3

Pr m t e d a nd P u b h s h e d by
“
TH E E LE CTR I C I A N PR I NTI NG A N D P U B LI S H I NG LI M I TED ,

1. 2 a nd l
3 , S a i s b u ry C o u rt, Fl eet St re e t ,

L o nd o n, E C .
 PREFACE .

TH I S w ork wa s o r i gi na lly m e a n t to be c onti nu a ti on o f th e

a

se ri e s “
E l e ctrom a g n e tic In du cti on a nd i ts P r o p a g a ti o n,
”

O wi n g , h o w e ve r , to th e c
ne e s s ity of m u ch i ntrodu ct o ry

thi ng a p p r o a chi n g a c onn e cte d tre a ti s e on l ctric a l th eo ry

e e ,
 iv . P REFA C E .

m a gn e tic ides of e l e ctro m a gne ti s m a re sym m e tric a lly e x

s

hi bi te d a nd c onn e ct e d w h il s t the,
“
fo rc e s a nd
“
fluxes
a re the o bj e ct s of i mm e di a t e a tt e n ti o n i ns tea d o f the ,

p ote nti a l fu ncti ons whi ch a re s u ch p o w e rful a id s to o b s c u ri ng

a nd c o m plic a ti ng th e s u bj e ct a n d hi di n g fr o m Vi e w u s e fu l
,

a nd s om e tim es i m p o rt a n t r e l a ti o ns .

The third ch a pt e r pp 1 3 2 to 30 5 i s de v o t e d to v e cto r

, .
,

a lg e br a a nd a n a ly s i s , in the fo rm u s e d by m e i n m y fo r m e r
p ap e rs A s I h a v e a t the b e gi nni ng a nd e nd o f t hi s ch a pte r
.

s ta te d m
y v i e w s c o n c e r n i n g th e u ns u it a bi lity of q u a t e r n i o n s

fo r phy s ic a l r e q u ire m e n t s a nd m y pre fe ren c e for a v e ct o r

,

a lg ebr a whic h i s b a s e d u p on the v e ct o r a nd i s d o m in a t e d b

y
vectori a l ide a s ins t ea d o f qu a te rn i oni c it i s nee dl e ss to s ay ,

m ore on the po i nt h e re B u t I m u s t add th a t it ha s b e e n

.

gra tifyi ng to di s c ove r a m ong m a th em a tic a l phys ici s t s a c on

s i de ra ble an d r a pidly gro wi n g a ppr e ci a ti on o f v e ct o r a lg e br a

o n th e se li ne s ; an d m o r eo v e r tha t s t u dent s who had foun d

,

qu a t e rn i ons qu it e h op e l e s s c ou ld u nde r st an d my ve cto rs ve ry

W e ll Re ga rd e d as a trea ti se o n ve cto ri a l a lge bra thi s ch a p
.
,

te r ha s m a nife s t s h ortc om i ng s It i s only the fi rs t ru di m e nt s

.

o f the s u bj e ct . Ne v e rth e l e s s a s the rea de r m a y s ee from the

,

a pp lic a ti ons m a d e ,
it i s fu ll y s u ffi ci e nt for o rdi na ry u se in
the m a th em a tic a l s ci e nc es wh e re the C a rt e s i a n m a th e m a tic s
i s u s u al ly e m pl oye d a nd we ne e d no t tr ou bl e ab o u t m o r e
,

a d v a n c e d d e v e l o p m e nt s b e fo r e the e l e m e n t s a r e ta ke n u p .

No w th e re a re no tr ea ti s es on v e ct o r a lg e bra i n e xi s t e nc e ye t
, ,

s u it a bl e for m a th e m a tic a l phy s ic s a nd i n ha r m o ny with the

,

C a rt e s i a n m a th em a tic s ( a m a tt e r to whi ch I a tt a ch the

gr e a t e s t im p ort a nc e) I b e li e ve th e r e fo re th a t thi s ch a pt e r
.
, ,

m a y be u s e fu l a s a s t o pg a p .

The fou rt h ch a pte r pp 3 06 to 4 6 6 i s d e vo t e d to the

, .
,

th eory of p la ne e l e ctrom a gne tic w a ve s a nd b e i ng m a i nly , ,

d e s cripti ve m a y p e rh a p s be re a d with pro fi t by m a ny who

,

a r e u n a bl e to t a ckl e the math e m a tic a l th e o ry c o m p r e he n

s i ve l It m a b e a ls o u seful to ha v e r e s u l t s of m a t he m a tic a l
y .
y
 PREFAC E .
V»

m a th e m a tici a n sth e m s e l ve s who a re s om e tim e s too a p t to

,

w o rk o u t r e s u lt s with o u t a s u ffici e nt s t a t e m ent of the ir

m e a n i ng a n d e ffe ct Bu t it
'

w a ve s S om e e x a m ple s i n ill u s tr a ti on
.

cro wd e d ou t a nd will pr o b a bly be gi v en i n the ne xt vol u me

, .

l
a so an a cc o u nt o f the e ffe ct s of se lf i nd u cti on a nd l ea k a g e -

which are o f s om e s i gnific a n c e i n pre s e nt pr a ctic e a s w e ll

a s i n p os s ibl e fu t u r e d e v e l op m e nt s The re h a ve b e e n s om e .

ve ry qu e er vi e w s prom ul ga te d o ffi ci a lly i n thi s c ountry c on

c e rni ng the s p ee d of the c u rr ent the i m p o t e nc e of s elf ,

i ndu cti on an d oth er m a t e ri a l po i nt s c onc e rned No m a tt e r

, .

how e mi nent they m a y be in th e ir de p a rt m ent s o ffici a l s ne e d

'

n o t be s ci e nt i fi c m e n It i s not e xp e ct e d of the m B u t
. .

s h o u l d th e y pr ofes s to be a n d la y d o w n th e la w o u t s id e th e ir
,

kn o wle dge a nd ob s tru ct the s pre a di ng of vi e w s th ey c a nnot

,

u n d e r s t a nd th e ir o ffi ci a l w e ight i m p a rt s a fi ctiti ou s i m p o r
,
»

t a nc e to the ir vi e w s a nd ac t s m os t de l e t e ri o u s ly i n prop a g a ting

,

e rr o r
, e s p e ci a lly w he n t he ir o ffi ci a l p os iti on i s h e l d u p a s a

s cr ee n to pr ot e ct th e m fro m critici s m B u t i n o th e r c oun tri es .

the r e i s I find c ons id e ra bl e a gree m e nt with m y v i e w s

, , .

Ha ving thu s gone bri e fly thr o u gh the b ook it i s d esi ra bl e ,

to s a y a fe w w ord s r e g a r di ng the o u t li n e s ke tch of e l e ctro

m a gn e tic s i n the s e c ond ch a pte r Two di v e r s e o p ini ons h a v e
.

b ee n exp re s s ed a bou t it On the one h a nd it ha s b e en s a id

' ‘

.
,

mi nd e d m a n . On the o th e r h and it ,
ha s b e en sa id to be to o

w e ight ,
a nd d em a n d s s om e n o tic e .
vi . PREFAC E .

pri ma ry ph e no m en a th e re i s a l a rg e n u m b e r o f s e c o nda ry
,

one s p a rtly o r e ven m a i nly e l e ctro m a gn e tic bu t a l so tre n chi ng

, ,

up on o th e r phys ic a l s ci en c e s No w the qu e s ti o n a ri s e s wh e th e r
.

i t i s e ith e r pr a ctic a bl e o r u se fu l to a tt e m pt to c on s tru ct a

'

th e o ry of s u ch c o m pre h e n s i ve n e s s a s to in cl u d e the s e c on d a ry
'

ph eno m e na a nd to c all it the th e o ry of e l e ctro m a g ne ti s m I

,
.

thi nk no t a t l ea s t a t pre s en t It m ight p e rh a p s be d on e i f

,
.

the s e c on d a ry ph e n om e na w e r e th o ro u ghly kno wn ; bu t th e ir

th eory i s s o m u ch m o r e d eb a t a bl e th a n th a t o f the pri m a ry
ph enom ena tha t it w o u ld be a n i nj u s tic e to the l a tt e r to to o
cl ose ly a m a lga m a t e th e m Th en a g a in the e xpr e s s i on o f the
.
,

th e ory w ou ld be s o u nwi e ldy a s to be pra ctic a lly u s e l e s s ; the

m a j o r ph e nom e na w o u ld be a pp a re ntly s w a m p e d by th e m i n o r .

It w o u ld th e r efo re s e e m b e s t no t to a tt e m pt too mu ch bu t
, , ,

to h a ve a so rt o f a b s tr a ct e l e ctr o m a gne tic s ch e m e fo r the

p ri m a ry p h e n o m e n a o n ly a n d h a v e s u b,s idi a ry e xt e n s i o ns

the r eof fo r the s e c on d a ry The th e o ry of e l e ctr o m a gn e ti s m

.

is th e n a pri m a ry th e o ry a s kel e t on fra m e w o rk c orr e s p o ndi ng

,

to a p o s s ibl e s t a t e of thi n g s S i m pl e r th a n the r e a l i n i nnu

me r a ble de t a i l s bu t s u it a bl e fo r the pri m a ry e ffe ct s a nd
, ,

fu rn i s hi ng a g u id e to s p e ci a l e xt e n s i o n s F r o m thi s p o i n t o f
.

vi ew the th e ory ca nnot be e xpre s se d too s i m ply pro vide d it

, ,

be a c o ns i st e n t s ch e m e a nd be s u ffici e n tly c om pre h en s i v e to

,

s e r ve fo r a fr a m e w o rk I b e li e ve the fo r m o f theo ry i n the

.

sec on d ch a pt e r w i ll a ns w e r the p u rp os e It i s e s p e ci al ly .

u s e ful i n th e d u pl e x w a y of e xhibiti ng th e r e l a ti o ns which i s ,

cl a rifyi ng i n c om plic a t e d c a se s a s w ell a s i n s i m ple one s It

‘
.

i s e s s e nti a lly M a xw e ll s th e ory bu t t he re a re s om e di ffe r e n c e s

’
.
,

S om e a r e ch a ng e s of for m o nly ; fo r i n s t a n c e th e r a ti o n a li s a
‘
,

ti o n e ffe ct e d by ch a ngi ng the u nit s a nd th e s u b s tit u ti o n o f

'

th e s e c on d circ u it a l la w for M a xw e ll s e q u a ti on o f e l e ctr o

’

m o ti v e forc e i nv o l v i n g th e p ot e nti a l s e tc B u t th e r e i s one

,
.

ch a n ge i n p a rtic u l a r w hi ch r a i s e s a fr e s h qu esti on W h a t i s .

M axw e ll s th eo ry ? o r W h a t s h o u ld we a gr e e to u nd e r s t a nd
’
,

by
a re hi s equ a ti ons t og e th e r th ey m a ke his th e o ry B u t Wh e n
. .

w e c o m e to e xam i ne it cl os e ly We find th a t thi s a n s w e r i s

,

u n s a ti s fa ct o ry To b e gin wi th i h i s s u ffic i e n t to re fe r to
' ’

.
,

p a p e rs by phys ici s t s writt en s a y d u ri ng the tw e l ve ye a r s

,
’

fo ll o win g the fi r s t p u blic a ti o n of M a xw e ll s tre a ti s e to s e e

’

,
‘

th a t th e r e m a y b e m u ch di ffe r e n c e of o p i n i o n a s to wh a t hi s
th e o ry i s It m a y be a nd ha s b ee n di ffe re ntly i nt e rpre te d by
.
, ,

diffe r e nt m e n which i s a s ign th a t it i s n o t s e t fo rth i n a p e r

,

fe c tly cl e a r a nd u nm i s t a ke a bl e for m Th e r e a r e m any obscu ri

.

ti e s a nd s om e i nc ons i s t e n ci e s S p e a ki ng for m ys e lf it wa s
.
,

o nly by ch a n gi n g i ts fo rm o f pr e s e n t a ti on th a t I wa s abl e to

s e e it cl ea rly a n d s o a s to a v o id the i nc o ns i s t e nci e s

, No w .

the re i s no fi na lity in a gro wing s ci e nc e It i s the re fo re .

, ,

i m p o s s ibl e to a dh e re s trictly to M a xw e ll s th e o ry a s he ga ve it
’

to the w o rld i f only on a cc o u n t of i ts i n c onv e n i e n t fo r m

, .

it a nd s till c a ll it hi s H e m ight h a ve r e p u di a t e d th em
’
.

u tt e rly . B u t if w e h a v e g o o d re a s on to b eli e v e th a t the

th e ory a s s ta te d i n hi s tre ati s e doe s re qu i re m odi fi c a ti on to
m a ke it s e lf c ons i s t e n t a n d to b e li e v e th a t he w oul d h a v e
-
,

a d m it te d the ne c e s s ity o f th e c ha n g e w he n p o i n te d o u t to hi m ,

th e n I thi n k th e r e su lting m o difi e d the o ry m a y w e ll be c al le d

circ u it a l la w de fi ni n g t he l ctric c u rre nt

e e in te rm s of m agne tic
fo rc e. Fo r a lth ou gh he di d not e m pl o y the o th e r o r se c ond
,
vi i i . PREFAC E .

fo rm a nd of the conditi o ns w th a t Ma xw e ll s
of m o ti on s ho
’

a u xili a ry t e r m i n the e l e ctr om oti v e fo rc e viz VqB ( the , .

,

m oti onal e l e ctric fo rce ) w he re q i s the ve l o city o f the m e di u m

,

a nd B th e i n d u cti o n r e q ui res the u s e o f a s i mila r a u xili a ry

,

t e rm in the fi r s t circ u it a l la w viz VD q the m o ti ona l ,

.
, , .

m a gne tic fo rc e D b e i ng the di s pl a c e m e nt A n d th e re i s y e t

'

.
,

a noth e r ch a ng e s om e ti m e s n e e d e d F or w hi l s t B i s circ u it a l
.
,

s o th a t a c o nv e cti v e m a g n e tic c u rr e n t d oe s no t a pp e a r in

th e s e c ond circ u it a l e qu a ti on D i s no t a l w a ys circ u i ta l a nd

, ,

c onve cti ve e l e ctric c u rre nt m u s t the r e fo r e a pp e a r i n th e fi r s t

circ u it a l e qu a ti on For the r e a son j u s t m e nti oned it i s the
.
,

the o ry a s th u s m o di fi e d th a t I c ons ide r to r e pr e sent the tru e

Ma xw e l li a n th e ory wi t h the o th e r s m a ll ch a ng e s r e qu ir e d to
,

m a ke a fi t B u t fu rth e r th a n thi s I s h oul d not l ike to go

.
,

b e c au se h a v i ng m a d e a fi t it i s not ne c es s a ry a nd b e c a u s e it
, , ,

w ou ld be t a k ing too gr e a t a lib e rty to m a ke a ddi ti ons with ou t

the s tr ong e s t r e a son to c ons id e r th e m es s enti al .

The follo wi ng e x am p l e w hi ch ha s b e e n s u gg e s t e d to m e
,

by re m a rks i n P r of L o dg e s r e c ent p ap e r on Ab e rra ti on

.
’ “

P r obl e m s r efe rr i ng to a previ ou s i nve s tig a ti on of P rof J J

, . . .

Th om s on will i ll u s tr a t e the m a tt e r i n qu esti on It i s kno wn

, .

th a t if V be the s p e e d of light throu gh e the r the sp e e d ,

throu gh a s t a ti ona ry tra nsp a r e nt b ody s a y wa t er i s V/p if , , ,

u
,

i s the r efr a cti ve i nde x No w wh a t i s the s pe e d w he n the

.

w a t e r i s it s e lf m oving in the s a m e dire cti on a s the l ight

w a v es T hi s i s a v e ry old probl e m F re snel cons ide r e d tha t .

the e x te rna l e th e r wa s s t a ti ona ry a nd t ha t the e th e r wa s ,

ti m e s as de nse in t he w a t e r a s o u t s id e a nd th a t wh e n , ,

m ovi ng the w a t e r only c a rri e d fo rw a rd w it h it the e xtr a e th e r

,

it c ont a i ne d ( or e qu i va l e ntly) T hi s m akes the s p e e d of

.

light referre d to the e xte rn a l e th e r be V/p + v ( 1 if v

i s the s p ee d of the w a t e r The e xp e ri m e nt s of Fi z eau a n d
.

M ich e l son h a ve s h o w n th a t thi s r es u lt i s a t l e a s t a p p ro xi

m a t e ly tru e and the r e is o the r e v ide nc e to su pp ort Fr es ne l s
,
’

hyp o th e s i s a t l e a s t in a gene rali s e d for m

, B u t in the c a s e .
,
 PREFACE .
ix .

the w t ra e mi ght be g o f
7;
( 1 in s te a d
) v with o u t m u ch pr ?
,

di s a gr eem e nt No w s u pp ose we e x am i ne the m a tt e r e l e ctr o

”

m a gne tic a lly a nd e nq u ir e wh a t the i ncr e a se d s p ee d thr o u gh

,

a mo vi ng di e l e ctric s h oul d be I f we fo ll o w M a xw ell s ’

.

e q u a ti o n s lit e r a lly we sha ll find th a t the e xtra s pe e d i s $ 1 ,

,

pro vid e d c /V i s s m a ll Thi s a ct u a lly s eem s to c o rr ob o ra te

.

the e xp e ri m ent a l r e s ul t s B u t the a rg u m e nt i s e nti r e ly a

.

d e c epti v e one Ma xw ell s th e o ry i s a theory of prop a g a ti o n

.
’

thro u gh a s im ple m e di u m F u n da m e nt a lly it i s the e th e r.

,

bu t wh e n we p a s s to a s olid o r liqu id di e l e ctric it i s s till to be

r e g a rd e d a s a sim pl e m e di u m in the s a m e s e ns e b e c a u s e the ,

o nly ch a n g e o cc u rri ng i n the e q u a ti o ns i s i n th e v a l u e o f o n e

o r b o th e t h e r e a l c o ns t a nt s th e p e r m itti v i ty a nd i n d u cti v ity

,

prac tic a lly only the fi r s t C on s e qu e ntly if we find a s a b ov e

.
, , ,

th a t wh en the m e di u m i s it se lf m ove d i ts vel ocity i s not ,

s u p e ri m p o s e d u p on t hat o f th e v el oc ity o f w a v es thr o u gh th e

m e di u m a t r e s t thg tru e in fe r e n c e i s th a t th e r e i s s o m e thi ng

,

wrong wi th th e th e o ry F o r a ll m o ti on i s r el a ti ve a nd it i s
.
,

a n a xi om a tic tru th th a t th e r e s h o ul d be s u p e ri m p o s iti o n of

:

velociti e s s o th a t V/ + v s h ou ld be the ve l ocity i n the a b o ve

,
u
,
[

c a s e a cc ordin g to a ny r a ti ona l th e o ry of prop a g a ti on thr o u gh

a s i m pl e m e di u m th e e xtr a v e l o city b e i n g the fu ll 12 i n s t e a d
, ,

of év
«—
. A nd a s a m a tt e r o f fa ct i f we e m pl oy th e m od i fi e d
, ,

o r c o rr e ct e d circ u it a l la w a b ov e r e fe rr e d to we d o obt a in fu ll ,

s u per i m p os iti on o f v e l o citi e s .

Thi s e x a m pl e s h o w s the i m port a n c e of h a vi ng a s i m p ly

hyp o th es e s r e qu ire d to e xp l a in ou tst a ndi ng or s e c onda ry p he

n om e n a be c onj oi ne d to a n i m p e rfe ct pri m a ry th eo ry we s h a ll
X. PREFACE .

a s i m p le m edi u m like the e th e r a t l e a s t for w a ve s o f light

, ,

a nd th a t a s e c o nd a ry t he o ry i s n e c e s s a ry F r e s ne l s s a g a ci o u s ’
.

s p e c ul a ti on i s j u s ti fi e d e xc e pt in d e e d a s r e g a rd s i ts fo rm o f
,

e xpr e ss i o n The e th e r fo r e x a m pl e , m a y be ide ntic al i n s id e

.
,
'

a nd o u t s id e the b ody a nd th e m a t te r s lip thr o ugh it wi th o u t

,

s e ns ibly a ffe ctin g it A t a ny r a t e the e vid e nc e th a t thi s i s th e

.

c a s e prep onde r a t e s the l a t e s t b e i ng P r o f L odg e s e xp e ri m e nt s

,
.
’

with whirli ng di s c s th ou gh o n the o th e r ha nd m u s t no t be

,

fo rg o tt en the c ontra ry c on cl u s i on a rri v e d a t by M ich e l s o n a s

to the a b se n c e of r e l a ti v e m o ti o n be twee n th e e a rth a n d s u r
.

r o u ndi ng e t he r B u t if the e th e r be s t a ti o na ry Fr e s ne l s
.
,
’

s p e c u l a ti o n i s r o u g hly e q ui v a l en t to s u pp o s i ng th a t th e m o l e

c u les of tr a n s p a r e nt m a tt e r a c t l i k e l ittl e c on d e n s e r s i n i nc re a s
’

i ng the p e rm itti v ity and th a t the m a tt e r wh e n i n m o ti o n

, , ,

o nly c a rri e s fo rw a rd th e i ncr e a se d p e rm itti v ity B u t ho w e v e r .

thi s m a tt e r m ay be fi na lly i nt e rpr e t e d w e m u s t ha v e a cle a r

,

pri m a ry theo ry th a t c a n be tr u s t e d withi n i ts li mi t s Whe the r .

Ma xw e ll s th e o ry w i l l l a s t a s a s u ffi ci e nt a nd s a ti s fa ct o ry
’

prim a ry th eo ry u p on w hi ch the nu m e rou s se c onda ry d e ve

lop m e nts r e q u ire d m a y be gr a fte d i s a m a tt e r fo r th e fu t u r e
,

to d e t e rm i ne L et it not be fo rg ott en th a t Ma xw e ll s t he o ry
’
.

i s only the fi rs t s t e p t o w a rd s a fu ll th e o ry of the e th e r ; a nd ,

m o r e o v e r th a t no th e ory of the e the r c a n be c om p l e t e th a t

,

d oes not fully a cc ou n t for the omn ipre se nt fo rc e of gr a v i :

ta ti on .

