]
Now ,
by Ar t 46 . a nd theref o re th e num era t o r
,

o f th e a b ov e ex pres s i o n is e qu a l to abc ] Hence th e res ult

'
?
[ .

WV . . A . E
66 VE CTOR A N ALY SIS [on IV .

Fu rth er Geometry of th e Plane and Straigh t Line .

48 . Planes tisfying v ari ous conditions We sh a ll no w see

sa .

h ow the trip le pro du cts c o nsi d ere d abov e m a y be u se d in f ormi ng

th e v e ct or e qu a ti o n of a p la ne s ubj e ct t o c erta in c o nd itio ns Let .

u s ex a m ine the f ollow ing typic a l c a s e s

( i ) P la ne thr o ugh thr ee given points A B C L et a b c be , ,

.
, ,

th e p o siti on v e cto rs of th e p oi nts r ela tiv e t o an a ssigne d o rigi n 0 ,

a nd r th a t of a v a ri a ble po int P o n t h e p la ne Since P A B C

t h e v e ct o rs r —a a — b b—
.
, , ,

a ll lie o n th e p la ne ,
c a r e c opla nar , , ,

a nd th eir sc a la r trip le pr odu ct is z e r o H ence

—
.

(r b) ( b —) x
c = O .

If w e ex pand this and neglect th e triple produ cts

,
in which an
y
v ecto r o ccu rs twice the equa tion bec omes
,

(b b) [abc]
'

r -
x
c +c a x a x .

Th us the p la ne is perp endicula r t o th e v ecto r

n= b x
c + ex a + a x b ,

which r epre sents twice th e v ecto r a re a of th e tri angle ABC .

If n is th e m o dule o f n th e length p o f th e p erp endicular ON

,

fr om th e o rigin to th e plane is

A
1
ON =
pn ? [
abc] ( b x
c cx a a wb )
it
.

( ii ) P la ne thr ough a given point pa r a lle l to two given s tr aight

lines . L et a be th e given p o i nt , a nd b 0 two v e cto rs

p arallel ,

to t h e giv en li nes Th en b c is perpendicula r to the p lane ;

.
x

a nd w e h av e o nly to w rite d o w n t h e e u a ti o n o f th e p la ne thr ou h

q g
a p e rp end icula r t o b c B v Ar t 2 9 thi s is
x
. .

(r a )
°
b x
c 0

th a t is r b c -

( iii ) P la ne conta ining a giv en s tr aight line a nd pa r a llel to a nother .

L et th e fi rst li ne be repres ent ed bv

r a tb ,

whi le t h e s e c o nd is p a r allel to c Then t h e pla ne in qu estion .

 48 , 49 , 50] TH E PLAN E AN D ST RAIGH T LINE 67

contains th e p o int a a nd is p a ra llel to, b a nd 0 . Its equ a ti on

is th erefo re by the la s t c a s e
, ,

r -bx c [abc] .

( iv ) P la ne thr o ugh two giv en points a nd par a llel to a given

str a ight line L et a , b be th e two gi v en p o ints , a nd c a v e cto r
.

parallel to the giv en stra ight line The requ ir ed plane then
passes t hr ough a and is p a r allel to b —
.

. a a nd 0 It s equ a tio n is .

therefore r (b [a b a 0 ]
° =
, ,

[abc] .

( v ) P la ne ta ining
co n a given s tr a ight line a nd a given point .

Let r = be the giv en s tr a ight line and c the

a + th giv en p oint .

Th en the plane in ques tio n p a sses through the two p oints a, c

and is p a r a lle l to b H enc e by ( iv ) its eq ua ti on is
.

r- a(
49 Condition
. of intersection of two s tr aigh t li nes . L et th e
equations of the giv en str a ight line s be

r f
’ '
a sb ,

so that they p as s thr ough the p oints a a a nd a r e p a ra llel to b b ,

’

,
’

respectively If they inters e ct th eir c ommo n plane m us t be

.
,

F IG 4 1. .

parallel to ea ch of th e v ecto rs b b w h o se sc ala r triple a —

' ’

, ,
a ,

product is therefo r e z er o H ence the required condition is

a —
.

’
a ]
’

[b, b ,
=
0 .

50 Th e
. common perpendicular to two t r cting straigh t
non in e se -

lines . Let the equ a tions of the two stra ight lines be
r =
a + m ,

r a
'
sb
’
68 V E C TOR AN ALY SIS [C H IV .

Then th e v ector is perpend ic ula r to bo th lines and ,

th er ef or e p a r a llel to their comm on p e rp endicula r P P If A A ’ ’

.
,

a r e th e p oi nts a a re s pectively th e length p of this c o mmon

’
.
, ,

p erpendicula r is equ al to the length of th e proj e cti on of A A on 11 ’

.

H en c e ’
n a a ( )
°

[b , b , a

In fi nding th i s v alu e we h av e a ssum ed th a t the directi o n

of p
o f b b is fr om P to P Th is will be th e c a s e when the m oment
’ ’
x
.

a bou t th e l ine A P of the

’ ’

v ect o r b lo c a lised in AP
is p os iti v e or ri ght h anded -

rela tive to b In this case ’

.

th e m om ent a bou t AP of
“
th e v e cto r b lo ca li s ed in
’
0 .

AP is p o siti v e relativ e
’ ’

F 42
We ma y a dopt this
IG . .

to b .

conv enti o n for the Sign o f th e p erpendicula r di s tance s o that p ,

is p ositi v e wh en the m om e nt is p o sitiv e In s o do i ng we a ttach .

to the two line s th e s ens e o f the v e cto r s b and b re spectiv ely

’
.

Th e c onditi on f ound a bov e for th e i nte r s ecti on of th e two lines

is of cou rs e eq uivalent to the v a nishing of p
, , .

If r is a ny p oint o n th e c omm on p erp end icu la r t o the two lines

the v ectors r — a b a nd b b a r e c o p la na r
, Si mila rly r —
x
’
a b .
’

a nd b b a r e c o pla na r Hence the str aight line which cuts both

’
x
.

th e gi v en lines a t right a ngles is the li ne of i nter s ecti on of the

planes r —
[ a b b b] O
'

—
x =
, , ,

’ '

]
’

[ b
r a , , b b x =
O .

The equa tions of two non inter s ecting s tr a ight lines can be put
-

in a c onv eni ent f o rm by ch oo si ng a s o rigin th e m i ddle p oi nt of

th eir co mmon perpendicula r The equ a ti ons o f the lines ar e then
.

r :
c + tb, r
A
w here C = J
§ P
r
—
11

L [b , b
’
a
Zn 2 ,
 50, 5 1 ] TH E PLAN E AN D STR A IGH T L IN E 69

The v ecto r 0, bei ng perpendicula r to b oth lines , sa tis fi es the

equa ti ons C °
b c
-
b
’
0
E x ampl e .

Wh n e alight is r eflected fr om a pla ne mir r or , the s hor tes t

ra
y f
o

dista nce between the incident r a y a nd a ny s tr a ight line on the mir r or

is equa l to tha t between the r eflected r a y a nd the sa me s tr a ight line .

Let th e unit v ecto r in t h e di r e cti o n of th e incid ent r a y be ex pr ess ed

in th e for m a b wh er e a is pa r allel to th e m irr o r a nd b p er pendicula r
,

to it Th en th e u ni t v e ctor in t h e d ir ecti on of th e r efl ect ed r a y is

.

a + h bec a u s e r efl ecti o n a t th e mirr o r r ev ers e s th e d ir e cti o n o f th e

,

nor ma l co m po nent but lea v e s t h e o t h er unch a nged

, H ence if t h e .

poi nt of i nci d enc e is t a ke n a s o ri gi n th e i nci d e nt a nd r e fl ected r a ys

ar e
r t( a b) .

and r = t ( a + b) , ( 2)
respectively Any str ai gh t li ne . in t h e pla ne of th e mirro r m ay be
repres ented by r c td (3)
wh e r e c and d ar e p erp endicular to b . Th e sh o rt est dis ta nc e b et ween
( 1) a nd (3) IS
[a b d
, , c]
(a b) * d |

But a, d c a r e c opla na r s o t h a t th e r r is equal to [bdc]

nu m e a t o
r epla ced by —
, , ,

which m er ely ch a nge s Si gn wh en b is b And si nc e .

ad is perpendicular to b x
d, th e d e no mi na t o r h as th e v a lu e

c remains
whi h un ch a nged w h en b is r epla ced by —
b . H enc e t h e
result .

Pluck er t traigh t line L et d be u nit

’
51 . s coor dina es of a s . a

vector p a r allel t o a giv en line a nd m the m om ent a bout ,

th e
origin of the v ect o r ( 1 lo c a lise d in th e gi v e n li ne s o th a t

m =
r x
d
where r is th e p os iti on v ecto r of a ny p oi nt on th e li ne Then .

the pos iti on of th e line is uniquely specifi e d by d and m The .

directi on of th e li ne is th a t of d And since In is p e rpendicula r .

to the pla ne c ont a i ning th e o ri gi n a nd the gi v en li ne the d ir e cti on ,

of In d eter mine s a p la ne in which the str a i gh t line m us t lie a nd ,

the magnitude of m d ete r mines its di s ta nce from th e o rigin .

Thus if d m ar e giv en the p ositi on of the s tr a ight line is giv en

, ,
.

The six qua ntiti es kno wn a s Pliic ker s coor dina tes of th e line ’
70 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS (CH . IV .

ar e th e ( sca la r ) re s olu tes of d ,

m along recta ngula r ax es
through 0 .

L et ( 1 m ,
be th e Plu ck er s coordinates o f two lines
a nd
‘
d
’
, m
’ ’

r th e p os iti on v ecto rs o f t wo p oints P P one on ea ch line

’
a nd
’

,
r , ,
.

Then th e m om ent a b ou t P o f th e unit ’

v ect or ( 1 lo c a lis e d in the fi rst line is ( r

—
r ) d
’
x
,

and the m o m ent of d a b ou t the s e co nd l ine

is there fo re by Ar t 40 ,
.
,

(r r )
’
x ~
dd
’ -
d
md m d
’ '
° °
.

This result is s ymmetric al and repres ents ,

the mom ent about eith er li ne of a unit

v ect or lo c a lise d in the other It is c alled .

the mutua l moment of the two lines with ,

s ens es th e s a m e a s d d res p e ctiv ely

’

, .

F 43
Since d d a r e unit v ecto rs the m odule of
IG . . ’

, ,

d d is s in 9 wh ere 0 is the a ngle of i nclina tion of th e two lines

’
x .
,

Then by Ar t 50 the length of the common perp endicula r to the

, .
,

two lines is
d d l M
’

[
‘

’
s in 9 Sin 9

wher e M is their mutua l mom ent . Hence the mutu al m oment

of the lin es 1 s gi v en by
O

M =
p s in 0 .

Ex a mples .

’
( 1 ) Find P liiclcer s co or dina tes f or the line f
o inter s ection o
f the
’ I
pla nes n a nd t n
' '
r q g
= =

Th e line of i ntersection is p er pendi cular t o bo h n t a nd n

’

,
so that

wh er e N mod =
If b is an
y poi nt on th e b li es
p1anes s o th a t ,
a nd
’ ,
bn ' =
q bn
’ =
q .

1 ’ ’
(b n n '
b nn'
)
N
=

q n —
I

qn
l

N
72 VE CTOR AN A LY SIS [C R Iv .

Cor The v olume of a tetra hed ron wh o se v ertices ar e the p oints

d is Ha —d b— d c—
.

a, b, 0, , d ] which r edu ces to

.
,

[abd] [acd]

Sph eri c al Trigonometry .

53 . Two fundamental for mulae be p oints on the . L et A, B , C

s ur f a ce of a s phere of unit r adiu s w h o s e po sition v ectors relativ e ,

to the centre 0 ar e the unit v e cto rs 1 m 11 re s pectiv ely If these , ,

.

p oi nts ar e j oined by a rcs of gr ea t circles the fi gure so formed is ,

a spheric al triangle The si des a b c of thi s tri angle ar e the

.
, ,

a n les B OC C OA AOB which th e s e a rc s s ubte nd a t the centre

g , , .

The a ngle A of the tri angle is th e a ngle between the planes AOB
a nd A0 0 and the o ther a ngles a r e si m ila rly i nte rpreted .

Cons i d er the e x p ans i on

l lm n
- -
l nl m
- -

as pplied to the s pherical tri angle Since the v ectors ar e all

a .

unit v ector s m n c os a n l c o s b and l m cos 0 Furth er

,
° =
,
'
=
,
°
=
.
,

l m is a v ect or wh os e m o dule is s in c and wh os e directi on is

x
,

perpendicula r to the plane AOB drawn

inwa r d Si mila rly l n h as a module .
x

s in b a nd a directi on perpendicular ,

to th e p la ne A0 0 d r a wn outward .

H ence

( l m) ( l n) s in b sin 0 c os A
-
v x =
.

The a b o ve ex pans ion then giv es the

rela tion
F m 4 5~
s in b s in 0 cos A c os a cos b cos c
.

This is one of the fundamenta l f o rmula e of s pherical trigonometry

a nd tw o s imila r one s ma
y be w ritten d own by cyclic permuta ti on
o f the s i d e s and a ngles They a r e u s ually put in the form
.

c os a cos b c os c + s in b sin 0 cos A

=
,

c os b = c os 0 c os a + s in 0 s in a c os B,
c os a = cos a c os b + sin a s in b cos C .

An other for ula

from the equah ty
m for th e sphe ric a l tri angle may be d e duced
=
[1mn] l
 53 , 54] S HEP R ICAL TR IGON OME TRY 73

For , l m and l n h av ing the m e a nings alr e ady st a te d

x x
thei r cr oss
,

p roduct is a v ector pe rpendicula r to the normals tothe planes

AOB and A0 0 a nd therefo re in the d irection of 1 ; while the
,

module of the v ector is s in c s in b Sin A The a b ove equa tion .

s h ows th a t
s in 0 s in 6 s in A 1 lmn l =
[ ] ,

that is s in b s in c s in A
[lmn] .

Cyclic perm ut a ti on of the s i d e s a nd a ng le s s h ows tha t

s in c s in a s in B a nd s in a s in b s in C
hav e th e s am e va u l e . From this it follows tha t
Sin A s in B s in C
_
i
s na s in b s in c
’

which is a no th er fundamental fo rmula .

Concurrent Forces .

54 Four fo rces in
. four fo rces a cting a t a
equilib rium . If
p oint ar e in equilibrium their v e ctor s um is z ero L et a b c (I
, .
, , ,

be unit v ectors in the directions of the forces a nd F 1 F4 , ,

the measures of the f orce s Then .

( 1)
If we multip ly thr ough ou t s c a la r ly by ed two Of the te rms ,

dis appea r c onta ining tr ip le prod u cts with a rep ea ted fa ctor a nd ,

W6 find F , [acd] F 2 [bcd] 0 .

Similarly f rming the s cala r pr oduct of the fi rs t m ember of ( 1 )

,
on o

with a c we h av e
x
F 2 [bac] F [acd] 0
,
4
=
.

From the s e a nd a thir d equa tio n which may be d eriv e d in the

same way we fi nd P1 F, F3 F4
“
2
— °

[bcd ] [cad ] [abd] [abc]

Thus each force is propo rti onal t o the s calar triple pro duct of unit
v ect ors in the d ir e ctions of the o th e r three a nd therefo re to the ,

v olume of the p a r allelepipe d d eter m ine d by th os e v e ct o rs This .

theorem is us ua lly a ttrib ute d to R a nkine .

Lami s theor em for the equilib riu m of thre e f o rc e s alr eady

’
,

cons i dered in Ar t 1 3 may be prov ed by a s im ila r meth od For

.
,
.

if three forc e s a r e in equilibri u m ,

Fl a s F ae 0 .
74 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS (on .

On cross multiplic a tion by a, we find

F 2b =
a F ac x a O,

im ila rly
a nd s F b a P h e 0 l
x
3
>
< .

From the las t two equa ti o ns it f ollo ws th a t

b
F1
e ex a

F2
—F
_ a>b
.

Si nce th eir cr oss pr odu cts a r e p a r allel the v ectors a b , , ,

c o pla na r a nd e a ch fo rce is pro p ort i o na l t o the s ine of the

,

b etw een the o ther two .

E XERCISE S ON CHAPTE R IV .

1 . Sh ow th a t

2 . Pr ov e th e r elati on
bd b c ad
°
ax e
°
,

a nd h enc epand ex

3 Sh ow th at
z
.
[a b b e 0 a (abcj x
,

a nd ex pr ess th e r es ult by m ea ns o f d e t er mi na nts .

4 . Prov e th a t

[lmn] [ abc ] la lb lc
° - °
:

ma °
mb '
mc °

n°a u
’
h we
a nd iv e its Cartesia n equivalent
g .

5 Fi nd th e equ ati on o f th e pla ne whi ch contai ns th e li ne r ta

.
=
,

a nd is p erp endicula r t o t h pla ne co nta i ni ng r ub a nd r

e vc = = .

6 Fi nd th e equ a ti o n of th e pla ne contai ni ng th e t wo par allel

.

li nes
r a sb =
+ ,

7 . W
h a t is th e equati on o f t h e pla ne contai ni ng th e li ne r a= th ,
a nd p er p endic ular t o th e pla ne r c 7 °

q
=

8 Sh ow th at th e pla ne co nt a i ni ng th e t wo
. str aigh t li nes r a= ta.
’

a nd r 3 8 is r epr es ented by
’
a =
.

[r aa ]
’

0 .

Giv e a ge om etrica l i nt erpr eta tio n .

76 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS (C H .

22 Pro v e that th e f ou r i ts 4i + 5j + k , 3i + 9i + 4k
.
po n
a nd 4( a r e 0 0 pla na r .

23 If a stra i gh t line is dra wn in ea ch f a c e of a ny

. trih ed ral angle ,

thr ou gh th e v er t ex and p erpendicu la r t o th e thi rd edge th e thr ee

,

li nes th u s d r a wn a r e 0 0 p1a na r .

24 . Pr ov e th e for mula
( ax b) -
( cx d) =
0,
a nd u s e it to sh o w th at
s in (A B ) s in ( A B) —in s
2
A —i s n2 B
2B c os 2A) .

25 Th e. scala r mom ent abou t th e line C D of a fo rce r epresented ,

by th e loca lis ed v ector A B is 6 V/ l wh r e l is th e length of CD and

, ,
e

V th e v olume of th e t etra h ed ro n A B C D .

26 If in a tetr ah ed ro n th e mu tu a l m o ment o f th e opposite edges

.

is th e s ame for ea ch pair prov e th a t th e produ ct o f th eir length s is

,

a ls o th e s ame for ea ch p air .

2 7 Fr om th e Cor to Ar t 52 s h o w th a t th e volume of a
. . .

tetr ah edron is giv en in t er ms of th e coor dinates of its vertices

,
.

by th e d eter m i na nt
1
t
“
al —
d l a2 —d 2
a
3
—d 3
l
e
"
“1 “2 as 1
b1 _d1 b2 _ d 2 b3 _d a bl b2 b3 1
01 —16 1 C
z
‘
dz 03 —d 3 01 02 03 1
dl dz da 1

28 Pr ov e th e followi ng fo rmula for t h e volume V o f a tetr a h edron,

.

in ter m s of th e length s of th r ee concur re nt ed ges a nd th eir mutua l

incli natio ns
1 cos
q) cos i l
l
c os
4) 1 c os 9
«
b c os 0 l

29 If th e four li ne s j oi ni ng co rre spondi ng v ertic es of tw o tetrahedra

.

ar e c oncu rr ent , th e li ne s o f i nt e rs ecti o n o f co rrespo nd in

g faces ar e
coplanar and conv er s elv .

30 Th e c onditi o n o f i nters e cti o n

. of th e tw o l ne i s wh os e Pliicker s ’

coordi nates ar e d, m and d m is ’

,
’

Fi nd Plu ck er s c oor dina t e s fo r t h e strai gh t line which cuts

’
31 .

ea ch of th e li nes (1, m a nd d m a t ri gh t a ngles

’ ’

, .
iv .
] E XE RC ISE S ON C H AP TE R IV . 77

32 If th e mu tual dir ecti o n c o si nes of two s ets o f r ecta ngular

.

u nit v e ct o rs ar e
giv e n by th e a cco m pa nyi ng table ,
Sh ow th a t t h e s um of t h e s q u a r e s o f th e t er m s
1 3 k
in any r ow or column is e qu al t o unity ; th a t
th e s u m of th e pr odu cts of co rr e spo nding t er ms 1l m ,
in a ny two r ows or a ny two column s is z er o ; i l2 m 2
a nd t h a t th e d etermi na nt of nine t er m s h as th e ’
k l
v alu e u nit
y .
 (CH . v .

C H AP TE R V

D IFFE R E NTIATION AND INTE GR ATION OF V E CTOR S .

CURVATU R E AND TOR SION OF CU R VE S .

55. Our j ect in the pres ent ch a pter is to ex pla in th e difi er enti
ob

a ti o n a nd i ntegra tio n o f v e ct o r s with r e sp e ct t o a sc a la r v a ri a ble .

Only c a s e s o f one ind epend e nt v a ri a ble wi ll b e c onsi d er ed p a rti al

'

d iff erenti a ti on being left for th e s e c o nd v olu m e Within the .

lim its of a s ingle ch a pt e r it is i mp ossible to ex am i ne f ully th e

p oints th a t a rise in co nnection with c o ntinuitv a nd the ex istence
of a lim it . We therefore lay no cla im to ri gour of th e ki nd that '

is necess a ry in a tre a tise on th e infi nites ima l calculus Our .

obj e ct is t o ex pla in r a th e r th a n t o pr ove .

Der iv ativ e of a v ector Supp os e th a t a v ecto r r is a c onti nu ou s

.

a nd single v alu e d f un cti o n Of a sc a la r v a ri a ble t

-
Th en to each .

v alue Of t c orr esp onds only one va lu e o f r a nd as t v a ries con

tinuou s ly s o d oe s r R ela tiv e to
, .

a fi x ed o ri in O let P be the
d g ,

77 point wh os e p os ition v ector is r

(1
(
.

M Th e n if t v a ri e s continu ou sly P ,

m o ves a long a c o ntinu ou s curv e

in sp a c e .

L et OP be the v a lu e of r co rre
F IG 46
s ponding th e
. .

to th e v a lu e t of

sca la r v a ri able An incr em ent Ct in the la tter will pro du ce an

.

increm ent Or in the fo rm er Th u s th e v a lu e t + 6t of the scalar

.

c orr esp ond s to th e v alu e r + 6r of the v ecto r a nd this is the ,

p o sitio n v ector o f a no ther p o int P o n the cu rv e Th e increment

’
.

Th e qu otient E of th e v ector Cr
(
Sr is e q u a l to the vecto r P P
’
« .
’
bt
78
80 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . v .

Th e d eriv a tiv e o f a ny cons ta nt v ector 0 is z er o for th e i ncr em ent

Ct pr odu ce s no ch a nge in c .

Th e der iva tive f

o the su m r + s of tw o cto rs r and s which
ve ,

ar e bo th functi ons of t, is equal to th e s u m of their d e riv a tiv e s .

Fo r if ( it a nd 6s ar e the incr em ents in th e s e v ecto r s du e to the

i ncr ement 51>
(5 r + s
( ) (r er s as ) (r s )
at as ,
a nd th er efore the q u oti ent
6(r s ) or 5
5
+5 '

a a a

T a king limiting v alu es of bo th si de s as dt tend s to r

ze o, we h av e
d dr ds

Th e rgum ent is o bv i ously tr u e for the s u m of any number of

a

v ect or s .

Su pp o s e th a t r is a c ontinu ou s functi on of a s c ala r v a ri a b le s ,

a nd s a c onti nu o u s functi o n o f a no ther t Then a n i ncrement , .

Ct in th e la st pr o d u c e s i ncrem ent s Or 6s in the o thers which b oth ,

.

tend to z er o with (St The relati on .

Or at as
at 6s S
( t

is gebr aic a l i d entity , the nu m ber p la c ed a fter th e v ector

an al

h a ving th e s a m e m ea ning a s when p la ced in fr ont Taking .

lim iting v a lu e s of b oth si des a s a t end s t o z ero we h av e the

fo r mula dr dr ds
aé a
’
‘

a
as in algebr a ic c a lculu s .

56 D eriv atives of produ cts

.
y.pr oduct The d eriv a tiv e of an

o f v e ct o rs is f ou nd in th e s a m e w a
y a s for a n a lgebr a ic pr oduct ,

b eing equ al to th e s um of th e qua ntitie s got by d iffer entia ting a

single fa ctor a nd lea vi ng th e o thers u nch anged .