Th e re i s one o th e r m a tt e r th a t de m a nds n otic e in c oncl u

s i on . It i s not l ong s i nc e it w a s t a ken for gra nt e d th a t the
c om mon e l e ctri c a l u nit s w e re c orr e ct Th a t c u ri ou s a nd
.

o btr u s i v e c ons t a nt 4 w a s c o n s id e re d by s om e to be a s o rt o f
7:

bl es se d di s p e nsa ti on with o u t which a ll e l e ctri c a l th e ory w o u ld

,

fa ll to pi e c es I b e li e ve th a t thi s v i e w i s n o w n e a rly e xti nc t

.
,

an d th a t it i s w e ll r e c o g n i s e d th a t the 4 w a s an u nfo rt u na t e '

71

a nd m i s chi e v o u s m i s t a ke the s ou rc e o f m a ny e vi l s
, I n pl a in .

E ngli s h th e c ommon sys te m of e l e ctri c a l u n it s i nv ol v es a n

,

irra ti on a li ty o f the s a m e ki nd a s w o u l d be br o u ght i nt o the

 P REFACE .

mtric e s ys te m of w e ight s a nd m e a s u re s w e re we to de fi n e ,

the u nit a r e a to be the a r e a n o t o f a s q u a r e wi th u n it s id e , ,

bu t o f a c i rcl e o f u nit di a m e t e r The c on s t a n t w oul d th en .

'
72

a nd e v e rywh e r e
’

o btru d e it se l f i n t o the a r e a o f a r e ct a ngl e ,

it s h o u ld not be a n d be a s o u rc e of gre a t c o nfu s i o n a nd

,

i n c onveni enc e S o it i s i n th e c omm on e l e ctric a l u nit s

.
,

which a re tr u ly irr a ti ona l No w to m ak e a m i st a ke i s e a sy

.
.
,

a nd n a t u ra l to m a n B u t th a t i s n ot e nou gh
. The n e xt .

t hi n g i s to c o rr e ct it W h e n a m i s t ak e h a s o n c e b ee n s t a rte d
.
,

it i s not ne c e s s a ry to go on r e p e a ti ng it for e ve r a nd eve r

’

with c u m u l a ti ve i nc onv e ni e nc e .

The B A C omm itt e e o n E l e ctric a l S t a nd a rd s h a d to d o

. .

tw o k i n d s of w o rk T h e r e w a s th e pr a ctic a l w ork o f m a ki ng
.

sta nd a rd s fr om the e xp e ri m e nt a lly fo u n d pr op e rti e s o f m a tt e r

a nd e th e r Thi a s b e en d on e a t gr ea t l e ngth a n d wi t h
( ) .s h ,

m u ch l ab ou r a nd s u cc e s s B u t th e r e wa s a l s o the th e o r e tic a l
.

w o rk of fi xi ng the r e l a ti ons of the u nit s i n a c onveni e nt ,

r a ti ona l a nd h a rm oni ou s m a nne r T hi s w ork ha s not ye t

,
.

b e e n d one To s a y th a t th ey o u ght to do it i s a lm os t a
.

pl a tit u de W ho e l s e s h o ul d do it ? To s a y th a t th e r e i s
.

n o t a t pr ese nt s u ffi ci ent p o p u l a r d e m a n d fo r th e ch a ng e d oe s

no t s e e m v e ry sa ti s fa cto ry I s it n o t for l e a d e r s to l e a d 2
‘
.

A nd wh o s h o ul d l e a d bu t the m e n o f light a nd l e a di ng who

h a ve pra ctic a l in fl u e nc e i n the m a tt e r
Whi l s t on the one h and the i mm e nse b ene fi t to be g a i ne d
, ,

by r a ti onali s ing the u nit s r e qu ir e s s om e c ons ide r a ti on to ful ly

a ppr e ci a t e it i s o n the o th e r h a nd v e ry e a s y to o v e r es ti m a t e
, , ,

th e diffi c u lty of m a kin g the ch a ng e S o m e t e m p o r a ry i nco n .

v e n i e nc e i s n e ce s s a ry o f c o u r s e F or a ti m e th e r e w o u ld be
, .

two s o rt s of o hm s & c the o ld s tyl e a nd the n e w ( or r a ti o na l )

, .
,
.

B u t it i s n ot a nov e lty to h a v e two s ort s of oh m s Th e re .

h a ve b ee n s e v e r a l a lr e a dy R em em b e r th a t the nu m b e r of .
xfi . PREFACE .

O ld yl e in s tr u m e nts w o u ld v e ry s o o n be i n a m i no rity a nd
st ,

th en di sa ppe a r like the pin s I do n o t kno w th a t th e r e i s a

,
.

m o r e i m p o rt a nt pr a ctic a l q u e s ti o n th a n thi s one o f ra ti ona l

i s ing the u nit s o n a cc ou nt of i ts fa r r e a chi ng e ffe ct a nd
,
-
,

thi nk th a t whi l s t the ch a ng e c ou ld be m a de no w with e a s e

( w i th a will o f c
,
o u rs e
) it will, be fa r m o r e tr o u bl e so m e i f

p u t o ff u n til th e g e n e r a l B riti s h u nit s a r e r e fo rm e d ; e ve n

thou gh th a t p e ri o d be not so di s t a nt a s it i s c us t om a ry to
be li e ve E l e ctrici a n s s h ou ld se t a go o d e x a m p le
. .

Th e r e fo rm whi ch I a dvo c a t e i s s o m e wh a t s i m il a r to the

i m p ort a nt i m pro ve m e n t m a d e by ch em i s t s i n the i r u n it s
a b ou t a q u a rte r o f a c e nt u ry a go O n e d a y o u r r e s p e ct e d
.

m a s t e r i nfo rm e d u s th a t it ha d b ee n fo u n d o u t th a t w a t e r
wa s no t H O a s he ha d t a u ght u s b e fo re bu t s om e thing
, ,

e l se . It wa s h enc e forward to be H 0 T hi s wa s s tr an ge 2 .

at fi rst a n d i n c o n v e n i e nt
,
for s o m a ny o th e r fo rm u l ae ha d
,

to be a lt e r e d a nd ne w b oo ks writt e n
,
B u t n o o n e qu e s ti on s
.

the wi s d o m o f the ch a ng e No w ob s e rv e h e re tha t t he

.
, ,

ch emi s t s w h e n th ey fo u nd th a t th e ir a t om ic w e ight s w e re
,

wr o ng a nd t he ir fo r m u l ae irra ti on a l did no t cry Too l a t e

, , ,
”

ig nore the m a tt e r a nd a sk P a rli a m e nt to l eg a li s e the old

,

e rr o ne o u s w e ight s ! T h e y w e nt a n d s e t th e m a tt e r right .

D ECEM B ER 1 6, 1 8 9 3 .
 CONTENTS .

[ The da te s w i thi n br a ck ets a re the d a tes f first

o p u bli ca t i on .
)

C H APTE R I .

I N TR O D U C TI O N .

1 7 [ Ja n . 2, P e li mi nary
r Re m ar k s

8— 15 [J a n . 1 6, O n t he na t u re o f ~
A nt 1 Ma t hme a ti c ia ns a nd

of M a t he m a t i ca l M e t ho d s of E nqu ir y
14 «
16 [Ja n . 3 0, D e s c ri p ti o n o f s o m e Elec tr o magne ti c Res u l ts
d d d by
e u ce M a t he m a t i ca l Reas o ni ng

HA P TER II
C .

O U TLI NE O F TH E E LE C TR O MA G NETI C C O NNE C TI O N S .

S E C TI O N

F
.

20 [ Feb . 1 3, E le c tr i c a nd M agne ti c or c e D is p la ce m e nt a nd

In d u ctio n El as ti i tyv a nd P e r m i t t ivi ty ,

In d u cti vi ty a nd Re lu c

21 El e c tr i c a nd Ma gne t i c E ne rgy
22 Eo l o t ro p i c Re l a t i o ns

25 D is tin c t i o n be t wee n A bs o l u t e a nd Re lativ e Per mi tt i vi ty or

In d u cti vi ty
D i s s ip a t i o n of E ne r gy . The C o n d u c t i o n c u r r e nt
-
'
C on d u c ti vi ty
a nd Re s i s ti vi ty . The E le c tr i c C u rre nt
25 F i t i ti
c ou s M a gne t ic C on d u c t i o n - c u r re nt a nd Rea l Ma gne ti c

26 [ Feb . 2 7, F o r c es a n d

L i ne i nt e gr a l
-
of a F o rc e . V o lt g
a e a nd G a u s s a ge

S u r fa c e -
i n t e gra l of a Fl ux . D e n s i ty a nd I n te ns i t y
xi v . C ON T EN T S .

S EC TI O N . PA GE .

55 [M a r ch 1 3 , C ro s s -
c o nne c t i o n s of E l e c tri c a nd Ma gne t i c
F o r ce . C ircu i ta l Fl u x. C ir c u i t a t i o n
54 F i t L w f C i i t ti
rs a o r cu a on

55 S d L w f C i i t ti
e co n a o rcu a on

36 D fi i ti
e n f C l on o ur

57 Im p dF
ress e d A t ivi ty or c e a n c

58 D i ti ti b t w
s nc F on f t h Fi ld
e d F
een Of t h Fl
o rc e o e e an o rc e e ux

59 [M h 27
arc Cl i fi ti
,
f I mp dF as s ca on o r es s e o rc es

40 V lt i F
o a c orc e

41 Th m er l i oe e c tr c

42 I t i i E l t i ti
n r ns c ec r sa on ”

45 I t i i M g ti t i
n r ns c a ne sa on

44 Th M i e l El t i
o t o na d Mg ti F ec r c D fi i ti fan a ne c orc e s . e n on o a

V t P d t
e c or ro uc

45 E mp l
xa A S t ti e .
y El t m g t i S h t a o na r ec ro a ne c ee

46 [Ap i l r C n ti b tw M ti l El t i F
on ec on e e en o o na ec r c orce

an d El t m g n i F ec r o a et c or c e

47 V i ti
ar a f t h I d ti
on o th gh eM mg Ci n ituc on ro u a ov rc u

48 M difi t i
o caCi it fi d on . I d ti m vi g q iv l tly
rc u xe . n uc on o n e u a en

49 Th M t i
e l M g ti F
o o na a ne c o r ce

50 Th e M g t l ti F
a n e o e ec r c-
orce

51 El t i fi ti
ec r d ica M g ti A l g
o n an D fi i ti ts f D iva ne c na o ue . e n on o er

g e nce

52 A M vi g S o n q i v l t t C
o u rce e t i C ut d m
a enk o a o n v ec on u rr e n ,
an a es

th T e C t Ci
ru e it l u rr e n r cu a

53 [M y 1 a E, m p l t i ll t t M t i xa l F i M vi g es o u s ra e o ona o r c es na o n

M d i m w i t h M vi g S
e u Sa d M d i m wi t h
o n ou rc e . o u rc e a n e u

a C mm M ti
o F l t v l w i th t h m d i t b d
on o o n. ux ra e s e un s ur e

54 S d M d i m i R l t iv M t i
ou r ce a n eA Ch g u dd ly n e a e o on. ar e su en

j k d i t M ti
er e t th S p d f P p g t i
n o o on a G ti e ee o ro a a o n. e ne r a on

of S p h i l El t m g t i S h t
a e r ca l ti m t ly P l
ec ro Eq a ne c ee u a e a ne . ua

ti f
o ns oP El t m g ti W v a u re ec r o a ne c a e

55 S dd S t p p g f C h g P l S h t m
u en o a e o ar e. a ne ee o ve s o n.

S p h i l S h t g t d Fi l R l t t h S t t i y
er ca ee e nera e . na es u , e a o nar

Fi ld e

56 M di m m e d i t d f C h g O b th m v d w i t h
u o ve n s ea o ar e . r o o e

sa m R l ti e V l i ty e a ve e oc

57 ( 5 M ti g f P i f P l
. ee n S h t w i h Pi S
o a a r o C a ne ee s t o nt o u r ces . an

ce lm t f Ch gen o l P g th ar gh es th or e se a ssa e rou o ne a no er

d iff t lt
ere n S p h i l S he t w i t h t w P l
r es u s . Sh e r ca e o a ne ee t

Ap p d g en a es

58 S p h i l S h t w i th t P l A p p en
er ca ee d g p du d by ou a ne a es ro ce

su dd j ki g p t f p p i t C h g
en er n a ar o o os e ar es

59 C ll i i o f Eq l C h g
s on o f m N m ua ar es o sa e a e

60 H mi p h i l S h t
e s Pl C i l
er ca d C yli d i l B
ee . an e , o n ca ,
an n r ca ou n

61
61 G e ne ra lN t f E l t i fi d Sp h i l E l t m g
a u re o ti S h t
ec r e e r ca ec ro a ne c ee 65
 CON T EN TS XV
.

PAG E
G l Rm k it l L
.

62 [M a y 29 , th Ci e ne ra e ar s on e rcu a a ws

R l d i vi g t h M g t i F
.

'
A m pe f
re s u e or f m th er n e a ne c o r ce ro e

C t R ti
u r re n lC . t l m t a o na u rr e n e e en

63 Th C di l F t f M w ll Sy t m A dvi t ti ’
e ar na ea u r e o ax e s s e . ce o an

C h g i t h F m f t h Fi
an es n eCi it l L w
or o e rs t rc u a a

I nt d t i
ro f th S
uc d C i it l L w
on o e e c on rcu a a

[ J ly 3
u ,
M i g f T C t C it i
ea n n o ru e u rr e n . r er on

Th P e i t f E
ers s e n c e gy C t i i ty i Ti m o d Sp
ne r d . on nu n e an ace a n

E mplxa C ti
es. f E gy d Fl
o n v ec f E gy d
on o t.
ne r an ux o ne r ue o an

ti
ac St ve G vi tati l d iffi lty
r ess . ra on a cu

[J l y
u Sp i li d f m f p i f t h C ec a se or o ex r es s o n o e on

El t m g t i A p p l i t i
e c ro a ne M di m t R t
c Th P y t i g
ca on. e u a es . e o n n

E t i
x e ns o n t M vi g M d i m o a F ll i t p t ti f t h
o n e u . u n er re a on o e

Eq t i uaf A t ivi t y
on o d d i ti f t h Fl
c f E gy an e r va on o e ux o ne r

De i t i r va f th on E l t m g ti o S t f m t h Fl f
e ec ro a ne c r e ss ro e ux o

E gyne r D ivi i i t . El t i d s onM g ti S t n o an e c r c an a a ne c re ss

[ J ly 8 1
u U , t i ty g di g th G l A p p li t i
nc e r a n re ar n e e ne r a ca on

f th E l t m g t i S t
o e ec ro a ne c re s s

Th El t e t ti S t
e c ros a i Ai c r es s n r

Th M vi g F
e o n E l t i fi ti or c eb di ly d on p fi i l ec r ca o n, o an su er c a .

H m i ti ar o n sa on

D p th f El t i fi d L y
e o C
ec r d t e a e r on a on u c or

El t i Fi ld d i t b d by F ig B dy
‘

77 [ 1 9 21 1 891
1 11 .
, . ec r c e s ur e ore n o .

E ff t f ecSp h i l N o a d t e r ca on c o n
-
u c or

Dy m i l P i ip l
na ca A y St S l f q il ib ti g
r nc e . n r e ss e -
e u ra n

El t i A p p l i ti f th P i ip l l t t A ti S li d
.

79 ec r c ca R on o e r nc e . esu an c o n on o

B dy i d p d t f t h I t
o n e en l St en w hi h i t t i l ly
o e n e rn a r ess , c s s a ca

i d t mi t R l S f
’

n e er na eT ti . i th S ea s D ifl u r ac e ra c on s e t res e re nc e

80 T l ti l F d t V i ti f P mi t tivi ty H m i
ra n s a o na o r ce ue o ar a on o er . ar on

81 M m t f I
o ve en l t i E l t i Fi l d
o E ff t
ns u a o rs th S t d n ec r c e . ec on e o re

E gyne r

82 M g ti S t
a ne cF d t A b pt G d l Ch g f
r e ss . or ce ue o ru or ra ua an e o

I d t iv i ty
n uc M v m t f E l t i lly M g t i d B d i
. o e en o as ca a ne se o es

82 A [S p t 4
e . F
,
El t i C t C d t
o r ce Th on ec r c u r re n on u c o rs . e

L t l P
a e ra b m m i
re ss u r e
p t b t S t D
ecoi es ro ne n ,
u no r ess s co n .

F I t i i lly M g t i d M t t
or c e o n n r ns ca D ifli lt y M w ll a ne se a e r. cu . ax e
’
s

S l ti p b bly W g S p i l E t i m i f E gy f
o u on ro a ro n . ec a s a t on o ne r o a

M g t nd t h M vi g F
a ne a it l d t e o n o rc e ea s o
xv i CON T EN TS
SECTI O N PAG E

l d
. .

86 [S ep t 25 , Uni on of E ec t ri c a nd Ma gne ti c to p r o u ce

Ele c t r o m agne t i c St res s . Prin ci p a l A xes

87 D e p e n d e nc e o f t he Fl u x es d u e to an I m p re s s e dF o rc i v e u po n

i t s C u r l o n ly . G e ne ra lD e m o ns tr a t i o n o f t hi s Pr o p e r ty

88 I d e n t i ty o f t he D i s tu rba nces d u e to I m p r es se d Forc i v es havi ng

t he same C u rl E xa m p le
. A S i ngl e C i rc u i t a l S ou rce o f
-

D is t u rba nce
89 Pro d u c ti o n of S tea dy St a te du e to I m p r ess e d F iv orc e by
c r os s ing o f E l ec t r o m agne t i c W ave s . E xa m p le of a C ir c u la r
S o u rc e . D is t i nc ti o n be t we e n S o u rce of E ne r gy a nd of D is
t u r ba nc e
90 [ Oct . 1 6, The E ru p i o n t of
“
4 11 '
s.

91 The O r i gi n a nd S p rea d of t he Er u p t io n
92 The C u r e o f t h e D i se as e by P o p e r M eas u r e r of th S te r e ngt h o f
S ou rc e s
95 O bno xi o u s E ffe c ts of the E ru p t i on
94 A P lea f o r t he Re m o vl
a of t he E ru p t i o n by t he Rad i ca l C u re
95 [ O ct . 8 0, Ra t i o na l '
v. I rra t i o nal E l e c tr i c Po l es ‘

96 Ra ti o na l v. I rr a t i o nal Magne t i c P oles

A PP E ND I X A .

THE ROTA TI O NAL E TH ER I N I TS A PP LI C A TI O N To E L ECTR O M A G NETI S M

HA P T ER III
C .

THE ELE ME NTS O F VE C TO RI A L A L G E BRA A ND A NA LY S I S .

( P ages 1 52 to

97 Sca lars Ve c to rs
a nd

98 C har ac t e ri s t ics o f C ar tes i a n a nd V e c t or ia l A na l y s is

99 Abs t ru s i t y of Q u a te rni o ns a nd C o m p a ra t i v e S i m p l i i ty g i ed
c a n

E l e m e n ta ry Ve c to r A naly sis in d epe n d e nt o f t he Q u a te r ni o n

Ta i t v. G i bb s a nd G ibb s '
v. Ta i t
l
A bo i t i o n of t he Mi nu s Sig f Q t i
n o u a e r n o ns

[ D ec 4 . . Ty p e for V t G kG m
ec or s . re e ,
er a n, a nd R o m an
L e t te rs u nsu i t a ble . Cl d Ty p it bl Ty p
a re n on e su a e . o gra p hi ca l
B a cks l i di ng i n t he Pr es e n t
No ta ti o n . Te nso r a nd C o m p o ne n t s of a Vec tor . Uni t Vec tors
of Re fe r e nce
The A ddi ti on o f Vec t b rs . Ci r cu i t l P p ty
a ro er

A p p li ca ti o n t o Phy s ica l Ve c to rs . F t ili ty f

u o P o p u la r De m on
s tra t i o ns . Barba ri ty of Euc i ld
The S l P d t f TwV t
c a ar ro uc o o ec o rs . N o ta ti o n
a nd Ill u s t ra t i o ns ”

F d un a m e nt a lP rop e r ty f S l P d t d E
o ca ar ro u c s , an xa m p e s l
Reci p roca l of a Ve c to r
xv i i i . CON T EN TS .

S E CTI O N .

1 41 [ Ju ne E ner gy a nd o the r E qu i vla e nc es in t he D i ver

ge nt S e r i es

1 42 Th e I s o t ro p i c E l as t i c S li d
o . Re l tia o n of Di p ls a c e m e nt to F o rce

t hr o u gh t h e P o te n ti l a

1 45 The S t d E gy o re ne r a nd t he St res s i n t he E la Sti S lid

c o The
F l St
.

d T q
or ce e s s a n or u e le s s ress

1 44 O th F m f th
er or s or e D is p l a ce m e nt in te r ms of t he Ap p l i d e

F iv orc e

1 45 [Ju ne 2 4, Th El e a s ti c S lid
o ge ne r a l i s ed t o i nc u e ld
Elas t i c , D is s i p a t iv end I a n er ti a l Re s is ta nce to Tra ns la t i o n,
Ro ta t i on , E xp a ns i o n , a nd D i s t or t i o n
1 46 l
E e c t r o m a gn e t i c a n d E l as t i c ol i C o m p a ri s o ns i rs t E x S d . F
a mp l e F
Ma gne ti c o r ce co m p a r e w i t h e l oc i ty i n a n I n
. d V
co m p ress ibl e ol i d
w i th D i s to rt i o na l E as t i c i ty
S l
1 47 Sec o nd E xa m p le : S a m e as l as t b u t E l e c t ri c Fo rce c o m p ar e d ,

w i th V e l o c i ty
1 48 [ Ju ly Thi r d E xa m p l e A C o nd u c t i ng D i e l ec t r ic .

c o m p a re d w i t h a Vis co u s S o l i d Fa i lu r e .

1 49 Fou r th E xam p l e A P u r e C ond u c tor co m p are d wi th a Vi s cou s

.

L i q id u Us e fu l A nal o gy
.

1 50 Fifth E xa mp le : Mod i fic a ti o n of the Second a nd F u r th o

1 51 S ixth E xa mp l e : A C o ndu c t i ng D i e l e c tri c co m pa r e d wi th a n

E la s t i c S o li d w it h Tr a ns l a t i o na l F i c t i on r

1 52 S e ve nt h E xa m p le : I m p r ove m e nt o f t he S i xt h
1 55 Ei ght h E xa m p l e A D i e l e c t i c w i th D u p l e x C o n d u c t ivi ty c o m
r

p a r e d w i t h a n E l as ti c S o li d w i t h Tr a ns la t i o n a l E l as ti c i t
y a nd
Fri ctio n The si ngu la r D i s tor t ionle ss C as e
.

1 55 A [ Ju ly 29 ,
T h e R o t a t i o na l E t her C o m p r e ss i bl e o r I n ,

Fi rs t R o ta t i o na l A na l ogy : Ma gne t ic F o r ce c o m p are d w i th

Ve l oc i ty
1 55 C ir cu i ta l I n d e te m i n a t e ne s s f t he Fl u x o f
I o E ne r gy In ge n e r a l
1 56 S e co nd R o ta ti o nal A na l o gy : I nd u c ti on c o m p are d w i th
Ve l oc i ty
1 57 A
[ ug . Pr Obbili ty f th
a o e K i ne ti c Na t u r e o f Mg t i a ne c

E ne r gy
1 58 Uni nte ll igibi li ty o f the R o tati ona l A na logu e fo r a C d ti g
on uc n

D ie l e c t ri c w he n Ma g ne t i c E ne r gy 1 8 K i n e ti c
y
.

1 59 l l
The Ro ta t io n a A na o gy , w i t h E e c t r i c E ne rg K i ne t i c , e x l
dd d
te n e to a C o n u c t i ng D i e e c t r i c by m ea ns o f Tr a ns la ti o na l l
1 69 [ S ep t 2 , Sym m e t ric a l
L i n e a r O pe r a to r s , di r e c t a nd in
v ers e , r e fe rr e dt o t he P r i nc i p a A xe s l
161 G e o m e tri ca l I ll u s t r a t i o ns . The Sp h e r e a nd ll
E ip s oi d . In v e rs e

di l
Pe r p e n cu ar s a nd Ma c c u lla gh s The o r e m ’

1 62 I n te rn a l S t r u c t u r e o f L i n a O p e ra t rs e r o . Ma ni p u l a t io n of

s e ve ra l w he n P r i nc i p a l A xe s a r e P a r a ll e l
 CON T EN T S .
x ix .

S E CTI O N

D is p l a c e m e nt
.

1 65 [ S ep t 1 6, T he o r y o f in an E o lo tr o p i c
D i e l e c t ri c . Sl iThe o u t on fo r a P o i nt

R l ti l fi c a ti
'

The or y Oi th e e a ve M o t io n Of E e c tr i on and t he
Me i u m d e Th S l i
o u t o n fo r a P o i n t S ou r ce i n s t ea
.
y R e c ti
.
d
l
i ne a r M o t i o n The E qu i i br i u m u r fa c e s i n ge n e r a
. l S l
The o r y o f t he R e a t i e M o t io n o f M a g l v
n e t ific a t i o n a n d t h e M e i u m d
1 66 Th e or y o f t h e R e a ti v e M o t i o n o f l
a g n e t i s a t i o n a nd t he M
Me iu m d
I n cr e a s e In u c t i o n a s w e
. d d
a s E o o tr o p i c D i s ll l
[ 0 0t . 21 , Th e ory of the R e l t iv
a e M o t io n of E le c tr i c
C u rr e n ts a nd t he Me iu m d
TheG e ne ra l Li ne a r O p e ra tor
Th D y e a d ica l St r u ctu re O f L i n e ar O p e r a t or s
H m il t The o r e m
’
a on 8

H a m i t on l ’
s Cu bi c a nd t he I n v ar i a nt s con

c e r ne d
The I n v e rs i o n O f L i ne ar O p e ra t or s
Ve c t or P ro d u c t of a V
ec t or a n d a D y a i c d . The D i ffe re ntia t i o n
of L i n e a r O p e r a t o rs
[ D ec . u m m a ry S OfM tho
d e of Ve c t o r A naly s is
U ns u i t a bi l ity of Q u a t e r ni o n s f or P hy s i ca l Ne e d s. A xi o m
O nc e a Ve c t or ,
a lw y a s a Vec t or

C H A P TER IV .

TH E O RY O F P L A N E EL E C TR O M A G NE TI C W A VE S .

( Pa ge s 5 06 t 466 o
S E C TI O N PA G E

d
. .

176 [ D ec 3 0, A c tion at a D i s ta n c e v er s u s I n t e r m e ia te
A ge n c y . C o ntra s t of Ne w w i th O ld Vi e w s a bo u t E l e c t r i c i ty

1 77 G e n e r a N o t i o ns l a bo u t E le c t ro m a gne t i c \Va v e s . G e n e ra t i o n o f

Sph e rica S t dy S tlW v a e s an d ea a tes

178 [J 6 1 893
an . I t m it t t S
, p d i g. dy S t t
n er en ou rc e ro uc n S tea a es

d El an m g ti S h A T i
e c tr o f S H W a ne c e e ts . ra n O . . a xe s

179 S lf e i d F d E l t m g ti Vi b ti
c o n t a ne C t
o rc e t ec ro a ne c ra o ns . o n ra s

w i t h S t i P bl m ta c ro e

1 80 R l i b t
e a t o ns E d H i P W
e weenE ff t f S l f an n a u re ave . ec o e

I d F iy fM P '
i n u c t o n, KR l a tu t O r . re e ce s aw

1 81 [J 27
an VV F
,
h i I iti i d P g ave -
r o n ts t e r n a t on a n ro r es s

1 82 E ff t f ecN C Od i g Ob t l a \V o n- Al f on u ct n s ac e on a ve s . so O a

H t g M di m
e e ro e ne ou s e u

E ff t f E l ec py o O p t i l W S f
o o tr o E l t m g t
. i ca a ve -
u r ace s . e c ro a ne c

v El i S l i d Th
e rs u s i ast c o eor es

A P f t C d t i P f Ob t t b t d
e r ec on u c or t s a er e ct s ru c o r , u oe s no

b b th E
a sor
gy f E l t m g t i W ve ne r o ec ro a ne c a es
XX . CON TEN T S .

S ECTI O N

d
.

1 85 [ Fe b . 2 4, C on u c t ors a t L o w Te m p e r a t u r e s
1 86 E qu i ibr i u m l Of d
Ra i a t i o n . The M e a n Fl u x of E ne r gy
1 87 The Me a n Pre s s u re of d
R a ia t i o n
1 88 v
E m i s s i i ty a n d Te m p e r a t u r e
18 9 [ Ilf a r c h 1 0, I nt e r na O bs tr u c ti on l a nd S u p er fi c ia l C on
d u c tion

19 0 The E ff e c t of a P e r fe c t C on d u c to r on E x t er na l D is t u r ba nce s .

R e fle c t i o n a nd C on d u c tion of W a ve s
1 91 [ M a r ch 2 4, The E ffe c t of C on d u c ti ng M a tt e r i n
D i v e r ti ng E x t e r na l I n d u c ti o n

1 92 Pa r e n t he ti ca lR e ma r k s on In d u c t i o n, M a g ne t i sa t i o n In d uc

t i v i ty an d S u s c e p t i bi l i ty
1 95 [ AP TI Z
’
E ffe c t of a Thi n Pl a ne C on d u c t i ng Sh t ee on

a W a ve . P e r s i s t e nc e o f In d u c t i o n a nd L os s O f D i pl m s a ce e nt

194 The Pe r s i s t e nc e Of In d u c tio n in P l a ne St r a ta a nd i n ge ne r a l .

A ls o 1n C or e s a nd l n L i nea r C i r cu i ts
1 95 [ Ap r i l The L a w s of A t te n u a t i o n of To ta l Di p l s ace

m e nt a nd To ta l I n d u c ti o n by E le c tr i c a nd Ma gn e t i c C o n d ue

t a nce
1 96 The L a w s of A t te nu a t i o n at t he F ro n t of a W a ve d u e ,
to
E l e c tr i c a n d M a gn e t i c C o n d u c ta n c e

1 97 The S i mp l e P r o p a ga t i o n of W ave s i n a D i s t or t io nl e s s C on e

d u c t i ng Me iu m d .

1 98 [M a y The Tra ns for m a t i o n by C o n u c t a nc e o f a n d

l ti W v
E as v c a G e t o a W a e o f D iffu s io n e n e ra t i o n o f Ta i l s . .

D i t i t E ff t f E l t i
s nc d M g ti C d t
ec s o ec r c a n a ne c on u c a nce

1 99 A p p l i ti t W v ca l g S t ight W i
on o a es a on ra re s

2 00 [M y a T f m ti f V i bl f m El t i ra ns o r a on o ar a es ro ec r c

d M g ti F
an t V lt g
a d G
ne g c o r ce o o a e an au s s a e

2 01 T f m ti
r a ns o r f th C i it l Eq ti
a t
on oth F m i e rc u a ua o ns o e or s n

v lvi g V l t g d G
o n g o a e an a u s sa e

2 02 [J u ne Th S d C i i t l Eq ti f W i i e e con rcu a ua on or re s n

T m f V
er d C h P
s o ti I t t
an w en e ne t r a on 1s n s a n a ne o u s

205 Th S e d C i i t l Eq ti wh P t i i N t I
e c on rc u a ua on en e ne r a t o n s o n .

s ta n t a n e o u s . R e s is ta n c e O p e r a t or s , a nd t he ir D e fi ni te
M ea ni ng
2 04 S i m p ly Pe r i o di c \Va v e s E ail y
s Tre a t e d i n C as e of I m p e r fe c t
P e ne tr a t i o n
2 05 [Ju ly 7, L o ng W a v es a nd Sh or t W aves . I d e nt i ty Of
Sp d f F ee G id d W o ree an d u e a v es

Th G i d e f W v u U lly Tw G i d
a nc e o a es. su a o u es . O ne s u ffi c ie n t ,

t h gh w i t h L
ou P i bi l i y f G i d os s . oss t o u an ce w i t hi n a Si l
ng e

T b u e

2 07 I t p
n er t ti f I t m di t
re a T mi lon o n er e a e or er na d
C o n i t io ns i n t he
E t Th xacy eor

2 08 [A g 25 u Th S p
. di g f C h g
,
e r ea n o ar e a nd C u r r e nt i n a

l o ng C irc u i t , a nd t he ir A tte nu at i o n
 CO NT EN T S . x xi .

S E C TI O N PA G E
l i m i ti
. .

2 09 The D is t or ti o nle s s C i r cu i t . NO ng D i s t anc e se t by i t

w h e n t h e A t te nu a t io n Is i gn o r e d
2 10 [ S ep t The t w o Ex tr e m e K i n d s of Di fi ‘

u S I o n I n o ne

The o r y
21 1 The E ff e c t of v ar y i n g t he F ou i L inC e .
o ns t a n t s a s r e ga r d s D is
t or t i on a nd A t t e n u a t io n
21 2 The Be n e fic ial E ffe c t of Lea k a ge I n S u b m a r i ne C ab l es .

2 15 [ Oc t Sh or t H is t o r y of Le a k a ge E ffe c t s on a C ab l e

C ir c u i t
21 4 E xp l a na t i o n o f A r ti fi c ia
A no m a ea s l ou s Eff e c ts . lLk
2 15 [ O c t 2 0 e l f I n S d
u c t i o n i m p a r ts M o m e n t u m t o W a v es

a nd tha t c a r r ie s t he m o n A na o gy w i th a e x ib e C o r . l Fl l d
2 16 Sl d
e f I n u c t i o n c o m b i ne
- w ith L e a s Th e B r i ge d
y s te m k d S . of

Mr A W H e a is i . . . v de , a nd s u gg t d D i t t i l
es e Ci it s or o n ess rcu

21 7 [ Nov 3 , Evi . d ence in f v

a f S lf I d ti
ou r o C e -
n uc on . on

di t i o n o f Fixs t C lass Te -
l e p h o ny . I m p o r t a nc e of t he M a gne ti c

21 8 Va r i ou s w a y s , goo d a nd ba d, of i nc r e as i ng t he I n d u c t a nc e of

C i r cu i t s
21 9 [N o v 1 7 , . E ffe c ti ve Res i s ta nc e a nd In d u c ta n c e of a

C o mb i na t i o n w h e n r e ga r dd
e as a C o il , a nd E ffe c t i v e C o n
d u c ta n c e a nd Pe r mit ta n c e wh e n r e ga r dd e as a C on d e ns e r

22 0 In d u c ti v e Lea k s ap p li d
e to S bm
u a r i ne C bl a es

22 1 G e ne r a l The o ry of Tra ns m i s s i o n of W av e s l
a o ng a C ir c u i t w i t h
or w i th ou t A u xi i a ry l D e vi c e s
222 A p p i ca t i o nl o f a bo v e The o ry t o I n d u ct i v e L ea k a nc e

A PP E ND I X B .

A G R A VI TA TI O NAL A ND E LEC TR OM A G N ETI C A NA L O G Y .

Pa r t I [J ly 1 4
. u ,

Pa t II [ A g] 4
r . u .
,
 C H AP TER I .

INT RO D UC TIO N .

1 . P r eli m i n a ry R em a r k a — The m a i n
j c t of t he se ri es of
ob e

a r t icl e s o f w hi ch t hi s i s t h e firs t i s t o c o n t i nu e t h e w o rk e u
,

t itl e d E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c I nd u c t i on a n d i t s P ro p a g a t i on c o m
“ ”
,

m e n c e d i n The E lect c a n o n J a n u a ry 3 1 88 5 a n d c ont i nu e d t o

rz z , ,

t he 4 6 t h S e c t i o n i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 7 wh e n t he gr e a t pr e s s u r e
, ,

o n s p a c e a n d t he w a n t o f r ea d e rs a pp e a r e d t o n e c e s s i t a t e i t s

a br u p t d i s c o n t i n u a n c e r a ggl e r t h e 4 7 t h S e c t i o n a pp e a r e d
( A. s t , ,

D e cembe r 3 1 ,
P e rh a p s t h e re w e r e ot h e r r e a s o n s t h a n
t h os e m e n t i on e d for t he di s c on t i nu a n c e W e d o not dw e ll i n
. .

t h e Pa l a c e o f Tr u t h .B u t a s wa s m e nt i o n e d t o m e n ot l on g
,

s i nc e Th e r e i s a t i m e c om i ng w h e n a ll t hi ngs s h a ll be fou nd
“
,

ou t .
”
I a m n ot s o s a ng u i ne mys e l f,b e li e v ing t ha t the w e ll i n
which Tr u t h i s s a id t o r e s ide i s r e a lly a b ot tom l e ss p i t .

The p a r t ic u l a r bra n c h o f t he s u bj e c t which I w a s p u bli s hi ng

i n t he s u mm e r o f 1 88 7 w as t h e pr o p a g a t i on o f e l e c t r om a g n e t ic
w a v e s a l o n g w ir es t hr o u gh t he di e l e c t ric s u rro u n di ng t h e m .

Thi s i s i t s el f a l a rge a nd m a ny s id e d s u bj e c t B e s id es a
-
.

ge n e ra l t r e a t m e nt i t s m a ny s id e dn es s d e m a n ds t h a t s p e c ia l
,
~

c a s es o f i nt e re s t s h ou ld r e c e iv e s e pa ra t e fu ll d e v e l op m e nt In .

g e ne ra l t he m a t h e m a t ic s requ i r e d i s m ore o r l es s of t he ch a ra c
,
 ELECTROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . OH . I .

v ry
e la b ori ou s . re a l obj e c t o f t r u e n a t u ra l is ts i n
No w t he ,

S ir W Th o m s o n s m e a n i ng O f t he w o rd wh e n t he y e m pl o y
’
.
,

m a t h e m at ic s t o a s s i s t t h e m i s n o t t o m a k e m a th e m a t ic a l e xer
,

cis e s ( t ho u gh t h a t m a y be n e c es s a ry) b u t t o fin d o u t t he c on ,

n e c t i o n s o f k no wn ph e n o m e na a nd by d e d u c t iv e r e a s oni ng t o , ,

ob t a i n a k n o wl e dg e O f h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n ph e no m e na A ny .

t hi ng t h e r e fo re t h a t a id s t hi s po ss e s s e s a v a l u e o f i t s o wn wh olly
, , ,

a pa rt fro m i mm e di a t e o r i n d ee d a ny a pplic a t i on o f t he ki nd
, ,

c omm only t e rm e d pra ct ic a l T h e re i s h o w e v e r pra ct ic a li t y in

.
, ,

t h e o ry a s w e ll a s i n pra c t ic e The v e ry u se fu l w o rd .
p ra ct i

oi a n has l a t e ly c o m e i nt o u s e I t s u ppli e s a w a nt fo r i t i s
”
.
,

e v id e n t t he m o m e n t i t i s m e n t i o n e d t h a t a pr a c t ici a n n ee d n o t

be a pra c t ica l m a n ; a nd t h a t o n t he o t h e r h a n d i t m a y h a pp e n
, ,

o cc a s i o na lly t h a t a m a n who i s n ot a pra c t ic ia n m a s t ill b e

y
qu it e pra c t ic a l .

2 . N o w, I was so di s c o v e r d u ri ng t he
fo r t u na t e as to ,

e x a m i na t i on o f a pr a c t ic a l t e l e ph on ic pr obl e m t h a t i n a c e r t a i n ,

cas e of prop a ga t i o n a l ong a c on d u c t i ng circ u i t t hro u gh a c o n

d u c t i ng di e l e c t ric t he t ra ns c e nd e nta li t y o f t he m a t h e m a t ic s
,

a u t om a t ic a lly v a n i s h e d by t he di s t o rt i n g e ff e c t s o n a n e l e c t r o
,

m a gn e t ic w a v e o f t he r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c o n d u c t o r a nd o f t he
, ,

c ond u c ta n c e of t he d i el e c t ric b e i ng o f o pp os i t e n a t u re s s o t ha t
, ,

t h e y n e u t ra li s e d o ne a n o t h e r a nd r e n d e re d t he circ u i t n on ,

dis t o r t i ona l o r di s t o r t i onl e s s The m a t h e m a t ic s w a s r e d u c e d

.
,

i n t he m a i n t o Si m pl e a lg e br a a nd t h e m a nne r o f t r a n s m i s s i on
, ,

o f di s t u rb a n c e s c o u ld b e e x a m i n e d i n c o m pl e t e d e t a il i n a n

e l e m e nt a ry m a nn e r N or w a s t hi s a ll
. The di s t o r t i onl e s s .

circ u it c ou ld be i t s el f e m pl oy e d t o e n a bl e u s t o u n d e rs t and t he
i nne r m ea n ing of t he t ra n s c e nd e nt a l c a s e s o f pro p a ga t i on wh e n ,

t he di s t o rt i on c a u s e d by t he r e s i s t a n c e o f t he circ u i t m a k es t he
m a t h e m a t ic s m o re di f fic u l t of i nt e rpre ta t i on For i ns t an c e by .
,

a s t u dy o f t he di s t o rt i o nl e s s circ u i t w e a r e e na bl e d t o s e e n o t

o nl y t h a t b u t a l s o why s e l f i n d u c t i o n i s o f s u ch gre a t i m p o rt
, ,
-

a n c e i n t he t r a ns m i s s i o n o f r a pidly v a ryi ng di s t u rb a n c e s i n -

pres e rv i ng t h e ir i n di v id u a li ty a nd pre v ent i ng t h e m fr om b e i ng

a t t e nu a t e d t o n e a rly n o t hi n g b e fo r e g e t t i ng fro m o n e e nd o f a

long circ u it t o t he ot h e r a nd why c opp e r wir es ar e s o s ucc es s

fu l i n a nd iron wire s SO prej u dici a l t o e ffe c t i ve l ong di s t a nc e
, ,
-

t el e ph ony T h ese m a t t e rs w er e c ons id ere d i n S e c t i ons 40 to

.
4 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 1 .

v lid r
a e a s on, cri m i na l a ct s s u ch a m a n
s e e m s on e o f t he m os t
c o u ld be g u il t y o f Thi s s e e m s s t ron g la n gu a g e bu t a s P rof Ta i t
.
,
.

t e ll s u s t h a t i t i s a l m o st cri m i na l no t t o k n o w s e v e r a l fo r e ig n
l a ngu a ges which i s a ve ry v e n i a l Offe n c e i n t he Opini o n o f o t h e rs
, ,

i t s e e m s n e c e s s a ry t o e m pl o y s t ron g l a n g u a g e wh e n t he cri m i
n a lit y i s mo r e e vid e n t ee o n t hi s p oi nt e a rt icl e i n The
( S t h .
, ,

E lectr i ci a n N o v e m b e r 1 4 1 8 9 0 I t i s bo t h s e v e r e a nd l o g i c a l )
, , . .

4 . I
cc a s i on j u st l a t e ly t o u s e t he w ord na t u ra l is t
ha d o , , .

The m a t t e r i n v o lv e d h e r e i s w o r t h y O f p a r e n t h e t ic a l c o n s id e ra
t i on S i r W Th om son d o e s n o t lik e phys ici s t n or I t hink ”
.
, , ,

“
s ci e n t i s t e it h e r I t m u s t h o we v e r be n o t e d t h a t t h e
.
, ,

n a t u r a li s t a s a t pr e s e n t g e n e r a lly u n d e rs t o o d i s a s t u d e n t o f
, ,

livi ng n a t u r e onl y H e has c e rt a i nly n o e xclu s 1 v e righ t t o s o

.

e x c e ll e n t a na m e O n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e ph y s ici s t i s a
.
,

s t u d e n t o f i n a n i m a t e n a t u r e i n t he ma i n s o t h a t h e ha s n o , ,

e x cl u s iv e r i gh t t o t he n a m e e i t h e r B o t h a re n a t u ra li s t s B u t , . .

t h e ir w o rk i s s o di ffe r e n t a n d t h e ir t yp e o f m i n d a l s o s o ,

d i ffe re nt t h a t i t s e e m s v e ry d e s ira bl e t h a t t h e ir n a m e s s hou ld

,

b e di ffe re n t i a t e d a nd t h a t n a t u ra li s t
,
c om pre h e nd ing b o t h “
, ,

s h o u ld b e s u bdivid e d C o ul d n o t on e s e t o f m e n b e i n d u c e d t o c a ll
.

t he m s e lv e s o rg a n i s t s ? W e h a v e o rg a n ic ch e m i s t ry a n d o r ga n i s m s , ,

a n d o rg a n i c s c i e n c e t h e n w hy n o t o ga n i s t s ? P e rh a p s h o w r
,

e v e r o rg a n i s t s m igh t n o t c a r e t o b e t e m p o r a rily c o n fo u nd e d
,

wit h t h os e m e m be rs of s o ci e t y who e a rn t h e ir li v i n g by s e t t ing a

cylin d e r i n ro ta t ory m ot i on If S O t h e r e i s a n ot h e r g o o d n a m e .
, ,

viz vi t a l is t for t he o rg a n i s t which w o u ld n o t ha v e a n y l u dic

.
, , ,

r ou s a s s o c i a t i on Th en a b o u t t he o t h e r s e t o f m e n A r e t h ey
. .

n o t e s s e nt i a lly s t u d e nt s o f t he pr o p e r t i e s O f m a t t er a n d t h e r e ,

fo r e m a t e ri a li s t s ? Th a t m a t e r ia li s t i s t h e righ t n a m e i s “ ”

o bvi o u s a t a gl a n c e H e r e h o we v e r a c e r ta i n s u pp os i t i o u s
.
, ,

e vil a s s o ci a t i o n o f t h e w o rd m igh t m ili t a t e a g a i ns t i t s a d o p t i o n .