T ak e fo r instance th e pr o du ct ur of a s ca la r u and a v ector I ,

both fun cti o ns o f th e v a ri a ble t If Cu a nd Or a r e their i ncrements

.

due to the i ncrem ent Ct the i ncrem ent in the pr odu ct is

,

6 ( ur ) (u bu ) ( r ( it ) ur

Ou r + u Or + 6u 6r .
 56] D E R IVATIVE S OF PR ODUCTS 81

Div i din g thro ugh ou t by a, we h av e

3
£5 da
dr ’
“
M a
“

a at
and on taking limiting v alu es on b o th s ides ,

d da dr
dt ( ar )
a
?
r +u
%
.
(1)
From this and the precedi ng re s ults it follows th a t if any v ecto r r ,

is ex press ed as the s um of recta ngula r c omp onents by the f or mu la

r x i yi zk ,

then since i j
, , , k ar e constant v ectors the de riv a tiv e , of r is
dr dx dy dz
m
. .

‘L
r wfi ‘
z
’

and simila rly for the s econd a nd higher d e riv a tiv es .

The s am e a rgum ent as a b ov e s hows th a t the deriv ativ es o f th e

s c ala r a nd v ecto r produ cts r s a nd r s ar e gi v e n by the f o r m u la e x

Q( r s ) i - f r
°
s +r~
( ls

it
“

dt dt

(
d
r x —
s ) _E S
C
>
< rx
ds
’
dt dt dt
it b eing und ers tood th a t in the las t f ormula the o r d er of the , ,

fa cto rs in any te rm mus t not be cha nged unless the s ign is cha nged
at the s am e tim e To prov e ( 2 ) we h av e
.

6( r °s ) (r ar ) ( s as ) r °s
-

(S
r S+r - -
6s (S
r -
es .

Div iding thr oughou t by at a nd pro ceeding to the li mit ,

we Ob a t in
the requir ed result .

If in ( 2 ) we tak e 8 equ al t o r we find the us eful fo rmula ,

d dr 2
dr
( r °r ) 2r
dt
’

dt dt
But if r is the module of r the pr oduct r r r
,
° =
2 = r
2
,
a nd the
dr
der iv a tiv e of r
2
is ' Thus
dt
0 Q 7 Q
dz ( it

In the ca se of a v ector a of co ns ta nt length ,

a c ons tant
2
= a ,

W . V A
. . F
82 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS (on . v .

—0
f;
i
a nd th er efor e a '
,

f
sh o wing th a t th e d eriv a tive
i; is perpendicula r to a . A p oint
wh ose p os ition ve ctor is a then lies on th e s urfa c e of a s phere of

radiu s a a nd the v ecto r is p a ra llel to th e tangent pla ne at the

dt
,

pomt .

If in ( 3 ) w e repla c e 8 by we fin d th e fo rmula
d dr d 2r
dt ( ill)
w x

h
t
fi
’

since the cr o s s produ ct o f two equa l v ecto rs Is z er o This .

result is frequ ently u seful .

Tr iple pr odu cts a r e differentia ted on the s a m e principle as

ab ov e Thus if p q r ar e functi ons of t their s cala r and v ector
.
, , , ,

trip le pro du cts ha v e d eriv a tiv e s giv en by

dq dr
la Pl a rid t l
d dp
“ " “
a i

s m) gi ) (Z >
—
l’ (l
x r d qx r + px
t
x r

th e rd er of th e fa ctors being m ai nta ined in ea ch term of the

o

second formula a nd the cyclic ord er in ea ch ter m of the first

,
.

Th e formula e a r e e a s ily prov ed by a d oub le a pp lic a ti on of ( 2)

a nd or fr om fi rst princip le s a s a bov e .

57 Integration
. Hav ing giv en one v ecto r r the pr ocess of
.
,

finding a no ther v ecto r F w h os e d eriv a ti v e with re s pect to t is

equa l to r is c a lled integr a tion Thu s integra tion is the rev erse
, .

pro ces s to d ifferenti ation The v ector F is called the integr al

.

of r with re s p e ct t o t a nd is writt en ,

Th e symb ol j is called the integr a l s ign t is the v a riable of ,

integra tion and the functio n r to be integra ted is th e integr and

, .

The rela tio n j ust written is e quiv a lent to

CF
L
dt
so th a t the d e ri v a ti v e of the integra l is equa l to the i ntegrand .
84 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS (on . v .

which ca n be integra ted as it stand s , gi v i ng

from which th e v a lue of

g is f ound in ter ms of r .

Cu rv ature and Tors ion of a Curv e .

58 Tangent
. at a giv en point . L et s be ( the m ea su re of ) the
lengt h the a r c fro m a fi x ed p oint A o n a gi v en cu rv e u p to the
of

v a ri a b le p oin t P Th en th e p os iti on v e cto r r of P rela tiv e to

.
,

a fi x ed o rigin 0 is a functi on of the ,

scala r va riable s We sha ll consider .

only c u rv es for whi ch r and its first

t wo d eriv a ti v es with r e spect to s ar e

continu ou s Then if P P ar e the .
, ,
’

p o ints r r + br on the cur v e corr e , ,

s po nding to the v alu e s s a nd s + t 5s .

F 47 ‘G
res pectiv ely the v ector P P is Or
' ‘
’

, .

The quo tient ( Sr / Os is a v ector in the s am e dir ecti on a s Or and

in the li m it a s as t end s t o z er o this d irecti on bec om es that of
, ,

the tangent a t P And furth er since the ra tio of the lengths of

.
,

th e ch o rd PP a nd the a r c P P tend s to uni ty as P m o ves up to

’ ’ ’

coinci dence with P the limiting v alu e o f th e mo dule of (Sr/(is is

,

u nity Thu s
.
dr Or
ds 68
t ( say ) ( 1)
83 9 0

is it v e cto r in th e dir ecti on Of the tangent to the curv e at P

a un .

Wh en no m isund er s tanding is p o ssible we s hall refer to it briefly

as th e unit ta n ent
g .

If at , y, z ar e the Ca rte s i an coor dina tes of P referred to rect

a n ula
g r ax e s thr ough 0 ,

r = ai + yj + zk

dr dc . dy . dz

da: dy Cl”
e co s me s t b eing ther ef or e
' '

th dIr ec tIon of
ds ds ds
’ ’ '
 58 , 59] CURVATURE AND TO R SION OF A CURVE 85

The v ector equation of the tangent line at P ma y be eas ily

written do wn For the p os iti on v ecto r R
. of a n
y p oint on the
tangent is giv en by R r ut

where u ria ble number p os itiv e or nega tiv e This is the

is a va , .

equa tion of the tangent .

59 Cur vature
. Principal normal The curv a tur e of the c urv e
. .

a t any p o i nt is the a r c ra te of r o ta ti o n -

of th e t a ngent Thus if 69 is the H

.
,

circula r measure of the a ngle between

the tangents P a nd P
?
g is the
’
at ,

r ge curv a tur e of the ar c P P

av e a
’
.

F IG 48
The limiting v alu e of thi s as (is tends
. .

to z er o is the curv a tu re at the p o in t P . We s hall deno te it

by Th us
—
x
69 d t)
.

K
i f
z '

s o ( s i ds

Th ough t is a unit v ector it is a fun ction of 3 its directi on , ,

changing from p oi nt to p oint of the cur v e Let t be its v alue .

P, and t + dt its v alu e P qual r es pectiv ely to H T and

’
at at ,
e

HT
’
Then TT is (St and the a ngle TH T is equ al to the angle
.
’
,
’

betwe en the t angents a t P and P th a t is 6 9 The quotient ’

.
,

t/ Os is a v ector in the s a me directi on a s at a nd in the li mit as

(S ,

(Ss this dir ection is pe rpendicula r to th e tangent at P Since .

H T is a uni t v ecto r the ,

module of the limiting v alu e of atlas is

Lt
%g =
ic. He nce the rela ti on
dt Ct
I
at f s
where n is a u nit v ecto r perp endicula r t o the tangent at P and ,

in the p lane of the ta nge nts a t P a nd a c ons ecutiv e p oi nt P

’
.

This plane p a s sing through three c ons e cutiv e p oints at P may

, ,

be called the plane of cur va tur e or the loca l pla ne of the c urv e at
P . It is als o c ommonly c alle d th e os cu la ting pla ne .

The unit v ectors t n ar e p e rpend icula r to ea ch other and thei r

, ,

plane is the plane of cu rv a tu re Th e s tra ight line th rough P .

86 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS (C H . v .

p a ra llel to n is called the pr incipa l nor ma l a t P Its e qua ti on .

is clea rly R r + nu =
,

wher e R is the p o siti on v e ctor of a ny p o int o n it The cur v a ture .

K is a po sitiv e qu a ntity ; but the dir e ction of rotatio n of the

ta ngent is given by th e vecto r 11 which we m ay call the unit ,

( pr incipa l) nor ma l In Virtu e o f . th e equa ti o n ( 2 ) m a y a lso

be written d r z

ds z
Squ a ring b o th si des ,
we ha v e a well—
kno wn f o rm u la for the
curv a tu r e dgl 2
dag; 2
dzy 2
dzz 2

(a ) <ael
.

+
s

If R is y p o int in the p lane

an of cu rv a tu re ,
th e ve ctors R — r,

t a nd n a r e c o pla na r H ence .

[R -
r , t, n] =
0,
a nd this is th equa ti on of th e o scula ti ng pla ne
e .

Th e nor ma l p la ne a t P is th e p la ne thr ough P perp endicular

t o th e ta ngent H ence its equa ti on is
.

(R r )t O
°
.

The cir cle of cur va tur e a t P is th e circle pa s sing through three

p oints on th e cu rv e ultima tely coinci d ent a t P Its r adi us is
c alled th e r a dius of cur va tur e a nd its c entr e the centr e of cur vatur e
, .

This circ le clea rly li es in the o sc u la ti ng pla ne a t P ; and we

le a v e it a s an ex erci s e for the stu d ent t o Sh o w th a t the ra dius of
1
c ur v a tu re p is gi ve n by p Th e c entre of c u r v a tu r e C then
K
lies on th e princip al no r mal ,
SO th a t
PC pH

60 B i nor mal
. . Torsion
str aight line thro u gh P per pen
. Th e
dicu lar to th e p la ne of cu rv a tu re is c a lled the binor ma l It is .

p a rallel to the v ecto r a nd t n b f o r m a ri ht h anded

g , ,
-

system of mu tu ally perpendicula r unit v ector s We m ay speak .

of b a s th e u nit binor m a l .

Sin c e b is a vecto r o f c onsta nt length it f o llows as in Ar t 56 , ,

.
,

th a t
g
? is perpendicula r to b . Fu rther ,
by diffe re ntia ti ng the
88 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS (on . v .

of r is K n, the third is
g
( s
Fo rming then the s cala r
pr o du ct of the fir st thre e d eriv a tiv es o f r and neglecting ,

triple pr o du cts which conta in a repeat ed f a cto r we h a v e ,

—t 9k n
d
]
dr d2 r d3 r
[ ] [
n
ds ds ds
z 3 ’
K n“
a nd .

“
2 K B ( Ab
, ,
K by
a
AK [tnb] Ak
2

H ence th e v a lue of th e to rsi on is giv en by

dr dzr di m
[ ]
1
( 2 ds ds 2 ds s
Th e equa tion of the binor ma l is
R r ub .

Or ,
s in e c this may a ls o be put in the fo rm
dr d z—
r
R I l ’U
‘
“ “ X

ES I
Cg
z,

u, v be ing va ri a b le num b er s .

Defi nite Integrals . Line and Surfac e Integrals .

61 . Definite integral of a v e ctor

be a giv en function . L et f
vecto r fun cti on of the scala r v a ri a b le t fi nite a nd continu ous ,

for v a lu es o f t rangi ng fr oin a to b To i nd ic a te the functi ona l .

d ep end en ce w e m a y u s e th e o rdi na ry no ta ti on f ( t) for th e v ector .

L et th e ra nge b a be d i v i d e d int o a num b er o f s ub ra ng e s which -

co rr e sp ond to i ncr em ents Ct Ot bt of the v a ri ab le t

l, z,Als o n .

let f( t ) be o ne of the v a lu e s a ss u m e d by f in th e fi rst s u b range

1
-

f( t ) one of th e v a lu es a ss um e d in the s ec ond a nd so o n

2 Consi der , .

th e m
su
s =
a n , » us e.) 4 dent s .

It ca nsh own th a t w ith th e or dinar v functi ons o ccu rring in

be .

pra ctic al a pplica ti ons if the num be r of su b r a nge s i ncreas es

,
-

ind efin itely a nd ea ch of the increm ents (St tend s to z ero this
, ,

s um S tend s to a d efinite fin it e li mit which is i nd ep e nd ent of the

m od e of s u bd iv isi on o f the r a nge b a This li m iti ng v alu e of S .

is equa l to th e diff erence o f the v alu es o f the i nd efin ite integral

 6 1 , 62 ] D E F IN ITE IN TE G RAL S 89

F( t) of the function f( t) for the v a lu e s b an d a of the va ria b le t

tha t is Lt S =
F ( b)
Thi s is calle d the definite integr a l o f the functio n f ( t) betwe en the
limits a a nd b a nd is d eno t e d by
,

f ( t) dt .

The r esult ma y be pu t in th e form

b

f ( t) dt =
Lt
Z i a) bt =
F ( b)

where f( t) the sec ond ex press ion is one o f th e v a lu es tak en

,
in ,

by f in th e s u b ra nge c o rresp ond i ng to the i ncre m ent a th e

-

sum ma ti on t akin g in a ll i ncre m e nts of t fr o m a to b and e a ch ,

of th ese in cr em ents t end i ng to z er o a s a li mit .

62 By wa y o f illu stra ti on c onsi d e r th e d isp la cem ent of a

.

point P mov ing with a v a ri a b le v elo city v which is a fun cti on

, ,

of the tim e v a ri a b le t L et th e interv a l fr o m to t o t be d ivi de d -

1
.

into a large number o f infi nitesi m al interv als D uring one of .

thes e wh ose d u ra tion is at the di s pla cem ent o f th e p o int is at v ( t)

, , ,

where v ( t) is a v alu e a ssum ed by v d uring this i nterval The tota l .

di spla cement dur i ng th e i nterv a l fr om t to t is the v e cto r s u m o 1

of th e di s p la cem ents d u r ing the s ub interva ls T a king th e -

.

limitin g v a lu e wh en e a ch of the qu a ntiti e s Ct te nd s to z ero ,

we find for the t ota l d isp la ce ment of the p oi nt

Lt
i v a) at v t ( ) dt .

Simila r lvif the m ov ing p o int h a s a v a riable a cc elerati on a ( t) ,

the increment in th e v elo city du ring the sh o r t i nt erv a l at is

(i t a( t) a nd the t o t a l incre a s e in v elo city duri ng the i nterv al t o ,

to t1 is
Lt
Z
to
a a)

The p os iti on o f the centr e of ma ss of a b ody m ay be f ound by

imagining th e b ody d iv i d ed up in s o m e c onv enient ma nner , ,

into a la rge nu m ber o f s m all p o rti o ns and pr o c eedi ng to the ,

limit when th e nu m be r te nds to i nfinity a nd e a ch elem e nt of ,

v olum e c onv e r e s to a p o i nt If ( iv is th e e lem e nt of v olum e

g .

round th e p oint P wh o s e p os iti on v ecto r relativ e to a giv en origin

,
90 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS (C H . v

is r , a nd ,u . the dens ity thi s p oint

at ,
th e m a s s within the elem ent
of volu m e is a bv . Th en sinc e the c . m . o f a sys t em of p a rti cle s
,
.

is giv en by th e fo rmula 5 Emr / Znt ,

the c . m . of infinite num ber o f p a rticles

th e ,
a rriv ed at by pr o
c eedin
g to the limit a s a bov e is giv en by ,

L t 2 171 . O?)
Lt

wh ere M is th e ma s s of th e wh ole bo dy a nd th e r ange ,

of integra
ti on i nclu de s th e wh ole v olum e o ccupi ed by th e b ody .

Tangential line integral of a ve ctor function . Co nsi de r a

g i v en cur v e a nd a v ect o r functi o n F of the length 3 o f th e ar c

,

Of this c u r v e m ea s u r e d fr o m a fi x ed p oi nt on it L et A B be .
,

t w o p oints on the c u r v e for which 3 h as t h e v a lu e s a a nd b ,

r espectiv ely If t is the un it t angent at a p oi nt of the curv e

.
,

F t is the m e a sur e o f th e re s o lu te o f F in th e directi on of th e

'

ta ngent Th e d efin ite i ntegr al of thi s q u a ntity with r espe ct to s

.
,

between th e li mits a a nd b is called th e line integra l of the ,

v ector F along the cur v e fr om A to B We write it .

FTOs
F t ds Lt
E
-
.

It is a lso frequently written

B
F dr Lt
Z FOr ,
°

wh ere A B ar e the end po ints o f th e a r c of int egra ti on a nd Or is

, ,

the infinitesim al v e cto r (is t p a r a llel to the tangent a t th e poi nt .

c onsid er ed .

If for i nst a nce the v e cto r F represe nts the f o rc e a cti ng on a

, ,

p a r ticle which m ov es a long the cu r v e fro m A to B F Or m ea sures ,

‘

t h e w ork done by the f o rc e duri n the i nfi nit e si m a l di s p la cem ent

g
(Sr ; a nd th e d efi nite i nte r a l fr om A t o B repr e se nt s the tota l
g
work d one by th e fo rce du ring th e di s p la cem ent from A to B .

If F represe nts t h e v alu e of the e le ctric ( or m a netic ) intens ity

g
at P the line integra l repr es ents the work d one on u nit ch arge
,

( or p ole ) a s it m ov es from A to B ; th a t is the differe nce of ,

p otenti al betw een th os e two p oints In hydr odynam ics if v .

,
92 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS (C H .

E XER CISE S ON CHAPTE R V .

1 . Di ff er enti at e th e fo llo wing ex pr e ssi o ns in whi ch r is ,

a function
of t, r its module, and th e o th er q ua ntitie s ar e constants
i . r r
2
+a rb
°
. u .
3
r r + ax
a
.

2
iii .
( at b
r )

2
v . r +

2 . Fi nd th e fi rst a nd se cond d eriv a tive s of th e pr od ucts

d
dr dzr
fi i
] { )
r
a nd x

dt 2172 ?
dt dz

r x s
3 . Di ff er enti at e
ta

4 If n,
. a, b ar e c onsta nts a nd ,

r c os nta s in ntb ,

prov e th at -
l 7i
'
0,

a nd th at na x b .

5 . Fi nd v alu e s of r satisfying th e equa ti ons

dzr
=
a . n . ax
dz?
wh e r e a a nd b ar e constant .

6 Fi nd r from th e
. e q ua ti on =
at + b, given th a t bo th r a nd

v a nish wh en t 0 = .

7 Interpret th e r elati ons P 0 a nd r x

g;
.

8 . i . State th e condition th a t a
giv en curv e may be a plane
curv e
11 . Put for m th e va lues of K a nd A and th e
i nto Ca rt esi a n ,

equa ti ons t o th e t angen t pri nci pa l nor m a l bi normal pla ne of , , ,

curv atur e and normal pla ne .

v .
] EXE RCISE S ON C H AP TE R v .
93

d A
9 B y mea ns of th e r elati on t z
( r r
) pr ov e th at for a ny curve
zs
.
,

al
l
ds
H ence ,
u sing th e va lue p —t u of th e lengt h of th e per pen °

d icula r fr o m O t o th e ta ngent pr ov e th a t for a pla ne cu rv e

,

dp dr
’
ds ds

a nd th er efor e th a t K —
ip
ii .

1 0 Th e cir cular h el x
. i Th is is
c urv e dr a wn on th e surfa c e o f a
. a .

ri t circ r cy i
gh ula l nd e , a nd c u tti n r
g th e gener a tors a t a co nst a nt
“

77
a ngle L et a be th e r a di u s of t h e cylind er
. th e a ngle a t a

which t h e cur v e c uts th e ge ner a t ors a nd k th e u nit v e cto r in th e ,

d ir ecti on of t h e a x is of th e cyli nd er Th en with a fi ed poi nt o n .

,
x

t h e a x is a s o rigin th e p o si t i on v e cto r of a ny poi nt o n th e h eli

,
x

may be ex press ed in th e f orm

r a c os t) i a si 11 9 j + a 9 t a n k a .

D i ff er enti a ti on wi th r e sp e ct to 3 give s
dG
a —( s in Oi cos Oi t ana k)
ds l
.

( s

Si nc e this is a unit vecto r its s quar e is unity sh owing th a t ,

fi
(d f
t
z 2
a s ec a
(
s

Th u s th e d eriv a tiv e o f Ois consta nt . F urth er to fi nd ,

f
i we h a v e

(n
d zr
a m fii os sine j) ,

c sh ow s th at th e pri ncipa l no rma l is

whi h a lw a ys perpendicula r t o k ,

a nd th er efo re t o t h e ax is o f t h e cyli nd er . On s q ua ring both sid es

th e la st e qua ti on w e fi nd ,

COS a .

torsion We h av e ,

<>
d3 r d6 3

( ls
3 ( a s inOi a cos 9 i) ,

dzr d3 r d9 5
w h en ce g
f

ds z ds 3
a
2
k '
94 VE CTOR A N ALY SIS (CH .

Th erefo r e
( li
‘
dzr da r
—
1 x
3
a
3
ta n a
ds ts l 2
ds

Su bsti tu ting th e va lu e o f K we fi nd

1
A = ~
s m a cos a .

11 P . r v
o e cus of th e centr e of cu rva ture
t h a t th e lo
i
h el x is also
a C rc u la r h eli x ; a nd fi nd t h e c onditi on t h a t it
i ma y
be tr a c ed o n th s a m e cyli nd e r
e .

Th c ntr e o f curva tu r e is th poi nt

e e e

Subs ti t utio n of th e values Of th e se q ua n titi es gives th e r esult .

12 . Pro ve th a t th e curvatur e of th e cu rve d efi ned by

r 2a C OS Oi 2a sin 9 i + b9 k
2

a a (
z
b2
is e qu a l to
b9 ) f
'

2 (a2 2 2

13 . Fi nd if and t h e e q uati ons to the

, principa l no r ma l
o f cur v a t u r e for t h e c urv e
pla ne ,

r =
4a c os
3
0 i + 4a si n 9 j + 3 0 cos 2 9 k
3
.

14 . In th e curve
r a (3t t )i3
3at i z
a (3t
3
t )k
'

1
sh o w tha t
3a (1 t2 ) 2

15 . If t h e cu rv e
t =
a Cos Oi + b Sin 91 + f ( 9) k
is a
pla ne curve d et er mi ne t h e fo r m o f f ( 9 ) .

t db
16 Pr o ve t h a t for a ny curve i
ds
.

ds

1 7 If t h e
. ta ngent a nd th e bi normal a t a point of a curv e m ak e
a n le
g 9 , g) s resp ctiv ely wit h a fi ed dir e ction Sh ow th at
e x ,

s in 9 d9

18 A curv e is d ra wn
. on a righ t circula r c one a lwa ys inclined at
th e s am e a ngle B to th e a x is Pr o ve t h a t
.

A =
x c ot /3 .
 VE CTOR ANALY SIS ( on .

c ur v a tu r e L et it be d enot ed b y R a nd its mo dule by R

.
Th en, .

si nc e th e sph ere a nd curve h av e f our poi nts in common, t h e fir st

t hr ee d eriv a tive s o f c a nd R2 with r es pe ct to s v a nis h H enc e , by .

d i ff er entia t ing 2 2
e r R ( ) ,

we ha ve
Ano t h r diff er e nt i
e a tion iv es
g

( 0 r ) ‘

a nd a th ir d leads to (c r )
.

3
( 18

Fr om ( 1 ) a nd follows th a t R is perp endic ula r

( 3) it t o bo h t a nd

a nd is t h er efo r e o f t h e f o r m

ds ds f

To fi nd th e valu e of k multiply s ca lar l

y by Th en in virtue o f
p
.
,
(
w e fi nd

This is th e vector P C . It m a y al o s be put in th e fo r m

1
t
d
—
( )
S
K n

—t
'

d
2
K

R _I—
n+
l d
<>
1
b
K 7\ ds x

23 . Find t h e r a diu s of s ph erica l Curva tur e for the circular h elix .

24 . Sh o w th a t for a ny curv e
, ,

1 + A2 R 2 .
V .
] EXE RCISE S ON CH AP TE R V .
97

25 Fi nd th e
. rad ius of sph erical curv a tur e for the curve in E x er

ci se 1 4 .

26 A v a ri a ble poi nt P on a giv en cu r v e h a s a po siti on v ecto r r

.

relativ e to a fix ed origin 0 Sh ow th at th e v ector area of th e surfa ce

.

traced out by OP as P mo ve s a long th e curv e fro m A to B is given by

3 t ds dr
5 r x =
4 r x .