B u t t h i s w o u ld be I t hi nk a n u ns ou n d o bj e c t i on for I d o n o t
, , ,

t hi nk t h e r e i s or e v e r w a s s u ch a t hi n g a s a m a t e ri a li s t i n
, , ,

t h e s u pp o s e d e vil s e ns e Le t t h a t n o t i on go a n d t he v a l u a bl e .
,

w ord m a t e ri a li s t b e p u t t o i t s pro p e r u s e a n d b e dig nifi e d

“ ”
,

by a s s o ci a t ion wi t h a n h on ou ra bl e b ody of m e n .

B u fio n C u vi e r D a r w i n w e r e t ypic a l vi t a li s t s
‘

.
, , ,

N e wt o n Fa ra d a y M a x w ell w e re t ypica l m a t e r ia li s t s
, , ,
.
 I N T RODUC T I ON . 5

e lde rly g e nt l e m e n wit h v e ry l a rg e b a ld h e a d s a n d m u ch

, ,

w ra pp e d u p a bo u t t h e t hr oa t s s i t t i n g i n t h e ir s t u di es p o n d e r
, .

i ng c a l m ly o v e r t he s e cr e t s o f na t u r e r e v e a l e d t o t h e m by t h e ir
ex p e ri m e nt s Th e re a r e n o n a t u ra l phil os o ph e rs n o w a da y s
.
- -
.

H o w i s i t po s s ibl e t o b e a na t u r a l phil os o ph e r w h e n a S a lv a t i on
A r m y b a n d i s pe rfo r m i n g o u t s id e j oy o u s l y i t m a y b e bu t n o t
.

, ,

m o s t m e lod i ou s ly l B u t I w o u ld n o t di s p a ra g e t h e ir w o rk ; i t
’

m a y be far m ore i m p o r ta n t t h a n hi s .

§5 . R r i
e tu n ng t o e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic w a ve s M a x w ell s i n
.
’

i m i t a bl e t h eo ry o f di e l e c t ric di s pl a c e m e n t w a s for long g e ne

r a lly r e g a rd e d a s a s p e c u l a t i o n Th e re w a s for m a n y y e a rs a n
.
, ,

a lm os t c o m pl e t e d e a r t h o f i nt e r e s t i n t he u n v e r i fi e d p a r t s O f

M a x w ell s t h e o ry
’
.P ro f Fi t zg e r a ld o f D u bli n w a s t he m os t
.
, ,

prom i ne nt o f t he v e ry fe w m a t e ri a li s t s ( if I m a y u s e t he w o rd )
w h o a pp e a r e d t o h a v e a s olid fa i t h i n t h e e l e c t r om a g n e t ic t h e o ry
o f the e t h e r t hi nki ng a b o u t i t a nd e n d e a v o u r I n g t o a rriv e a t a n
id e a o f t he n a t u re o f div e rgi ng e l e c t ro m a gn e t ic w a v e s a n d ho w t o ,

pro d u c e t h e m a nd t o ca lc u l a t e t he l o s s o f e n e rgy by r a di a t i on
, .

A n i m p o r t a n t s t e p wa s t h e n m a d e by P oy nt i n g e s t a b l i s hi ng t he ,

fo rm u l a fo r t h e flo w o f e n e rgy S t ill h o w e v e r t he t h e ory

.
, ,

w a n t e d e x p e ri m e nt a l proo f Thre e y e a rs a go e l e c t rom a gn e t ic

.

w a v es w e r e n o w h e r e S h o r tly a ft e r t h ey w e r e e v e rywh e r e
.
, .

v
w a e s in t h e h e r A nd i t n e v e r ra in s bu t i t p ou rs 3
et . fo r w hil s t
H e rt z w i t h h i s re s on a t i ng circ u i t w a s w o rki n g i n G e rm a n y
6 ELECT ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 1 .

t he ory j u s t wh a t was w ant e d in i t s high er pa rt s m ore e xp er i ,

m e n ta l b a s i s . The i nt e re s t e xci t e d has b ee n i mm e ns e a nd t he ,

t h eori s t c a n n ow wri t e a b o u t e l e c t rom a gn e t ic w a v es wi t h o u t i n

c u rri n g t he r e pr o a ch t h a t he i s w o rki n g o u t a m e r e p a pe r t h eo r
y .

The s p e e dy r e c o gn i t i on o f D r H e r t z by t h e R oy a l S o ci e t y i s a
.

v e ry u nu s u a l t e s t i m ony t o t he va l u e o f hi s re s e a rch e s .

A t t he s a m e t i m e I m a y r e m a rk t h a t t o o n e w ho h a d c a r e
f u lly e x a m in e d t he n a t u re o i M a xw e ll s t h e o ry a nd l oo k e d i nt o
’
,

i t s c o ns e q u e n c e s a n d s e e n ho w r a ti ona lly m o s t o f t he phe no

,

m e na o f e l e c t ro m a g n e t i s m w e re e x pl a i ne d by i t a nd ho w i t ,

fu rn i s h e d t h e o nly a pproxi m a t e ly s a t i s fa c t o ry ( p a p e r) t h e o ry of
ligh t k n own t o s u ch a one H e r t z s d e m on s t ra t i on c a m e a s a
’

m a t t e r o f c o u rs e — only i t c a m e ra t h e r u ne x p e c t e dly .

6 . It i s n ot by a ny m e a ns t o be c on cl u d e d t ha t Ma x we ll
s p e ll s F i n a li t y .Th e re i s no fi n a li t y I t c a nnot e v e n be a cc u
.

r a t el
y s a id t h a t t h e H e r t zi a n w a v e s p r o v e M a x w e ll s d ie l e c t ric
’

t h e o ry c o m pl e t e ly The o b s e rva t i on s w e re v ery r o u gh i nd e e d

.
,

whe n c om p a re d wi t h t he r e fi n e d t e s ts i n ot h e r p a rt s o f e l e c t rica l
s ci e n c e . The i m p o r t a n t t hi ng pr ov e d i s t h a t e l e c t ro m a g n e t i c
w a v es i n t he e t h e r a t l e a s t a ppro x i m a t e ly i n a cc o rd a n c e w i t h
M a x w e ll s t h e o ry a r e a r e a li t y a n d t h a t t he Fa ra d a y M a x w e lli an
’
-
,

m e t h o d i s t he c o rre c t o n e The o t h e r ki n d o f e l e c t ro dy na m ic
'

s p e c u l a t i o n i s pl a y e d o u t c o m pl e t e ly Th e re will be pl e nt y o f
.

room for m ore t h e ore t ic a l s p e c u l a t i on bu t i t m u s t n o w be of

,

t he M a x w e ll ia n t y p e t o b e r e a lly u s e fu l
, .

7 . Inwh a t i s t o foll ow t he c ons id e ra t ion of e l e c t rom a gn e t i c

,

wa v e s w ill ( p e rh a p s ) o cc u py a c o ns id e r a bl e s pa c e H o w m u ch .

d e p e nd s e nt irely u p on t he r e c e p t ion giv en t o t he a rt icl e s .

Ma th e m a t ic s i s a t a di s c o u nt i t s ee m s , N e v e r t h e l e s s a s t he
.
,

s u bj e c t i s i nt ri n s ic a lly a m a t h e m a t ic a l o ne I Sh a ll n o t s cr u pl e
,

t o e m pl oy t h e a ppr o pri a t e m e t h o d s wh e n r e qu ir e d The r e a d e r .

wh os e s ci ent ific h orizon i s b ou n d e d ent ire ly by c om m e rci a l c on

s id e r a t i o ns m a y a s w e ll a v o id t h e s e a rt icl e s S p e a ki n g wi t h o u t
.

prej u dic e m a t t e r m or e t o hi s t a s t e m a y p e rha p s be fou n d u nd er

,

t he h e a di ng TRADE N O T I CES
*
S u n t qu os c u r r i cu la
. .

I s h a l l h o w e v e r e n d e a v ou r t o a v oid i nv e s t iga t i ons of a c om

, ,

ple x ch a ra c t e r 3 a ls o wh e n t he m et hod s a nd t e r m s u s e d a re not

,

R e fe rr i ng t o The E le c tr i c i a n , i n w hi c h t hi s w or kfi rs t a p p e a r e d .
 I N TRODUC T I ON .
7

I s ha ll t h e re fo re i n , ,

m a t h e m a t ic a l i nve s t i
g a t i o n s i n g e n er a l a s u bj e c t u p o n which t h e r e a r e m a n y p o p u l a r
,

d e l u s i on s cu rr e nt e v e n am on gs t p e opl e who o ne w o u ld t hink

, , ,

s h o u ld k no w b e tt e r .

8 Th e re a re m e n o f a c e r ta i n t yp e of m in d who a r e ne ve r
.

l
.

we a ri e d wi t h gi bi p g a t m a t h e m a t ic s a t m a t h e m a t ici a ns a nd a t
h , ,

m a t h e m a t ic a l m e t h o d s o f i n q u iry It g o e s a l m os t w i t h ou t sa y
.

i ng t h a t t h e s e m e n h a v e t h e m s e l v e s li t t l e m a t h e ma t ic a l b e nt .

I b eli e v e t hi s t o be a g en e ra l fa c t 3 bu t a s a fa c t i t d oe s n ot , ,

e xpl a i n v e ry w e ll t h e ir a t t i t u d e t o wa rd s m a t h e m a t ici a ns The .

r e a s on s e e m s t o lie d ee p e r H O W d oe s i t c om e a b ou t for ih
.
,

s t a n c e t h a t w hil s t t h e y a re t h e m s e lv e s s o t r a n s p a r e nt ly ig no ra nt
,

o f t h e r e a l n a t u r e m e a n i ng a nd e ffe c t s o f m a t h e m a t ic a l i n v e s t i
, ,

g a t i o n t h e,
y y e t l a
y d o w n t he l a w i n t h e m os t c o n fid e n t a n d
s e l f s a t i s fie d m a nn e r t e lli ng t he m a t h e m a t ici a n wh a t t he n
-

,
a t u re

O f hi s w o rk i s o r ra t h e r i s n o t ) ; a n d o f i t s e rr on e o u s n ess a n d
(
i n u t ili t y a nd s o fo rt h ? I t i s q u i t e a s i f t h e y k ne w a ll a b ou t i t
, .

I t r e m i nd s o ne o f t he pro fe s s i o n a l p a ra d o x e rs , t he m e n w ho
wa nt to m a k e y ou b e li e v e t h a t t h e r a t i o of t he circ u mfe ren c e
~

t o t h e di a m e t e r o i a circl e i s 3 or 3 1 2 5 or som e ot h e r n ic e
, ,

eas y n u m be r a ny bu t t h e ri gh t o n e ) 3 o r t h a t t h e e a rt h i s fl a t
( ,

o r t h a t t he s u n i s a l u m p o f i c e 3 o r t h a t t h e di s t a n c e o f t he

m oon i s e x a c t ly 6 m il e s 5 0 0 y a rd s o r t h a t t he s p e e d o f t he
“

c u rr e nt v a ri e s a s t he s q u a re of t he l e ng t h of t he lin e Th ey .
,

t oo w ri t e a s i f t h e y k n e w a ll a b ou t i t
, P l a i nly t h e n t he , ,

a nt i m a t h e m a t ici a n m u s t b e l o n g t o t he s a m e cl a s s as t he
-

pa ra d ox e r w hos e cha ra c t er i s t ic i s t o be wi s e i n his ig nora nc e

’

, ,

wh e re a s t he r e a lly wi s e m a n i s ign or a nt i n hi s wi s dom B u t .

8 EL E C TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . OH . I .

by t h e ir prej u dic e from gi v i ng i t fa ir de v el op me nt W e .

c a nnot a ll be Ne wt on s o r La pla c e s bu t t h a t t h e re i s an ,

i m m ense a m ou n t O f m od e ra t e ma t h e m a t ic a l t a l ent lyin g l a t e nt

i n t he a v e ra g e m a n I r e g a rd as a fa c t 3 a n d e v e n t h e m o d e ra t e
d e v e l op me nt i mpli ed i n a w orki ng kn owl e dge o f s i m pl e a lg e
br a i c a l e q u a t i ons c a n wi t h c omm ons e ns e t o as s i s t b e n o t
, ,

o nly t he m e a n s o f v a l u a bl e m e nt a l di s c i pli n e b u t e v e n be o f ,

co mm e rci a l i m po rt a n c e ( which g o e s a l on g w a y wi t h s om e

p e opl e ) s hou ld on e s o ccu p at i on b e a bra nch of e ngine e ri ng for

,
’

e x a m pl e

§9 .
“
Ma t h e m a t ic s is gibb e ri sh d b e s.a id
”
a b o ut Li t tl e n ee

t hi s s t a t e m e nt It is . o nly w o rt hy
o f t he u t t e rly illi t e r a t e .

“
Wha t i s t he us e of i t ? I t i s a ll w a st e o f t i m e B e tt e r be .

d o ing s o m et hi ng u s e fu l Why y ou m igh t b e i n v e nt i ng a n e w

.
,

dyna m o i n t he t i m e y ou wa s t e o v e r a ll t h a t s t u ff N0 w .
”
,

s i m il a r r e m a rk s t o t h e s e I h a v e O ft e n h ea rd fr o m fa irly i nt e lli

g e nt a nd e d u c a t e d p eopl e They d on t s e e t he u s e O f i t t h a t i s
.
’
,

pl a in T ha t i s n ot hi ng 3 wh a t i s t o t h e p oi nt i s t h a t t h ey c on
.

c lu de t h a t i t i s o f n o u s e Fo r i t m a y b e e a s ily o b s e rv e d t h a t
.

t h e p a rro t cry Wha t s t he u se o f i t 3 d oe s n ot e m a na t e i n a

“ -
’ ”

h u m bl e Spiri t o f i nqu iry bu t o n t he c ont ra ry q u i t e t he re v e rs e

, ,
.

Yo u c a n s e e t he n os e t u rn u p .

Bu t wh a t i s t he u s e o f i t t h e n ? W e ll i t i s q u i t e c e r t a i n t h a t
, ,

i f a p ers on ha s no m a t h e m a t ic a l t a l e nt w h a t e v e r h e ha d r e a lly
”
b ett e r be doi ng s o m e t hi n g u s e fu l t h a t i s t o s ay s o m e t hi ng , ,

e l se t h a n m a t h e m a t ic s ( i n v e nt i ng a dy n a m o for i n s t a n c e
, ) a nd , ,

not be w as t i n g h is t i m e i n ( s o t o s p e a k ) t ryi n g t o fo rc e a cr o p

o f wh e a t o n t he sa n d s o f t he s e a s h o r e Th i s i s q u i t e a p e rs ona l .

qu e st i on E ve ry m in d s h o u ld re c e iv e fa ir d e v e l op m e nt ( i n
.

g ood dire c t i ons ) for wh a t i t i s ca p a bl e O f d o i ng fa irly w e ll .

P eo pl e who d o n ot c u l t iv a t e t h e ir m i nd s h a v e n o c o n c e p t i o n o f
wh a t t h ey l os e T he y b e c om e m e re e a t i ng a nd d ri nki ng a n d
.

m o n e y g ra bbin g m a chi ne s
-
A n d y e t t h e y s e e m h a ppy
. The re
i s s o m e m e rci fu l di s p e ns a t i o n a t w o rk n o d o u bt ,
.

M a t h em a t ic s i s a m e r e m a chi ne Y o u c a n t g e t a ny t hi ng
’
“
.

o u t o f i t t ha t y o u d o n t p u t i n firs t Y o u p u t i t i n a nd t h e n
’
.
,

j u s t gri nd i t ou t a g a in Yo u c a n t d is c ov e r a ny t hi ng by
.
’

m a t h e m a t ic s o r i n v e n t a ny t hi n g Y o u c a n t g e t m o re t h a n a
’
.
,

pint o u t of a pi nt p ot A nd so fo r th
.
”
.
 I N T RODUC T I ON . 9

be sa i d to h a ve an ih

a t on e a c profou nd t ru t h ,
a nd a m i s chi e v o u s fa ll a cy . Th a t t he

n se i t he lr u t h B u t a s re ga rd s t he t r u t h m e n
e e m e nt of t .

t i o n e d I d o u b t wh e t h e r t h e c a vill e r ha s g e n e r a lly a ny di s t i n c t
,

id e a o f i t e i t he r Or he w ou ld n ot e xpre ss i t s o c o nt e m p t u o u s ly
,

a l o ng w i t h t h e fa ll a cy .

10 .
y By
pr o c
an e s s o f r e a s o n i n g w h a t e v e r n o t fa n c y )
( y o u

c a nn o t ge t a ny r e s u l t s t h a t a r e n o t i m pl i ci t ly c o nt a i ne d i n t he
m a t e ri a l wi t h w hich y o u w o rk t h e fu nd a m e nt a l d a ta a nd t h e ir
,

c onn e c t i o ns which form t he ba s I S o f y ou r i nq u iry Yo u m a y

, .

m a k e m i s t a k e s a nd s o a rriv e a t e rr o n e o u s r e s u lt s fr o m t h e
,

m o s t c orr e c t d a t a O r t h e d a t a m a y b e fa u l t y a n d l ea d t o
.
,

e rr o n e o u s c o n cl u s i o ns by t h e m o s t c o rr e c t r e a s o n i ng A nd in ,

g e ne ra l i f t he d a t a be i m p erfe c t o r b e o nly t ru e w i t hi n c e r
, ,

t a i n l i m i t s h a rdly d e fi na bl e t h e r e s u l t s c a n h a v e b u t a li m i t e d
,

B u t w hy t he m a t h e m a t ic a l r e a s on i ng s hou ld be

t he m a chi ne i s m a de t o do , wi t h a g i v e n s u pply o f
c a u s e li e s d eep i n t he

.
a ll , r e a son i ng m u s t be, i n a s e ns e , m e ch a n i c a l , e se l it is n ot
 O ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . OH . 1 .

i ts m a t e ri a l s h a v e e m pl oye d m a t h e m a t ic s e x pre s sly

id e ,
w ho
for t he p u rp os e o f m a ki n g di s c o v e ri e s S om e o f t he u nm a t h e .
o

m a t i c a l b e li e v e t h a t t he m a t h e m a t ici a n i s m e r e ly e ng a g e d i n
co u nt i ng or i n d oi ng l ong s u m s 3 t hi s pro b a bly a ri s e s from
re m ini s c enc es o f t h e ir s cho olda ys wh e n t h e y w e re flogge d ,

o v e r fr a c t i o n s N o w t hi s i s only a p a rt of h i s w o rk a s o m e
.
,

t i m e s n e c e s s a ry a nd v e ry di s a gr e e a bl e p a r t w hich he w o u ld ,

will in gly ha nd ov e r t o a pr op e rly t ra i ne d c om p u t a t o r Thi s .

p a r t o f t he w o rk o nly c on c e rns t he s iz e of t he e ffe c t s bu t ,

i t i s t he e ff e c t s t h e m s e lv e s t o w hich I r e fe r wh e n I s p e a k of
di s c o v e ri e s .

§ 11 . M a t h e m at i c s i s r ea soni ng a b ou t q u a nt i t i es E v e n if .

q u a lit i e s a r e i n q u e s t i on i t i s t he i r q u a nt it i e s t h a t a re s u bj e c t e d
,

t o t he m a t h e m a t ic s I f t h e re b e s o m e t hi ng which c a nn o t b e
.

re d u c e d t o a qu a nt i ty o r m ore g e ne ra lly t o a de fi nit e fu nc t i on

, ,

no m a t t e r ho w c o m pl e x a n d i n v o lv e d o f a ny n u m b e r o f o t h e r ,

q u a nt i t i e s whic h c a n b e m e as u re d ( e i t h e r a c t u a lly or i n ,

i m a gi na t i on ) t h en t ha t s om e t hi ng c a nnot b e a cc u ra t e ly re a s on ed
,
'

a bo u t b e c a u s e i t i s i n p a r t u n k n o w n
,
No t u nkno w n i n t he s e ns e
.

i n w hich a q u a nt i t y i s s a id t o be u nk n o w n i n a lg e b ra wh e n i t ,

i s virt u a lly kno w n b e c a u s e v ir t u a lly e x pre s s ibl e i n t e rm s o f

kn o w n qu a nt i t i e s b u t l it e ra lly u nkn o wn by the a b s e n c e o f
,

s u ffici e n t q u a nt i t a t i v e c o nn e c t i o n w i t h t h e k n o wn Thu s only .

t he k n o w n c a n be a cc u ra t e ly r e a s o n e d a b ou t B u t t hi s i n .

el u d e s i t will be o b s e rv e d e v e ry t hi n g t h a t ca n be d e d u c e d
, ,

from t he k n o w n wi t h o u t a pp e a l t o t he u nk no w n
, Th e u n .

k no wn i s n ot ne c e s s a rily u nk now a bl e 3 fre s h kno wn s m a y m a k e

t h e fo r m e r u nk no w ns b e c om e a l s o k no w n The di s t i n c t i on i s
.

a v e ry i m p o r t a nt o ne The li m i t s o f h u m a n k n o wl e dg e a r e
.

e v e r Shi ft i n g B u t t h e r e m u s t b e a n u l t i m a t e li m i t b e c a u se
.
,

we ar e a p a r t o f N a t u r e a nd c a n n ot go b e y o n d i t ,
B e y on d .

t hi s li m i t t h e U nk n o wn b e c om e s t he U n k no w a bl e which i t i s
, ,

o f li t t l e s e rvic e t o di s c u ss t h o u gh i t will a lw ay s b e a fa v o u ri t e
,

s u bj e c t O f s p e c u l a t i o n B u t wh a t e v e r i s i n t hi s U n iv e rs e c a n
.

be ( or m igh t be ) fo u n d o u t a nd t h e r e fo re d oe s n ot b e l ong t o
,

t h e u nk no w a bl e Th u s t h e c on s t i t u t i on of t h e m iddl e o f t he
.

s u n or o f t h e e t h e r
,
o r t h e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f m a gn e t i s a t i o n
, ,

o r o f u n iv e rs a l gra v i t a t i o n o r o f li fe a re n ot u n kn o w a bl e 3 a nd
, ,

t hi s s t a t e m e nt i s t ru e e v en t h o u gh t h e y S h o u ld n e v e r be d i s
,
12 ELEC T ROMAGN E T I C T EO Y
H R . CH . I .

m an is not pl a y e d ou t 3 b u t t h a t m a n i s c a p a bl e i nt e ll e c t u a lly , ,

o f gr e a t d e v e l o p m e nt a n d t h a t t h e g e n e r a l s t a n d a rd will b e
,

fa r high e r i n t he fu t u re t h a n a t pr e s e nt .

N o w i n t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f o u r k n o wl e dg e o f t h e w orki ng s
,

o f N a t u re o u t o f t he t r e m e n d ou sl y c o m pl e x a s s e m bl a g e o f
ph e n om e na pres e n t e d t o t he s ci en t ific i nqu ire r m a t h e m a t ic s ,

pl a y s i n s om e re s p e c t s a v e ry li m i t e d i n ot h e rs a v e ry i m p or
,

t a n t pa r t . A S r e g a rd s t h e l i m i t a t i on s i t i s m e r e ly n e c e s s a ry t o
,

re fe r t o t he s ci e nc e s c onn e c t e d w i t h livi n g m a t t e r a nd t o t he ,

o l o gi e s g e ne ra lly t o s e e t h a t t he fa c t s a n d t h e ir c onn e c t i on s
,

a r e t o o i ndi s t i n c t ly k n o w n t o r e n d e r m a t h e m a t ic a l a n a ly s i s

pra c t ic a bl e t o s a y n o t hi ng O f t he c om pl e x it y Fa c t s a re of
, .

not m u ch u s e c ons id e r e d a s fa c t s Th e y b e wild e r by t he ir

,
.

nu m b e r a n d th e ir a p p a r e nt i n c o h e re n cy L e t th e m be dig e s t e d
.

i n t o t h e o ry h o we v e r a nd bro u gh t i nt o m u t u a l h a rm ony a nd
, , ,

i t i s a no t h e r m a t t e r Th e ory i s t h e e s s e n c e o f fa c t s Wi t h o u t .

th e o ry s ci e n t ific k n o w l e d g e w o u ld b e o nly w o r t hy o f t he m a d
hou se .

I n s o m e bra nc he s O f k n o wle d g e t h e fa c t s h a v e b e e n s o fa r
,

re fine d i n t o t h e ory t h a t m a t he m a t ic a l r e a s o n i n g b e c o m e s a p
pl ic a bl e o n a m o s t e x t e ns i v e s c a l e O n e o f t he s e bra nch e s i s
.

El e c t r o m a g ne t i s m t h a t m o s t e x t e ns i v e s c i e nc e w hich pr e s e n t s
,

s u ch a r e m a rk a bl e t w o s id e d n e s s S h o wi n g t h e e l e c t ric a n d t he
-

m a g ne t ic a s p e c t s e i t h e r s e p a ra t e l y o r t og e t h e r i n s t a t i o na ry ,

c o nd it i o n s a n d a t hird c o ndi t i o n w h en t h e e l e c t r i c a n d m a g
,

n e t ic fo rc es a c t s u i t a bl y i n d y n a mi c a l c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h e q u a l ,

d e v e l op m e nt o f t he e l e c tric a nd m a gn e t i c e n e rg ie s t he s ta t e o f ,

e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic w a v e s .

I t g o e s wi t h ou t s a yi n g t ha t t h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s ph e n o m e n a
c onn e c t e d wit h e le c trici ty a nd m a g n e t i s m which a re v e ry
i m p e r fe c t l y u n d e rs t oo d a n d w hich h a v e n o t b ee n fo rm u l a ri s e d
, ,

e x c e p t p e rh a p s i n a n e m piric a l m a nn e r S u ch i s p a r t ic u l a rly
.

t h e c a s e wh e r e t h e s ci e n c e s o f E l e c t r i ci t y a n d C h e m i s t ry m e e t .

C h e m i s t ry i s s o fa r e m i n e nt ly u nm a t h e m a t ic a l ( a n d t h e r e fo r e
, ,

a s u i t a bl e s t u dy fo r m e n o f l a rg e c a p a ci t y w ho m a y b e n e a rly ,

d e s t i t u t e o f m a t h e m a t ic a l t a l e nt— b u t t hi s by t he w a y ) a nd i t ,

a pp e a r s t o c o mm u n ic a t e a p a r t o f i t s c om pl e x i t y a n d v a g u e n e s s

t o e l e c t ric a l s ci e n c e w h e ne v e r e l e c t ric a l ph e n om e n a which w e

c a n s t u dy a r e a cc o m p a n i e d by ch e m i c a l c h a ng e s B u t g e n e ra lly .

s p e a kin g e xc e p t i ng e l e c t r o ly t ic ph e n o m e n a a n d o t h e r c o m pli
,
 I N T RODUC T I ON . 13

§ 13 . Ohm ( d
a i s t i n g u i s h e d m a t h e m a t ici a n b e i t n o t
, e d )
brou ght i nt o ord e r a ho s t o f p u zzli n g fa c t s c onn e ct i ng e l e c t ro
m o t i ve forc e a n d e l e c t r i c c u rre nt i n c o nd u c t o rs which a ll p r e ,

vi ons el e c t ricia ns ha d o nly s u cc e ed e d in l o os ely bindi ng t oge t h e r

qu a lit a t iv e ly u n d e r s om e ra t h e r v a g u e s t a t e m ent s E v e n a s .

la t e as 2 0 y e a rs a go q u a nt i t y a nd t e ns i on w e r e m u ch u s e d
,
“ ” “ ”

by m e n w ho d id n ot fu lly a ppre ci a t e O h m s la w ( I s i t no t ’
.

ra t h e r re m a rk a bl e t h a t s o m e o f G e rm a ny s b e s t m e n of g e ni u s’

Sh ou ld ha v e b e e n p e rh a p s u n fa irl y t r e a t e d ? O hm 3 M a y e r 3
, ,

Re i s 3 e v en vo n H e l m h ol t z ha s m e nt i o ne d t he diffi c u l t y he ha d
I n g e t t i n g r e c og n i s e d B u t p e rh a p s i t i s t h e s a m e a ll t he
.

w orld o v e r ) O hm fo u n d t h a t t he r e s u l t s c o u ld be s u m m e d
.

I n s u ch a s i m p le l a w t h a t h e w h o r u n s m a r a d i t a nd a
u
p y e ,

s ch oolbo y n o w c a n pr e dic t w h a t a Fa r a d a y t h e n c o u ld o nl
y
g u e s s a t r o u ghly . By O h m s di s c o v
’
e ry a l a rg e p a r t o f t h e
‘

d om a i n O f e l e c t rici t y b e c a m e a nne x e d t o t h e ory A n o t h e r . .

l a rge p a r t b e c a m e vir t u a lly a nne x e d by C o u l o m b s di s c o v e ry O f ’

t he la w o f I n v e r s e s qu a r e s a nd c om pl e t e ly a nn e x e d by G r e e n s
’
,

i n v e s t iga t i on s P o i s s on a t t a ck e d t he di ff c u l t pr obl e m o f i n
. i ‘

d u c e d m a gn e t i s a t i on a nd h i s r e s u l t s
, t h o u gh di ffe r e nt ly
,

e x pr e s s e d,
a re s t i ll t he t h e o ry a s a m os t, i m p o rt a n t firs t
a ppr o x i m a t i o n . A m p er e br ou gh t a m u l t i t u d e o f ph e no m e n a
i nt o t h eory by h i s i nv e s t iga t i on s of t he m e ch a n ica l fo rc e s
b e t w e e n c ond u c t o rs s u pp o rt i ng c u rre nt s a n d m a g n e t s Th e n
t h e r e w e r e t h e r e m a r k a bl e r e s e a rch e s o f Fa r a d a y t he pri n c e o f ,

e x p e ri m e n t a li s t s o n e l e c t r o s t a t ic s a n d e l e c t r o dy na m ic s a n d t h e
,

i n d u c t i on o f c u rr e nt s Th e s e w e r e ra t h e r l ong in b e ing brou gh t

.

t hat ha d h e b e e n o ne , he w o u ld h a v e b e e n gr e a t ly i
a ss s t e d in
14 EL EC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 1 .

w ork of H l mh lt z
e Th o m s on B u t i t i s p e rh a p s t o o m u ch
o a nd .

t o e x pe c t a m a n t o b e b o t h t he pri nc e o f e xp e ri m e n t a li s t s a nd
a c o m pe t e nt m a t h e m a t ici a n .

Pa s s i ng o ve r t he ot he r de vel op m ent s which w e re m a d e in

t he t h e o ry o f e l e c t rici t y a n d m a g n e t i s m wi t h ou t s t riki ng n e w ,

d e p a rt u re s w e c o m e t o a b ou t 1 8 60 Th e re wa s t h e n a c oll e e
, .

t i o n o f d e ta ch e d t h e o ri e s b u t l o o s e ly c onn e c t e d a nd e mb e dd e d
, ,

i n a h e a p O f u nne c e s s a ry hyp ot h e s e s Sci e nt ifi ca l ly v a l u e l es s a n d , ,

e n t ire ly Opp o s e d t o t he Spiri t o f Fa ra d a y s w a y s o f t hi nki n g

’
,

a nd i n fa c t t o t h e s piri t o f t h e t i m e
, , All t h e u s e l e s s hyp o .

t h e s e s ha d t o be di s c a rd e d for o ne t hin g 3 a c o m pl e t e a nd
,

h a rm o ni o u s t h e o ry ha d t o be m a d e u p ou t o f t he u s e fu l r e
m a in d e r for a n ot h e r ; a nd i n p a r t ic u l a r t he phy s ic s o f t he
, , ,

s u bj e c t r e q u ire d t o b e ra t i o n a li s e d t he s u pp o s e d m u t u a l a t t ra e
,

t i on s o r r e p u l s i on s o f e l e c t rici t y o r o f m a g ne t i s m o r o f e l e m e nt s
, ,

o f e l e c tric c u rr e n t s u p o n o ne a n o t h e r a b oli s h e d a n d e l e c t r o , ,

m a g ne t ic e ffe c t s a cc o u nt e d for by c on t i n u o u s a c t i o ns t hro u gh

a m e di u m pr o p a g a t e d i n t i m e
, A ll t hi s a n d m u ch m o re w a s
.
, ,

d on e .The cro wni ng a chi e v e m e nt w as r e s e rv e d fo r t he h e a v e n

s e n t M a x w e ll a m a n w I e fa m e gr e a t a s i t i s n o w h a s c o m
,
.
, , ,

p ar a t i v e l
y s p e a ki ng
y e t t o c o m,e .

§ 14 . will ha v e b e e n ob s e rv ed t h at I h a v e s a id ne x t t o
It
n o t hi n g u p on t he s t u dy o f p u re m a t h e m a t ic s t hi s i s a m a t t e r
-

w i t h which w e a r e n ot c on ce rne d B u t t h a t I h a v e s om e wh a t
.

dil a t e d ( a nd I d o no t t hi nk ne e dl e s s ly) u p on t he a d va nta g e s

a t t e n di n g t he u s e o f m a t h e m a t ic a l m e t h o d s by t he m a t e ri a li s t

t o a s s i s t hi m i n hi s s t u dy o f t h e l a ws g o v e rn i n g t he m a t e ri a l
u n i v e rs e by t h e pr o p e r c o o rdi n a t i o n o f k no w n a n d t he d i s
,
—

c o v e ry o f u n k no w n bu t n o t u n k n o w a bl e ) ph e no m e n a
( .

I t wa s di s c o v e re d by m a t h e m a t ic a l r e a s on i ng t h a t wh e n a n
e l e c t ri c c u rre nt i s s ta r t e d i n a wir e i t b e gi n s e n t ir e ly u p o n i t s ,

s ki n i n fa c t u p o n t h e o u t s id e o f i t s s ki n
, a nd t h a t i n c ons e ,

u e n c e s u ffi ci e nt ly r a pidly i m pr e s s e d fl u c t u a t i ons o f t he c u rr e nt

q ,

k ee p t o t he s kin o f t he wire a nd d o not s ens ibly pe n e t ra t e t o

,

i t s i nt e ri o r .

No w v e ry fe w ( i f a ny ) u nm a t h e m a t ica l e l e c t rici a n s c a n
u nd e rs t a n d t hi s fa c t ; m a ny o f t h e m n e i t h e r u n d e r s t a n d i t n o r

be li e v e i t E v e n m a ny who d o b e li e v e i t d o SO I b e li e v e s i mply
.
, ,

b e c a u s e t h e y a re t old s o a nd n ot b e c a u s e t h e y c a n i n t he l e as t
,
 d o u bt it 2
’
Wh a t a w o rld of

c on ce rni n g t h e fu n t c ion of a c o nd u c t i ng wir e to g u id e o ne , n o

fr o m t hi s p o i nt of vi e w
. N v rt h l
e e e e s s, i t i s t r u e 3 a nd t he
vi e w was n ot p ut fo r wa rd a s a hyp ot h e s i s ,
b u t a s a pl a i n m a t t e r
16 A ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 1 .

15 The fo ll o wi n g m a y a s s i s t t h e u n m a t h e m a t ic a l r e a d e r t o
.

an u n d e r s t a ndin g o f t he s u bj e c t I t i s n ot d e m ons t ra t iv e , o f
.

co u rs e bu t i s m e re ly d e s crip t i ve If h o we v e r i t be t ra ns l a te d
, .
, ,

i nt o m a t h e m a t ica l la ng u a g e a nd pr op erly w o rk e d o u t i t will ,

be fo u n d t o b e d e m on s t ra t iv e a n d t o l e a d t o a c o m pl e t e t h e o ry
,

o f t he fu n c t i o n s of wir e s i n g e ne r a l .

S t a r t w i t h a v e ry l on g s ol e n o id o f fine wire i n cir c u i t wi t h a

s o u rc e o f e l e c t ric a l e n e rgy L e t t he m a t e ri a l i ns i d e t h e s o l e no id
’
.

b e m e re ly a i r t h a t i s t o s a y e t h e r a nd a i r
, ,
If we e x a m i n e t he .

n a t u r e o f t he fl u c t u a t i o n s o f c u r r e n t i n t h e c o il i n r e l a t i on t o

t he fl u c t u a t i ons o f i m pr es s e d fo rc e o n i t w e find t h a t t h e c u r ,

re n t i n t he c oil b e ha ve s a s if i t w e re a m a t e ri a l fl u id p os s e s s i ng
ine r t i a a n d m ov i ng a g a i ns t r e s i s t a n c e The fa n a t ic s of O h m s .
’

la w d o n o t u s u a lly t a k e i nt o a cc o u nt t he i ne r t i a I t i s a s if t he .

c u rre nt i n t he c o il c o u ld n ot m o v e w i t h o u t s i m u l t a n e ou sl y
’

s e t t i ng i n t o r o t a t i o n a rigid m a t e ri a l c o r e filli n g t h e s ol e n o id ,

a n d fr e e t o r o t a t e o n i t s a x i s .

I f w e t a k e t he a i r o u t o f t h e s ol e n o id a nd s u b s t i t u t e a n y o t h e r
non c on d u c t i n g m a t e ri a l fo r a c o re t he s a m e t hi n g h a pp e n s ;
-

o nly t he i n e rt i a v a ri e s w i t h t he m a t e ri a l a cc o rdi n g t o i t s m a g ,

n e t ic i n d u c t ivi t y .

B u t if we u s e a c on d u c t i n g c o r e w e g e t n e w ph e n o m e n a . ,

fo r w e find t h a t t h e r e i s n o l o ng e r a d e fi n i t e r e s i s t a nc e a n d a
d e fi ni t e i ne rt i a Th e re i s n o w fric t i on a l re s i s t a n c e i n t he c o re
.
,

a n d t hi s i n cr e a s e s t h e e ffe c t iv e r e s i s t a n c e O f t he c o il A t t he .

s a m e t i m e t he i n e r t i a i s r e d u c e d .

O n e x a m i n i ng t he t h e o ry o f t he m a t t e r ( on t he b a s i s O f
K
’

O h m s l a w a nd F a ra d a y s l a w a ppli e d t o t he c on d u c t i ng c o r e )
’ ’
:

w e find t h a t w e c a n n o w a cc o u n t fo r t hi n g s ( i n o u r a n a l o gy ) by
s u pp os i n g t h a t t h e rigid s olid c o r e firs t u s e d i s r e pl a c e d by a

vi s c o u s fl u id c o re li k e t re a cl e O n s t a r t i ng a c u rr e n t i n t he
, .

c o il i t c a nn ot n o w t u n t he c o re r ou n d b odily a t on c e bu t o nly
r ,

i t s e x t e rn a l p o r t i o n I n t i m e h o w e v e r if t he s o u rc e o f c u rr e n t
.
, ,

b e s t e a dily o p e ra t i n g t h e m o t i o n will p e n e t r a t e t hr o u gh o u t t h e
,
:

vi s c ou s c ore which w il l fi na lly m o v e a s t he form e r rigid c o r e did

, .

If h o w e v e r t h e c u rr e nt i n t he c o il fl u c t u a t e i n s t r e ng t h v e ry
, ,

ra pidly t h e c orr e s p ondi ng fl u c t u a t i on s o f m ot i on i n t he c o re

,

w ill b e pr a c t i c a lly c o n fi n e d t o i t s s ki n Th e e ffe c t iv e i n e r t i a i s

.

r e d u c e d b e c a u s e t he c o re d oe s n ot m o ve a s a rigid b ody 3 t he
e ff e c t iv e r e s i s t a n c e i s i n cr e as e d by t he vi s c os i t y g e n e r a t i ng h e a t
 I N T RODUC T I O N .
17

No w, r e t u rn i n g t o t he l
d w e h a v e p erfe c t sy m m e t ry
s o enoi ,

c t t o i t s a X I S s i n c e t he c o r e i s s u pp o s e d t o b e e x c e e d
,

u n i fo r m ly l a pp e d w i t h w ir e Th e s i t u a t i o n o f
.

t he s o u rc e o f e n e rgy a s r e g a rd s t h e c o r e i t s e l f i s p la i nly o n i t s
, ,

bo u nd a ry w h e r e t h e c o il i s pl a c e d 3 a n d i t i s t h e r e fo r e a m a t t e r
,

o f c om m o n s e n s e t h a t i n t he c o m m u n ic a t i on o f e ne rg y t o t h e
-

c o re e it h e r w h e n t he c u rr e nt i s s t e ad y or wh e n i t v a ri e s t he ,

t r a n s fe r o f en e rgy t a k e s p l a c e t ra n s v e r s e l y t h a t i s fr o m t h e , ,

bo u n d a ry t o t he a x i s i n p la n e s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t h e a x i s a nd
, ,

t h e r e fo r e p e rp e n dic u l a r t o t h e c u rr e nt i n t h e c o r e i t s e l f Thi s .

i s c onfirm e d by t h e e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic e q u a t i o n s .

B u t t h e e l e c t ro m a g n e t ic e q u a t i o ns g o fu r t h e r t h a n t hi s a n d ,

a s s e r t t h a t t he t ra n s fe r e n c e o f e ne rgy i n a ny i s o t r o pic e l e c t ric a l

c on d u c t o r a l wa y s t a k e s pl a c e a cross t he li n e s of c on d u c t i on cu r
re nt a nd n ot m e r ely i n t he ca s e o f a c o re u n i fo rm ly l a pp e d
,

wi t h w ir e w h e r e i t i s n e a rly s e l f e vid e n t t h a t i t m u s t b e s o Thi s

,
~

i s a v e ry I m p o r t a n t r e s u l t b e i n g t h e p os t fin g e r p o i nt i n g t o a cl e a r
,
—

u n d e rs t a n d i n g o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i s m P a s s i ng t o t he Ca s e o f a
.

v e ry l o ng s t ra i g ht r o u n d w i r e s u pp o rt i ng a n e l e c t ric c u rre nt w e ,

a r e b o u n d t o c o n cl u d e t h a t t h e t r a n s fe r e n c e O f e n e r t k e pl c
gy a s a e

t r a ns v e rs e l y n o t l o ngi t u d i n a ll y 3 t ha t i s a cr o s s t h e w ir e i ns t e a d
, ,

o f a l o ng i t . Th e s o u rc e o f e n e rgy m u s t t h e r e fo r e fir s t s u pply
, ,

t he d i e l e c t ric s u rro u n di n g t h e w ir e b e fo r e t he s u bs t a nc e o f t he
wir e i t s e l f c a n be i n fl u e nc e d ; t h a t i s t he di e l e c t ric m u s t b e
,

t he r e a l pri m a ry a g e nt i n t he e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic ph e n o m e n a c o n
n e c t e d wi t h t h e e l e c t ric c u rr e n t i n t he wir e .

B ey on d t hi s t ra ns v e rs e t ra n s fe re nc e o f e n e rgy t h e r e d oe s ,

n o t h o we v e r a t firs t s i gh t a pp e a r t o b e m u ch a n a l o g b e t w ee n
, , , y
t h e c a s e o f t h e s ol e n o id w i t h a c o re a n d t h e s t ra i g ht w ir e i n a
di e l e c t ric The s ou rc e o f e n e rgy i n o n e c a s e i s vir t u a lly br ou ght
.

righ t u t o t h e s r f a c e o f t he c o r e i n a u n i fo r m m a nn e r B t i n
p u u .

t he o t h e r c a s e t he s o u rc e o f e n e rgy t h e ba t t e ry for i n s t a n o
—
,

u r re nt circ u l a r whil s t
,
18 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . I .

s am e as h os e for a x i a l c u rre n t a nd circ u l a r m a gne t ic fo rc e

t .

W e t h e re fo r e fu r t h e r c on cl u d e t h a t ( w i t h t h e e x ch a ng e s m a d e )
t he ph e no m e n a c o n c e r n e d i n t he c o re o f t h e s ol e n o i d a n d i n
t he l o n g s t ra i gh t wir e a r e o f t h e s a m e ch a ra c t e r .

F u r th e rm o re if w e go i nt o d e t a il a n d c on s ide r t he i nfl u e n c e
, ,

o f t h e s u rr o u n di n gs o f t he wir e ( w hich g o t o d e t e r m i n e t he

va l u e of t he i nd u c t a nc e o f t he circ u it ) w e Sha ll find t ha t n ot

o n ly i s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t he ph e no m e n a t h e s a m e bu t t h a t t h e y ,

m a y b e m a d e s i m il a r i n d e t a il ( s o a s t o be r e pre s e nt e d by
Si m il a r c u rv e s fo r e x a m pl e )
, .