27 Sh ow th a t, for
. a clo sed surfa c e ,

n 118 0,

where n is t normal a nd dS th e a rea of an element

t h e u ni ,
\
of th e
su rface .
( Th e v ecto r a r ea o f a clo s ed su rfa ce is z ero ) .
 [GIL VI.

C H AP TE R V I .

K IN EMATIC S AND D Y NAMIC S OF A P ARTICLE .

1 . K inematics .

65 Velocity
. at an ins tant be a moving p oi nt a nd r its
. Let P ,

p os ition v e cto r relati v e to a nother p oint 0 which m ay be th ought ,

of a s eith e r m ov i ng or s t a ti o na ry The v elocity of P rela tiv e .

to O is the r a t e o f ch a ng e o f P s p os iti on rela tiv e t o O and is

’

th er efo r e represente d in m ea su re a nd directi on by the rate of

ch ange o f r If Or is th e increment in r during an interv al (it
.

Or
s ec ond s the quoti ent IS the a v er age r a te o f ch ange of r during
.

,
52
this inte rv al a nd therefore represents th e a ve r age v elocity of P
,

rela tiv e to 0 du ring the interv al fit The lim iti ng v a lue of the .

qu o ti ent a s (it tend s t o z e r o is a v ect o r which repres ents th e

velo city of P r ela tiv e to O a t th a t i ns tant B riefly then we .
,

m a y s a y th a t
ar dr
_ (1)
8M at di
is th e ins ta ntaneou s v elo city of P
relativ e t o O .

p Su pp os e th a t ther e a r e n p oi nts P 1,

P 2, P a nd th a t is the
p siti v ct r of the m r ela tiv e to
o o n e o
“ ‘

the ( m Then th a t of the n th

rela tiv e to the fi rst is

n_
FIG 51 r n 1
r n'
“
l
“
"
l
"

1
. .
.

And sinc e ,
as h a v e j u st s een th e d eriv a ti v e
we , of relativ e
th e
p o siti on v ecto r is th e r ela tive v elo city v e cto r , d i ff erenti ation
o f this e q ua ti o n
gi v es
vn 1
,
=
vn . n —+
1 v u~ l n~ 2 +v2 . 1
1 00 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [on VI .

The v ector representing the a ccelera tion at the insta nt con

s id er ed is
dv d
dl dt

( 2)

whe re K is the cur v a ture and n the u nit princip al nor ma l This .

f or mula sh o ws tha t the a ccelera ti on o f the p a rticle is p a rallel

to the p la n e of cu r v a tu re Its ta ngenti a l res olu te is m eas u red .

by
dl
_)
’
and its res olu te p a ra llel to the princip al nor mal by M .

The for m er is the ra te o f increa s e of the s peed and is independ ent

o f the sh a pe of the c u rv e The latter d epend s on the cur v ature .

a nd the spee d If 66 is th e a ngle tu r ne d through by the ta ngent

.

d?
(
at P d uri ng th e interv a l Ot, is th e ra te of r o ta ti on of th e

tangent D enoting this by we

. to , ma y write th e no rma l resolute
of the a ccelera ti on dt (1 9
” vain
dB dt
.

For if o rm motio n in a circula r p a th of radius a the ta ngential

un

res olute is z er o Thus the a cceler ation is a lwa ys no rmal to the

.

p a th a nd e q u a l t o v
‘
z
/a .

Note D iff erenti a ti o ns with res p e ct to the ti me v a ria b le t a r e

.

fr equ ently d eno t ed by pla cing d ots ov er the qua ntity differen
tia ted Thus ‘

.
dv dr d r z
_ ' ’
_
dl dt dt
and s o on .

68 R adial and transv erse

. resolutes of v elo city and a cceleration .

Supp o s e now tha t the p a th of the m ov i ng p a rticle P is a plane

cu v r e , a nd th a t it is required to fi nd th e res olu tes of the v elo city
a nd cceler a ti on p a rallel and perpend icula r to r OP L et
a =
.

66 be ( the circula r m ea s ur e o f) the a ngle tur ne d throu h by OP

g
d uring the i nterv a l ( it reckoned p os itiv e wh en th e r ota ti on is
,

— i the r te
23
6
an ti clo ckwi s e
-
. Then to s a of turning of OP ,
or

the a n ula
g r v elo city of P a bo u t 0 . L et i Sbe
, un it v ectors
 67 , 68] K IN E M TI S A C
p arallel and perpend icular to r the la tter in the p ositiv e dir ection
A A
,

Then the pomts wh os e p o si ti on v ectors ar e r and s mov e

0 0 0

of to .

in c ircle s of unit radius with equ al s peed s w The v elocity of th e .

former is in the dir ection of s and tha t of the latter in the direction
,

of -
f Theref ore
.
d; A
ds
“ 7 ;
dt dt

If now r is the module of r the v elo city of the p oint P

, is gi v en
by
u—
«

dt dt

h wing that the radial and trans v ers e re solutes

s o of the v elocity
and r
g
i res pectiv ely .

the a ccelera tion of P is giv en by

A A

+ 71 0 8
‘
r l
‘

A A A A A

—
(m s
2
( r r +r ws ) +r as w r
‘
r

A A

( r 9 + 2r 6 ) s
2
(r r 6 )r
The r adial and transv erse r esolu tes of the a cceleration ar e the re
fore giv en by
a nd r

respectiv ely .
1 02 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . vi .

Ex er cis es .

A par ticle P moves in l wi h ons ta nt a ngu la r v elocity on

(1) p a a ne t c

a bout 0 . If the f
r a te o incr ea s e of its a cceler a tion is pa r a llel to P O,
pr ov e tha t

Byform ula ( 2) of th e a bo ve Ar t since .

, an is co nsta nt th e a cc elera
ti on of P is A A
(r m 2) r 2 r ws
’

a .

A A

Si nc th e r a t e of incr ea s e of t h is is p a r a llel to r
e ,
th e s -
compo nent
is z ero This is ea si ly sh o wn to be
.

3i‘w r w3 0,

so t h at § r w2
as r equir ed .

( 2 ) A pa r ticle P is m ov ing on the f

s u r a ce o body B with velocity v
f a

r ela tive to the body , while the la tter is r ota ting r ela tive to s ur r ou nding
A

obj ects with a n a ngu la r velocity to a bou t a fix ed a x is pa r a llel to a . Find

the v elocity of P r ela tive to s ur r ounding obj ec ts .

Wi th a ny p oi nt 0 on th e fi x ed a x is a s ori gi n let r ,
be th e positi on
v ector of th e pa rticle P Th en th e v elo city Of th e
. i
po nt Q of th e
b od y wh ich is insta nt a neou sly c oi nci d ent with P is

si nce we is th e a ngula r v eloci ty of th e body And th e r esultant

. .

v elo city of P is t h e v e ctor s u m o f its v elo city r ela tiv e to Q a nd th e

v elo city of Q t h at is

69 . Area] Velocity . Cons i d eri ng

the gener al cas e of a
ga i n
m oti on of P when its p a th is not nece ssa ri ly a pla ne curv e we
, ,

m a y f o r m th e m om ent a bou t 0 of th e v e lo city v e cto r v rega rded

a s lo c a lis e d in a li ne thro u h P As s ee n in Ar t 40 this m om ent
g . .

is the v e ct o r r v perpendicula r to th e p la ne of r a nd v
/
If k is .

th e u nit v e ct o r in this dir e cti on a nd p th e length of the per pen ,

dic ular ON t o th e ta ngent at P we m a y write ,

r v pvk
x =
.

B ut , i
the va lu e o f v fo und in Ar t 68
us ng .
, th e p a rticle mov ing
ins tanta neou sly in th e pla ne OP N we h av e ,

A A

( ws )
.

2
r v r r r r wk ,
’
x x
7
1 04 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . vi .

m a ss ,
a nd v , M v e cto rs
r epres enti ng the v elo city an d mom entum
of th e p a rticle re spectiv ely ,

Th era te of ch ange o f the mom entum of th e pa rtic le is a ls o a

v ect o r q ua ntity repr e s ente d by

,

dM l
mfi
‘ l ‘T
+ v
A
'

a a

If, as is us ua lly the c a se , th e m a s s of th e p a rticle is c o ns ta nt ,

dM dv
m
a E
a nd is therefo re in th e s am e d irection a s th e a ccelera tion .

72 Newton s Second Law of Motion Acc o rd i ng t o thi s law

’
. .
,

which is the founda ti on of the or dina ry theo ry o f dynamics

the fo rce a cti ng on a p a rticle is prop ortional to the ra te of ch ange
of mom entu m pr oduce d by it a nd h as the s a m e directi on Hence
, .
,

with the ch oice o f unit f orce a s tha t which pro duces unit accelera
ti on in a p a rticle of unit ma ss we h a v e the rela ti on ,

d
F
at
where F is the v ecto r repres enting the force . When m is constant
this may be wr itten s i mp ly
E = ma

sh o wing tha t the a cceler a tio n pr oduced in the moti o n of a par ticle
of c onsta nt ma s s h a s th e sa m e d irection a s the f o rce pr od ucing

it This e quation is called th e equa tion of motion for the

.

p a rticle .

Supp os e th a t the p a rtic le is a cte d on by s e v era l fo rces F 1,

F2 , F which if a cting s ep a r a tely would pr o duce a ccelera

, ,

tio ns al a l
, a, re s pectively Th e ir j o int e ff ect on th e
, ,, .

pa rticle is the sam e as th a t of a single fo rce SF which produces

a n a cceler a ti on a
giv en by
’

n n

l 1

Th u s the a ctua l a ccelera tio n a is eq ua l to the v ecto r s um of ’

the a ccele r a ti ons a a2 a Th a t is to say the effect of

l, , n. ,

ea ch fo rc e is uninflu enc ed by the a cti o n of the o thers E ach .

 72 , 73 , 74] DYN AMIC S OF A PARTICLE 1 05

produce s the s am e effect a s if it were the only for ce a cting on

the p ar ticle .

Let r be the p os iti on v ect o r of the p ar ticle rela tiv e to a fi x ed

p oint 0 a nd s uppos e th a t referred t o rectang ular a x es thr o ugh 0
, ,

r =
x i yj zk ,

F = Xi Yj Zk .

Then the equa tion of motion ma = V

F may be written
d_
2
d 2
d ze
< _ _
x y
m i+ + k
a s
dc dt 2

This is equiv alent to the three sca la r equa tions

mx =
EX , my =
2 Y, m2; =
EZ ,

which ar e the o rdina ry Ca rtesi an e qua tions of motion for the

pa rticle .

73 Impulse of a force
. The imp uls e of force F a cting on a
. a

pa rticle du ring any interv al of ti m e is the

. change of mom entum ,

produ ced by it dur ing th at inter v a l It is theref or e a ve cto r .

quantity If du ring the interv al the v elo city ch a nges fr om

.
, ,

v 0 t o v the i mp uls e of the f orce is gi v e n by

1

I m( v1
=
V0 ) .

When th e force is v a riable a nd a cts from the ins ta nt , to to the

ins tant t the d efinite integral
1,

a dl =
m( v 1 v0 ) ,

by Ar t 62 and therefo re repre sents the impuls e of the fo rce

.
,
.

—
When the for c e is cons tant the v alu e of the d efinite integra l is
simply ( t1 to) F B riefl y we s ay th a t the v ector I is the t ime
.

integral of the v e ctor F .

An impuls iv e for ce a ls o frequ ently c alle d an impulse is a v ery

, ,

large f orc e a cting for a v e ry sho rt tim e H ence during the a ction .

of the f orce the p os iti on of the p a rticle is p ra ctically unch ange d .

The effect of the impuls iv e force is rep res ented comple tely by the
change of momentum pr odu ced by it We the refo re specify an .

impuls iv e fo rce by its imp uls e in the original s ens e .

74 Activity of a force
.
In a cc o rd ance with the d e fi ni ti on of
.

work giv en in Ar t 3 9 the w ork d one by a f orce F a cti ng on a

.
,
1 06 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . vi .

p a r ticle during a sm a ll dis pla cem ent Or of the p a r t icle is mea

, ,

s u re d by Fair If this d ispla cem ent ta k es p la ce d u ri ng a n interv al

.

(Sr
Ot, th e av e a gr e r a te f
o wor ki ng d u r i ng tha t in terv al is F '

Ct
a nd pro ceedi ng to th e limit a s dt— a o we fi nd for ,
t h e ns i tanta neous
r a te of w o rki n
g o r th e a ctivity o f th e f o rc e
, ,

F i
( f

dt

Th e wo r k done du ri ng h rt interv al ( it is F v (it a nd the

a S o
-
tota l

wor lo done bv th e fo rce fr om th e i ns tant t t o the insta nt 0 t1 is

t h er efore
L t ZF -
v (S
t F -
v di .

75 Th e pr in
. ciple of ene gy r
The kinetic energy of a m ov i ng
.

p a rticle is a scala r qu a ntity j ointly pr op o rtional to its mass

a nd to the squ a r e of it s spee d The unit Of kinetic energy is .

tak en a s twice th at of a pa rticle of unit m a ss m ov ing with unit

speed H ence the kinetic energy of a p a rticle o f m ass m m oving
.

with a v elo city v is

If the v elo city is v a ria b le owing to the a cti on o f forc es wh os e
,

r e s ult a nt is F th e r a t e of i ncre a s e o f the k i netic e ner y is

, g
dT dv
ma v °
Fv °

dt dl
an d is therefo re equal to th e a ctiv ity of the res ulta nt f orce F .

In o ther wo rd s the ra t e o f i ncrea s e o f th e k in etic energy is equal

,

t o the r a te a t which the fo rce F is d o in w o rk on the p a rticle

g .

It f ollows th at du ring a ny finite i nterv a l the i ncre a s e in the

, ,

k i netic energy of the p a rticle is eq ua l to the w o rk d one du ri ng tha t

in ter v a l by the resu ltant fo rce a cting o n the p a rticle Thi s is .

tr ue wh ether F is constant or v a ri a b le a nd is called the pr inciple ,

of ener g for t h e p a rticle

y .

[If we b egin by d efi ni ng the kinetic energy Of the p a rticle

a s th e w ork it c a n d o in virt u e of its v elo city we may fi nd its ,

v a lu e th u s Su pp o se th a t a t th e giv en i ns ta nt t th e p a rticle
.

h a s a v elo city v 0 a nd th a t it d oes w o rk a gainst a v a ri a ble fo rce F

till it is fi na lly br ought t o rest a t the i nstant tl Then at any .

i nsta nt the r a te a t which it is do ing wo rk agains t the force

1 08 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [om VI .

77 Central forces
. in sta nce the p a rticle is a cted on
. If , for ,

by a fo rce a lwa ys d irected to wa rd the p o int 0 the m o m ent o f ,

th e f o rc e a bou t 0 is z er o a nd th e refo r e th e A M o f the p a rtic le ,

.

a bou t th a t p o int is c o nsta nt As su mi ng th e mas s of the p a rtic le . .

i nv a ri able we h a v e the res ult th a t r v is a cons ta nt v ecto r per

,
x

pendic ula r t o the p lane o f r a nd v H e nc e the p la ne of r a nd v .

is inv a ria b le tha t is to s a y the p a rticle mov es in a plane cur v e , ,

wh os e plane conta ins the p oint 0 The p a th of th e p a rticle is .

ca lled its orbit .

Su ch a f orce d irected a lwa ys t owa rd a fi x e d p o i nt is c alled

, ,

a centr a lfor ce a nd the fi x ed p o i nt is the c entr e o for ce

, f .

78 Central force
. r
v a y ing inv e s ely as r th e s quare of th e distance .

To fi nd the pa th d es cribed by a p a rtic le a cted o n by a centra l

fo rc e to wa rd 0 v a rying inv ersely as the squ a re of the d is tanc e
,

of th e p a rticle fr o m 0 L et r be the p o siti on v ect o r of th e

.

p a rticle relative to 0 a nd ri m/ r the mea sure of the force on the

,
2

p ar ticle The cons ta nt p is ca lled the intensity of for ce repres ent

. .
,

ing the f o rc e per unit m a ss a t unit d i s ta nc e fr o m 0 The a ccelera

ti on of th e p a rticle h as the directi on of —
.

r a nd is th u s s pecifi ed ,

by th e r ela ti on d zr
dt2
Furt h e r , considering the a rea] v elo city of the p a rticle a b out 0 ,

we h a ve ( Ar t 69 ) .
r v hk 7 2wk x =
'

where k is a unit v e cto r perpendicula r to the p lane of the o rbit ,

a nd w the r a te of t ur nin
g of r Fro m these equ a ti ons it follows
th a t
1 dz A

dtg
A
x
( hk ) wIX R
‘
00 8 ,
p
A A
.

where s is the uni t v ecto r —k r x in the pla ne of the o rbit a nd

A
—
p e rpendicula r to r . B u t by Ar t 68 , m
, . g
g
f ; a nd s ince , in the
c a se of a central fo rc e h is constant we , , may write the last
equa ti on 1 d dr
(
which on integra tion gi v es imm edia tely
A A
 77 , 78] DYN AMIC S OF A PAR TICLE 1 09
A
where ea 1 8 the constant v ecto r of integra ti on wh os e , module is e .

If now 9 is the v a ri ab le angle b etween r a nd 2 th scalar pr

, e o du ct
A
r -a r c os 9 .

Hence ,
on the la s t equa ti on s calar ly by r
multiplying ,
and writing
the s econd mem ber fi r s t we fin d ,

1 1
r (1 e co s 6) r -V x hk rx whk
u u
hk hk-
h2
l sa y)
x4 u
Hence the equ ati on o f the o rbit of the pa rticle is

1 e cos 0

repres enting a conic wh o s e eccentricity is 3 wh os e s emi la tu s ,

-

rectum is a nd one of wh os e fo ci is at the centre o f f orce .

The orbit will be an ellip s e a p a ra b ola or a n hyperb ola a ccord ing

,

a s e is le ss th a n equ a l t o or grea ter th a n u nity

, Squa ring the .

v alu e of e ; gi v en by a nd no ticin g th a t v is perpendicula r to k ,

we find
—
k 2k A
z z
v
r -k 1 .
2
t
I M
And i ce
Sn 1 “k r x v -k r h/ r ,

it follows tha t or 1 a cco rding a s v z < ,

or If then
r

the par ticle is pro j ected with a Speed V at a d istance 0 fr om th e

centre of f o rce the o rbit will be a n ellipse a p ara bola or a n
, ,

hyperb ola a cco rding as V2 is less th an equal to or grea te r th an ,

ia / c In any cas e the v a lu e of the eccentr icity is giv en by

Z .

h2 V2 2
M ( M 0 )
T e fi rs t cas e is one of cons i d er a ble im p ortance being illu s ,

tr a ed by the m o ti on of th e pla net s rela tiv e to the s un The .

or b t of a pla net rela tiv e to the s un is a n e llip s e with the s u n a t

one of its fo ci This fa ct a s well a s the cons tancy of the a real

.
,

v el city of a p la net a b ou t the s un a nd a rela ti o n between the ,

s i z e o f a pla net s orbit a nd its peri od of r ev oluti on were fi rst

’

di s c v ered by th e a stro nom er K ep ler from wh o se observ a ti ons ,

110 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . vr .

Newton d educe d the inv e rse s qua re la w of grav ita tional attr ac
tion between any two b odies ( C f E x ercis e 1 8 a t the end of this
. .

ch apter ) .

79 Planetary motion
. On a ccount of the i mp o rtance atta chi ng
.

to the c as e of the moti on o f a p a rticle in an e lliptic orbit und er a

centre of force at one focu s we sh a ll ex amine it a little clos er
,
.

L et a b be the s e mi ax es of th e e llip s e w h os e a rea is then 7r ab

,
-

,
.

The rate of d es cripti on of a rea by the line j oining the p article

to the ce ntre of force is h/ 2 H enc e the per iodic time or the
.
,

time of one complete rev oluti on o f the p a rticle is ,

ab b? 27
T L
ill x/ u

s in ce the s emi la tus rectum is l b / a Hence for p a rticles mov ing

- =
2
.

in diff erent ellip s e s a b out the s a m e centre of f o rce a nd with the ,

s ame intensity ( u) of force the squ a r e s o f their periodic times

,

a r e pr op o rti onal to the c ubes o f the ma j o r ax e s of th eir o rbits ,

This rela tion was ob s er v ed by K epler in the c as e of the pla nets .

To fin d the s peed v of th e p a rtic le a t a ny p oint of its p ath ,

dr
multiply ( 1 scalar ly by 2 ' Then
dt

dr d zr Qu dr dr
2 _ r .

di dt2 dl dl

dt
To fi nd the cons tant C of integra tio n cons ider the s peed 0 1 at ,

the end of the mino r ax is Th e p e rp end icula r d i s tance to the

.

ta ngent at thi s p oint is b whi le the dis tance r from the focus is a
,
.

For thi s p oint the las t equa ti on b e co m e s

2M hz ul u
0 +_
z

so th a t C a nd the sp eed at an
y p o int is giv en by
2 l
2
17
_
” ( r a ) ’

Another ex press i on for the Spe ed i s s ometi me s us eful . If p

'

ar e the perpendicula r d istance s from the centre o f f o rce an the

1 12 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [OH . v1 .

Let 0 be th e fo cus , 0 th e centr e of t h e ellips e a nd B th e end of

’
,
' '
th e mino r ax is Ta ke i j unit v e ctors in th e di r ecti ons 0 0 a nd B C
.
,

resp e ctively Th en, in virtue of formula

. th e o ri gi na l velo ci ty at
B is
’

In th e circula r orbit th e v elo city mu st be p erpendicula r '

to 0 B
a nd t h e sp eed V suc h th a t

—
or V =
Villa , so tha t th e speed is u nalt er ed . Now, si nce
0B
'
=
aei —bj
th e un it v ector at righ t angle s to thi s , in th e dir ecti on of th e v elocity
v2 in th e circula r or bit is ,

so tha t
Henc e th e blow is given by

m(v 2 v1 ) m

Th e module of this is

a nd its dir ecti on makes an a ngle

1
ta n

with 00 .

Central force r
va y ing directly
the as th e distance . Let
f orce on the p a rticle towa r d 0 be mur where u is the intens ity ,

o f fo rce a nd r the d i s t a nce o f th e p a rtic le f ro m 0 Then the .

a cceler a ti on is
y r and th e equ a ti on of m o tion for th e p a rticle is
,

d zr
dtz

3;
1
Multip lying s calar ly by 24 we h av e
dr d zr
_
dl dt2
 79 , 80] D Y N AMICS OF A PARTICLE 1 13

which , on i ntegra ti on giv es

,

—
(fD C
l
z
-

ur
2
.

pe rpend icula r distance

Ii p is th e of 0 fr om the tangent
the orbit this equa tion giv es
,

1 v
2
1 _

But th e p, r equa ti on of a n ellip s e referr ed to its centre is

l a
2
b2 r
2

where a b a r e th e s emi ax es H ence the orbit

,
-
. of the
a n ellips e wh os e c ent r e is 0 while ,

0 =
u a
‘ (
2

Substitut i ng these v alues we find for the s peed at P ,

v2 =
u a
, (
2
b2

pt OD 2 ,

F IG 54 . .

where OD is th e s emi di a meter conj uga te

-
to OP , ther efore
p arallel to the tangent at P Thus .

v ; 0D
V}
is the v elo city at the p oint ,
P .
1 1 4, VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [OH . VI.

The c time is the tim e to d es cribe the who le a r ea of the

per iodi

ellip s e at the rate it

. Thi s Is
2
2 7r a b h ub 27
.

fi ub V” k

The period T thus d epends only o n the intens ity u of the forc e ,

a nd not on the s iz e of the o r bit

A .

If r is ex press ed In term s o f t wo cons ta nt unit v e c to rs a b In ,

the p lane of the orbit as

A A
,

r =
wa yb ,

the equa tion of motion ( 1 ) becom es

A A A A
d=a + 3j b ; t ( x a + yb) ,
'

and is equiv alent to th e t wo s ca la r equ ations

j -
u m;
r y
“
a y,
r

which repre s ent s imple ha rmonic v a ri a ti ons of x , y of common

period Zw/ x/ fi Th e v elo city of P in the ellip s e is
.

Thus two s imp le h a rmo nic m o ti o ns with a common period and

centre but in diff erent directi ons a nd with different ph ases
, ,

c omp ound into elliptic mo ti on with the s am e peri od and the

sam e ce ntre ( Cf also E x erci s e 3 a t end of cha pter )
. . .

Motion of a par ticle on a fix ed curv e Cons id e r nex t a .

p a rticle mov ing along a fi x ed cu r v e e g a bead s lid ing along a , . .

fi x ed wire Let v d eno te its sp e ed a t a ny p oint a nd t n b the

.
, ,

unit v ecto r s in the d irectio ns of the ta ngent princip al no rmal ,

and bi no rmal a t th a t p o int Giv en the ex ternal f orce F a cting

.

o n the p a rticle it ma y be re solv e d i nt o c omp o ne nts in the s e

,

dir ections ,
F F t + F 11 F b 1 2 a ,

while the a ction of the cu rv e on the p a rticle may be s pecifi ed by

the s um of two f orces o ne

pe rpe nd icula r to the cur v e and the othe r a fricti onal forc e ,

pa ra llel to the tangent and equa l in m a gnitude to n tim es the

,

f ormer where u is the co efficient of fricti on The fricti onal f orce

, .
116 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS [c u

Elimi na ti o n of R2 giv e s
dv 2
lm mux v z F1 + uF 2 ;
2
ds
which is a lin ea r diff erentia l equa ti on the of fi rs t o rd er in v
2
,

wh os e s olution is fo und in the u sua l way Then h av ing deter .

,

m in e d v we fin d R fr o m
2
2

Note Fu r ther w ork ed ex am ples wi ll be found a mong the

.

followi ng ex erci s es .

E XE RCISE S ON CHAPTE R VI .

1 Th r ee particle s A, B , C a t th e
. poi nts r r r 1, 2, 3 ar e mov ing
wi th v elo ci ti es v 1 v 2, v 3 r esp ectiv ely
,
. Fi nd t h e ra te of ch a nge of

t h e v ecto r a r ea o f t h e tri angle AB C .

2 Fou r pa r ticles A, B , C , D a t th e poi nts r 1 , r 2 ,

. 13, a r e moving
w ith v elo ci ti es v 1 , v 2 , v 3 v 4 r e spectiv ely Fi nd t h e
,
. r a te of ch ange
o f t h e v olu me Of th e t etr a h ed ro n A B C D .

3 . If a b a r e constant v e cto rs a nd t th e ti me v a ri a ble

, ,
Sh o w th at
a pa r ticle wh os e po si ti on v e ctor at a ny i nstant is
si nnt b r cos nt a

is movi ng in a n elli pse Wh os e cent r e is th e o ri gi n ; a nd th at the

m oti on is th a t d u e t o a c ent r a l fo rce v a ryi ng a s th e dista nce .

4 Sh ow th a t w h en a pa rticle m ov es o n a s moo th curv e under

.
,

th e a cti o n o f gr avi ty its sp eed s u v a t a ny two p oi nts P Q a e

, , ,
r

conne cted by v
2 2
u + 2gh =
,

w h er e h is th e v ertica l d epth of Q belo w P .

5 Hodograph
. Th e h od ogr a ph o f a m oving p oi nt P is th e
.

lo cu s o f a no th er poi nt Q wh o s e po siti on v e ctor a t a ny i nsta nt is e qual

( or pr opo rtio na l) to th e v elo ci ty v e ctor Of P .

Suppo s e for i ns ta nce th a t P is m ovi ng wi th cons ta nt a cceler a tion

, ,

gd ( Ar t . Th en its v elo city at a ny i ns ta nt is

v v0 tgd .

Hence th e p ositi on v ector of Q is e

qu al ( or proportional) to
R v0 tgd .

Th us c s of Q is a strai gh t line par allel to (1 And since t

th e lo u .

incr ea ses unifor mly Q mov es u niformly a long this str ai ght line
, .

Th e v elo city o f Q i s equ a l ( or pr op orti onal) to R gd ; th a t i s to th e =

a cc elera ti on o f P Th is Is alwa ys true Fo si nc e R cv it fo llows

. . r =
, ,

th a t R cv ca wh er e a is th e a cc eler at i o n of P
= =
, .
vr ]
. E XE RC ISE S ON CH AP TE R VI . 117

If th e moti on of P is th a t du e to a centr a l for ce var ying as the

dis ta nce, then ( Ar t 80) P m ov es in an ellips e Whose centre is
.
at O,

and its v elocity at any i nsta nt is v V; OD wh ere OD is th e s emi ,

diameter conj uga te to OP Th us for th e poi nt Q on th e hodograph R

.
, ,

is proporti ona l to OD sh owing th a t th e h od ogr aph is a si milar ellips e

,

descri bed in th e s ame p e ri o dic ti m e Th e a cceler ation o f P is .

proportional to th e velo city of Q and th erefor e to P 0 , .

6 A pa rticle d e scri be s a circle with u nifor m

. speed . Show th a t
th e hodogra ph is a circle d e scri bed unifo r mly
. .

7 A bead slid e s d o wn th e cir cu mf er enc e o f a s mooth v ertica l

.

circle, s tarting from r e st a t th e high e st point Sh ow tha t th e .

0
equa tion of the hod ogra ph in polar coordinates is r = c s in .

8 If a par ticle des cr ibes a conic u nd er a centr a l for ce to the focus

. ,

the hodogr aph is a cir cle .

From e quati on ( 2 ) of Ar t 78 o n tra nsp osi ng a nd s quari ng we fi nd

.
,

——
—
h2
2 é
v
2
A

u n
2

)
A

that is v
2
kx a ( e
2
1)

Hence th e hodogra ph is th e circle

2

R2 e m ( e
2

6 A
p
whose centr e is th e point c If th e c omc is a pa rabola e 1
,

k a x

h
. , ,

and th e hod ogra ph pa ss es th r o ugh th e o ri gi n .

9 A pa rticle describe s a n ellips e und e r a fo rce to th e c entr e Sh ow

.
.

that its angular v elo city a bou t a fo cus va ri e s i nv ers ely a s its dista nce
from tha t focus a nd th a t th e s um o f th e r e cipro cals of its a ngula r
velociti es a bo ut th e t wo fo ci is constant .

1 0 Sh ow t h a t th e p a th o f a poi nt P wh os e v elo city is th e s um

. ,

of two comp o nents o f co nsta nt m a gnitu d e u v t h e fir st in a fi x ed , ,

directi on a nd th e s econd p erp endicu la r t o th e li ne j oini ng P to a

fi x ed pomt S , is a coni c Wi th fo cus at S a nd e ccentri ci ty d

11 . A p article descri bes a n elli ps e with a focus as th e c entr e o f
forc e . Sh ow th at t h e sp eed at t h e end o f th e mi nor ax is is a mea n
prop ortional between th e s peed s at th e e nd s of a ny di am eter .
1 18 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [C ir

12 In t h e pr evi ous
. ex e rcise Sh ow th at th e a ngular v elo city
,
of

th e p article a bout th e o th er f o cu s v a ri es in v er s ely a s t h e s qu a r e of

th e no rm a l .

13A pa rticle is d e scri bing a n elli ps e und er a c entra l force t o th e

.

focus Wh en it r ea ch es th e e nd o f t h e mino r a x is t h e intensity of

.

force is di minish ed by one th ird Find th e posit i on a nd si z e of th e

-
.

new o r bi t a nd Sh o w th a t t h e j oi n o f it s centr e a nd fo cu s is bis ect ed

,

by th e mi no r ax is o f th e ori gi na l o r bit .

14 If in t h e pr evi ou s ex ercis e , th e ch a nge a t th e e nd o f th e mi no r

.
,

a x is is a n a lt er a t i o n of t h e la w o f fo rc e t o v a ri a ti on d ir e ct ly a s th e

d ista nce th e m a gnitud e Of t h e fo rce a t t h a t po i nt r e m a i ning th e

,

s am e Sh ow th a t th e p eri odic tim e is u na lt er ed , a nd th a t th e sum of

,

th e new a x e s is to th eir di ff er enc e a s th e s u m of th e o ld ax es t o t h e

d ista nc e betw een t h e fo ci .

15 A . pa rticle d escribes a n elli ps e with one fo cu s S a s th e c entr e

o f f orc e Wh en th e pa rticle is a t P th e c entr e of fo rce is sudd enly
.

r moved to th e oth er fo cu s S If
e a r e th e cu rv a tu r es a t P of
’
. K , K
'

th ld a nd new o r bi t s Sh o w t h a t
e o ,

K IK
'
=
S P2
'
2 SB 2 .

16 Sh o w th a t th e r a t e o f r ot a tio n of th e dir e cti o n o f m otion o f a

.

pa rticle in a n ellips e und er a f o rc e to t h e f o cu s , is a m ax i m u m or

mi nim um w h en t h e pa rticle is fu rth est fr om th a t fo cu s , a ccor di ng a s
t h e e cc entr ici t y is gr ea ter or less t h a n

17 In elli ptic m oti o n und er a fo rc e to th e f o cu s , w h en th e pa rticle

.

a rriv e s a t P t h e d ir e cti o n o f m o tio n is tu r ned th r o u h a ri h t a n le th e

g g g ,
speed be ing u nalter ed Sh ow t h a t t h e pa rticle will t h en d escri be an
.

elli s e w h o s e e cc entr ici ty v ar ie s a s t h e d ista nc e o f P fr o m t h e c entr e

p .

18 e tral force any function of th e distance Suppose a pa rticle

. C n .

m oving u nd er a c entr a l f orc e —

A

F r per u nit m a ss w h e r e F is a ,

function of t h e distance r fr om th e c entr e of fo rc e Th en th e equati on .

o f m oti o n is
dzr
dz2

a nd formi ng th e sca la r pr odu ct of ea ch Si de w ith

dz”
2
5; we fi nd

2 E
(
?
i t ( 17
.

i ll i( t dz ( it

On Int e
g r ati on t h is be c o m e s

( >
2
dr
dt

v
2 =
C —
2 Fd r .
1 20 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS [OH . VI
.

25 A s moo th wir e in th e fo rm of a circula r h eli x ha s ts a x is

.
i
v ert ica l, a nd a b ead slid es down it und er gra vity D etermi ne th e .

Sp eed a t a d e pth z , a nd th e a ctio n o n th e wi re a nd s h o w t h a t th e

—
ti me to fall thi s d epth is co se c OlA/ 2zlg .

26 Sh o w th a t t h e h od o gr a ph of th e mo tio n in th e pr ev i ou s
.

ex ercis e is a curv e d escribed on th e s urfa c e of a r i gh t circu la r c o ne

of semi vertical a ngle

-

3 OL
.

27 A p a rticle P mov es on a s m ooth h elix ( a , CL) und er th e a cti on

.

only o f a c entr a l forc e t o a fi x ed p oint 0 o n t h e a x is equa l t o Mm OP ,

wh er e m is th e ma ss o f t h e pa r ticle Sh ow th a t th e a ctio n o n th e
.

curv e ca nno t vanish unless th e max i mum speed o f th e pa rticle is

aX / L s ec OL .

28 If th e h odogr a p h be a circle d e scri bed wi th

. consta nt a ngular
v elo city a bout a poi nt o n its circumfer ence, sh ow th a t t h e p a th o f
th e pa rt icle is a cycloi d .

29 P is a poi nt on th e tangent a t a va ria ble poi nt Q to a fix ed

.

circ le ofr adius a QP is of length r a nd makes a n a ngle 9 with a ,

fi x ed ta ngent Sh ow th a t th e r esolutes o f th e a ccelera ti on of P

.

a lo n
g a nd perp endicula r to QP a r e
1 d
r r 62 + a 6 a nd ( O
r) +
2
a 92

r dt

3 0 A pa . le of un t martic i ss is
pla e d in a m oo h ube in t h e c s t t fo rm
of a n e quia ng ula r spir
a l o f a n le 0L, a nd
g a om e a t a di st rts fr r st stance
r f rc
2d und e a o e u/r 2 t o th e ole p
Sh ow h a it w ll ea h th e . t t i r c pole
in a t im e 7: s ec CL

31 . A pa rticle
constrained to m o ve on a circula r wir e is a cted on
, ,

by a centr a l forc e to a poi nt on th e circu m f er enc e va ryi ng i nv ers ely

a s th e fifth
power o f th e dista nc e P ro ve th a t th e a cti on o n th e
.

wir e is consta nt in m a gnit ud e .

 DY NAMIC S OF A SYSTE M OF P ARTIC LES AN D
OF A R IGID B OD Y .

82 Linear Momentum
. . Co nsid er
sys te m o f m ov i ng p a rticlesa ,

either ind epe nd ent of e a ch o ther o r un d e r a ny s o rt o f m u tu a l

a cti on Their rela tive p os iti ons ma y be ch angIng or th ey m a y

.
,

be r igidly a tta ched to one a no th e r a s in the ca s e of a rigi d body .

Let m be the m a s s of a ny one of the p a rticles r its p o siti on v e cto r ,

relativ e to a fix ed o rigi n 0 a nd v i its v elo city Then the

,
=
'
.

lin ea r m om entum of the p a rtic le is mv We d efine the linea r .

mom entum of th e s ys tem a s th e v e ctor s um of the line a r m om enta

of th e s ep a r a te p a rtic le s It is theref o re repre s ent ed by the
.

v ect or
d
M Zmr
h
c

But the centr e of m ass of th e s y s tem h as a p os iti on ve cto r r

giv en by M E Zmr ,

where M =
Em is the m a ss of the wh ole system . He nc e

—
f M v,

v d enot ing th e v elo city of the centre of ma ss . Th us the line a r

momentum f
o the s ys tem is equa l to tha t o f a s ingle pa r ticle of ma s s
equ a l to the tota l mass f
o th e s ys tem , moving with the velocit
y f
o

the c . m .

The ra te of increas e of the li ne a r m om entum of th e system is

giv en bV dM d

where a is the a ccelera ti o n of the c . m .

12 1
1 22 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [GIL VII .

83 . E quation of motion of th e c . m . L et F be the resultant

f o rce a cting on the p a rticle m . Then th e equ a ti on o f mo ti o n for

the p a rticle is d
F ( mv )
dt
.

T aki ng the v ector su m of th e res ulta nt f orces on a ll the p a rticles ,

we ha v e
d dM
dt dt

No w the v ecto r s um Z F i nclude s both f orce s wh o se o ri gi n is

e x ter na l t o the syste m a nd f o rce s of int e r na l a cti on betwee n th e
,

sep a r ate p articles Of the sys tem But if we a ssum e in a cco rda nce .
,

with Ne wt on s Thir d L a w o f Moti on th at th e i nternal a ction

’

between the p a rticles is repres ente d by p a ir s of equ a l a nd opp os ite

fo rces th e v e cto r s um of th e se is z er o In c a lcula ting ZF we
,
.

need theref o re onlv c onsi d er the ex ter na l f o rces a cti ng on th e

p a rticles of the system Th e equa ti o n ( 3 ) th en sh o ws th a t the

.

v ector s u m o f the ex ter na l for ces a cting on the s ys te m is equa l to the

r a te o
f incr ea se of its linea r momentum .

Th e equ a tion m a y al os be writte n

d

SO th at th e the s a m e a ccele r a tio n a s a p a rticle o f mass

c . m h as
.

e q u a l to th e to t a l m a s s o f the syste m a cte d o n b

y a f o rce equal ,

t o th e v e cto r s u m of a ll th e ex ter nal f o rces .

84 Angula r Momentum
. Th e m om ent of m o me ntum or.
,

a n ula r m om entu m of the p a rticle m a b o u t th e o ri i n 0

g ,
g ( of .

Ar t 76 ) is r epre sente d by th e v ect o r mr v and its r a te of ch ange

. x
,

by mt v Th e a ngu la r m o m entu m of the s ystem a b ou t 0 is

/
.

d efi ned a s th e v e cto r s u m of th e a ngu la r mom ent a of th e sep a ra te

par ticles a bou t O R epres enting it by H we h av e
.
,

H a v,
a nd its r a te of ch ange is
dH
E
d
—
(m )
e t
v
dt

where F is the resultant f o rce a cting o n th e p a rticle at r The .

pr odu ct e r e presents the ( v ecto r ) m o m ent or to rque of the

for c e F a b ou t 0 In th e s u m ma ti o n the i nterna l a cti ons m a
y
.
1 24 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . V II .

L et M be th e m a ss y a ndof t h e bo d a positi on v e ctor of A

th e

relative to th e c m Th en — . a is th a t
. of th e c m r elativ e to A . .
°

nd by t h e th eo r em j us t pr o ved th e A M a bou t t h e po i nt A is

—) v
a . .

H+( a .

Th er ef ore t h e ( sca la r ) A M . . a b ou t a n ax is thr ough A pa rallel to b is

b (H°
M a ?) b H M [ab7] x '
.

85 . Moving origin of moments Ins te a d of . the fi x ed p oint O ,

su pp o se we ch oo se a s o rigin of m om ents
a m ov i ng p oint 0 who se v a ri able
p ositio n v ecto r r ela tiv e to O is s Then .

if r r a r e the p os iti on v ect ors of th e

’

p a rticle m rela tiv e to O 0 r es pec ,

’

tiv ely L et H H repr es ent

’

, ,

the a ngu la r m om enta o f the sys tem

F IG 55 a b ou t 0 0 r es pectiv ely Then
,
’
.

H Er mv ) mv
’
x 2 (s r x

mv
’
S>
< v Zr x

8 4“ H
'

where M is th e li near mo m entu m of the s yste m . B y d i ff erentia

tio n we find for the rate of ch ange of H ,

dH dH d d
’

+ _s +8
dt dl dt dt

i v X M + S ZF "

T
’ ‘

in which v ’
the v elo city of 0 rela tiv e to 0
s s is
’
.

B u t th e ra te o f i ncr ea se Of the A M a b ou t 0 is equ al t o . .

th e t o rqu e of the ex t e r nal f o rc e s a b ou t 0 If L repre s ents thi s .

t orqu e and L the to rque a bout O we h a v e

,
’ ’
.

L Ee
’
2 (s r ) x F
’
S >
<
EF L .

E qua ting thi s v a lue of L to the v a lu e found a b ov e for we find

dH
—
’

L v x
M (7
dt
which is the rela ti on b etween the ra te of ch a nge of the A M . .

a b o u t a m ov i n
g p o i nt a nd the t orqu e of the ex ter na l f o rces a b ou t
,

th a t p oi nt .
 85, 86] DY N AMICS OF A SY STE M OF PARTICLE S 1 25

A p a r ticula r i nteres t is th at for which the m ov ing

cas e of

point 0 is the c m of the s y s tem For then v 3 a nd M Mv

’ ’
'

. . .
= =
,

s o th a t the las t te rm in 7 v anis he s H ence with the c m a s

( . . .

dH
or igin of m om ents whether m ov ing or at rest the rela tion
75
, ,

is a lwa ys t rue .

In ca lcula ting H we ma y trea t the c m a s a fi x ed p o int a nd . .

,

c ons id er only v elo citie s rela tiv e to it For if v is th e v elo city of .

th e c m a nd v th a t o f the p a rticle m rela tiv e to it

'
. .
, ,

Zr mv
' ’
x .

But the fi rst te rm is z e ro ,

s in ce Zmr
'
=
0 . Therefore
H Er mv
’ '
x
,

a nd d epends y on the mo tio n of the s ys tem rela tiv e to the c m

o nl . .

86 E quations for impulsive forc es

. Supp os e the sys te m a cted .

o n by a set of im p uls iv e fo rce s Wh en there a r e any conn ections .

between the p articles of the system thes e forces will in gener al ,

c a u se imp uls i v e a cti on between them B ut we a s su m e in . ,

a cc or dance with Newt on s Third L a w th a t s u ch a cti on between

’
,

two p a rticle s c ons i s ts of a pa ir o f equal and o pp os ite i mp uls ive

forces along the line j o ining them L et v and v0 be the v elo cities .

o f the p a r ticle m j us t a ft er and j us t befo re the blow Then the .

resultant im puls iv e fo rce I on this p a rticle is equal to the change

of m om entum it p r o duce s in th e p a rticle ( Ar t 73 ) or .

I m( v Vo, .

T aking the v ector s um of the imp uls iv e force s on all the p a rticles ,

we h av e 2 1 2 m ( v v ) M Mo ( 8) 0 ,

where M MO ar e the linea r momenta of the s ystem j u st afte r

,

a nd j u s t b efo re the imp uls iv e f orce s ac t In f orming the s um 2 1 .

we m a y neglec t the inter na l im puls es which cons is t of equa l a nd

opp o site p a ir s The equa tion ( 8 ) then Shows tha t the vecto r
.

s um of the ex ter m
l impu lsive for ces a cting on the s ys tem is equa l

to the incr ea s e of linear moment um pr oduce d in the sys tem .

Simila rly , t ak i ng mom ents a b ou t a fi x ed p oi nt 0 , rela tiv e to

which the p os iti on v ector of the p a rticle m is r we h av e ,

e I e m( v v0 ) =
H Ho, ( 9)
where H0 a nd H ar e the A M . . of the s ys tem ab out 0 befo re and
1 26 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . vn .

a fter the blo w In t h e s umma tion o n the left h and s id e we may

.
-

neglect the i nt er na l i mp uls e s fo r th e s a me r ea s o n a s b e f o re th us ,

o bta i ni n the r e s u lt th a t th e vector s um of the moments of the

g
ex ter na l impu ls iv e for ces a bout a fix ed point is equ a l to the in

cr ea s e in AM .
pr odu ced a bout tha t point .

K inematic s of a Rigi d Body .

87 Motion
. about a Any displa cement of a r igid
fix ed point .

body with one point 0 fix ed is equ iva lent to a r ota tion a bou t a definite
ax is thr ough 0 .

Toprov e this consid er a , un it s phere fi x ed in the b o dy a nd

h av ing its centre at 0 AS . th e b o dy mov e s this sphere tur ns ,

F IG . 56 .

a b ou t its centre ; a nd the moti on o f a ny p o int P of the b o dy

is d eter mined by the m otion o f th a t p o int of the Spheric al sur fa c e
which lies in the line OP We m a y thu s thi nk of the b ody as a
.

Sph er e o f u nit r a di u s a nd c ons i d er th e m oti o n o f p o i nt s on th e

,

su rfa c e of thi s s phere Supp o s e th a t d u ring a ny di s pla cem ent

.

the p o int A m ov e s to A and th e p o int B to B J o in A A ’ ’

.
,
'

a nd a ls o B B by a rcs o f gr ea t circ les a nd bisect these a rcs

’

, ,

a t ri ght a ngle s by o th e r a rcs of gr ea t circ le s D C a nd E C , ,

i nter s ecti ng at C Then clea rly th e a rcs AC A O ar e equa l and

.
,
’

a ls o the a rc s B C B O B ut sinc e the p a r ticles of a rigi d body

’
.
,

r em a in a t th e s a m e dista nce ap a rt the a rcs AB and A B ar e ,

’ '

equal Hence the spherica l tri a ngles AC E a nd A OB ar e con

.
’ ’

gr u ent Th us the p o rti on o f the s pherica l s urfa ce which origi

.

na lly o ccupi ed th e p o siti on AC B o ccupie s the p os iti on A C B

’ ’

a fter the disp la ce m e nt The p o int C of the b ody o cc upies its

.
’
1 28 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [C PL vn .

18 th e v elo city of th e c m E qua ti ng the v ecto r s um of all

E!
. .

th e forces on the body to M 5 ( of Ar t . . 8 3 ) w e h av e th e required

r esult .

88 General motion
. of a rigid
th at no body . Supp os e now
p oint of the b ody is fix ed Then the m os t general di s pla cement
.

o f the bod V is equiv alent t o a tr a ns la ti o n in whi ch all p a rticle s

h av e the s am e dis pla cem ent togeth e r with a rota tion ab out ,

som e d efinite a x i s For the b o dy m ay be tr ans late d with out

.

r otation s o a s to b ring any one po int 0 i nto its final pos ition ;
a nd then the wh ole b od y ma y be b r ought into its fi nal p os ition

by rota tion a b ou t s om e ax i s through 0 .

Cons i d er the s mall d i s pla cem ent th a t tak es pla ce in a s hort

interv al (it owing to th e fi nite v elo city of the body Thi s is .

e quiv alent t o a tr ans la ti on O S o f ev ery p a rticle su ch th a t a ,

certain p oint 0 is brought into its fin al pos iti on together with a ,

r otati on 56 a b out an ax is through 0 p ar allel to som e unit v ector a .

S
{E
Then r ep r es ents the av era ge v elo city of 0 d u ri ng the ih
(it
.

t er v al, a nd —
69
2 the av era ge a ngula r v elocity of the b ody
( it

a b out 0 . T aking li miting v alu es as 6t —O we h > , av ev

ds
dt
for th e

i )
b)
A
(
i ns tantaneous v elocity of O ,
a nd A =
Lt a for the ins tan
t
t aneous g r v elo city a b ou t 0 D u ri ng the interv al (it the
an ula .

d i s pla cement of the p o in t P whos e p os ition v ecto r is r r elativ e

,

toO, is 68 + b9£ r the fi rs t ter m x

, being due to the t ransla tion ,

and th e s ec ond t o the r o t a ti on 60 The av era ge v elocity of this

.

? 72?
5
theref ore 1 + e T aking limiting
(
p oint du ring the inter v al is .

6
v a lu s e we h av e for the instantane ou s v elocity of P
V v A x r .
( 1 0)
The fi r s t te rm is the v elo city of O the s econd is the v elocity ,

Of P rela tiv e to 0 .