The s ou rc e o f e n e rgy t h e r e fore i s virt u a lly t ra n s fe rre d

, ,

i ns t a n t l y fro m i t s r e a l pl a c e t o t h e wh ol e s k i n o f t h e w ir e o v e r ,

which i t i s u n i fo r m ly s pre a d j u s t a s i n t he c a s e of t h e c on
,

d u c t i n g c o r e w i t hi n a s ol e n o id .

S O fa r w e by O h m s la w a n d Fa ra d a y s la w O f
’ ’
§ 16 . can
go

a n d, if ne e d be , P o i s s o n s la w o f i nd u c e d m a gn e t i sa
’

t i on ( o r i t s m od e rn e qu iv a l ent pra c t ic a lly) B u t i t i s q u i t e

,
.

i m p o s s ibl e t o s t o p h e re E v e n i f w e ha d n o kn o wl e dg e o f
.

e l e c t ros t a t ic s a n d o f t he pr o p e r t i e s o f c o n d e n s e rs w e s h o u ld , ,

by t he a bo v e c o u rs e o f i nq u iry b e irre s i s t ibl y le d t o a t h e o ry

'
,

o f t ra n s m i s s i o n o f e l e c t ric a l di s t u rb a n c e s t hr o u gh a m e di u m

s u rr o u n d i n g t h e wir e i n s t e a d o f t hr o u gh t he w ir e M a x w e ll s
’
, .

t h e o ry o f di e le c t ric di s pl a c e m e nt f u r n i s h e s w h a t i s w a n t e d t o
e x p la i n r e s u l t s w hich a r e i n s om e r e s p e c t s r a t h e r u n i n t e lligibl e

wh e n d e d u c e d i n t he a b ov e m a n ne r wi t h ou t r e fe re nc e t o e l e c
t r o s ta t i c ph e n o m e n a .

W e l e a rn fro m i t t h a t t he b a t t e ry o r o t h e r s ou rc e o f e ne rgy
a c t s u po n t h e di e l e c t ric pri m a rily pr od u ci n g e l e c t ric di s pl a c e
,

m e nt a n d m a g ne t ic i n d u ct i o n ; t h a t di s t u rb a n c e s a re pr op e
a t e d t hr o u gh t he di e l e c t ric a t t h e Sp e e d o f ligh t 3 t h a t t he
g
m a nne r o f pro p a g a t i on i s s i m il a r t o t h a t o f di s pl a c e m e nts a nd
'

m ot i o ns i n a n i n c o m pr e s s ibl e e l as t ic s olid ; t h a t e l e c t ric a l

c on d u c t o rs a c t a s r e g a rd s t he i n t e rn a l pro p a g a t io n
, n ot a s ,

c on d u c t ors b u t ra t h e r a s ob s t r u c t o rs t h ou gh t h e y a c t as c o n ,

d u ct o rs i n a not h e r s e n s e by g u idi ng t he e l e c t rom a g ne t ic

,

wa v es a l ong d e fi ni t e p a t hs in s p a c e i ns t e a d of a ll o w in g t h e m ,

t o be i mm e di a t e ly s pr e a d a w a y t o n o t hi n g by s ph e ric a l e u
la rge m e nt a t t he Sp e e d o f light ; t h a t wh e n we d e a l wi t h
s t ea dy s t a t e s or o nly s l o wly v a ryi ng s t a t e s i n v olvi ng i mm e n s e ly
, ,
 C HA P TER I I .

O UT L I NE OF TH E E E C T L R OM A G NE TI C
CO NNEC TI ONS .

El e c t r i c M a gnet i c Forc e ; Di s p la c e ment a nd I ndu c t i on ;

a nd

El a s t i v i t y a nd P e rmi t t i v i t y , I nd u c t i v i t y a nd R
e lu ct i v i t y .

§ 20 . Ou r pri m a ry k n o wl e dg e o f e l e c t rici t y i n i t s q u a n t i t a
,

t iv e a s p e c t i s fo u n d e d u p on t he ob s e rv a t i o n o f t h e m e ch a n ic a l
,

fo rc e s e x p e ri e nc e d by a n e l e c t ric a lly ch a rg e d b o dy by a m a g ,

n e t i s e d b o d y a n d by a b o dy s u pp o r t i n g e l e c t ric c u r r e n t
, In .

t he s t u dy o f t h e s e m e ch a n ic a l forc es w e a r e le d t o t h e m o re
a b s t ra c t id e a s o f e l e c t ri c fo rc e a n d m a g n e t ic fo rc e a p a r t fr o m
,

e l e c t r i fic a t i o n o r m a g n e t i s a t i o n o r e l e c t ric c u rr e n t
, , t o w o rk ,

u p on a nd o u e vi s ibl e e ffe c ts The c on c e p t i o n o f fi e ld s

pr d c(
.

o f fo rc e n r u ra lly foll o w s wi t h t he m a ppi ng o u t o f s p a c e

’

by m e a n s o in e s or t u b es o f forc e d e fi n i t e ly di s t rib u t e d
. . A .

fu rt h e r a n d v e ry i m p o r t a nt s t e p i s t h e r e c ogn i t i on t h a t t h e t w o
v e c tors e le c t ric fo rc e a nd m a g ne t ic forc e r e pr e s e n t or a r e
, , ,

c a p a bl e o f m e a s u ri ng t he a c t u a l phy s ic a l s t a t e o f t he m e di u m
,

c on c e rne d fro m t he e l e ct rom a gnet ic p oi nt o f vi e w wh e n t a k e n

, ,

i n c o nj u n c t i o n w i t h o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s e x p e ri m e nt a lly r e c ogn i s
a bl e a s pr o p e r t i e s o i m a t t e r Sh o wi ng t h a t di ffe r e n t s u b s t a n c es
,

a re a ffe c t e d t o di ff e r e n t e x t e nt s by t he s a m e i n t e n s i t y o f e l e c t ric

o r m a g n e t ic fo rc e El e c t ric forc e i s t h e n t o be c on c e iv e d a s
‘

.
.

pro d u cin g or b e ing i nv a ri ably a ss oci a t e d wi th a flu x t he e l e c t ric ,

di s pl a c e m e n t ; a n d s im il a rly m a gne t ic forc e a s pr od u ci ng a

Se c o nd flu x t he m a gn e t ic i n du ct i on
,
.

I f E b e t he e l e ct ric fo rc e a t a ny p o i nt a n d D t he di s pl a c e
m e nt w e h a v e
,

D = CE
OU TL I N E OF EL ECTROMAGN E TI C CONNECT I ONS . 21

B = pH .
22 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . 11 .

w h e re U i s t he e e l c t ric a nd T t he m a g ne t ic e ne rgy p e r u ni t

v ol u m e .

W he n ,
u a nd c a r e c on s t a n t s t h e s e giv e ,

U % % ( )
2
E D CE , 6
'

T A H B < )
7

t o e x pr e s s t h e e ne rgy St ore d i n t h e m e di u m e l e c t ric a nd ma ,

g
n e t ic r e s p e c t iv e ly .

\Vh e n p a nd c a r e n o t c on s t a n t s t he pre vi ou s e x pr e s s i ons ( 5 )

t ,

will g i ve d e fi ni t e v a l u e s t o t he e ne rgy pro v id e d t h e r e be a d e

fi n it e r e l a t i on b e t w e en a f orc e a nd a flu x I f h o we v e r t he re .
, ,

b e n o d e fi n i t e r e l a t ion ( which m e a n s t h a t o t h e r circ u m s t a n c e s

t h a n t h e v a l u e o f t h e fo rc e c o nt r o l t h e v a l u e of t h e fl u x ) t he ,

e n e rgy s t o r e d w ill n o t b e s t ric t l y e x pr e s s ibl e i n t e r m s s i m pl y

o f t h e fo rc e a n d t h e fl u x a n d t h e r e will b e u s u a lly a w a s t e o f
,

e n e rgy i n a cy clic a l pro c e ss a s i n t h e c a s e O f ir o n s o cl o s el y

'

, ,

s t u di e d by E wi n g Thi s d oe s n o t c om e wi thi n t h e s c o p e o f a
.

pre ci s e m a t h e m a t ic a l t h e o ry wh i ch m u s t o f n e c e s s i t y be a s ort
,

O f s k e l e t o n fra m e w o rk wi t h whic h c o m pl e x d e t a i l s h a v e t o b e
,

s e p a r a t e ly a dj u s t e d i n t he m os t fe a s i bl e m a n n e r t h a t pr e s e n t s

i t s el f .

E ol o t r op i c R e la t i ons .

§ 2 2 B u .t a pr e ci s e t h e o ry n e v e r th e l e s s a d m i t s of c o n s id e r

a bl e e x t e n s i o n fr o m t h e a b o v e w i t h a n d c r e g a rd e d a s s c a l a u
,
r

c o ns t a n t s A ll b odi es a re s t ra i ne d m ore o r l e s s a n d a r e t h e re by
.
,

u s u a lly m a d e e o l o t ro p ic e v e n i f t h e y b e n o t n a t u r a lly e ol o
,

t r opic The fo rc e a nd t h e fl u x a r e n o t t h e n u s u a lly c on c u rr e n t

.
,

o r id e nt ic a l i n dir e c t i on B u t a t a ny p oi nt i n a n e ol o t ro pi c
.

s u b s t a n c e t h e r e a re a lw a y s ( i f fo rc e a nd fl u x b e pro p o rt i o na l
)
t hre e m u t u a lly p e rp e n dic u l a r a x e s o f c o n c u rr e n c e t he pri n —

c ip a l a x e s w h e n w e h a v e ( r e fe rri n g t o di s pl a c e m e nt )
—

D1 C
1
E I:
D2 0 13
3
2 2,
D3 C E
3 3,

i f t he os
’
princip a l p e rm i t t ivi ti e s t he E s t he c o rre
are t he ,
’

s p o n d i n g e ffe c t i v e c o m p o n e nt s o f t he e l e c t ric fo rc e a nd t he ,

D s t h os e o f t h e di s pl a c e m e n t I f E be pa ra ll e l t o a pri n cipal
’
.

a xi s s o i s D
,
I n g e n e ra l by c o m p ou n di ng t he fo rc e c o m p o
.
,

n e u t s w e o b t a i n E t he a c t u a l fo rc e a n d by c om p o u ndi ng t he
, ,

flu x c o m p o ne nt s Ob t a i n D t he di s pl a c e m e nt t o c o rre s p o nd ,

which ca n only c o n c u r wi t h E i n t he a b ov e m e nt i on e d Sp e ci al -
 The e ne rgy r
ill h a l f t he s c a l a r pr od u c t o f t he V
sto e d is st

fo rc e a nd t h e flu x or % ED u nd e rs t a n di ng t h a t t h e s c a l a r
, ,

produ c t o f t wo v ect o rs w hich i s t he pro d u c t o f t h e ir t e n s ors

,

t he c os i n e of t h ei r i n cl u d e d an gl e i n t he g en e r a l c a s e .

c on cr e t e a pplic a t i o n t o ph ys ic a l qu e s t i ons for which i n d e e d

, , ,
it
I s s p e ci a ll y a d a p t e d Ne v e rt h e l e s s it will be c on v e ni e nt
.
, ,
a

su b e j c t i n o rd e r n o t t o h a v e t o t o o fre qu e nt ly i n t e rr u p t
, ou r

e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic a rg u m e n t s by m a t h e m a t ic a l e x pl a n a t i o ns . In
t h e m e a n t i m e c on s id e r t h e di e l e c t ric m e di u m f u r t h e r
,
.

k n o wn d a t a g iv en o v e r a ll s p a c e u s u a lly a b s ol u te c o n s t a nt s
, ,

b u t w h e n t h e s i m pl e r p r op e r t i e s of t he e t h e r a r e c o m plic a t e d
by the pr e s e nc e o f m a t t e r t h e n v a ry i ng I n v a l u e fro m pl a c e
,

t o pl a c e I n i s o t r o pic b u t h e t e r o g e n o u s s u b s t a n c e s or in ca s e ,

of e olo t r o p y t h e t hr e e pri n cip a l

,

a s t he dir e c t i on of t h e ir a x es ,
24 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . 11 .

t he propa ga t ion of w a ve s If t hi s be a d m i t t e d I t hi nk i t m a y
.
,

a l s o be a d m i t t e d t o b e d e s ira bl e t o e x plici t ly a d m i t t h e ir e x i s t

e nc e a n d s y m b oli s e t he m ( n o t as m e r e nu m e ric s b u t a s phy s ic a l ,

m a gn i t u d e s i n a w id e r s e ns e ) a l t h o u gh t h e ir pre ci s e i nt e rp r e
,

ta t i o n m a y l ong r e m a i n u nkn o wn .

I f for e x a m pl e H be i m a gi ne d t o be t h e v e l o ci t y o f a s u b
, ,

s t a nc e t h e n § j H i s i t s ki n e t ic e ne rgy a nd In i t s d e ns i t y
2 ~
u
, , .

A n d i f E b e a t o rq u e t h e n ( t h e e l a s t ivi t y ) i s t h e co rr e
,

s p o nd i ng co e ffici e nt o f e l as t ici t y t he rigidi t y o r qu a s i mgid i t y , ,

-

a s t he c as e m a y b e 3 whil s t c i s t he c oe ffi ci e nt o f c o m pli a nc e o r ,

t he c om pli a n cy 3 a n d § oE i s t he s t o r e d e ne rgy o f t he s t r a i n
2
.

Di s s i p a t i on of Ene rgy .cu rr e nt ; C ondu c

Th e C ond u c t i on -

t i v i t y a nd R e s i s t i v i t y Th e El e c t ri c C u rr e nt . .

24 Be s id es i n fl u e n ci ng t he v a l u e s o f t h e e t h e r c o ns t a n t s as
.
.

a b o v e d es crib e d w e h a v e a l so t o a d m i t t h a t i n c e rt a i n ki nd s
, ’

o f m a t t e r wh e n u nd e r t he i n fl u e n c e o f e le c t r i c fo r ce e ne rgy i s
, ,

di ssi pa t e d continu ou sly b e s id e s b e i ng s t o re d Th e s e a re c a ll e d

, .

e l e c t ric a l c o n d u c t o r s Wh e n t he c o nd u c t i on i s o f t he s i m pl est
.

m e t a llic ) t yp e t he w a s t e o f e n e rgy t a k e s pl a c e a t a r a t e
( , p ro

p o rt io na l t o t he s q u a re o f t he e l e c t ric forc e Thu s i f Q , be .

,

t h e J o u le a n w a s t e ,

Q1 hE 2
E C, ( )
8

C ( )
9

This ne w c ond u ct i on c u rre nt a nd 7a i s t he c ond u e

flu x 0 i s t he ,

t i v i ty ( e l e c t ric ) I t s r e cipr o c a l i s t he r e s i s t ivi t y

. .

The t e rm i na t i on i v i t y i s u s e d i n c on n e c t i o n wi t h s p e cific
~

prop e rt i e s I t d oes n ot a lw ay s s o u n d w ell a t fi r s t bu t t h a t

.
,

w ea rs off S om e t i m es t he t e rm ina t i on a n cy d oes a s w e ll

.
-
.

The c ond u c t ivi t y lo i s c ons t a nt ( a t o n e t e m p e ra t u re ) o r i s a ,

li near op e ra t o r a s in t he pre v io u s c a s e s w it h re s p e c t t o a nd
,
u
,

The di s s ip a t i on o f e ne rgy d oe s n ot i m pl y i t s d e s t r u c t i on
-

c.
,

bu t s i m ply i t s r e j e c t i on or w a s t e s o fa r a s t he s p e ci a l e l e c t ro ,

ma gne t ic a fia i r s w e a r e c on c e rn e d w i t h The c on d u c t or i s .

h e a t e d a nd t he h e a t i s ra di a t e d or c ond u c t e d a wa y This i s
, .

a lso os t p ro b a bly a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic pr o c e s s
( m ) b u t of a ,

diffe re nt o rd e r O nly i n s o fa r a s t he e ffe c t o f t he he a t a l t e rs

.

t h e c on d u c t ivi t y & c o r by d i ffe re n c e s O f t e m p e r a t u re c a u s es

,
.
, , ,
26
‘
ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH .

un i t l e ng th fl u x es p er u n it a r e a a n d e ne rgi es or wa s t es p e r
, ,

u n i t v ol u m e I t i s t h u s a u n i t c u b e t h a t i s re fe rr e d t o wh o s e
.
,

e dg e s id e a nd v o l u m e a r e u t ili s e d
, , B u t a u ni t c u b e d o es n o t
.

m e a n a c u b e wh o s e e dg e i s 1 c e nt i m o r a ny o t h e r c on cr e t e .

l e ng t h 3 i t m a y i nd e e d b e o f a ny s iz e if t he qu a nt it i e s c on c e rn e d
a r e u ni fo rm ly di s t rib u t e d t hr o u gh ou t i t bu t a s t h e y us u a lly ,

v a ry from pl a c e t o pl a c e t he u n it c u b e o f r e fe re n c e s h o u ld be
,

i m a gi ne d t o be i nfi ni t e ly s m a ll The ne x t s t e p i s t o di s pl a y t he
.

e q u iv a l e n t r e l a t i o n s a n d d e v e l o p t h e e qu iv a l e n t t e r m i n o l o gy
, ,

wh en a ny fi n it e v ol u m e i s c on c e rne d i n t h os e c a s e s t h a t a d m i t ,

o f t he s a m e s i m pl e r e pr es e nt a t i o n i n t h e fo r m o f li n e a r e q u a

t i o ns
.

L i ne i nt e gr a l
-
of a Fo rc e . Vo l t ag e a nd G au s s ag e

§27 . The li ne i nt e gra l o f t h e e l e c t ric fo rc e fr o m o n e p oint t o

-

a no t h e r a l o n g a s t a t e d p a t h i s t h e e l e c t ro m o t i v e fo rc e a l o ng

t h a t p a t h 3 t hi s w a s a bb re vi a t e d by Fle e m i n g J e nk i n t o
'

H e w as a pra c t ic a l m a n a s w e ll a s a pra c t ici a n

, Whe n e x .

pres s e d i n t e rm s of a c e rt a i n u ni t c a ll e d t he v ol t e l e c t r o m ot iv e ,

fo rc e m a y b e a n d o ft e n i s c a ll e d t h e v ol t a g e
, ,
Thi s i s m u ch .

be t t e r th an t h e v ol t s I t hink h o w e v e r t h a t i t m a y oft e n
”
.
, ,

b e c on v e n i e n t l y t e rm e d t he v o l t a g e irr es p e c t iv e of a ny p a r
t i c u la r u n i t W e m igh t p u t i t i n t hi s w a y
. Vol t a w a s a .

di s t i ngu i sh e d m a n who m a d e i m p or ta n t r e s e a rch es c onn e c t e d

wi t h el e c t r o m ot iv e fo rc e w hich i s t h e r e fo re c a ll e d v o l t a g e
, , , ,

whil s t a c e r ta i n u ni t o f v o l t a g e i s c a ll e d a v ol t A t a ny ra t e .
,

w e m a y t ry i t a n d s e e h o w i t w o rk s .

The li ne i nt e gra l o f t he m a g n e t ic fo rc e fr om o n e p oi nt t o
- ,

a n o t h e r a l o n g a s t a t e d p a t h i s s o m e t i m e s c a ll e d t he m a g ne t o

m o t i v e fo rc e The only r e c om m e nd a t i o n o f t hi s c u m br o u s
.

t e r m i s t h a t i t i s c o rr e c t ly c o rr e l a t e d wi t h t h e e q u a lly c u m
brou s e l e ct rom o t i ve forc e Ma gn e t om ot i ve forc e m a y be c a ll e d
.

t h e g a u s s a g e [p r go ws a ge ] a ft e r G a u s s w ho di s t i n g u i s h e d hi m
.
, ,

s e lf i n m a g n e t ic r e s e a rch e s ; a n d a c ert a i n uni t o f g a u s s a g e

m a y b e c a ll e d a g a u s s [p r go w c e ] I be li e v e t hi s l a s t ha s
. .
.

a lr e a dy be e n d o n e t h o u gh i t h as n o t b e e n fo m a lly s a n c t i o n e d r

G a u s s a ge m
.
,

a l s o b e e xp e ri m e n t e d w i t h
a
y .

The v o l t a g e or t h e g a u ss a g e a l o n g a li n e i s t h e s u m o f t h e
'
e ffe c t iv e e l e c t ric o r m a g n e t ic fo rc e s a l o ng t h e l i n e 3 t he e fle c

t iv e fo rc e b e i ng m e r e ly t he t a n g e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e r e a l
28 E LE C TROMAGNE T I C T HEOR Y . CH . II .

V= R C , C = K V, ( )
1

wh e re R a nd K are c on s t a nt s t he r e s i s t a nc e a nd t he c ond u c t ,

a nc e t a ki ng t he pl a c e o f r e s i s t ivi t y a n d c o n d u c t ivi t y wh n
,
e ,

vol ta ge t a k e s t he pl a c e of e l e c t ric forc e a nd t he c u rre nt t hat ,

o f c u rr e n t d e n s i t y
-
The a c t i v it y o f t he i m pre s s
.

VC = RC 2 KV 2
,

a nd r e pre s e nt s t he Jou l e a n was te p e r s e c o nd i n t he wh ol e c on

d u c t o r or, t he v olu m e i nt e gr al o f B C o r of IcE b e fore

- 2
c on

s i de re d .

P e rmi t t a nc e a nd Elas t anc e .

§ 30 . P e r m i tt ivi ty
giv e s ri s e t o p e r m i t t a n c e a n d e l a s t i v i t y ,

t o e l as t a n c e To ill u s t ra t e for t he c on d u c t o r s u b s t i t u t e a
.
, ,

n on c on d u c t i n g di e l e c t ric l e a vi ng t he t e rm i na l s a n d e xt e rna l
,

a rra ng e m e nt s as b e fo re W e h a v e no w a ch a rg e d c ond e ns e r
. .

D is pl a ce ment i a t he t i m e i nte g ra l o f t he c u rre nt t a k e s t he

, . .
,
-

pla c e o f c u rr ent i n t he l a s t c a s e a nd w e n o w h a ve ,

D sv , V s I
D, ( )
3
-

i f D i s t he di s pl a c e m e n t S t he p e rm i t t a n c e a nd i t s re ciproc a l
, ,

t he e l a s ta n c e o f t h e c o n d e n s e r Thi s el a s t a n c e ha s b e en c a ll e d
.

t he s t i ffn e s s o f t he c ond e ns e r by L o rd R a yl e igh I t i s t he .

e l a s t ic r e s i s ta n ce t o di s pl a c e m e nt The d i s p la c m e nt i s t he . e

m e a s u r e o f t he ch a rg e o f t h e c o n d e ns e r .