Cons i d er another p oi nt 0 wh o se p o siti on v ector r ela tiv e to O

’

is s and wh os e v elo city v is therefo re giv en by

'

,
§ 88] K INE M ATIC S OF A R IGID BO DY 1 29

Th e p iti os on v e ctor of P rela tiv e to O is r r s ( Fig ’ ’

= -
. a nd

the v elo city of P

gi v en by ( 10 ) m a y be ex pres se d
—s )
— v
'
+ Ax t
’
.

Thi s is Of the sam e f or m as sh o wing th a t the v elo city of

P rela ti v e t o O is th a t d u e to an a ngula r v elo city A of the body
'

about O Th e va lue A of the a ngu la r velocity is thus the s a me

’
.

for a ll or igins a nd is a pr oper ty of the body as a whole The

, .

formula ( 1 0) will b e f oun d v ery u s eful for writing do wn th e

v elo city of a ny p oint of th e b o d y .

If the p oint 0 is s u ch th a t its velo city is p a r a llel to the a x i s

’

of th e a ng ula r v elo city v is p a r a llel t o A a nd ther ef o re A v 0

’ '
x =
.
, ,

That Is A v A s 0 x
( x
) 2
,

A x v + A sA °
A2 s =
O,
from which it f ollow s th a t
A x
v

A2
where by su bs titu ti on it is f ound tha t the v a lu e of u is a rbitr a ry
, ,
.

Thu s th e lo cu s of O is a s trai ght line p a r allel to A p as sing thro ugh

’

the p oint A v/A Th e v elo city x

z .

of a ny p oint on thi s line is

pa rallel to A Th e instantaneou s .

motion Of th e bo dy is th e r ef or e
equiv alent to a s cr ew motion
ab ou t this lin e whi ch is called ,

th e a x is of th e s cr ew E very .

point on the a x isis m ov i ng along

th e a x is w hi le th e bo d y is tu rn
,

ing r oun d it with a n a ngula r

velo city A .

F 57 IG . .

Fr om ( 1 0) it f ollo ws th a t
a nd this ex pr e ssi on h a s ther ef o re th e s a m e v a lu e fo r

a ll p o int s of the b od y It is c a lled a n inva r ia nt of th e m oti on .

a nd wi ll be d e no te d b F T hi s i nv a ri a nt pr op erty is Sim p ly
y .

tha t the r e s olu te of the v elo city in th e dir e cti on o f A is th e s am e

for all p oi nts We h av e alrea dy se en th at A is its elf a n inv ariant
.
2
,

bei ng the s a m e for all o ri gins .

W . V A . .
1 30 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [C PL VII
.

The pitch of the screw motion is the adv ance along the ax is
per radia n of r ota ti on of the bod y Since fo r a p oi nt 0 o n the
’

. ,

a x is of the s crew v h as the s a m e d irecti on a s A the pitch p i s

'

, ,

glV en b y
'

2
A
-
: A
£ 2

The pitch as thus d efi ned is p o sitiv e if A and v h av e the s ame ’

th a t is if the screw is right—

, ,

s ens e ,
h and ed It is negativ e if the .

s c r ew is le ft h and ed -
.

89 Simultaneous motions
. A bo d y is s a id to p oss ess sev eral
.

moti ons s imultane ou sly when the v elo city of ea ch p ar ticle is the
,

v ect o r s um of the v elo citie s it w ould h a v e due to e a ch m otion

s ep a ra t ely If for i nst ance t h e b ody p o sse s s e s s i multa neous

.
, ,

a ngula r v elo citie s A a nd A2 a b ou t a fi x ed p o in t 0

I the p a rticle ,

wh os e p o sition v ecto r relativ e t o O is r h as a velo city

AI I + A2 I ( AI
‘ ‘
X X

B ut this is the v elo city of the p a rticle due t o a Single a ngula r

v elocity AI + A2 a b ou t 0 Hence s imulta neous a ngula r velocities
.

a bout a fix ed point a r e compou nded by the la w of v ector ad dition .

The argument is clea rly true for any number of angula r v elo cities .

Supp o s e th a t the b ody h a s simultane ou s a ngular v elocitie s

AI (0 1 ; a nd A2 (9 2 ;
ab ou t p a rallel ax es thr ough the p oints s and 82 r espectiv ely 1 .

Then th e v elo city of the p a rticle at r is the v ector sum of the

v elo cities du e to e a ch th a t is

sh owing th at the m oti on is equ iv alent to a n an ula g r v elocity

AI + A a bout a p a ra llel a x is thro u gh the p oin t
2

( wi s i ( Hege l/ ( 00 1 we) »

which div i des the li ne j oining s 1 and 8 2 in the ra tio wz wl If .

,

h owev er the angula r v elocities A and A2 a r e equal and o pp osite

, I ,

their sum is z ero a nd the v elo city of the pa rticle a t r is s imply

—s ) This is the sam e for all pa rticles Hence two
,

z .
.

s imult a ne ous equa l a nd o pp os it e a n ula r v e lo citie s a b ou t p a rallel

g
ax e s a r e eq uiv alent to a v e lo city of tr a ns la ti on of the body as

a wh ole equa l to This is perpendicula r to the p la ne

13 2 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS ( on . V II .

the p a rticle m referred to th es e es Sub stitu t ing these v alues

'

ax .

Of r , A in we fi nd
H Z m {( y 2 +z
2
) w1 x yw2 x z w3 i
}
2 m {( z 2
+x
2
) w2 w 3 yx w fii
Z m{( x 2 z
)a s zx w1 z yw 2 k
}
g
.

The v a lu e s of the s um s Z m( y 2
+z
2
) Zm( z ,
2
+x
2
) , 2 m(x 2
+y
2
)
and Emye, Emex m i which a r e d eno te d by A, B , C and
,

D E F r e sp e ctiv ely d ep end on the distribu ti on o f ma ss rela tiv e

, , ,

to the c oor dina te a x e s , a nd a r e c o ns t ant only if these a x es a r e

fix ed the b od y The qua ntities d eter mined by A B O ar e
in . , ,

called the moments of iner tia of the b ody a b o u t th e a x es of x y z , ,

respectiv ely Th os e d eterm ined by D E F a r e the pr odu cts of

.
, ,

iner tia re la tiv e t o the a x es of y a nd z z a nd x x and y re s pectiv ely , ,

E a ch m om ent of in erti a i nv olv e s only one a x is Fo r A 2 mp .

=
2
,

where p is the perpendicula r dis tance o f th e p a rticle m from th e

x a x is
-
.

In t er m s of these mom ents a nd produ cts of i nerti a th e A M

of the b o d y a b ou t 0 m a y be written

H =
h 1 i + h 2j + h3 k

where h1 = Aw1 s E w3 ,
h2 s D 40 3 F all ,
h3 =
0 w3 E a) 1 D wz
The qua ntiti e s h h2 h3 a r e the a ngula r m om enta of the b ody
1, ,

a b out the c oor d ina te a x es .

Su pp o s e ne x t th a t no point of the body is fix ed and th a t we ,

r equir e th e A M ab out a giv en p oi nt 0 With 0 as origin let i be

. . .
'

the p ositio n v ecto r of the c m a nd V i its v elo city Als o let . .

= .

r v be th e p os iti on v ecto r a nd v elo city of the p a rticle m relativ e

’

,
’

t o the c m Th en by Ar t 84 the A M of th e body a b out 0 is

. .
, .
, . .

H =
‘x
i M i7 Zr
'
x mv
’
.
( 15)
Th e c
term is the A M of th e b ody a b out th e c m calculated
s e o nd . . . .
,

a s th ou h th a t p o i nt were a t re s t Its v alu e is theref ore giv en

g .

by ( 1 3 ) if we u s e mome nts a nd pr odu cts o f ine rtia rela ti v e to

a x e s thr o u h the c m
g . .

91 P rinc ipal ax es of ine rtia

. We sh all no w s h o w th at for .

ea ch p oint of th e rigid b ody there is one and in genera l only one , ,

s et o f m u tua lly perpendicula r a x e s re la tiv e to which th e pr odu ct s

§ 91 ] DY N AM IC S OF A R IGID BO DY 1 33

of i nert ia v anis h The s e a r e called the pr incipa l a x es of i nerti a

.

at th a t p o i nt .

Let 0 be the gi v en p oi nt of the b ody a nd let us end eav our ,

to find a n a x i s thr ough 0 s u ch th a t a n a n ula r v e lo city A a b out

g
it giv es an A M H a b out 0 in the s a me di rectio n a s A For su ch
. .
.

a n ax i s we m us t h a v e

Awl s E 00 3 s D ws F 60 1 0 w3 E col D wz
we we
=
A ( say ) ,

or cle a ring fra ctions

—A) w
, ,

(A s E 00 3 =
0,
Fool + ( B —
1

7\ ) w2 D w3 =
0,
—E m1 —Dw2 + ( C
Elimina ting ( c l , ( o z, 00 3 , we hav e
A A F E
F B A D O
—
=
.

E D C A
This is a cubic equa tion in A and therefo re h a s one real root A1 , ,

With this v alu e of A any two of the equa tions ( i ) dete rm ine th e
ratio s w wz w3 giv ing the dir ecti on o f a n a x is which p oss es s es
, ,

the required pr operty Let thi s be chos en a s the x a x is Then

.
-
.

an a n ula r v e lo city 1 ab
o u t it giv es a n A M in the s a m e d irecti on
g (0 . . .

Hence by ( 1 4 )
0 =
h2 —Fw 1
a nd o =
h3 —E m 1,

sh owing th a t E F 0 Th us b oth the pr odu cts of inert ia inv olv

ing the x —
.

ax i s v a ni s h .

Try now t o fi nd a n a x is per pendi cula r to this one and a ls o ,

po ss es sing the r e quir ed property th a t H is p a rallel to A Then .

for a n a ngula r v elo city a bo u t s u ch a n a x i s w, 0 ; a nd sinc e =

E F 0 the c ond iti o n fo r p a rallelis m o f A and H is

z =

s D wa C w3 D mz
=
“
1 ( s ay ) .

Henc e (B —) w u
, 2 D w3
+ (C
Eli mina ting ( 02 (vs, we fi nd

u
? —u( B + 0 ) + (BC —D 2
) =
0,
whi ch is a qu ad r a tic in a wh os e r oots a r e ea sily s ho wn to be real
[
.

With a v alu e of u equal to one of thes e r oo ts either equati on ( ii )

134 VE CTOR ANALY SIS [C PL V II.

d et e rm in es the ra tio wz whi ch giv es an a x i s h aving the (0 3,

required pr operty L et this be tak en a s th e a x is of y Then

. .

a n a n ula r v elo city w, r ound it pr o d u ce s a n A M in the s a me

g . .

directi on H ence D O Since th en a ll the pro du cts of i nerti a

.
= .

v a ni s h the z ax is is a ls o a princip al a x is
,
-
Th us there ar e three .

mu tu a lly p erp end icu la r pri ncip a l ax es a t the giv en p oint 0 .

There is in genera l only one s uch set for th e o riginal equ a ti on

in A is a cubic Sh owi ng th a t for ea ch p oi nt there a r e only thr ee
,

a x e s p o ss e ss i ng the requ ire d pr o p e rty Th e m om ents of ine rtia .

a b ou t the princip al a x e s a r e ca lle d th e pr incipa l moments o

f
iner tia a t th a t p o int .

For the moti on of a b ody a b ou t a fix e d p o i nt 0 if i j k hav e , , ,

th e directi ons o f the pri ncip a l ax e s a t th a t p oi nt and A B C , , ,

ar e the pri ncip a l m om ents of ine rti a the fo rm u la ( 1 3 ) for the ,

A M a b ou t 0 bec om es simp ly
. .

H = Aw1 i s i Ow3 k .

92 K inetic Energy
. . Th e kinetic
energy o f a s ystem of pa rticles
is defi ned a s the s u m of th e kinetic energies
o f the s ep a ra t e p a rtic le s .

Cons i d e r a r igid body moving a bout a fix ed

poi nt 0 with a n a ngu la r v elo city A wh os e
m o dule is If r is the p os iti on v ecto r of
a) .

the p article m rela tiv e to 0 its v elocity is ,

A r a nd the ki netic energy o f the b o d y is

x
,

T
is the perpendic ula r d istance of the
If p

FIG . 58 .
p a rticle m from the instantaneous a x is and ,

I the mom ent of i ne rti a of the b o dy a b out

th at ax is ,
I Zmp z, a nd the e qua tion 1 7 m a
( ) y be written
T l z mp zw z l
é w ,
z

w hich is a nalogous to the f or mula §mv for the kinetic energy of 2

a p a rticle .

It is a ls o wo rth no tici ng th a t if H is the A M of the b ody a b out th e . .

fi x ed p oi nt 0
gA H gA 2 mr mr )
- -
, = x x

§
2
~ mv 2

a s imp le rela ti on be tween the A M

. . a nd th e k ne i tic ene rgy .
1 36 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS [C H . V II .

betwe en two pa rticles consis ts of a p ai r of equa l a nd o pp os ite

forces a long the line j oining them An d s in c e th e distance .

betwe en two p a rticles o f a rigid bod y re ma ins una ltered the ,

v elo citie s of th e two p a rticle s h a v e equ a l res olu te s a lo ng the

li ne j oining th em H enc e the a cti v ity of the p a ir of f orces

.

repre s enting their mutual a cti on is z ero The s a me is tr ue for .

every pa ir of fo rces in the internal a cti on We need ther efore .

only c o nsi d e r th e a ctiv ity of th e ex t e r na l f o rc e s o n the b ody ;

and it fo llo ws fr o m the a bov e tha t the r a te of incr eas e of the kinetic

ener gy o f a ri
gid body is equa l to the a ctiv ity of the ex ter na lfor ces .

Henc e the i ncreas e in the kinetic energy d uring a ny fi nite interv a l

of tim e is qual to the t otal wo rk
e d one on the b od y by e x terna l
forces dur ing th a t interv al .

94 Mov ing
. ax es or frame of reference
We h a v e s p ok en of .

a c onsta nt vect or a s one wh o se le ngth a nd di recti on re ma i n

un ch a nged B u t its directio n mus t be e x pre sse d rela tiv e to

.

som e fr am e o f r ef ere nc e a nd this fr a m e wi ll be in m otio n rela ti v e

t o m any o th e r fr a m es th a t m ight b e us e d for r e f e rence Thus .

d irecti ons th a t a r e c onsta nt rela ti v e t o the f o rm er a r e v a ri a b le

rela tiv e to the la tter For pra ctical terres tri al pur p o s es we
.

ch oo s e the ea rth a nd bodies rigidly a tta ched to it a s our s tanda rd

fr a me a nd b oth think and Sp eak of it a s a fi x e d fra m e of r eference
, .

We know howev er that it is mov ing relatively to Simila r fra mes

, ,

belonging to th e sun a nd o ther heav enly b o dies .

Cons i d er tw o fr a m es o f refer enc e 8 a nd 8 th e fo r m er o f

, 1 2,

whi ch we m ay think of a s fi x ed while the la tter is m ov ing rela tiv ely

,

t o it . It wi ll be suffi cie nt to c onsi d er a m o ti o n o f r o t at i on of S 2

with angula r v elocity A a b ou t a p o int 0 fi x ed in S Thi s p oi nt I

. .

is thu s a c ommon fix ed p oint for both fr a mes L et r be a v a ri able .

v ect o r s a y the p o siti on v ect o r r ela ti v e t o O o f s om e m ov ing p oint

, .

It is requir e d t o d etermine the relati on b etw een its ra t e s of

ch ange r ela tiv e to the two fr am es D ra w a figu r e from the p oint.

of V i ew of the fr a m e 8
1 If in a s h ort i nterv a l dt th e v ect or r
.

ch anges fr om OP t o OR, then P R is th e increment ( Cr ) r ela ti v e ,

t o the fr a m e SI . Now ,
dur i ng this interv a l the p oi nt of the

fr ame 8 th a t wa s initi ally at P h a s m ov ed to Q where P Q t

2 ,
x t,

so th a t QR is the i ncrem ent ( O r) o f r rela tiv e t o the fra m e 82

,
 94 95]
, M OV IN G AX E S 1 37

PR PQ QR ,

and therefo r e ( dr ) t t ( 51 02 l
x .

Div i ding by « i t we find th e av era ge ra te of ch ange

, du ring th a t
inter v al ; and proceed ing to the lim it as (it tends to z er o ,
we
obta in the requi r ed r ela ti on

( 21 )

the suffix d enoting the sp a ce rela tiv e

t o which the r ate of ch a nge is c o n
sid er ed .

In this fo rmula A d eno tes the

an ula r v elo city of S2 rela tiv e to
g
S1 .But the f o rmula is a recipro c al 0
one For we ma y rega rd S a s
.
2
F G 59 I

—
. .

fix ed the a ngular v elo city of S r e

, I

lativ e t o it bein g A A a nd th e a b ov e f ormula gi v es

'
,

69 .
A

as we s h ould ex pect All m otion is rela tiv e An y fr am e of

. .

refe rence may be reg arded a s fix ed and the moti on of a ny o ther ,

ex pr ess ed r ela tiv e to it .

Coriolis th eorem In the equa tion

’
. fi rs t take r a s th e
p osition v ector of a mov ing p o int P rela tiv e to 0 Th en its .

v elo citie s v 1 and v 2 rela tiv e t o the tw o fr am e s ar e c onnected by

( 29 (33
6 C
v1 + Ax r =
v 2 + Ax r .
( 22 )
1 2

Nex t a pply the formula ( 2 1 ) to th e v ector v1 , a nd o bta in the

acceler a ti on of P rela ti v e to SI a s

{ 55
—
f) (fill
l I
( l
“ ”
x r ” + Ax v 2
. .

d
(zf) .
138 VE CTOR A NALY SIS [OIL V II.

if:
(
a nd m ay therefore be written simply The a b ov e v a lu e fo r
is th er efore
a1 a2 2A>< v 2
{g x r

w hich is a theorem due to Co ri olis The fi r s t two term s d epend .

u p o n the mo ti on of P rela tiv e t o 8 wh ile the o ther two giv e 2

the a ccele r ation of a p oint fix ed in S2 and instant an eo u sly c oin

e id e nt with P The f ormula is a r e cipro cal o ne for the suffi x es
.

1 a nd 2 m a y be i ntercha nged pr ov i d ed the s ign of A is ch a nged ,

a t the s a m e ti me .

96 Euler s dynamic al equations

.
’
Consi d er a ri gi d b ody .

tu rning a b out a fi x ed p oint 0 We h av e alr eady s e en that .

,

if H is the A M of the b od y a b ou t 0 a nd L the to rqu e of the

. .
,

e x t e rna l f o rce s a b ou t the sa m e p oi nt ,

di

This equa ti on was formed ex pressing the m oti on of the body

r ela tiv e to some f rame S, i nd epend ent of the b ody and rega rded ,

a s fix ed R ela tiv e to thi s fr a m e the b o dy h as an angula r v elo city

.

a b ou t 0 .
A l wzj wsk 6v i

It is h o wev er frequ ently c onv enient to mak e us e of a mov ing

, ,

fra m e 8 fix ed in the b ody for ex press ing the ch anges of its

2 ,

moti on Su ch a fram e is specifi ed by the p rincipal a x es of

.

i nertia of the b ody a t 0 which a r e t ak en a s c oord ina te a x es for ,

the ( mov ing) frame 8 2 We no w cons i der i i k a s rema ining .

, ,

p a ra llel to thes e princip a l ax es and therefore cons tant unit ,

v ecto rs rela tiv e to the fr a m e 8 The A M of the b ody a b out 0

2 . . .

is by,
H Aw i + s i k 1 n :

where A B C ar e the princip al m o ments of ine rtia

, at O a nd

the to rqu e of the ex ternal fo rces a b ou t 0 is

.

L =
L1i + s + L ak ,

wher e L I, L 2 , L 3 their ( scala r ) ar e m om e nt s b ou t the pr incipal

a

a x es . Applyi ng ( 2 1 ) to the v e ct o r H, we h av e

n
1 40 VE CTOR A NALY SIS [c m
B ut t h e fir st m em ber wh en ex pa nd ed is

i
g
2
HLA °

lt
d cl
2
H z
UH) c
2
kH ( H
dt ( lt

c is
w hi h o bv o u i sly ze o r . H ence t h e r esult .

E XE RCISE S ON CHAPTE R VII .

1 . A h om ogeneo us s ph ere
r olls wi th o ut s lippi ng o n a fi x ed rough
pla ne und er th e a cti o n of fo rce s wh o s e r e s ulta nt p a ss es th rough
th e c entr e o f th e Sph er e Sh o w th a t th e m oti o n of th e s ph ere is t h e
.

sa me a s if th e pla ne wer e s mooth a nd a ll th e forc es w er e r educed ,

t o fi v e s ev enth s o f th eir fo rm er value

-
.

2 A cub e is r ota ti ng with a ngu la r v elo ci ty

. a bo ut a di a go na l to ,

wh en su dd enly one of its ed ges w hi ch d o es not m eet th e di a go na l

b ecomes fi x e d Sh o w th a t th e ens ui ng a ngula r v elocity abo ut th i s
.

edge is 1
{5
3 . inela stic cube slidi ng d own a plane i nclined a t oz to th e
An , .

h ori z onta l s trike s s y m

,
m etric a lly a s ma ll fi x ed na i l with s peed V .

If it tu mbles ov er th e na i l a nd goe s on sli di ng dow n th e pla ne s h o w

2—
,

th a t th e va lu e of V is not less th a n 2
s in OL) /3
'

co s 0L ,

wh er e 2a is th e length o f a n e dge of th e cu be .

4 A o d m o ve s w ith its e tr emiti e s o n t w o int ers e cti ng li nes

. r x .

Fi nd th e dir ection o f m oti o n o f a ny poi nt If t wo li nes d o not inter .

s ect but a r e a t right a ngl s e a mi ne w h et h er th e mo tion can be e ,

x

r epres ented by a n a ngula r velo city o nly .

5 Pro v e th a t a stra i gh t li ne th r o ugh th e c m G o f a bod y whi ch

. . .
,

is a princi pa l a x is o f i nerti a a t G is a pri ncip al ax is a t a ny point , .

6 A r igid bo dy h i nged a t O to a fi x ed poi nt is s e t r o ta ti ng about

.
, ,

a pri ncip a l a x is a t 0 If it is a ct ed o n b y no fo rc e s but th o s e at th e

.

h i nge s h o w th a t it wi ll c o nti nue t o r ota te w ith c o nsta nt a n ula r

,
g
v elocity a bout th e sa m e ax is .

If 0 is th e c m of th e bo d y s h o w t h a t t h er e is z ero a cti o n o n th e
. .
,

h i nge ; a nd h enc e t h a t a pri ncipa l ax is a t th e c m is a n a x is o f . .

free r otati on .

7 A fly w h eel o f m a ss M c o nc e ntr a t ed a t t h e r im o f r a di us a

.
-

, ,

is rota ti ng with a ngula r velo city a bout a fi x ed a x is t h rough its (0

centre i ncli ned at a n a ngle 9 to th e a x is of th e wh eel Sh o w th at th e .

constrai nt du e to th e fi x ed a x is of r ota tio n is equivalent to a couple

v 11 .
] E X E R C ISE S ON C H A P TE R V II . 1 41

wh o s e scala r mom ent is Jzs a

z
s in 9 co s 6 ,
a nd wh o se plane contains
th e ax 1 s of th e wh e el a nd t h e is of ro tat ion ax .

D et ermine
8 . t h e scr ew m o ti o n w h ich is e quiva lent to t h e t wo
scr ew s v A a nd , v A w h o s e a x es a r e giv en ; a nd sh o w
'

,
'
t h a t its
inv ari a nt P is

wh e re M is
tu al moment of th e two ax es Als o pr ov e th at
th e m u .

th e a x is of th e r e sult a nt scr ew i nt ers e cts a t ri gh t a ngles th e co mmo n

perp endicula r to th e ax es o f th e t wo giv en scr ews .

9 Pr ov e th a t t h e poi nts w h o s e p o siti on v e ctors r ela tiv e t o a

.
,

giv en ori gi n a e equ a l t o t h e v elo city v e ctors of th e pa r ticles o f a

r

ri gi d body all lie in a plane , .

1 0 Sh o w th a t a ny m oti o n o f a ri gi d bo dy m a y be r e pr e s ent ed by
.

t w o a ngula r v elo citi es A a nd A a bou t a x e s o ne of whi ch m a

'

y be ,

c h o s en a r bitr a ri ly Als o t h a t t h e comm on p erp endi cula r to th e

.

t wo ax e s i nt ers e cts p erp end icula r ly t h e ax is of th e r es ulta nt scr e w .

( Th e a x es of A A a r e ca lled conj uga te a x es )

'
.
,

1 1 If one co nj u ga te a x is o f a n i nsta nta neous m oti o n is per pen

.

d icular t o th e a x is of th e scr ew t h e o th er meet s this a x is : a nd ,

c onv ers ely .

1 2 A bo d y p o ss ess e s si multa neo u sly t w elv e e qua l angula r v elo citi es

.

a bo u t a x e s fo rmin
g th e ed ge s of a cu b e th o s e about par a llel ax es ,

being in th e s a m e s ens e P r ov e th a t t h e ax is o f th e r esu lta nt m oti o n

.

is a d i a gona l of th e cub e .

1 3 A b o d y po ss ess es si mu lta neou s a ngula r v elo ci ti e s a b ou t t h e

.

s i d es o f a s k e w poly go n ta ken in o r d er th eir ma gnitud es b eing ,

proporti ona l to th e length s of th e corr esp ondi ng sid es Sh ow th a t .

e v ery poi nt o f t h e b o dy h a s t h e s a m e v elo ci ty .

1 4 If fo u r si mu lt a n eou s a ngu la r v elo citi es ar e equiva lent to z ero

.

m oti on in th e bo dy s h ow th a t th e i nv a ri a nt of a ny t wo is equ a l
,

t o th a t of th e o th er t wo Als o th at th e inv a ri a nt of a ny t h r ee
.

is z ero .

1 5 Th e coo r di na t e s o f a m oving p oi nt P a e x
.
3; r ela tiv e to r ,

r ectangular ax es tr a c ed on a pla ne la mi na wh ich is ro tati ng about

th e ori gi n in its o w n pla ne with v a ria ble a ngula r v elo city w
, ,
P r ov e .

th at th e a cceler a ti n of P h a s r esolu tes in th e directions o ccu pi ed

o ,

by th e m ov ing a x es a t a ny insta nt giv en by

i — —
,

d
—w w w
z
a nd y + wd>
16 A pa rticle B is m o vi ng on a s m oot h pla ne cu rv e which is
.

r ota ting in its ow n pla ne with consta nt angula r v elo city w a bout a
fi x ed ori gi n 0 If P Q a r e t h e t a ngenti a l a nd nor mal r es olu t es of
.
,

th e force on t h e pa rticle R th e r ea cti o n o f t h e curv e, a nd (j) th e ,

1 42 VE CTOR AN AL Y SIS [C H

an
gle wh ich0 B makes with th e ta ngent , sho w that th e e qua tio ns
of mot i o n ma y be put in t h e fo rm

—E
]
d
b
d _r P’
‘

" l 1 vz w l
r
S ds
m ow2 20 m wzr s in
93) R + 0,
3 b ei ng t h e length of th e ar e m ea su red from a fi x ed point on th e
cur ve .

17 A circula r wir e is co nstra ined t o tur n r ound a v ertical ta ngent

.

with a unifor m a ngula r v elo city A s mooth heav y bead starti ng ,

fro m th e high est point wi th out a ny v elocity relati v e to th e wir e,

d esc end s u nd er th e a ction o f gra v ity Fi nd th e v elocity a nd th e .

rea ction in a ny positio n .

1 8 A s mooth h elical wir e is co nstr ai ned to tur n abo ut its a x is

. ,

wh ich is vertical with unifor m a ngula r v elo city ( 0

,
Find th e m oti on .

o f a p a rticle d escendin on it un d e r t h e a cti on of

g gr a v ity .

1 9 A h ea vy p article is mo vi ng in a s moo th s urfa c e of r e volution

.

wh o s a x is Oz is v ertical and v ertex d ownwa rd

e ,
If z r (p a r e th e .
, ,

cylindr ical coordi na tes of th e pa rticle s th e length of th e meridian ,

a r e fr o m t h e v ert ex R th e r ea cti o n o f th e s urfa c e a nd w g

, t pr ove =
,

th e qu a tio ns of moti on in th e fo r m
e

m
< a
s

[
dz
m mg wzr —
ds ]
m1 0 .

20 Th e po siti on o f a m o ving p oi nt is gi v en in sph e rical p ola r

.

coo rdina te s r , 9, 95 Fi nd th e r esolutes of its a cceler atio n in t h e

.

r adi al dire cti on, p erpendicula r to th e meridi an plane and in th e

m erid ia n pla ne .

21 H en e h o
. c s wt t i s
h a th e e qua t o n o f mo tion of a h ea v y particle ,

ti e d to a fi x ed p i t i t i t si
o n by a l h
g nex en ble string of length l a r e ,

m ( l92 l s in2 9q32 ) T mg cos 9

— —
,

lé l c os Osin y si n 9
—
,

1
_ 0
s in 9 dt
.

22 A ol d
. s i cubical body is in m oti on und er no ex ternal forces , ,

a bou t a fi x ed c or ner If w] (0 3
a e t h e a n ula r v elo citi e s a bout
.

g , 2, (0 r

t h e th r ee ed ges me eti ng a t t h e fi x ed poi nt pr ov e tha t w + w + w

2 3 , 1
w3 2 a r e both c o ns ta nt
2
a nd
2
+ 2
(0 1 00 -
.
 VIII
.

C H AP TE R V III .

STATIC S OF A RIGID BOD Y .

Conditions of equilib rium; The equa ti ons of for

a rigi d b o dy , as f ound in th e prev i ou s ch apter ar e equ iv a lent to ,

dt
where M is the linea r mom entu m
y H its A M a b out Of th e b od ,
. .

th e c m ( Ar t. . ZF th e v e cto r s um of the ex t e rna l fo rce s

.
,

a nd 2 e th e t orqu e o f th es e f orc e s a b out the c m If the b ody . .

rema ins a t r es t und er the a cti on of the forces M a nd H ar e ,

per m anently z e r o Th us .

EF =
O a nd Ee =
O

a r e neces s a r y conditions Of equ ilibrium for th e bo dy .

Bu t th ey ar e als o s ufiicient c o nd iti ons pr ovid e d the b o dy is ,

initia lly a t r e st For , if they a r e s a tis fi ed M and H ar e cons tant

.
, ,

a nd th er ef o r e r e m a i n per m a ne ntly z er o B ut .

H Aw i s i n k l ,

the pri ncip a l a x es a t the c m being ch os en for re ference H ence

. . .

v , ( 01 , ( 0
2 mu s t a ll r em a i n equ a l to z ero a nd the b ody is ther e
, (03 ,

for e in eq uilibriu m The conditions ( 1 ) a r e ther efore su ffi cient

.

c ond itions of equili brium for th e b o dy .

Supp o s e we tak e m ome nt s ab ou t a ny other p oint P wh os e

p o sition vector rela tiv e t o th e c m is r Then th e torqu e Of the . .

e x ter na l f o rc es a bou t P is

r e — ZF r
’
x
,
 97 , 98] A C
ST TI S OF A R IGID B OD Y 1 45

which is z ero in v irtu e o f Thu s the c o nditi on o f z e r o torque

is s a ti s fi ed for a ny p o int Conv ers ely if ZF O a nd th e t orqu e
.
,
=

a b out a n
y one p oint is z er o it is z er o a b ou t a ll p o i nts In the , .

c ond iti ons ( 1 ) therefo re the p oint ch o sen as o rigi n Of m om ents

,

may be a ny wh a tev e r .

The c onditi ons of equilibriu m j u st f ou nd a r e equ iv alent to

s ix s c alar c onditions For if ch oos ing r e cta ngula r a x es thro u gh
.
,

the o rigin of mom ents we write ,

r =
aci +
yj + zk ,

the equ a ti ons ( 1 ) be c o m e

2 ( Xi Yj + Zk ) =
0,

a nd E( yZ
which ar e e quiv a lent to the s x i sca la r c onditi ons
v
X =
0, EY =
0, EZ =
O,
Z ( yZ —Y ) z =
0,
v
(z X —Z ) a; =
0,

E ( 9c Y yX ) 0,
=

th at is the s um of the res olv ed p a rts of the f orc es m u st v a nish

,

for ea ch of the c oo r di na te a x e s a nd th e m o m ent of th e ex ter na l ,

forces a b out ea ch of th em m u st a ls o v a nish .

Th er e is no need to ch oos e recta ngula r a x es a s we hav e d one ,

but the s e a r e genera lly m o r e c onv eni ent th a n ob li qu e And .

,

with rega r d to m om ents a bout a li ne it is wo rth noticing th a t ,

if EF 0 the m oment is th e s am e for a ll p a ra llel li ne s

=
For the .

mom ent b ou t a line p a ra llel to

a a, d ra wn thr ough th e p o int P
whos e p o siti on v ector is r is ’

A A A
'
a '
2 (r =
a °
2e a r
'
x
EF
A
a
'
Ee ,

which is ind epend ent Of r

'

, a nd ther efo r e the sa m e for a ll a x es

pa ra llel to 2 .

98 E quiv alent s y stems of for ces

. . From
the c onditi ons of
equilibri um fou nd in the prev io u s Ar t .it follows tha t two systems
of forc es ar e s a t tically eq u v a l i ent in their a ction o n a rigi d body
WV . . A .
K
1 46 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [C E VIII .

if their v ector sum s a r e equal a nd a lso their to rqu es a bou t any

p oint For if one of the systems is rev e r s ed a nd then both
. ,

ac t t ogether on a rigi d b o d y th e c ombi ne d s yste m o f f o rces ,

sa tisfi es the conditi ons a nd the body is in eq ui libri u m Thus .

th e st a tic a l eff e ct of a s y s te m of fo rce s on a b od y is c omp letely

d eterm in e d by its v e ctor s um EF a nd it s to rq u e E e a b o ut a ,

s pecifi e d p oi nt .

The p o int of app lica ti on of a fo rce m a y therefore be s hifted

t o a ny other p oin t in its line of a cti on for this d oe s not alter
e ith e r of the a b ov e q ua ntities This is the principle of the .

tr a ns miss ibility o
f for ces .

Fmt h er , th e ect of a s ys tem of fo rces on a rigid b ody

eff

unaltered by i ntr odu cin g a p a ir of eq u a l a nd o pp osite f orce s with

the s am e line of a cti on For the v ecto r su m of su ch a pair is

.

z er o a nd a ls o its t o rqu e abou t a ny p o in t

,
.

99 Par allel forces

. Centre of grav ity Giv en a system of
. .

pa rallel forces p a p a p a a cting thr ough the p oi nts

l , z , n

r1,
r 2, r res pectiv ely it is r equ ir ed to fi nd a single force
,, ,

which is their sta tical equ iv alent If th ere is s uch a forc e it .

m u st by the prece ding Ar t b e e q u a l to the v ecto r s u m of the

, ,

sep ara te fo rces th a t is t o , And fu rther it ,

mus t h av e th e s am e t o rq u e a b ou t th e o rigin If then it acts .

thr ough the p oint r we mus t h av e

r x
( Ep ) a 2 r = x
pa,

H enc e

where th e v a lu e of t is a rbitra ry Thus the s ingle force which .

,

is equiv alent to the system of p a ra llel fo rc e s a cts through the ,

p oin t Epr / Zp its line of a ction being p a ralle l to the o thers

,
,

a nd its ma gnitud e equ a l t o the s um of their m a gnitud es This .

p oint is i nd epend ent of the dir ecti o n of the p a ra llel fo rces and ,

is t h e centr oi d of the p o ints r r 2 r with a s s o ci a te d nu mbers 1, , ,,

pl , p2 , pn .

In p a rt i cu la r there ar e p ar ti cles of m a s s es m m
, If
m l, 2, "

res pectiv ely at th e a b ov e p oints th eir weights c ons titute a s ys tem ,

o f p a ra llel f o rces which m a y be repre s e nt e d by m a m a

l m a; , z ,
n
1 48 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [on VIII .

an d e the sa me for ea ch s ince their to rqu es a r e equal

F is ,
.

Thu s for two cou ples to be equ iv alent their planes mu s t be

pa ra llel for ea ch is perpend icula r to the v ector representing the
,

torqu e The dir ecti on of the f o rces in the p lane is i mma terial
.

but th e s c a la r m om ent Fp mu st be the sa m e for bo th c ouples ,

a nd the sens e of th e t o r q u e a lso th e s a m e The s ta tical eff ect .

o f a co u ple a cting on a rigi d b od y is th u s c om p letely d et erm i ne d

by its torque .

Su pp o s e a b ody a cted o n by sever al c ou p le s wh os e t orqu es

ar e L1 L ,
L respectiv ely
2,
Then for the wh ole system of
n
.

fo rces th e v ector s um is z er o and the torque a b out a ny p o int is

,

The wh ole s ys tem is therefor e equ iv alent t o a s ingle cou ple wh o s e

to rqu e L is th e v ecto r sum o f the to rqu e s o f the sep a r a te cou ple s .

This is wh at is m eant by s a ying th a t couples a r e compound ed

by v ector a ddition o f their tor qu es .

1 01 . Poinsot ’
s reduction of a the b ody s y s te m of forces . L et
b e a ct ed on by f orce s F F F with lines Of a cti o n p a s s ing
1, 2, ,,

thr ough th e p o ints wh os e p osition v ectors rela tiv e to an origin 0

ar e r 1,r r espectiv ely The sta tical eff ect of th e system
2, .

is unalter ed by i ntro du cing at 0 p a ir s of equal

a nd opp o site fo rce s t F The
i t F , n

f orces F F F a t 0 ha v e a result ant

1, 2, n

R =
ZF (1)
through th a t p oint ; and th e rema ini ng fo rces on
th e b od y cons titu te c oup le s wh os e to rqu e s ar e
rl ,,rs z, respectiv ely Thes e ar e .

equ iv a lent to a s ingle coup le wh o se torqu e is

G Ee .

Th us th e o riginal sy stem of f o rces is equiv alent to

a s i n le fo rce R thr o u h 0 equ a l to the v ecto r
F IG61 .
g .
g ,

s u m of the f o rce s together with a couple whos e ,

tor qu e is equal to the v ector s um Of th e torqu es of th e s ep a rate

forces ab out 0 .

The force R is the sa me for a ll o ri gins but not s o the couple G .

For if we ta k e as o rigin a p o i nt 0 wh o se p o siti on v ect or rela tiv e ’

 101] A C
ST TI S OF A R IGID BO DY 1 49

to 0 is s ( Fig . we find the s ys tem equiv alent to a f orce R

thr ough together with a c ouple whos e to rqu e is
G
’
=
2 ( r s ) x F =
2e —S ZF x

G —s R x

This rela ti on is of co u rse Obv io u s from the fa ct th at a force

, ,

R at 0 is equiv a lent to a n equ a l fo rce a t 0 t oge ther with a

’

couple of torqu e S R x
.

Si nce R is the s ame for a ll origins R is a n inva r ia nt Of the ,

2

sys tem Ano ther inv ari ant is the s cala r product of R a nd G
.
.

For by ( 3 )
R G R G
’
RSR RG ' = '
[ ] =
°
.

We s hall d enote this s econd i nv a riant by P It ex pr e ss es the .

fa ct tha t the s ca la r mom ent of the s ystem of forces is the s a me

a b o ut all lin e s p a r a llel to R Thes e inva ri ants ar e a na lo gou s .

to th os e Of Ar t 88 . .

We na tur ally enquire if there is a p o int for which G is pa rallel

to R If 0 is s u ch a p oint th e v ecto r pro d u ct R G mu st v a ni sh
’ '
.
x
, ,

and ther ef o re
R G S R 0 x
( x
) =
,

R G x
s + R sR
°
=
0

from which it follo ws th a t

R G x

R2

wh ere by su bstitu tion it is fou nd th at t is a rbitr a ry Th u s

, ,
.

the lo cu s of p oints 0 p o ssess ing th e r equ ired property is the

'

s tr a i ht line thr ou h R G/ R p a r allel t o R ( cf Fig 57 where 2

g g x . .
,

A c o rr e sp ond s to R a nd v to G) This s tra ight line is c alled th e .

central ax is of the s yst em ; a nd t h e sys tem of fo rce s h a s thu s

been pr ov ed equ i v a lent to a f orc e R along th e c entr a l a x is t ogether ,

with a c ou ple wh os e p lane is perp end icula r t o it Su ch a force .

a nd c o u p le c onstit u t e w h a t is c a lle d a wr ench The line of a cti on

'

of th e f o rce is the a x is o f the wre n ch Th e t o rqu e of th e c oupl e .

is clea rly the s a m e for a ll p oints on th e c entr a l a x is For if in ( 3 ) .

s is incre as e d by tR th e v a lu e o f G is u na lt ere d It is c a lle d

’
.

the pr incipa l tor que Th e pitch p of th e w rench is th e ra ti o o f

.

the p a ra llel v ectors G and R Thus '

.

G G" R P
’

P E R 2
R 2
,
1 50 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [on v m .

an d is therefo re the ra ti o of th e two inv a ri a nts Of the s ys tem .

Th e pitch a s thus d efi ned is p o sitiv e if G a nd R h a v e the s a me

’

, ,

dir e cti on i e if the wr ench is ri gh t h a nd ed ; nega tiv e if the

, . .
-

wrench is left h and ed If the system of fo rces reduces to a

-
.

coup le only R is z er o and th e pitch is infinite If it redu ces to

,
.

a si n le f o rce R a t the c p le G is z e r o a nd the pitch v a ni s he s

'

g ou .

E x amples .

( 1 ) F or ces m agnitu des la mb no a ct a long thr ee no n inter s ec ting

f o
-

, ,

edges of a pa r a llelepiped who s e lengths a r e a b, c r es pectively P r ove ,

.

tha t the inva r ia nt F of the s ys tem is wher e V is the

v olu me o the
f figur e .

L et a b c be th e v ect ors d et ermi ned by t h e edges o f th e pa r allele

, ,

pi ped a ll dir e ct ed fr om one corner wh ich w e t a ke a s ori gi n ; a nd

, ,

let fo rc es la mb no a ct r esp e ctiv ely th r ou gh t h e ori gi n a nd th e

, ,

poi nt s 0 and ( a + b) Th en th e ve ct or s u m of th e forces is .

a nd th e tor que about th e o ri gin is

G cx mb (a
H ence t h e i nva ri a nt
R G ‘
( la mb nb x c me h ) a

( lm mn nl abc
)[ ] ,

wh ich prov e s th e r esult .

( 2 ) Two for ces F 1 a nd F 2 a ct a long non inter s ecting lines P r ove -

.

tha t their centr a l a x is inter s ects the commo n per pendicu la r to the two
lines , a nd div ides it in the r a tio Als o
tha t the s ca la r moment of the pr incipa l couple is F 1 F ZM | F1 + F 2 |
wher e M is the mutua l moment of th e lines of a ction of the two for ces .

L et P P ( Fig 42 ) be t h e co mm on per pendicula r Th e c entral ax is

’
. .

is pa r allel to th e v e ctor su m F 1 + F 2 R s a y a nd is t h er efor e at ri ght =

,

a ngles to P P since ea ch force is s o Furth er ea ch of th es e forces

'

, .
,

h a s z er o m om ent a bo ut PP a nd th er efor e th e e q uiv a le nt wr ench

'

R G h a s z er o m o m ent B ut t h e c entr a l a x is is p erp endicula r to P P

'
, .

s o t h a t G h as z e r o r es olv ed p a rt a lo n
g it H ence t h e c entral a x is .

cuts P P for o th erwise th e mom ent of th e force R a bout th is line

’

wou ld no t va nis h .

Tak e th e poi nt 0 of i nters ecti on Of th es e li ne s a s ori gi n, a nd let

OP mk a nd GP nk , i
1: be ng pe pendi r cular t o I“ 1
a nd F2 . Th en
r
t h e t o qu e of th e s e forc es a b ou t 0 is
mk > F1 < nk x F
1 52 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [e rr v m .

ca lled the nu ll the p oint 0 while 0 is called t h e nu ll

pla ne at ,

point of th e plane .

If th e p oi nt 0 lies in the null p la ne a t 0 the line 0 0 is a

’
’
,

nu ll lin e ; th a t 1 s to s a y the s yst em h a s z er o m om ent a b ou t it .

Henc e it lie s In th e null p la ne a t Thu s if the nu ll pla ne a t 0 ,

0 pa s ses thr ough 0

’

pas s es thr ough the nu ll pla ne at .

To fi nd the equati on o f the 8 rela tiv e null p la ne a t the p o int ,

to 0 as o rigin we h av e o nly to o bser v e th a t the c o up le for th a t

,

p oint is G
’
=
G < R
S> ,

t o G is
’

a nd the e quati on of the p la ne through s perpend icula r

(r s ) (G-
sx R) =
0
or r (G -
Sx R) =
s -G .

This equa ti on of the null p la ne a t s It is symmetrica l

is th e .

in r a nd s s o th a t if the null p la ne a t 8 p a sses thr ou gh r the ,

nu ll p lane a t r p as ses thr ough 8 .

1 03 . Conj ugate forces . Any s ys te m of for ces a cting on a body

is s ta tica lly equ iva lent to two for ces , f
o which the line f
o a ction

of one ma y be chos en a r bitr a r ily . Su ch a p a ir of forces ar e called

c onj uga te for ces system
of th e .

T a ke a stra ight line thr ou gh an a rbitra ry p oint 0 in a ny

d ire cti o n ,
s ay th a t of a . L et the syst em of fo rces be equ iv alent
to a fo rc e R thro ugh 0 a nd a c oup le G We c an r e s olv e R into .

c omponent s F F ii a nd F R — 1
=
F1 in s u ch a w ay th a t
1 2
= F2 is
p a rallel to th e p lane of th e co uple G This only requ ires .

0 = F2 G -
(R F inG -
,

R G ’

th a t is F1
QG -

R ep la ce R by th e s e two fo rces F and F a t 0 We can then 1 2 .

tr a nsfo rm th e c ouple G to co nsis t o f a fo rce F at 0 a nd a no ther 2

F in th e nu ll p la ne a t 0
2 Th e system is then equ iv a le nt to F .
1

at p a ra llel to it and F R
0 in th e null p la ne a t 0
2
=B oth .

force s a r e uniqu ely d et er mined ; and the line of a cti on of F2 is

a ls o d et er m i ned for t h e t o rq u e o f this f o rce a b ou t 0 m u st be
,

eq u a l t o G Th u s G r F where r is t h e p o siti on v e cto r of a ny

.
,
= >
2,

po int o n this line of a cti o n r efe rred t o 0 a s origin ,

.
 103 , 1 04] A C
ST TI S OF A R IGID B OD Y 1 53

The ax is of F2 ma y
be ex pre ss ed a s the line of inters ecti on
a ls o

of two p la ne s For s i nce thi s a x is lies in the null p la ne a t 0

.

any p o int o n it mu st s a tisfy the eq u a ti on

But it a ls o lies on the null pla ne Of a ny p oi nt ason the a x is of F

th at is in th e plane
i R ) daf
/
,
r° (G at x
t .

By su btra ction we fi nd th a t
t ~R x a
( ) =
3~G
is a pla ne through the li ne of intersecti on of the other two Thu s .

the ax is of F is the line o f inter se cti on of 1 ) a nd

2 The lines
of a cti on o f the c onj u a te f o rces F a nd F a r e c a lle d con u a te
g j g 1 2

lines or c onj u g a te a x e s .

1 04 Principle
. of Vir tual Work or Virtual Velocities . If a

s ys te m bodies in equ ilibr ium

o f , u nder a n s et o
y f for ces , is s upp os ed

s ta r ted with a ny finite motion cons is tent with the connections f

o

its pa r ts th e initia l r a te of wor k of the for ces on the s ys tem is z er o

, .

C onver s ely , if the for ces on the s ys tem a r e s uch tha t however the ,

s ys tem is s et in motion, th e initia l r a te o f wor k f

o the for ces is zer o,

then the s ys tem is in equ ilibr iu m u nder the for ces .

W shall pr o e the principle

e ingle rigi d body Ch oo s e
v fo r a s .

any p o in t 0 a s o ri i n of p o siti on v e ct o rs a nd let th e in iti a l

g ,

moti on of the b od y b e e q uiv a lent to a velo city v of t h e p a rticle

a t 0 and a n a n ula r ve lo city A a bo u t it Then the velo city
g .

of the p a rtic le a t r is If F is the fo rce a cting a t this

pa rticle th e initia l ra te of working Of F is
,

F ‘
v FA ° x r .

Cons i d eri ng the f orces a ll on the body , we h av e for th e t o ta l

i nitial a ctiv ity of the fo rces
v -Z F + A e F
'
.

And in , v i rtue
the cond iti ons of equi librium of the b ody thi s
of ,

ex pre ssi on v ani s hes wh a tev er th e v a lu es of v and A .

Conv er s ely if thi s a ctiv ity is z ero for a ll initi a l m oti ons th e
, ,

b ody mus t be in equi librium For ch o osi ng one of tra nsla tion .
,

only ( A O) w e m ust h a ve V Z F z er o for a ll v a lu es of v H ence °

= .
,

ZF 0 =
Simila rly ch o osi ng o ne of r ota ti on only a b ou t 0 we
.
1 54 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [GIL v m .

fi nd A 2 e °
z ero
e of A Therefo re Ee mus t
for a ll v a lu s .

a ls o be z ero a nd the c onditi o ns o f eq uilibriu m a r e s a ti s fi ed

,
.