The t ot a l e n e rgy i n t he c o nd e ns e r i s

3V 8V 2 1 2
—
D 2: s D ,

h al f t h e pro du c t o f t he forc e ( t o ta ) a nd t he fl u x ( t ot a l )
l ,

b et wee n a nd a t t he t e rm i na l s i t i s a ls o t he vol u m e i nt e gra l of

.

t h e e ne rgy d e ns it y o r % & E
-
2
, .

A s t he di e l e t ric i s s u pp os e d t o be a n on c on d u c t o r t he cu r
c
-

re nt i s D or S V a n d o n ly e xi s t s w h e n t he ch a rg e i s v a ryi ng
, .

B u t i t m a y a l s o be c o n d u c t i ng I f s o le t t he c o nd u c t a nc e be .
,

K m a k i ng t h e c ond u c t ion c u rr e nt be C = K V The t r u e c u r

,
.

r e nt
( t h at is th e c u rr e nt
, ) i s n o w t h e s u m o f t h e c o n d u c t i on

a nd di s pl a c e m e nt c u rr e nt s S ay .
,
 OU T L NE OF ELEC TROMAGNE TI C CONNECT I ONS
I . 29 '

t o t he sa m e t hing if t h e c ond e ns e r be n on -
c on d u c t i ng , b u t be

as it w e re I t w a s proba bly by a c ons i de ra t i on o f c on d u c t i on

.

i n a l e a ky c on d e ns e r t h a t M a x w e ll w a s le d t o hi s in i m i t a bl e
t h eo ry o f t he di e l e c t ric by which h e b oldly ou t t h e G ordi a n
,

kno t o f e l e ct ro m a gn e t ic t h e o ry .

Th e a c t ivit y o f t he t e rm i na l v o l t a g e w e find by m u l t ipl y i ng ,

VP = VC + VE

r e pre s e nt i n g t he w a s t e i n Jou le a n h e a t i ng a n d t he ra t e of i n
crea s e o f t he e l e c t ric e ne rgy E a ch o f t h e s e qu a nt i t i es i s t he
.
‘

,
s u m o f t he s a m e q u a nt i t i e s p e r u n i t v ol u me t hr o u gh o u t t he

P rme ea nc e ,
I nd u c t a nc e a nd R l c t nc
e u a e .

§ 31 . P e r m ea b il i t y
giv e s ri s e t o p e r m e a n c e i n d u c t i v i t y t o ,

i ndu ct a n c e a n d r e l u c t ivi t y t o r el u c t a n c e
, .

Th e form a l r e l a t i on o f r e l u c t a n c e t o r e l u c t ivi t y wi t h m a g
’

n e t ic fo rc e a n d i n d u c t i on i s t h e s a m e a s t h a t o f r
, es i s t a n c e t o

res i s t i vi t y wi t h e l e c t ric forc e a nd c o nd u c t i o n

ha v e u se d i t t ho u gh
,
o nly o nc e or t wic e . Pro f .

s on ha s a lso u s ed the w o rd i n t hi s s e ns e i n hi s C a

If we repl a ce our ill u s t ra t i v e c o nd u c t o r by a n i n d u c t or ,

t ic i nd u c t i o n a nd s u pp os e i t s u rr o u n de d by
,

B t he i n d u c t i on e nt e r
er
’

r
t e min
 3O ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . II .

3 H E =
3 (n

Wh e n t he r e l a t i on of fl u x t o fo rc e i s n o t l in e a r w e c a n s t ill ,

u s e fu lly e m pl o y t he a n a l o gy wi t h c o n d u c t i o n c u rr e nt o r wi t h

d i s pl a c e m e n t by t r e a t i ng t he ra t i o a s a fu n c t i o n o f H o r

o f B 3 as wi t n e s s t h e i m pr o ve d a nd s i m plifi e d w a y o f c o n s id e r

i ng t h e dy na m o i n r e c e nt y e a rs I m u s t h o we v e r w o nd e r a t
.
, ,

t he p e r s i s t e n c e wi t h which t h e pra c t ici a n s h a v e s t u ck t o t he

l ines a s t h e y u s u a lly t e r m t h e fl u x i n q u e s t i o n
”
.
,

I a m a w a re t h a t t he u s e o f t he n a m e i ndu c t i o n for t his fl u x ,

which I h a v e t a k e n fro m M a x w e ll i s i n p a r t i a l c o nflic t wi t h a n ,

o ld e r u s e B u t i t i s s eld o m i f e v e r t h a t t h es e u s e s o cc u r t o
.
, ,

g e t h e r f o r o n e t hi n g ; a n o t h e r t hi ng i s t h a t t he o ld e r
, ( a n d
‘

o ft e n v a g u e u s e o f t h e w o rd i n d u c t i o n has v e ry l a rg e ly c e a s e d
)
of l a t e y e a rs
.
I t was not wi t h o u t c on s id e ra t i o n t h a t i n d u c t i o n
.

w as a d op t e d a nd t o h a r m on i se wi t h i t i n d u c t a n c e a n d i n d u c
, ,

t i v i t y w e r e c o i ne d .

I nd u ct a nc e of a C ir c u i t .

§ 32 . The m e a n i n g i n d u c t a n c e ha s s o m e t i m e s b e e n m i s
of

c o nc e i v e d I t i s n ot a s y n ony m for i n d u c t i on nor fo r s e l f i n d u c

’

-
.
.
,

t i on bu t m e a ns t h e c o e ffici e n t o f s e l f i n d u c t i on s om e t i m e s -
”
, ,

a bbre v i a t e d t o t he s e l f in d u c t i on I t i s e s s e nt i a lly t he s a m e
“ -
.

a s p e rm e a n c e t h e r e cipro ca l o f r e l u c t a n c e b u t t h e r e i s a pra o
, ,

t ic a l di s t i n c t i on C o ns id e r a cl o se d c o n d u c t i n g Circ u i t o f o ne
.

t u rn o f wir e s u pp ort i n g a c u rr e n t 0 1
,
A s will l a t e r a pp e a r ,

t hi s C 1 i s a l s o t h e g a u s sa g e Th a t i s t he li ne i nt e gral o f t he
.
,
-

m a gn e t ic fo rc e i n a ny cl o s e d circ u i t ( o r t he C i r c u i ta t i o n o f t he
f o rc e ) e m bra ci ng t he c u rr e nt o n c e i s 0 1 L e t a ls o B1 be t he
i ndu c t i o n t hr o u gh t he circ u i t o f C r Th e n
B1 L1 0 1 :

wh e re by wh a t ha s a lre a dy b ee n e xpl a i ne d LI i s t he p e r me
, ,

a n c e o f t h e m a g n e t ic circ u i t a f u n c t i o n o f t h e di s t rib u t i o n o f
,

i nd u c t ivi t y a nd of t he fo rm a nd p os i t i on o f t he c on du c t i ng c ore .

Th e m a gn e t ic e ne rgy i s
'

5 1 1 % 1 1
3 0 L 0 2
( )
9 '

by u s ing t he firs t exp re s s mn I n r e m e mb e ri ng t h a t H

t h e re i s no w r e pres ent e d by 0 1 a nd t h e n u s i ng ,
This
 OUTL I NE OF ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C CONNEC T I ONS . 31

t he b u ndl e a n d t he o n e wire e v e ry t hi ng w ill be t he s a m e a s

,

be fo re i f t h e a b o v e C 1 m e a n s t he t o ta l c u rr e n t i n t he b u ndl e .

B u t i f t h e s a m e c u rr e nt b e s u pp o r t e d by e a ch wire pra c t ic a l ,

c o n v e n i e n c e i n r e s p e c t t o t h e e x t e rn a l c o n n e c t i o ns o f t he c o il

r e q u ir es u s t o m a k e t h e c u rr e n t i n e a ch W i r e the c u rr e n t L et .

t hi s b e C s o t h a t C ] = N C
, Th e n w e s h all h a v e by
.
,

Bl =
1 ( L N ) C

to e xp r ess t he fl u x o f i nd u c t i o n 3 a n d by ( )
9 a nd
( )
8 a ,

% B C

a)
‘
i Z
LC , ( 9

If L = N L1 , t o
2
e xpr ess t he
*
e n e r gy . Thi s L i s t he i nd u c t a nc e
o f t he c o il . It is N 2
t i m es t he p
 32 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . II .

t he i nd u c t ivi t y of a m e di u m t o t h at o f e t h e r which i s i n fa c t , , ,

c on s i s t en t wi t h t he o rigi na l m e a ni ng I b e li e v e a s u s e d by
'

, ,

S ir W Th o m s o n i n c onn e c t i o n wi t h h i s
. e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic d e fi

ni t i o n o f m a g n e t ic fo rc e B u t t o i n d u c t i vi t y a s b e fo r e
.
,

m e n t i on e d a wid e r s ig n ific a n c e s h o u ld be a t t a ch e d
, A s ha s .

b e e n m o r e p a rt ic u l a rly a cc e n t u a t e d by P r o f R ii c k e r w e r e a lly .
,

d o n ot k n o w a n y thi ng a b o u t t he r e a l di m e ns i o n s o f a nd c ; u.
,

or ,
m o r e s t ric t ly w e d o n o t k n o w t he r ea l na t u re o f t he
,

e l e c t r om a g ne t ic m e ch a n i s m s o t h a t a n d c a re v e ry m u ch
,
u.
,

wha t w e ch oos e t o m a k e t h e m by a s s u m p t i ons Th e t wo pri n , .

c i p a l s y s t e m s a r e t h e s o c a ll e d e l e c t r o s t a t ic
-
i n which c = l i n ,

ether ,
a n d t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic i n w hich { = 1 i n e t h e r, Bu t i .

wi t h t h e s e s p e ci a li t i e s we ha ve n o f ur th e r c o nc e rn a t pres e nt .

Gross -
c onne c t i ons of E l e c t ri c a nd M a gne t i c Forc e . C i rcu i t a l
Fl u x . C i rcu i t a t i on .

§ 33 . The t wo q u a n ti t i es
s ets of t h e e l e c t ric a n d m a g n e t i c
,

fo rc e s w i th t he ir c o rr e s p o n di ng fl u x e s a n d c u rre n t s a nd t h e
, ,

c onn e c t e d pro d u c t s a n d ra t i os m a y b e c ons id e re d q u it e i n d e

,

p e n d e nt ly o f o ne a n o t h e r w i t h o u t a ny e xplici t c onne c t i on b e i ng
,

s t a t e d b e t we e n t h e e l e c t ric s e t a n d t h e m a g n e t ic s e t wh e t h e , r

t h e y c o e x i s t o r n ot B u t t o h a v e a dy n a m ic a l e l e c t ro m a g n e t i c
.

t h e ory w e r e q u i r e t o k no w s o m e t hi n g m o r e viz
,
t he cr o s s ,
.
,

c onn e c t i ons o r i nt e ra c t i on s b et w ee n E a nd H Or i n a n o t h e r .
,

form we r e q u ire t o k n o w ho w a n e l e c t ric fi e ld a nd a m a gne t i c

,

fi e ld m u t u a lly i nfl u e n c e on e a not h e r .

O ne o f t h e s e i n t e ra c t i o ns h a s b e e n a lre a dy p a r t i a lly m e n
t i one d t h o u gh o nly i n cid e nt a lly i n s t a t i n g t he m e a n i n g s o f
, ,

p e r m e a nc e a n d i nd u c t a n c e It wa s obs e rv e d t h a t t h e e l e c t ric
.

c u rr e n t i n a s i m pl e c on d u c t ive circ u it w as m e a s u r e d by t he
g a u s s a g e i n t he Corr e s p o n di n g m a gn e t ic circ u i t .

A w o rd h a s b e e n m u ch w a n t e d t o e x pr e ss i n a c o n v e n i e nt
a n d c o n c i s e m a nn e r t h e pro p e rt y p os s es se d by s o m e fl u x es a n d .

o t h e r v e c t o rs o f b e i n g di s t ri b u t e d i n cl os e d circ ui t s Thi s w an t .

ha s b e e n r e c e n t ly s u ppli e d by S ir W Th o m s on s i nt ro d u c t i on o f
’
.

t he w o rd c i rc u i t a l for t he p u rp os e Thu s e l e ct ric c u rre nt i s

*
.

a circ u i t a l fl u x a n d s o i s m a g ne t ic i n d u c t i on
,
The f u n d a m e nt a l .

b as is o f th e pro p e r ty i s t ha t a s m u ch of a circ u i t a l fl u x e n t e rs
M a th e m a t i c al a nd Phy s i ca l Pa p ers ,
Vol I II , p 4 5 1
. . . .
 33

lin e i nt e gra l cl o s e d circ u it 3 a s ; for i ns t a n c e

”

-
in a ,

a m e a ni ng t o
I s h a ll em pl oy
i s a pplic a bl e t o a ny
34 ELE C TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

N o w, t h e cros s c onne ct i on i n t hi s s p e c ia l c a s e is i m pli e d i n

-

t he a s s e r t i o n t h a t H a nd C a r e t h e s a m e q u a n t i t y wh e n m e a ,

s u r e d in ra t i o n a l u n i t s The e x pr e s s i o n o f t he la w o f which
t hi s i s a n ill u s t r a t i on i s c ont a i n e d i n a ny o f t he fo ll o wi n g a l t e r
n a t iv e s t a t e m e n t s .

The li n e i nt e gra l o f t h e m a g n e t i c fo rc e I n a ny cl o s e d C i rc u it
-

m e a s u re s t he e l e c t ric c u rr e n t t hr ou gh a ny su r fa c e b o u nd e d by
t h e circ u i t . Or ,

The c i r c u i t a t i on o f t h e m a g n e t ic fo rc e m e a s u re s t he e l e c t ric
c u rr e n t t hr o u gh t he circ u i t O r .
,

The e le c t ric c u rr e n t i s m e a s u re d by t h e m a g n e t ic circ u i t a

t i o n o r by t h e circ u i t a l g a u s s a g e
,
.

The t e r m i n ol o gy o f e l e c t ro m a g n e t i s m i s i n a t ra n s i t i ona l
s t a t e a t pr e s e n t o wi ng t o t he ch a n g e t h a t i s t a ki n g pl a c e i n
,

p opu l a r id e a s c on c e rni ng e l e c t rici t y a nd t he u ns u i ta bili t y o f t he

,

old t e r m i n ol o gy fo u n d e d u p o n t he fl u idi ty o f e l e c t rici t y fo r a

, ,

c om pre h e n s iv e v i e w o f e l e ct r om a gn e t i s m T hi s i s t he e xc u s e .

for s o m a ny n e w w o rd s a nd fo r m s o f e x pr e s s i on S om e o f .

t h e m m a y find p e r m a ne nt a cc e p t a t i o n .

The a b o v e la w a ppli e s t o a ny circ u i t o f a ny s iz e o r s h a p e ,

a n d irr e s p e c t ive o f t he ki n d o f m a t t e r i t p a s s e s t hr o u gh m e a n ,

i ng by circ u i t m e r e ly a cl os e d li ne a l ong which t he ga u s s

“ ”
,

a ge i s r e ck o n e d By t h e c u rre nt i s t o be u n d e rs t o o d the
“ ”
.
/

c u rr ent ; n ot m er ely t he c ondu ct ion c u rre nt a l on e or t he d i s ,

pl a ce m e n t c u rre nt a l one b u t t h e ir s u m ( t he c onv e c t i on c u rrent

,

t e rmwill be c on s id e re d s e p a ra t ely ) .

I t i s a l s o n e c e s s a ry t o u n d e rs t a n d t h a t a c e rt a i n c on v e nt i on
i s i m pli e d i n t he s t a t e m e nt o f t h e l a w r e g a rd i ng p o i t iv e , s

s e nse s o f t r a n s l a t i o n a n d r o t a t io n wh e n t a ki ng li n e a n d s u r fa c e

i n t e gra l s L o o k a t t he fa c e o f a wa t ch a n d i m a gi ne i t s circ u m
.
,

fe re n c e t o b e t he e l e c t ric circ u i t Th e e n d s o f t he p o i nt e rs
.

t r a v e l i n t hi s circ u i t i n t he p os it iv e s e n s e i f y ou a r e l o o ki ng ,

t hro u gh t he c i rc u i t a l o n g i t s a x i s i n t he p os i t ive s e n s e A l s o y ou .
,

a r e l o oki ng a t t he n e g a t iv e s id e o f t h e C i rc u i t Th u s w h e n t he .
,

c u rrent i s p os it iv e i n i ts circ u it t he m a gneti c i nd u c t i o n go es

,

t hr ou gh i t i n t h e p o s i t iv e dir e c t i on fro m t he n e g a t iv e s id e t o t he
,

po s i t iv e s id e O t h e r w i s e t h e p os i t iv e s e ns e o f t he c u rre n t i n a
.
,

c irc u i t a n d t h e i n d u c t i o n t hr o u gh i t a r e c o nn ec t e d i n t h e s a m e

wa y a s t h e m o t i o n s o f r o t a t i o n a n d t r a n s l a t i o n o f a n u t o n a n
o rdi n a ry r igh t h a nd e d s cr e w
-
This i s t he vi n e s y s t e m u s e d
.
“
36 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

c ond u ct ors i n m a gne t ic t h e ory B ut i t does not s u ffic e for

.

m a t h e m a t ic a l a na ly s i s a nd t o go i nt o d e t a il w e r e qu ir e t o p as s
, .

fr om t he c o n cr e t e t o t he s p e cific a nd u s e c u rl H o w t o m a ni .

p u l a t e c u rl i s a diffe re n t m a t t e r a lt og et h e r from cl e a rly

”

u n d e rs t a n di n g wh a t i t m e a n s a n d t he p a r t i t pl a y s The l a tt e r .

i s o p e n t o e v e ryb ody 3 for t he form e r v e c t o r a na ly s i s i s m os t

,
-

s u i t a bl e .

L e t a u n i t a re a be ch os e n p e rp e n dic u la r t o t he e l e c t ric c u r
re nt J I t s e dg e i s t h e n t he circ u it t o which E , b e l ongs i n
The g a u ss a g e i n t hi s circ u it m e as u r es t h e c u rr e nt d e ns i t y —
.

S i m il a rly r e g a rdi ng
,
t he v ol t a g e i n a u n i t circ u i t p e rp e n
di cu lar t o t he m a g n et ic c u rr e nt m e a s u re s it s d e ns i t y ( ne ga
t iv ei y ). I n s h o r t w h a t c irc u i t a t i o n i s i n g e n e ra l c u rl is t he
, ,

s a m e p er u n i t a re a .

I mp r e s s e d For c e a nd A ct i v i t y .

I n t he s t a t e m e nt l a w s o f c i rc u i t a t i o n I h a v e
of t he
§ 37 .
,

i nt e nt i ona lly o m i t t e d a ll refe re n c e t o i m pre s s ed forc e s Tha t .

t h e r e m u s t b e i m pre s s e d fo rc es i s obvi ou s e n ou gh b e c a u s e a ,

dyna m ic a l s ys t e m c om pre h e ndi n g onl y t he el e ct ric a nd m ag

ne t ic s t o r e d e n e rgi e s a nd t he J ou le a n w a s t e i s o nly a p a rt o f ,

t he dy na m ic a l s y s t e m o f N a t u r e W e r e q ui r e m e a ns of s h o w
.

i ng t he com m u n ic a t i on o f e n e rgy t o or fr om o u r e l e c t r om a gn e t i c
s y st e m w i t h o u t h a vi n g t o e nl a rg e i t by m a ki ng i t a p o r t i on o f

a m o r e c o m pl e x s y s t e m Thu s ta king i t as i t s ta n d s a t p re
.
,

s e nt t he a c t i v i t y p e r u n i t v ol u m e w e h a v e s ee n t o b e
,

( )
6

wh e re t he l e ft s ide e x pre s s es t he a c t i v i t y o f t he e le c t ric a nd t he

m a gne t ic fo rc e o n t he c o rr es p on di ng c u rr ent s a nd t he ri gh t s id e ,

wh a t r e s u lt s viz w as te of e ne rgy Q p er s e cond a nd i ncre a s e p e r

,
.
, , ,

s e c o n d o f t he e l e c t ric e n e rgy U a n d t he m a gn e t ic T
3 a nd as ,

t h e re a r e s u pp o s e d t o be n o i m pr e s s e d fo rc e s i f w e i nt e gra t e ,

t hr ou gh a ll s p a c e we s h a ll ob t a i n
,

( )
7

wh e re 2 m e a ns s u mm a t i on of wh a t foll o w s i t . O r, if Q0 be t he
t ot a l w a s t e a nd s i m il a ly U0 a n d TO t he t o t a l e ne rgi e s
, r ,
 '
. OUT L I NE OF E LEC T ROMAGNE TIC CONNECTI ONS . 37

( )
s

a nd A m u s t be t h e s u m of t he a c t ivi t i e s of t he i m pr e s s e d fo rc e s

nary fo rc e ,
a nd v , t he v l ci t y t
e o o m a t ch , i s t h e n a t ra n s l a t i o na l

eJ + hG
38 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . II ..

N ow it i s E a nd II t h a t
c t iv e i n pr od u ci ng fl u x e s Th u s
a r e e ffe .

E is t h e forc e o f t he flu x D a n d a l s o o f C 3 a nd H i s t he fo rce
of t he flu x B O n t h e ot h e r h a n d i n t h e l a w s o f c i r c u i t a t i on
.
, ,

a s a b o v e e x pre ss e d t he i m pr e s s e d fo rc e s d o n o t c o u n t a t a ll
, 3
s o t h a t w e h a v e i n t e rm s o f t h e f orc es E a n d H
, ,

cu rl ( II -
h) = J,

c u rl ( E G,

e q u iv a l ent t o ( 4 ) a n d To di s t i n g u i s h fro m t h e fo rc e s o f
t he fl u x e s I s om e t i m e s c a ll El a n d H ] t he forc es o f t he fi e ld
”
, .

O f c ou rs e t h e y o nly di ffe r wh e r e t h e r e i s I m pre ss e d fo rc e As .

t he di s t r i b u t i on o f t h e e n e rgy a s w e ll a s o f t he fl u x e s d e p e nd s
, ,

u p on E a n d II i t i s u s u a lly b e s t t o u s e t h e m I n t h e fo r m ul ae
, .

C l a ss i fic a t i on of I mp r e s s e d F orc e s .