Su ch v elo citi e s a s we h a v e im a gined giv en t o th e bo dy ar e

called vir tua l velocities a nd the work d one by the forces owing
t o thes e v elo citie s is calle d v ir tu a l wor k The a b ov e principle is .

frequ ently s ta ted d iff erently Cons id er the i nfinitesima l vir tua l .

dis pla cement o f the b o d y fro m the equ i libri um p os iti on in th e

infinitesimal inte rv al (St owi ng to the Vi rtu al v elo city impa rted
,

t o it The v irtual w ork (SWof the fo rces du ring this di s pla cement
.

dW
is to the fi rst o r d er
, ,

?
An d ,
if
y is in equilibrium this v ani shes no t on a ccou nt of
th e bod ,

the c onv er gence of dt to the lim it z e ro but becaus e the co effi cient ,

d W s ro repre
.

i ze tin g th e initial a ctiv ity The v alu e o f OWis

s en .
,
dt
genera lly c alcu la te d not in ter ms of fit but of t h e s mall i ncrements
, ,

( 59 (St etc o f the c o or d i na tes ex pressi ng th e p o siti on of the b ody

g, , .
, .

E quilibrium of Strings and Wires .

String unde r
be the length of the
any forc es . L et s

s tring m e a s u re d fr om a fi x ed p o i nt A u
p t o a v a ri a b le p oi nt P ,

a nd Cs th e len th o f the e lem e nt P P Su pp o s e the

( Fig
'

g
s trin
g t o be a cted on by a f o rce F per u nit length v a ryi ng from ,

p oint to p o int Th en F 63 is the fo rce on th e e lem ent P P due

.
'

to e x terna l a cti o n B u t if T a nd T + 6 T a r e th e v a lu e s of the

.

tensio ns at P a nd P res pectiv ely and t a nd t + 6t the unit ’

tangents at th o se p oints th e elem ent P P is a ls o a cted on by the

,
’

forces Tt a nd ( T 6 T) ( t + dt) Fo r equ ilibrium of the element .

the v ecto r s um of th e s e fo rces m u st be z er o th at is

t + T 6t + 6 T 6t + F 6s =
O
.

D iv i d ing thr ough ou t by (S

S, a nd ta king li miting e
v a lu s a s ( is -
w
,

we h av e dT dt
t i T F 0
a?
“ “

a} ,

which by , Ar t 59 ,
is eq u iv alent to

dT
dS
1 56 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [cm

a nd so on, and rememb er th a t

dt db dn
Ab K t’
7
( 3 ds ds

we find in pla ce of (1) a nd ( 2) the s ix equati ons

d?
d —S K 2 F1 =
O,

+ K SI “
Rigs + F2 =
0,
ds
d?
AS2 F3 =
O,
d
de
K Lz G1 = O ,
d
d?
+c 1
—7\L 3
—
S 3
= 0,
d
dL 3
ds
For la ne
a s s tem A O S F a nd the a x e s of the c ouples
p y
= = =
3 3 ,

L a nd G ar e in the directi ons of b, s o th a t L 1 , L 2 , G1 , G2 all v anish .

If then L 3 L and G3 G the eq u a ti ons r e du ce t o

= =

(i

f; —S K 2 + 171 =
0,

g
d z '
i '
K Sl + F2 =
O,

dL

If in additi on
the s ys te m is per fectly flex ible the bending moment ,

L is z ero This makes S G O s o tha t if there is no e x ternal

.
2
=
,

couple G the no rmal resolute S mu st v ani s h maki ng the s tress

, 2 ,

purely tangenti al a s f ound in th e pr ev i o us Ar t

, .

EXER CISE S ON CHAPTE R VIII .

1 A body is in equi li bri u m u nd er fo ur forc es a cti n

.
g along the
si d es of a cyclic qua dri lat er al Pr ov e th a t th e forces ar e proportional
.

t o th e length s of t h e o pp o si t e si d es .

2 . four forces a cti ng long th e sid es of a cyclic quad ri lateral

If a

ar e i nv ersely prop orti onal to t h e length s of th o se sides sh ow that ,

v m] EXE RC ISE S ON C H AP TE R VIII . 1 57

their r esultant a cts along th e li ne j oi ning th e i nters ecti ons of opp osit e
s i des .

3 Fo rc es a ct a lo ng t h e si d es o f a qua d ri la ter al pr oporti ona l

.

to p q r 3 ti m es t h e len th s o f th o s e si d e s Sh ow th a t if th e b o dy
, , ,
g .
,

is in e qu i li bri u m pr qs a nd th e r ati o s p q a nd
q r a r e t h e r a ti o s
=
, ,

in whi ch t h e di a gonals d ivi d e ea ch ot h er .

4 Four f orc es a ct a lo ng th e si d es of a sk ew qu ad ri la tera l r epr e

.

s ent ed b
y a AB b B C 0 C D d D A r esp e ctiv ely
.
,
.
, Sh o w th a t
.
, . .

th ey cannot be in e qui librium If a b o d th ey a r e equiva lent .

= = =

t o a couple wh o s e pla ne is pa r a llel to th e di a o na ls A C B D B ut

g ,
.

if a c bd th ey h av e a r e sulta nt wh os e li ne of a cti on i nters ects t h e

=

d i a gonals .

5 Fo rc es a ct alo ng t h e si d e s of a sk ew p olygo n ta ken in o rd er

.
,

propor ti ona l t o th e le ngt h s of t h e si d e s along wh ich th ey a c t Sh ow .

t h at th ey a r e e quiv a lent t o a co uple .

6 Sh ow th a t a bod y ca nnot b in e qui librium und er s ix fo rc es

. e

a ctin a lo n
g g th e e dges of a t etr a h ed r o n .

7 Six equ a l fo rces a c t a lo ng th e edges o f a r egula r tetr a h edr on

.

ABCD in th e d ir e cti ons A B B C CA D A D B D C Prov e th a t

, , , , ,
.

t h eir centra l ax is is th e p erp endicula r fr o m D t o t h e fa ce A B C .

8 If in th e pr evio u s ex ercis e t h e t etr a h edr on is not r egula r

. ,

a nd th e f orc e s a r e pr o o rt i o na l t o th e len th s o f th e ed ge s alo ng

p g
which th e y a ct th eir c ent r a l ax is is pa r allel to t h e li ne j oi ning D
,

to th e c entroi d G Of th e f a c e AB C a nd if
q) is th e i nclin tio n of a

thes e pa r allel li nes to th a t fa ce t h eir dist ance a part is 4A cos p/ D G ,

1 c ,

A being th e a rea o f t h e tri a ngle A B C .

9 Fo rc es a c t a t th e v ertice s o f a t etr a h e dr on o utwa r d p er pon

. ,

dicular t o th e o ppo sit e f c s a nd pr o por ti o na l to t h eir a r ea s

a e P r o ve .

th at th e bod y on whi ch th ey a ct is in e quili brium .

1 0 Twelve equ al fo rc es a c t a lo ng th e e d ge s of a cube the pa r a llel

. ,

forces h av i ng th e sa m e sens e P rov e th a t th eir central ax is is a .

di a gona l If i nstea d o f f o rce s th er e a r e twelv e e qu al c ouples wh o s e

.
, ,

pla nes ar e p a ra llel t o th e fa ce s o f t h e c ub e s h o w th a t th eir c entra l ,

ax is is p a r a llel t o a di a o na l
g .

1 1 Sh ow th at fo r a n system o f fo rc es th e couple G is lea st for

.
,
y ,

poi nts on th e centr al a x is .

1 2 Forces thr ough th e poi nts A A

. A a r e r epr es ented by n

the v ecto rs A IA I A A 2 A A
'
,
r esp ectively If G is th e
2
'
, n n
'
.

centroid of th e n points a nd G th a t of th e n poi nts Am Sh o w

' ’

tha t th e c entra l ax is o f th e force s is pa r a llel to GG If th e li ne s of

’
.

acti on of t h e fo rc es i nt ers e ct a n la ne p erp end icu la r t o t h e c entra l

y p
1 58 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS [on
axis in B 1 B 2 ,s how th a t th e c entr a l a x is m eets this plane
,

in th e centr oi d of th es e poi nts w ith a ss o ci a te d numbers pr o por ti onal

to th e r es olut es o f t h e f o rc es in t h e d ir e cti o n o f t h e c entr al ax is .

13 Fo rc es a ct a t t h e mi ddle poi nt s o f t h e si d es o f a p la ne polygon

.
,

in th e pla ne Of th e fi gur e a nd perp e ndicula rly t o th e si d es If th ey .

a r e pr o po rti o na l t o t h e length s of t h e si d es a nd a c t eith er a ll i nward

,

or a ll ou t wa rd pro v e th a t t h e b od y is in e qu i libri um
,
.

1 4 Forc es a ct a t th e c entr oi d s o f th e fa ce s o f a clo s ed polyh edron

.
,

pr opo r ti ona l to th e a r ea s o f t h e fa ce s If th e y a r e nor m a l to the

.

fa ces a nd eith er all i nwa rd or a ll outw a rd pro ve th at th e system is

, ,

in e qui li bri u m .

E x t end th e pr evi o us e x ercis e to th e ca s e of a

15 . clo s ed c urved
surfa ce , by i ncr ea sing th e number of f a ce s i nd efi nitely .

16 . four forces a r e in eq uili bri um s h o w th a t th e i nvari ant I

If ,
‘

o f a ny t wo is e qu a l to th a t o f t h e o th er t w o Als o t h a t th e s ame .

i nva ria nt of ny thr ee is z er o a .

1 7 If t h e o ri gi n is t a k en o n th e a x is o f t h e equiva le nt wr ench
.

( pitch p) a nd k is th e u nit v ctor in t h e d ire cti on o f t h e ax is s how

, e ,

t h a t th e nu ll pla ne a t th e poi nt p ( B i + Ai) Ck is

r° ( Ai —B j
H enc e prov e th a t if a pla ne m eets th e c ent ral a x is in P a nd makes
,

a n a n le
g w i th it its null po i nt Q is s u ch th a t P Q is perp endicular
,

to th e a x is a nd o f length p co t )
q .

18 . stra i gh t li nes i nt ers ect in a point P th eir conj ugates

If t w o ,

a ls o i nt ers ec t a nd lie in t h e nu ll pla ne a t P .

1 9 Sh w th a t t h e null pla nes o f co lli ne a r poi nts h a v e a common

. o

li ne Of int rs ecti on e .

20 P ro v e th a t a ny syste m o f fo rc e s a cti ng o n a ri gi d body can

.

be r epla ced by t wo e qu a l f o rce s e q ua lly i ncli ned to th e ce ntr a l ax is .

21 A tr a nsv ersal i nt ers e cts t h e li nes o f a cti o n o f two co nj ugate

.

forc es Prov e t ha t eith er poi nt o f i nters e cti o n is t h e null poi nt of

.

th e plane c ontai ni ng t h e tr a nsv e rs a l a nd t h e o th e r li ne o f a cti on .

22 Any t wo co nj u gat e li ne s i nt ers ect a p la ne in P a nd Q Show

. .

th a t P Q pa ss es th r ough th e null poi nt o f th e plane .

23 A system of fo rc es is r e du ce d t o t h r ee a cti ng a t fi x ed poi nts

.
,

A B C
, ,
If t h e fo rc e a t A is fi x ed in dir ecti o n pr o v e th a t each of
.

th e o th er t wo lie s in a fi ed p la n Als o th a t t h e s e p la nes i ntersect

x e .

in th e li n B C e .

24 A ri gi d bo dy is a cte d o n b y a fo rce F per unit m a ss v arying

.
,

from p oi nt to poi nt If r ela tiv e to a n o ri gin 0 r is th e position vector

.
, ,
 SUMMAR Y .

ADDITION AND SUB TRACTION .

Ve ctor s ar e comp ounded a ccord ing to the tria ngle law of

ad di tion . Thus if three po ints

,
0, P, R ar e chos en s o tha t OP =
a

a nd PR =the v ecto r OR is the sum or r es ultant of a and b

b, .

Wh en s ev eral v ecto rs ar e a dd ed togethe r the comm u ta tiv e and

a sso cia tiv e la ws h old The individual v ector s ar e c alled the
.

components of the re sulta nt .

The nega tive of a is the v ect or which h as the same length as a

but th e Opp os ite directi on It is d enote d by
. a -
.

To subtract th e v ector b fr om a rev er s e the directi on of b and

a dd . Th u s — b) .

If m is p os itiv e real num ber ma is defin ed to m ea n the

a ny , .

v ect o r in the s a m e direction a s a bu t of m ti me s its length

,
Thus .

ma m ( at) ( 7nd ) 3 .

wher e a is a unit vec tor and a the module of a .

Si m ila rly the v ector m) a is d efi ne d to be the v ect or obta ined

by rev ers ing the directi on of a a nd multiplyi ng its length by m .

The general la ws Of as s ocia ti on and di s tribu ti on for s calar

multipliers h old a s in ordi na ry algeb ra Thus .

m ( na)
( m + n) a ma + na =
,

Any v ector 3. ca n be e x pres sed

the sum of three others as ,

p a ra llel to any three non C Opla nar v ectors When thes e three
-

c om p onents ar e mutually perpendicula r they ar e called the

1 60
 ADD ITION AN D S U B TRACTION 1 61

r es olutes or r es olve d pa r ts of a in th o s e directi ons We the

. u se
no at ti on
a all a
h
] a gk ,

where i j k a r e the u nit v e ctors in th os e d irecti o ns Ve ctor s

, , .

may be c om p oun d e d by a dding their like c o mp one nt s Th u s .

2a ( Za 1 ) i (2 a2) i ( 2 a3 ) k .

The un it v ector
ii a ( c os o ) i .
( cos fi) j ( c os y ) k ,

where cos or cos 6 c os y ar e the directi on cos ines o f the v e ctor

, , .

The r ectangula r coor dina tes x y z of a p o int ar e c onnected , ,

with its p o sition v ecto r r by the rela ti on

We s peak Of thi s p oin t briefl y a s the p oint r .

The line j oini ng the p o ints a and b is divid ed in th e r a ti o m n

by th e p oin t m
n a b
m+n

The centroid of the p oints al , a2 , with a sso ci ated r ea l

numb e r s is the p o int
pl pz , ,

33
'

The centr e of mas s of p a rticles m m at the p oints

r , , r 2, is the p oin t Bmr

This p oint coincid es with the centre of gr av ity of th e p a rticles .

The v ect o r equation of th e straigh t line thr ough the p oi nt a

parallel to b is r a tb .

The s tr aight lin e p ass ing thr ough the p oi nts a a nd b is

r =
(1
The necessary a nd s u ffi cient c onditi on tha t three p o ints sh ould
be collinea r is th a t the r e ex i s ts a linea r relati on b etween th eir
position v ector s in which th e algebra ic s um o f the co effi cients
,

is equa l t o z e ro .

W . V A
. .
1 62 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
The bi secto rs of the angles b etwe en th e s traight lines r =
ta a nd

r =
tb ar e A b
)
a

— b
<h b)
A A

r = t(a b) _ =
i
a

The plane thr ough the p oint a pa ra llel to b a nd c is

r a + sb to .

The p lane thr ough th e three p o ints a, b, c is

r =
(1 — s

The c ssa ry a nd s uflic ient co nditi o n th a t f ou r p o ints s h ould be

ne e

copla na r is th a t in the linea r r ela ti on b etwe en their p ositi on

,

vecto rs th e algebr a ic s um of the c o effi cients be equa l t o z er o

,
.

The nece ss a ry a nd s uffi ci ent c onditi on th a t a li near relation

c o nnecting th e p o s iti on v ector s Of a ny num ber Of fi x ed p oints ,

sh ould b e independent of the or igin is tha t th e algebr aic sum of ,

’

the c oeffi ci ents be z er o .

Th e v ector ar ea of a p la ne fi gure is specifi ed by a v ector normal

t o the pla ne with m o d ule e q u a l t o the m ea s u re o f the a rea of the
,

figure The s um of the v ector a r eas of thefa ces of a clos ed polyhedr on

.

i s z er o .

PR OD UCTS OF VE CT OR S .

The s c alar product o f two v ector s a and b wh o s e d irecti ons

a r e incline d at a n a ngle 0 is the r ea l numb er a b c os 0 and is , ,

wr itt en a b a b c os 6 ba ° =
°
.

Th e condition o
f per pendicu la r ity Of a a nd b is

ab O .

Th e s qua r e of the ve cto r a is

2 2
a an =
a .

Also , with th e us ua l no a t tion ,

ar b l
al ) , a zb2 a ab3 ,
2 2 z 2
AA a a1 az a3
=
,

a nd a' b c os 0 =
l1 12 ml m2 nl nz ,

where l ml l, , nl a nd lg, m2 ,
n2 a r e the directi on cos i nes
respectiv ely .
1 64 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
and the cross or by ch anging the ord er of the fa ct ors pr ov ided the
, ,

cyclic o rder is unalte r ed Th u s .

a -bx c ax bc - =
c ° b x a,

a nd s o on . The pr odu ct is generally w ritten

[abc] ,

t tion which indi ca tes the three v ectors

a no a a nd the cyclic o rde r .

If h owev er the cyclic o rd er of th e fa cto r s

, ,
is ch anged the sign
,

of the pr oduct is ch a nge d Thu s .

[abc] [acb] .

The v alu e of the produ ct is giv en by the d eter minant

[abc] al a2 as

bl 62 be
01 Ca 63

The ve ctor tr iple product a ( b c ) is the v ect or p roduct of a

x x

and b e
. It is a v ector in the pla ne o f b a nd c , and its v alue is
giv en by ax ( bx c ) a-cb a-bc .

The p os iti on of the bra ckets in thi s pr o du ct is not a rbitra ry for

( a b) c is a v ector in th e p la ne of a a nd b a nd its v a lue is
x x
,

( ax b) x c a ° cb b -
oa .

Neither the or d e r of the fa cto rs be ch anged at p leas ure

c an .

The scalar quadr uple product ( a b) ( c d) is the s calar product x - x .

of a b and 0 d
x
Its v a lu e is giv en by
.

we b d °
a -d be
we a-d

b °
c bd -
i
The vector quad ruple product ma y be ex p anded
in terms either Of a and b or of c a nd (1 . Thus
[acd] b [bed] a
[abd] c [abc] d .

E quating thes e two e x pre s sions for th e pr odu ct and writing ,

r instea d of d we see th a t any v e ctor r is ex pres s ible in terms of

,

three non c oplana r v ect or s a b c by the fo rmula

-

, ,

[r bc] a [r ca] b [t ab] 0

[abc]
 PR ODUCTS OF VE CTOR S 1 65

The reciprocal s y s te m of ve ctor s to th e non -

co plana r s ys te m
a, b, C is
b x
c 3 X
1)
’

[abcl
’

[abc]
which sa tisfy the rela ti ons
we
' ’
bb
’
a a 1
- -

a nd etc
'
h
’
a
°
=
a c -
=
.
=
O .

The recipro cal s ys tem t o a b c is a b c ’

,
’

,
’

, , . The a b ov e ex press io n
for r in term s of a b 0 m a y be writte n
, ,

r = ~ ’
r a a r bb
°
'
r c c °
’
.

The s ys tem i , i k is
, its ow n reciproc al .

TH E PLANE AN D THE ST RAIGHT LINE .

The s tand a rd fo rm o f the equation of a plane p e rpend ic ula r

n is
” 1 q .

Th e per pendic ula r dis ta nce fr om the p oi nt r ’

to this plane is
_q
—t u
’
°

p n

The dista nce me as u re d p a r a llel to the v ecto r bis

f
q
‘

“
t .

u°h

The p lane through the p o i nt (1 p erp end icula r to n is

r -n dn °
.

The pla nes bi s ecting the an

gles between th e tw o p la nes
t °u q, )
=

P fi =
il
’

in v i i h
n n
f i f °

The equa ti on of a ny p la ne thr ough the line f

o inter s ection
planes ( A) is ex pressible a s
’ ’
r ( n An ) Aq
-

q
=
.

This p lane ma y be ma d e to s a tisfy one other c onditio n by giv i ng

a s u ita b le re a l v a lu e to the p a r a m eter A .

The p lane c onta i ning th e three p oi nts a b c is . , ,

r- (b x
c cx a ax b) [abc] .
1 66 VE CTOR A NALY SIS

Th e pla ne through th e p o i nt a p a rallel to b a nd c is

P M [abc]
r
[ a— , b, 0] 0 = .

The plane thr o ugh the p o ints a and b ,

a nd p a rallel to c ,
is

r' ( b —
a) x
e [abc] .

The p lane containing the stra ight lin e t =

a + tb a nd the p oint
0 is
(
t° a

The per pend icula r fr om the p o i nt r '

t o th e s tra i ght li ne
r a +w =

p =
a — r
’
1
b -
(a
62

Th e condition of inters ection cf the stra ight lines

r a + tb =
,

r a sb ’ ’

is [b b ,
’

, a —] a
’
=
0 .

The length of th e common perpendicula r to the i

two l nis s is

n~ a
’

( a ) 1

wher e n b b and n m od n Th e common perpendicula r

= x
’
=
. . is
th e line o f int e rsecti o n o f th e pla ne s

r
[ a— , b, b b x
]
’
= O,
[r
’ ’
b] O
’
a , b , b x =
.

Pluck er ’
s coordinates of a lin e the u nit v e cto r (1 p a rallel
ar e

t o th e l n i e , a nd the moment m a b ou t the o ri in o f this v e ct or

g
lo calise d in th e lin e .

The mutua l moment of the straight lines m a nd

’
m is
’
t wo ( 1, d ,

M =
md -
’
+ m" d .

This is connect ed with th e length p of their c om mon per pen

dic ular by the equ a ti o n M 19 Sin 9 ,

9 b ei ng th e a ngle of i ncli na ti o n of the two li nes The lines .

i ntersect if M 0 =
.

If th e p o siti o n v e cto rs o f three v e rtice s of a tetr a he d r o n re la tiv e

t o the other vertex a r e a b c the v olume of th e tetrah edron is
, , ,

V
 1 68 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS

DIFFERE NT IAT ION AND INTE GR AT ION .

If r isf unction o f a s ca la r v a ri a b le t a nd (Sr is th e i ncrement

a ,

in r c o rres p ondi ng t o th e i ncr e m ent (i t in t the n th e limiti ng ,

v a lu e of th e q u otie nt dr / dt a s ( it t end s t o z e r o is c a lle d the der iva

tiv e of r with re s pect to t We us e the no tation

.

or dr
dt

The d eriv a ti v e of thi s f uncti on is c alled th e s e cond d eriv ativ e ,

a nd s o on .

The rule s for differentia ting sums and produc ts of v ectors ar e

si mi la r to th o s e for a lgebr a ic s ums and pr o du cts Thus .

d
(r +s +
di dt
d dr ds
.
8 ”
.

It
’
dz dt

(
d
r x s ) = —s + x
r x
als
~
dt dt 7t
6

D i ff er entia ting b oth sid es of the equ ality r2

s ec ond of the s e f o r m ula e we Obt a in

,

a
dc
w
e
di
’

wh ich is a u seful res ult . In p a rtic ula r , i f a is a v ector of cons tant

length ,

sh owing th a t a is perpend icula r to its d eriv a ti v e . It is als o

wo rth no ticing tha t d dr azr

]
E
( dx d
_ i+_y
1+
d2$

dt di dt di

To d iffere ntia te a trip le pr o duct or on e i nv olv ing s ev er al,

f a ctor s ,
difi er entia te ea ch fa ct or in turn Thus .

da
[ 1 [5 ] [ a }
— bc db dc
dz
+ a c ab

a nd SO o n .
 D IFF E R E N TIATION AN D IN TE G RATION l 69

Integration is the rev erse pro ces s to d iffere nti ati on Th e .

v ect o r F Wh os e d eriv a tiv e with respect to t i

, s e q u a l to r is c a lle d ,

th e integr a l Of r a nd is writte n
,

F dt .

Aconsta nt of i ntegr a ti on ma y be introd u ced a l eb a c r i

g
c alculus Thu s .

dr
2 r dt = r2
dt
d 2r
r x ‘

dt r
di 2

The equa ti on d zr
—n 2
r ma y b e i ntegr a ted a fte r sc a la r
$ 5
i
multip li c a ti o n of b oth m e m bers with 2
dd W the n obt in
e a

(gy c n 2r z .

A definite integral is d efi ne d as the lim it of a s um ,

as in o rdina ry
calc ulu s Cf Art s 6 1 62
. . . .

GE OME T R Y OF CURVE S .

If r is the p o s iti on vecto r of a cu rre nt p oint on the cu r v e ,

a nd

s the length Of the ar e u

p to th a t p oint ,

dr div . dy . dz
I+ J + k
{lg £ E
C Eg
is the un it ct o r p a ra llel to the tangent calle d briefly
ve , th e unit
tangent . H e nce the equa tion of th e ta ngent is
R r ut.

d zr dt
Furth e r ,
ds z ( 5 7
where n is th e unit vecto r p a r allel to the princip al nor mal and ,

x the cur va tu r e or a r c ra te of tu rning Of the t a ngent We c a ll n

-

briefly the unit normal F r o m th e la st e q u a ti on it follows th at

.

The equati on of th e pr incipa l nor ma l is

R r un .
1 70 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS
‘

Th e nor ma l plane i s th e plan e through th e po i nt r perp end icular

t o th e ta nge nt . It s equ a ti o n is
(R r ) -
t 0 .

Th e os cu la ting p la ne , o r p la ne of cur va tu r e , is th a t which c ontains

the ta ngent a nd the princip a l no r m a l Its eq ua ti o n is .

[R -
r , t, n] =
0 .

Th e binor ma l is the s tr a i ght line thr o ugh the p o i nt r per pen

dicu la r to the p la ne Of cu rv a tu re The unit binormal .

h ch
w i ha s a d eriv a ti v e

wh er e A is the tor sion , or ar c -

r ate of tur ning b i no r mal .

It s v a lu e is gi v en by

dr d 2r dar
‘

A i
t ds ds
’
z’
ds s ]
Th e d eriv a tiv e of th e un it no rm a l is
: —t + k bK
is ,

a nd the equ a ti on of th e bi no rmal is

dr d2 r
R =
r +u x

fi ds f

PAR TICL E K INE MAT ICS AND D YNAMICS .

Th e v elo c ity of a p a rticle who se p os iti o n v ecto r

, is r ,
is

a nd its acc eleration is the r a te of i ncr ea s e Of its v elo city

J fi '
d 2r
‘ _ '

di dt2
Velo citi e s c om p ounded by v e cto r a dd iti on ; a nd the s ame
ar e

is tr ue of a cc ele r a ti ons .

Th e v elo city Of a pa rtic le mov ing in a cu r ve with s pee d i) is

v v t,

a nd its c
a c el er a ti on is a t + x v zn .
1 72 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
r b ei ng
the p os iti on v ecto r o f th e p a rticle The ter m a ngu la r .

momentum is syno nym o u s w ith m o m ent o f m om entum .

Th e m om ent Of the fo rce a cti ng on a p a rtic le is e q ual to the r ate

of i ncr ea s e of the A M . .

dt
A central for c e is cting a lwa ys to wa r d s a fi x ed p o i nt c a lled
o ne a

th e centr e of for ce Th e o r bit Of a p a rtic le a cte d on by a centra l

.

f o rce is a pla ne o rbit t h e p la ne o f the o rbit c onta i ning the centre

,

of f o rc e Th e A M o f the p a rticle a b out the centr e re mains

. . .

c ons ta nt .

am
A

In the c a s e o f a c entr a l f o rce r v a ryi ng inv er s ely a s the ,

2
7

s qua r e o f the o rbit is a c onic with f o cus a t the centre

the dis ta nce ,

o f f orce If V is the spee d a t a p o i nt d ist a nt c fr o m the centre

.

o f f o rc e the ecce ntricity of th e o r bit is

, gi v e n by

E K
2 2
2
6
2

1“ ( M 0 ) + 1 .

If V2 < 2p / c th e o rbit is a n ellips e a s in the c as e o f th e p la nets , .

If a b a r e the s e mi a x es Of the e llipse , the p eri o d ic ti m e is

,
-

27

a nd th e sp eed a t a ny po int is gi v en by
2 1
(T l l a

M52
h2
a

c a se o f a centr a l f orc e
In th e v a ryi n
g di r ectly a s the
dis ta nce the o r bit is a n ellip s e with ce ntre a t th e ce ntre of f orc e
,

0 . Th e peri od ic tim e is no w
27
’

fi
x/

a nd the speed a t a ny p o i nt P is gi v e n by
v
2 =
n( a
2
+ bZ —) r 2 =
p , 0 D2
wh e re 0D is th e s em i di a m eter c onj uga te
-

to OP
—
.

r . ab .
 PAR TICL E K IN E M ATIC S AN D DYN AMIC S 1 73

If p a rticle a cted o n by a fo rc e F is constrained

a to mov e on

a s mooth cu rv e th e equ a ti o n Of m oti on is

,

ma =
F + R,

Wher e R is the re a cti on Of the c urv e . This is equ iv alent to

t he three s c a la r e qu a ti o n s
dv
m _
dl
v
z =
F2 + R
0 =
F3 + R

t he i es 1 2 3 den o ti ng res olutes in the directi ons

s uff x , ,

t angent pri ncip a l no r ma l a nd bi no r m a l r e sp e ctiv ely

, .

SY ST E M OF PAR T ICLE S .

The linea r momentum o f a system Of p articles is d efi ned a s

t h e v ect o r s um of th e line a r mom e nt a o f the s ep a r a te p a rtic les
t h a t is M E mv ,

whi ch is e quiv a lent to M Mv ,

wh ere M Em is th e t otal ma s s Of th e p a rticles and V the

=
,

v elo city o f th e c entre of m a ss Th e r a t e Of i ncrea se of the.

li nea r m om entum is dM d;
M
dz 5
‘

The v ecto r su m Of th e f o rces a cti ng on th e p a rticle s is

d
Ernv 1 a,
IV
dt

an equa ti on which d eter mi ne s the m oti on of th e c m . .

Th e angula r momentum H of the s y s te m a b out a ny p oi nt is

th e cto r sum o f th e A M
ve . . of th e s ep a r a t e p a rticles H enc e for .

m om ents a b o u t t h e o ri gi n
H Zr b mv ,

a nd it s ra te of i ncr ea s e is
_
d
v x x

Th u s r a te o f i ncr ea s e of the A M a bout 0 is equal to th e

th e . .

v ect o r s um o f the t o rq u es a b ou t 0 of a ll th e f o rce s on the sy te

s m .
1 74 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
This princip le m a y be u sed for ta king moments a b o u t th e c m . .
,

r ega r di ng th a t p o int a s fi x ed .

Th e v ect o r s um Of th e impulsiv e forces a cting on the sys tem

is e qu a l to the incr ea s e in the li ne a r mo m ent um of the s ys te m ;

th a t is 2 1 M MO .

Th e v e ct or s um o f th e m om ent s of the i m p ulsi v e f o rce s a b out a

fi x e d p oi nt 0 is equ a l to th e i ncre a s e in th e A M a bou t th a t
“

. .

p o int pr odu c ed b y th o s e f orc e s Th us .

e 1 =
H H0 .

RIGID K INE MAT ICS .

The mo ti o n Of a rigi d b o d y a bou t a fix ed point is at a ny ins tant

o ne of r o t a ti o n a b ou t a d e fi nite a x 1 s thr o u gh th a t p o i nt c a lle d ,

the ins ta nta neous a x is The angular v elocity c a n then be r epr e

.

s e nt e d by a v ect o r A p a r a lle l t o this a x i s Th e v e lo city of th e .

p a rticle a t the p oint r is v A t x

’

the fi x ed p oint being ta k e n a s o ri gi n .

Wh en no point of the body is fi x ed t ak e the p o s ition of a ny ,

p a rticle a s o ri gin a nd let v be the v elo city of th a t p a rticle .

Then the v elo city of any oth e r p a rtic le wh os e p o siti on vect or

is r is V v +A r = x .

Th e v ect o r A is i nd epend e nt Of th e o ri gi n a nd is c alle d th e ,

a ngu lar v elocit

y Of t h e b od y .

Any m o ti on of a ri gi d b od y is eq u i v a lent t o a s c rew motion .

Th e a x is of the scr e w is p a r a lle l t o A ; a nd the v elo city of any

p a rticle o n the a x i s is a lo ng the a x is being th e s a m e for all su ch ,

p a rticles Th e two inva r ia nts of the m oti on a r e A a nd F v A

.
2 = -
,

wher e v is th e v elo city of a ny p a rticle The pitch of the screw is .

p F/ Az .

Si m u lt a ne ou s a n ula
g r v elo citi e s
b o u t a fi x e d p o i nt ar e c om
a

p ound e d by v ect o r a dditi on Si multa neou s a ngula r v elo cities

.

a b o u t p a r a llel a x es a r e c om p o und e d li ke p a r a llel f orce s Any .

s imultaneous motions c o rr e sp o nd i ng t o v elo citie s v v of 1 , 2,

a p a r tic le ch o se n a s o ri gin a nd a ngu la r ve lo citi e s A A of

, I, 2,

the bod y ab o u t th at p oi nt a r e c omp ou nd ed by v e cto r a dditi on

,

o f the v e lo citi e s Of the o ri gin a nd v ect o r a dd iti o n o f th e a ng ula r

,

velo cities .
1 76 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
be two frames of reference in relative motion ab out
L et S1 , S2
a c ommon fi x e d p oin t the moti on of S2 rela tiv e to SI bei ng a n
,

a n ula r v elo city A a b o u t th a t p o i nt Then the r ates of ch ange

g .

o f a v ecto r r rela tiv e t o the two fr a m e s ar e c o nnected by

—
(Z
DC— r
lD r
f x
Thi s fo rmula is recipro c a l s i nce A is the A V of SI rela tiv e to S
,
. .
2 .

App lying the fo rm u la t o the v e ctor H r e pre s e nti ng the A M . .

Of a b ody mov i ng a b ou t a fi x e d p o int 0 we o bt a in E uler s dy nami

’
,

c al equations For the fra m e S1 we tak e th e s ys tem of s ur ro undi ng

.

o bj ect s a t rest rela tiv e t o e a ch o th e r

, The frame S2 we take as .

fi x ed in th e mov i ng b od y L et i j k be unit v ect ors fi x ed

.
, , ,

r ela tiv e to S a nd p a r allel to the princip al a x es of the b ody at

2,

0 The angula r v elo city

.

A =
w1 i i
( 1 32 (03 k
of the b ody is als o the A V . of S2 rela tiv e to S1 . If
L = L1 i + i + L ak

is the torqu e of the ex t ernal forces ab out 0, the principle of A . M .

sta te s th at
( hg h)
h (g
i C
AXH .

Thi s is the v ector equiv alent of E uler s three s cala r equ ations ’

Ad) , (B C ) w2w3 = L
d z (C A ) w3w1 =
L
C d’s (A B lwr wz L3
For Coriolis Th eorem ,
c onnecting the a ccelera ti ons of a mov ing
’

p oint rela tiv e to the fr ames SI and 8 2 s ee Ar t 95 , . .

RIGID STAT ICS .

The ne cessa ry and s uffi cient conditions of equilibrium fo r a

b od y a cte d o n by f o rce s F1 F2 thr ou gh the poi nts r 1 r 2

, , , .

ar e
EF
Ee O, f
i .the v ecto r sum of the fo rces and their torqu e a b out the
e .
,

origin mu st b o th v a nish
, If the c onditi ons a r e sa tis fi e d for one
.

o rigi n th ey a r e s a tis fi e d for an

, y o rigi n .
 R IGID A C
ST TI S 1 77

A ys te m of f o rces a cting o n a bo d y is s ta tically equiv alent t o

s

a ny o ther s yste m h a v i n
g th e sa m e v ecto r s um a nd the sa m e ,

t orqu e a b o u t a c o mm on o ri i n
g .

A s yste m Of parallel forc es p a p aa a cti n

g thr ou gh the l , ,

p oints r 1 r 2 is equ i v a lent to a Single f orc e (p1 + p2

, ,
)a .

a cting thr o ugh the p o i nt

2p
In p a rticu lar the centr e of gr a vity of the b ody c o inci d es with its
,

c m
. . The las t f o rmula ce a s e s to be v ali d when Ep 0 when =
,

the s ystem is equi v alent to a c ou ple .

A p a ir of equ a l a nd o pp os ite p a ra llel f o rce s with d i ff er ent lines

of a cti on c ons titu tes a c ouple The to rqu e L o f the s ys tem is .

the s am e for a ll o rigins It is p erpendicula r to th e pla ne conta in

.

ing the t wo line s Of a cti on a nd equ al t o ,

L 2
‘
l2 ) x F,

where r 1 r 2 ar e p o ints on the lines Of F a nd —

, F respecti v ely .

Two c ouple s a r e s ta tic ally equ iv ale nt if th ey h a v e equ al t o rqu es .

A s ys t em of c ou ples is e qu i v a lent t o a Si ngle c oup le wh os e t orqu e ,

is equal t o the v ect o r s u m of the t o rqu e s of the i nd i v i dua l c oup les .

Tha t is to s a y couples a r e compounded by vector a ddition of their

,

tor ques .

A s yst em off o rc es F1 F thr ough the p oints r 1

, 2, ,
r 2,

be repla ced by a Si ngle f o rce

R EF
thr ough the o rigin ,
a nd a c ou ple of t orqu e
G e F .

The couple v a rie s with the origin but R is inv a ri ant ,

. The s c ala r
produ ct p R G °

is a ls o a n the o ri gin is on a certa in s tr a ight line

inv a r ia nt . If ,

c alled the central ax is G is p a r a llel to R The f o rc e a nd cou ple

,
.

then c ons titute a wr ench equ iv a lent to the o rigi nal system o f ,

forces The pitch of th e wrench is

.

p F/R z
.

Any ys tem of f o rces a cting on a b ody is s ta tica lly e quiv alent

s

to two f o rc e s Of which th e line of a cti o n of one ma y b e ch os en

,

rbitr r ily Su ch a p a ir a r e c a lle d c onj ugate forc es of the system

a a
.
.

w . v A . .
M
1 78 VE C TOR AN ALY SIS
If b ody in equilibrium und er a ny set of f or ce s is su pp os ed
a , ,

s ta rte d Off with a n fi ni te m oti on the i ni ti a l r a te of w or k of the

y ,

fo rces on the s ys tem is z er o Conv er s ely if th e f o rces ar e su ch

.
,

tha t h ow ev er the b ody is set in m o ti on, the initial a cti v ity of the
,

forces is z er o then the b od y is in equilibriu m und er the f orces

,
.

This is the principle of v ir tual work o r v irtu al v elo cities for the
, ,

b ody .

If a s tring is in equilibrium und er a f orce F per unit length ,

v a ryi n
g fr o m p oi nt t o p oi nt the tensi on T is f ound fr om the
,

e qu a ti on
M
t Tm F o
dS
which is e qui v alent t o th e c
s a la r e qu a ti ons
dT
PI 0,
ds
K T F2 0,

where F 1 F 2 a r e th e res olu tes of F along the tangent and princip al

,

no rm a l re s pectiv ely .

In the c a se of a wire or th in r od if S L repre s ent the s tre ss and

, ,

bendi ng c ou p le a t a ny s e cti o n and F G the i m pressed f orce and

, ,

torqu e per unit length the equ a ti ons Of equ ilibrium ar e

,

dS
+ F =
O,
ds
dL
ds
whi ch may be repla ce d by s ix Ca rt e si a n e qu ati ons .
1 80 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS

CH APTE R III .

( 5j + llk 3 i)
-

s
b
.

(i+ i —
2j + k) ; (i +j wh e r e s is a r oot of th e
e q u a tion s
z
+ 23

c os
— —11 1 .
c os
1
16 r (30
1 43 + 7 k ) + 1 3 O
7
73 , .

t° (g —
p b)
a 0 = . 19 . 7j 13h ) .

( 2i — —( 3
aL
r °
7j 21 .
we . 23
6

A plane pe pend ic ula t o t h e s t r r r igh t lin j ining th tw giv n p int

a e o e o e o s .

A r
s t a igh t line pa a lle l to t h e e c o r v t r d iff r n f th f r th r gh e e ce o e o ces , ou th e
inte r s ec tio n of t h e i line s o f ac t io n r .

J r
3 P pe pend icula t o B C r . At a
-

point D s u ch th a t B

40 unit s . 3 4 A s ph e. r e . 35 . i A s ph er e,
. u . A pla ne .

CH APTE R IV .

(a °
d c' e c ° d a' e )b a' b ( c de
°
c - cd ) .

’
= 0 . 6 . r °
(a a ) >< b 7 . wh o [abc] .

[ab k ] /mo d ( k >c b) Th e line of inte re s c tion o f

—
.

[ r, k , k X b] = 0 a nd [ b
r a, , k X b] =

r 14 r

—
.

Th e s t r ai gh t line —( q1
n1
1
—(
l
7z2
q2 r ° n2 ) —( q”3
3

F (a d x ’
) _
N a l( a Xd
’
) (1 .

CH APTE R V .

1 . i
. 11 . s wi m r -
a
in ” .

r 2r r b ta t r ) b
’

-
r
In 2 ( a r + r b ) g (a x +
F
.

3 2
7 a° r ( a r )°

v . 2r r v i. m i dl -

2 . Fir t d riv tiv

s e a e s ar e

]
2
( dr dr d2 r dr d3 r
” a nd
a as

51
2
cl 1 (

2
3

Z
: 2;
. 4
Sec ond d e rv tv
i a i es a r e rE 2
2
+
(
a nd a no th e r
"
ex
pr ess ion .
 AN SW E R S TO EXE RCISE S 1 81

8 .

3
2
M z z
ix
-
a { wa r x a
a ) [0 a ( ro a 2 )
}atf -
e bi c, wh e r b e a nd c a r e c ons t .

u .
wh r e e c a nd d a r e c ons t.

r t ad gli tz
.

1. Mod ri s c o ns t a nt . 11 . Di re ction of ri s c ons ta nt.

dr d3 r
"
a r j
e 11 . 01.

p q
Henc e t h e e u a tions of t h e pr inci al no rm a l a nd th e plane of c u rv t r
a u e
m a y b e w itten d own r .

23 . R = a sec a
z
.
2 5; -
8 té

CHAP TE R VI .

hirr V3 ) 12
'
"
(V3 VI ) Va l} ,

1
—
(i d fl
d
t
r l r zr a ] [r1 r2r4 ] + [r 1 r3 r4] in wh i c h v 1 , e tc .

Th e ne w m aj o r ax is is d o u le th e b o rigin a l one .

Th e s pee d is ME . Th e res olutes of th e r ea c tio n a long r

th e p incipa l no rm al
2 mgz
a nd th e bin or m al ar e
a
z
c o s a and mg c os
'

a re s pe c tiv ly e .

CH AP TE R VII .

Th e ins t a nta ne o us ce ntr f r t ti n i t h p in t f int r

e o o a o s e o o e s ec tion o f th e
r
pe pendi c ula s t o e r th tw tr igh t lin t th
o tr miti
s a es a e ex e es of th e r o d .

In t h e s ec o nd ca se e th r t ti n i r nd n i p rp ndi
o a o s ou a ax s e e c u la r
t o th e
v
t w o gi en s t a igh t lin e s r .

If 0 is th e inc lina tion ( t o th e v rtie c al ) of t h e r a diu s to t h e b ead

v
2 : 2ga ( 1 cos 0) wza z s in + s in

a nd is th e di st a nc e of th e ea d
if x o m th e b fr fi x ed v rti
e cal ta nge nt ,
th e co mpo ne nts R , R o f th e ea c tion on th e
’
r b ea d , a long th e r a diu s

an d per pendi c ula t o t h e plan e of th e wir e , a r e gir v n by

e

1)

a
9 00 5 O — wzx s in d l
-

r
'

f éz r s maeea
( r
z
d) r s in 0 cos deiz,

z
s in q i)
‘
r .
1 82 VE TOC R ANALYSIS

CHAPTE R VIII .

31 . If R is th e r
eac tion per unit length ,

MR 4 as s in I
t.
5
x T R 0,
pg c os 5

ma ss per unit length ,

1 84 VE CTOR AN ALY SIS
Th e nu mber s r e er to th e a r ticles f .

Mea s ure 1 R rv t r 59 f ph i l
a diu s o f c u a u e, o s er ca

r t r Ch p V E 2 2
, .

Mo du le 3 cu v a u e , a . . x . .

R nkin th r m f f r f r 54
.

Mo me nt of a fr
o ce , 40 ; of a lo calised a e s
’
eo e o ou o c es , .

v ec to r 40 R ipr l y t m f v t 47
ec oca s s e o ec o r s , .

R fl ti n nd r fr ti n f ligh t
.

Mom ent of inertia 90 9 2 ,

-
.
e ec o a e ac o o ,

Mo m ent of mo mentu m 7 6 8 4 , . 41 , E x 2 5 0, E x
. .

R
,

Mo me ntum 7 1 8 2 83 . e la tiv e pos it io n, 1 2 .

R
, , ,

Mov in g a x es 94 9 5 , , . ela tiv e v e lo city , 1 2 , 65 .

Mo v ing or igin of m o ments 85 , .

R es olu tes , r
e s o lv e d pa ts , 7 r .

Multiplica tion by a nu m b er 5 , .
R es ult a nt, 4, 6 .

Mu tu a l m om ent of lines 5 1 , .

r r
Sca la p o d u c t, 25 .

Nega ti e e c to 3 v v r Sca la rq
u a ntity , 1 .

Ne wt on s la ws of m o tio n, 72 , 83
’
, .

.
r
Sc e w m o tion, 88 .

r
N o m a l pla ne 5 9 Sim ult a ne ou s mo tions 89 , .

,
r r
.

r
N o m a l pr incipa l 5 9 Sph e e , ge om et y of, 33 3 8 -
.

r r C
.
, ,
h ap V
r
No m a l s u r a ce integ al, 64 f r Sph er ic a l c u v a t u e ,
. .

r r
.

Null pla ne , 1 02 Sph e ic a l tr igo no m e t y , 53 .

q r r
.

S ua e of a v ec to , 2 5 .

b q
O li u e c oo dina te a x e s , 2 6, E x 4 r r
St aigh t line , 1 6 , 3 2 , 49 5 1 -
.

r
O th o gona l int e s ec tio n of s ph e es , 3 4 r r
. .

q
Str ing, e uili iu m o f, 1 05 br .

Os cu la ting pla ne, 59

.

br
Su t a c tio n of ec t o s , 4 v r .

rf
Su a c e in teg a l, 64 r .

P r b li rbit 70
a a o c o , .
Ta ngent c o ne , 3 3
P r ll l f r
.

a a e99 o c es , .
Ta ngent plane , 3 4
P r ll li m nditi n f 2 7
.

a a e s , co o o , .
Tangent t o c u v e , 5 8 r
P r ll l gr m f f r 4
.

a a e o a o o c es , .
r
Te t a h ed on 1 9 5 2 r
P p ndi l r di t n fr m pl n
.
, ,

er e cu a s a ce o a e,
To que 40 1 00
r
3 0 ; fr m lin 3 2 ; b tw n t w
.
, ,

o e, e ee o
r
To sion, 60
tr igh t lin
.

s a 50 es , .
Tr ia ngle , 1 8
P rp ndi l rity nditi n f 2 5
.

e e cu a , co o o , .
r
T ia ngle la w o f a ddition , 4
Pit h f r w 88 ; f wr n h 1 0 1
.

c o
Pl n g m t y f 2 0 29 3 1 48
sc e , o e c , .
r r
T iple p o d u c ts , 43 44 5 6
.
, ,

a e, eo e r o , ,
-
, .

Pl n f u v t r 59
a e o c r a u e, .
Uni t bin rm o 60 p in cipa l no mal,
a l, r r
Pl n t y m ti n 79
a e ar o o , .
59 ; t a ngent , 5 8 ; ec to , 3 , 7 v r
rdin t 51
.

’
Plii k c er s c o o a es , .

ntr l
V tr 1 2
’
P in t
o so i 101
s ce a ax s, .
ec o
P l r pl n 3 5 , , .

o a a e, .
V t r r 23
ec o a ea ,
P ly h dr n l d 2 3
.

o e o , c os e , .
V t r p ly g n 1 3
ec o o o
P iti n v t r 8 , .

os o ec o , .
V l ity in t nt n
e oc s a a e o us , 5 5, 6 5 a dia l r
P in ip l
r c f in ti
a 91 a x es o er a, .
nd t r n
a r 68
,

a s v e s e, vi r t u a l, 104
P in ip l n rm l 59
.

r c a o a , .
Virt l w rk 1 04
ua o
Pr d t f in rti 90 , .

o uc s o e a, .

Pr d t f
o uc s t r S l r 25 o v ec o s . ca a ,
Wir q ili bri
e, e u u m o f, 1 06
v t r 2 7 ; tripl 43 44 ; q d
ec o , e, , ua
W rk f f r
o o a o ce , 39 virt
.

u a l, 104
r pl 45 d i tiv 56
.

u e, er v a e, .
Wr n h 1 0 1
e c , .

R a dica l pla ne, 3 7 . Ze r o v ec to r , 3 .

GL ASGOW : PR INTE D AT TH E U N IV E R S lTY P R E SS B Y R OB E R T MAC L E H OBE A ND

CO . L TD