§39 . The v ct r r pr
e o si g i m pr e s s e d e l e c t ric a n d m a
e e s e nt n
g
n e t ic fo rc e d e m a n d c o n s id e ra t i on a s t o t he di ffe r e n t fo rm s t h e y

m a y a ss u m e T h e ir li ne i nt e gra l s a r e i m pr e s s e d v ol t a g e a nd
.
—

g a u s s a g e Th e ir a c t ivi t i es or p o w e rs a r e e J a n d hG r e s p e c t iv e ly
.

e r u n i t v ol u m e a n d i n t hi s s t a t e m e nt w e h a v e a s o r t o f d e fi
p ,

n i t i o n of wh a t i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d by i m pre s se d fo rc e
“
Fo r .
,

J b e ing t he e l e ct ric c u rre n t a nywhe re i f t h e re be a n i m pre s s e d ,

fo rc e 9 a c t i ng t he a m ou nt e J of e n e rgy p er u n i t v o l u m e i s
,

c om m u n ic a t e d t o or t a k en i n by, t he e l e c t rom a gn e t ic s y s te m
,

e r s e c on d 3 a n d t hi s s h o u ld b e u n d e rs t oo d t o t a k e pl a c e a t t he
p
s p ot i n q u e s t i o n I t m u s t t h e n b e e i t h e r s t o r e d o n t he s p o t
.
,

or w a s t e d o n t h e s p ot or b e s om e h o w t ra n s m i t t e d a w a y t o o t h e r
,

pl a c e s t o be t h e re s t or e d or w a s t e d a cc ordi ng t o a la w w hi ch
, ,

will a pp e a r l a t e r on S i m il a rly a s re ga rds h a n d G

. .

B u t t h i s c o n c e rn s only t he r e ck o n i n g o f i m pre s s e d fo rc e a nd ,

i s in d e p e nd e nt o f i t s p hy s ic a l o ri g i n which m a y be o f s e ve ra l ,

kind s Thu s u n d e r e w e i ncl u d e

.

Vo l t a ic fo rc e .

The rm o e l e ct ric forc e

-
.

The fo rc e o f i nt ri ns ic e l e c t ri s a t i on .

Mo t ion a l e l e c t ric fo rc e .

P e rh a p s du e t o v a ri ou s s e c onda ry c au s es e s p e ci a lly in ,

c on ne c t i on wi t h s t ra i ns .
 OU TL I NE OF ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C CONNECT I ONS . 39

stan d e i t h e r w i t h ou t s o m e e x pl a n a t i on o f t h e o t h e r El e c .

t rici t y i s i n I t s e s s e n t i a l s a fa r s i m pl e r m a t t e r t h a n C h e m i s t ry
, , ,

t he t r u t h t h o u gh
,
we kn o w n ot wh a t di s pl a c e m e n t and in d u c
4O ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . 0 11 . II .

e q u iv a l e nts which i s one o f t he m o s t s u gge st i ve fa c t s i n

,

phys ic s a nd m u s t be a n e c e ssa r y p a rt of t he t h eo ry o f t he
,

a t o m which i s t o c om e Th a t t he e ne rgy o f ch e m ic a l a ffi n it y
.

m ay i ts e l f be p a rt ly e l e c t rom a gn e t ic i s lik e ly e nou gh Tha t .

e v e n c on d u c t i o n m a y b e a n e l e c t ro ly t ic pro c e s s i s p o s s ibl e i n ,

s pi t e o f t h e s w e e t s i m plici t y o f O h m s la w a n d t h a t o f J o u l e
’
.

For t h e s e l a w s a re m o s t pro b a bly m e r e ly l a w s o f a v e ra g e s .

The w e ll k no w n fa il u re o f O h m s la w ( a pp a r e n t a t a ny ra t e )
’
-

whe n t he p e rio dici t y of e l e c t rom a gne t ic wa ve s i n a c on d u ct o r

a m ou nt s t o billi o n s p e r s e c on d m a y p e rh a p s a ri s e fr o m t he

pe ri od b e i ng t oo s h ort to a llo w of t he a v e ra ge s c onc e rne d i n

O hm s la w t o b e e s t a bli s h e d I f s o t h is m a y giv e a cl u e t o t he
’
.
,

re q u ire d m odi fi c a t i o n .

Th erm o el e ct ri c Forc e
-
.

4 1 Th e rm o e l e c t ric fo rc e ha s i t s origi n i n t h e h e a t o f b odies

.
-

m a ni fe s t ing i t sel f a t t he c o nt a c t o f di ff e re nt s u b s t a n c es o r
b e t w e e n p a r ts of t he s a m e s u b st a nc e di ffe ri ng i n t e m p e ra t u re .

No w h e a t i s g e n e ra lly s u pp os e d t o c o ns i s t i n t he e ne rgy o f
a gi ta t on o f t he m ol e c u l e s o f b o di e s a n d t hi s i s c o n s t a nt ly
i ,

be i ng t ra ns fe rre d t o t he e t h e r i n t he form o f ra di a nt e ne rgy ,

e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic v ibra t i o ns o f v e ry gre a t fr e q u e n cy b u t i n ,

a t h o r o u ghly irr e g u l a r m a nn e r I t i s t hi s i rr e g u l a ri t y t h a t i s
.

a g e n e ra l ch a ra c t e ri s t ic o f r a d i a t i o n Now t he res u lt of s u b
.

j ec t i n g c o n d u c t o r s t o e l e c t ric fo rc e i s t o di s s ip a t e e n e rgy a nd

t o he a t t h em . Thi s i s h o w e v e r a n irr e v e rs ibl e pro c e s s Bu t

, , .

wh en co nt ig u ou s p a r ts o f a b ody a r e a t diffe re nt t e m p e rat u r e s ,

a di ffe r e n t i a l a c t i o n o n t he e t h e r r e s u l t s wh e re by a c o nt i n u e d
,

e ffe c t o f a r e g u l a r t yp e i s pro d u c e d r e v e r s ibl e wi t h t h e c u rr e n t

, ,

a n d t h e re fo r e fo rm u la r i s a ble a s d u e t o a n i nt ri n s ic e l e c t ric

fo rc e t he t h e rm o e l e c t ric forc e
,
A t t he j u n c t i on o f di ffe re n t
.

m a t e ri a l s a t t h e s a m e t e m p e ra t u re i t i s s t ill t he h e a t t h a t i s
t he s o u rc e o f e ne rgy .

The t h e ory o f t h e rm o e l e c t ric fo rc e d u e t o Si r W Th o m s on

-
.
,

b as e d u p on t he a pplica t i o n of t he S e c on d L a w o f Th e rm o
dy na m ic s ( t he Firs t i s a m a t t e r o f c o u rs e ) t o t he re v e rs ibl e h e a t
e ff e c t s has b e e n v e rifi e d fo r c o nd u c t iv e m e t a llic circ u i t s by t he

e xp e ri m e nt s of i t s a u t h o r a n d t h o s e o f P r o f T a i t a nd o t h e rs
, . .

Wit h s o m e s u cc e s s t he s a m e pri ncipl e ha s a l s o b ee n a ppli e d by

v on H e l m h ol t z t o v o l ta ic c ell s which a r e t h e r m o e l e c t ric as w e ll
,
-
 OU TL I NE or
n
EL EC T ROMAGNE T I C CONNEC TI ONS . 41

isre nd e re d i nd e pe nd e nt o f t he e x t e rna l e l e c t ri s ing fo rce

“ ”
.

Thu s t he dis pl a c e m e n t i ni t i a lly prod u c e d by a g i v e n v ol t a g e

d i a t e ly . The r em a ind e r ha s b e c om e i nt ri ns ic ,
fo r t h e t i m e , a nd

t he i nt e n s i t y of i nt ri ns ic e l e c t ris a t i on , a nd c t he p e rm i t t ivi ty ,

=
l
oe .

( )
1

di s pl a c e m e n t t he forc e e c a n prod u c e e l a s t ic a lly ,

b e i ng r e m o v e d by s h o rt circ u i t i ng I t i s .

n ot n e c e s s a rily t h e a c t u a l di s pl a c e m e nt The ph e no m e n o n o f
‘

c on d u c t i v e . Thi s is p e rh a p s no t t he m os t l u cidly su c ces s fu l of

42 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . OH . H .

c ond u c t i v i t y t o pro d u c e s i m il a r r e s u l t s a s r e g a rd s t he m a gnet ic

c u rr ent a s t h e r e i s e le c t ric c ond uct ivit y a s r e ga rds t he e l e ct ri c
c u rre n t B u t i f t h e re w e re t h e n w e c oul d h a v e a m a gne t ic
.
,

“
c on d e ns e r wi t h a m a gn e t ic a lly c ond u c t ive e xt e rn a l circ u i t
,
”
,

a n d ge t o u r r e s id u a l r es u l t s t o S h o w t h e m s e lv e s i n i t q u i t e ,

s i m il a rly i n ki n d t o t h o u gh v a ryi ng i n m a g n i t u d e a n d p e r m a
,
~

n c noc fr o m w h a t w e find wi t h a n e l e c t ric c on d e n s e r

, .

The a n a l o g u e o f Ma xw e ll s e x pl a n a t i o n o f a b s o rp t i on
’

w o u ld be h e t e ro g e n e ou s m a g ne t ic c o n d u c t ivi t y Thi s i s i nfi .

n i t e ly m o r e s p e c u l a t i v e t h a n t h e o t h e r w hich i s s u fli c i e nt ly ,

d o u b t fu l .

E wi n g s r e c e n t i m pr o v e m e n t o f W e b e r s t h e o ry o f m a g ne t i s m
’ ’

s e e m s i m p o r ta n t B u t a s i n s t a t ic e x pl a n a t i o ns o f d y n a m ic a l
.

ph e n om en a t he v e ry v ig o rou s m ol e c u l a r a g it a t i on s a re ig n o re d ,

i t i s cl e a r t h a t w e h a v e n o t go t t o t he r o o t O f t he m a t t e r We .

w a nt a n ot h e r N e w t on t he N e w t o n o f m ol e c u l a r phy s ic s Fa c t s
, .

t h e r e a r e i n pl e n t y t o w o rk u p on a n d p e rh a p s a n o t h e r h e a v e n
,

b orn g e n i u s m a y c om e t o m a ke t h e ir m e a ni n g pl a i n Pro .

e r t i e s o f m a t t e r a r e a ll v e ry w e ll b u t wh a t i s m a t t e r a n d why
p , ,

t h e ir pro p e rt i e s ? Thi s i s n o t a m e t a phy s ic a l i nqu iry b u t c on ,

c e rn s t he c o ns t r u c t i on of a phy s ica l t he ory .

Th e M ot i ona l El e ct ri c and M a gn e t i c Forc e s . D efini t i on of a

Ve ct o r -
Pr odu ct .

44 . The m ot i on a l
l c t ric a n d m a gnet ic fo rc e s a re t he
e e

forc e s i nd u c e d by t he m ot i on o f t he m e di u m s u pp ort i ng t h e
fl u x e s To e x pr e s s t h e m s ym b o lic a lly i t will s a v e m u ch a nd
.
,

r e p e a t e d c irc u ml o c u t i on i f we firs t d e fi ne t he v e c t or pr od u ct -

o f a p a ir o f v e c t o rs .

L e t a a n d b b e a ny v e c t o rs a n d 0 t h e ir v e c t o r pro d u c t Thi s
,
-
.

i s d e n o t e d by
c Va h , ( )
3

t he pr e fix V m e a n in g v e ct o r o r m ore p a r t ic u l a rly h e re , , ,
“
v e ct or pr o d u c t
-
The v e c t or c i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he pl a ne
.
”

o f t he v e c t o r s a a n d b a n d i t s t e ns o r ( o r m a g ni t u d e ) e q u a l s
,

t h e pro du c t o f t h e t e n s o r o f a i n t o t he t e ns o r of b i nt o t he
s i n e o f t h e a n gl e b e t w e e n a a n d b T hu s .

0 a b sin 6, ( )
4

i f t he i t a lic l e t t e rs d e note t h e t e ns o rs ,
a nd 6 b e t he In cl u d e d .
44 ELECT ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II
.

O r, v ct ri ing
e o s v to v,

( 8)
a cc o rdi ng t o t he d e fi n i t i on o f a v e c t o r prod u c t gi ve s t he -
,

d ire ct i o na l re l a t i on s a s w e ll as t he n u m e ric a l .

No w s u pp os e w e s e t t he wh ol e m e di u m m o v i n g t he o t h e r
,

w a y a t t he s p ee d o f ligh t The t r a ve lli n g pl an e e l e c t ro

.

m a gn e t ic s h e e t will be bro u gh t t o r e s t i n sp a ce whil st t he ,

m e di u m p ou rs p a s t i t B e in g a t r e s t a nd s t e a dy t he e l e c t ric
.
,

d i s pl a c e m e nt a nd m a gn e t ic i n d u c t i on c a n o nly be k e p t u p by
c o i n cid e nt i mp r ess ed fo rc e s viz ,
.

e = E, h=H .

No w co m p a re ( 8) w i t h ( 5 ) a n d c ons id e r t he dire c t i ons

c a r e fu lly a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e ve l o ci t y ( 1 i s t he n e g a t i v e o f
,

t h e v e l o ci t y v a nd w e s h a ll ob t a i n t he fo rm u l a
, which e

a r e t h u s pr o v e d fo r t h e c as e o f pl a n e w a v e m o t i o n by s t a r t i n g ,

wi t h a s i m ple s ol u t i o n b el on gin g t o a m e di u m a t r e s t .

The me t h o d i s h o w e v e r pri n cip a lly u s e fu l i n s h o w i ng t he

, ,

n e c e s s i t y o f a n d t he i nn e r m e a n i n g o f t he m o t i o n a l e l e c t ric
,

a n d m a gn e t ic fo rc e s To s h o w t he g e n e ra l a pplic a t i o n o f ( 5 )
.

a n d ( 6 ) r e q u ir es a m o re g e n e r a l c o n s id e ra t i o n o f t he m o t i o na l

u e s t i o n t o which w e n o w pro c e e d
q ,
.

C onne ct i on b et w e e n M ot i onal E l e ct ri c F orc e a nd

“
El e c t r om a gn et i c F or c e
"
.

§ 46 . Ac d w as e on
y o f a rrivi n g a t t h e m o t i o n al e l e c t ric
fo rc e i s by a c o ns id e r a t i o n o f t he w o rk d one i n m ovi ng a c on
d u c t i ng circ u it i n a m a g ne t ic fi e ld I t r e s ul t s fro m A m p er e s
’
.

re s e a rch e s a nd m a y be i nd e p e nd e nt ly pro v e d i n a va ri e t y
,

o f ways t h a t t he fo rcive ( or s y s t e m o f fo rc e s ) a c t i ng u p o n
,

a c on d u c t i n g circ u i t s u pp o r t i ng a c u rr e nt m a y be a cc ou nt e d ,

for by s u pp os i ng t h a t e v e ry e l e m e nt o f t he c on d u c t o r i s s u bj e c t
t o wh a t Ma xw e ll t e rm e d t he e l e c t ro m a g n e t ic fo rc e This i s
“ ”
.

a fo rc e p e rpe n dic u l a r t o t he v e c t o r c u rr e nt a n d t o t h e v e c t o r

in d u c t i on a nd i t s m a g ni t u d e e q u a l s t he pro du c t o f t h e i r t e n
,

s o rs m u l t ipli e d by t he s i n e o f t h e a ngl e b e t w e e n t h e m In .

s h o rt t he e l e c t r o m a gn e t ic fo rc e i s t h e v e c t o r pr o d u c t o f t he
,
-

c u rr e nt a n d t he i n d u c t i o n O r by t he d e fi n i t i o n o f a v e ct o r
‘

,
.

p r o d u ct ,

I
‘
VOE ,
 O UTLI NE OF ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C C ONNEC TI ONS . 45

ind u ct i on . Hr e e
'
I i s t he fo rc e a ri s m g fr o m t he r
s t e ss i n t he
ma gn e t ic fi eld . It s ne ga t iv e , say f, i s t h e re fo re t he i m pre ss e d
.

f = VB C , ( )
1 0

t o be u se d wh en we d e s ire to c ons ide r w ork do ne u p on t he

em

The a c t ivi t y of f i s fq , if q b e t he v l cit y 3

e o or, by
( )
1 1

Thi s is id e nt ic a lly t he sa me as

fq C Vq B, ( )
1 2

by a fu nd a m ent a l fo rm u l a i n v e c t o r a na lys i s
_ H ere on t he
-
.
*
,

l e ft s id e t he a c t ivi ty i s e x pre s s e d m e ch a n ic a lly 3 on t he right

,

s id e ,
o n t he o t h e r h a n d i t i s e x pre s s e d e l e c t ric a lly a s t he
, ,

s c a l a r pro d u c t of t h e c u rr e n t a n d a n o t h e r v e c t o r which i s t he ,

c orre s p ondin g fo rc e ; i t i s n e c e s s a rily a n e l e c t ric fo rc e a nd ,

ne c e ss a rily i m pr e ss e d S o c a lli n g i t e w e h a v e
.
, ,

a ga i n , to e x pr i on a l e l e c t ric forc e
ess t he m o t .

I t s h o u ld b e o b s e rv e d t h a t w e a r e n o t c on c e rne d i n t hi s
m o d e o f r e a s on i ng wi t h t he e x plici t c onn e c t i o n b e t w e e n e a nd C 3
a n d i n t hi s r e s p e c t t h e pr o c e s s i s r e m a rk a bly s i m pl e A s it .
,

ho we v e r res ts u p on a kn ow l e dg e o f t h e e l e c t rom a gn e t ic forc e

, ,

w e d e p a rt fro m t h e m e t h o d o f d e rivi n g r e l a t i o ns p re vi ou s ly
p u rsu e d Bu t c onve rs e ly we m a y by ( 1 1 ) a nd ( 1 2 ) d e riv e t he
.
, ,

e l e c t r o m a gn e t ic fo rc e fr om t he m o t i o n a l e l e c t ric fo rc e .

§ 4 7 A t hird m e t h o d
. of a rriving at
( )
1 3 i s by c ons id e ri ng
46 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

at res t i n i t s m om e nt a ry p os it i on we s h oul d h a v e
,
t he c
s e on d

la w o f c i r c u it a t i o n t ru e i n i t s pri m i t iv e fo r m

— c u rl E = G, ( )
1 4

wh e n e xpr e s s e d for a u n i t circ u i t B u t n o w i n a ddi t i on t he .

, ,

m ot i on o f t h e e l e m e nts o f t he circ u i t i n t he m a gn e t ic fi e ld
c a u s es i n d e p e n d e n t ly o f t he t i m e v a ri a t i o n o f t he fi e ld
,
-
a ddi ,

t i o n a l i n d u c t i o n t o p a s s t hro u gh t h e circ u i t L e t i t s ra t e o f .

i n cre as e d u e t o t his c a u s e be g p e r u n it a r e a I f t h e n we .
, ,

a s s u m e t h a t t he c i r c u i t a t i on o f t he e l e c t ric fo rc e E o f t he fl u x
( )
e qu a l s t h e r a t e o f d e cr e as e of t h e i n d u c t i o n t hr ou gh t h e circ u i t

a lw a ys wh e t h e r i t b e a t r e s t o r i n m ot i on t he e q u a t i o n
, ( )
1 4 ,

b e c om e s a l t e r e d t o
( )
1 5

whe re t he a ddi t i ona l g m a y b e r e g a rd e d a s a fic t i t i o u s m a g n e t ic

c u rr e n t Th a t i t i s a l s o e x pre s s ibl e a s t h e c u rl o f a v e c t o r i s
.

O bvi o u s b e c a u s e i t d e p e nd s u p on t h e v e l o ci t y o f e a ch p a r t o f
,

t he circ u i t a n d i s t h e r e fo r e a li ne i n t e gr a l
,
E x a m i na t i o n i n -
.

d e t a il s h o w s t h a t
g c u rl VqB ,

so t hat we ha v e by ,
In s e rt i ng ( 1 6) in

— c u rl
( E ( )
1 7

t he st an d a rd fo rm ofc d la w of c ir c u i ta t i on wh e n w e
t he s e on ,

u s e ( 1 3 ) t o e xpr e s s t h e i m pr e s s e d fo
rc e
.
.

The m e t h o d by which M a x w e ll d e du c e d ( 1 3) i s s u b s t a n t i a lly

t he s a m e i n pri n cipl e 3 he h o w e v e r m a k e s u s e o f a n a u xili a ry
, ,

fu n ct i o n t h e v e c t o r p o t e n t i a l o f t he e l e c t ric c u rr e n t a nd t hi s
,
-

r a t h e r c o m plic a t es t he m a tt e r e s p e ci a lly a s r e g a rd s t h e ph y s ic a l
,

m e a n i n g o f t h e pr o c e s s I t i s a l wa y s d e s ira bl e wh e n p os s ibl e
.

t o k e e p a s n e a r a s on e ca n t o firs t pri n cipl e s The a b o v e m a y .

,

wit hou t a ny form a l cha n g e b e a ppli e d t o t he c a s e o f a s s u m e d

,

m a g ne t ic c on du c t ivi t y wh e n G i n v o lv e s di s s ip a t i o n o f e n e rgy ;
,

t h e a u x ili a ry g i n d e p e nd i ng m e re ly u p on t he m ot i on o f t he ‘

c irc u i t a cr o s s t h e i n d u c t i o n d oes n o t i t s e l f in v o l v e di s s ip a t i o n
, .

M o d ific a t i on . C i rcu i t Fi x e d . I nd u c t i on mov i ng

e qu i v a e ntl ly .

P e rh a p s t he m a t t e r m a y b e p u t i n a s o m e wh a t Cl e a r e r
48 .

v
ligh t by c o n e rt i ng the c a s e of a m o i ng circ u i t i nt o t hat o f a v
 OU TL I N E O F
J
ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C CONNEC T I ONS . 47

d e finit e p os i t i on I m a gi ne i t t o be m o m e nt a ril y fi x e d i n t h a t
.

p os i t i o n by s toppi n g t h e m ot i on o f i t s p a r t s I n ord e r t h a t
, .

t he r e l a t i on o f t he circ u i t t o t he i nd u c t i o n s h o u ld b e t h e s a m e

a s wh e n i t w a s m o vi n g w e m u s t n o w c o mm u n ic a t e m om e n t a rily
,

t o t h e li ne s o f i nd u c t i o n t h e id e n t ic a lly Opp os i t e m ot i o n t o t he
( a b oli s h e d ) m o t i on o f t h e p a rt o f t he circ u i t t h e y t ou ch .

W e n o w ge t e qu a t i o n o n t h e u n d e rs t a n di n g t h a t g m e a n s

t he a ddi t i on a l m a g ne t ic c u rr e n t t hr o u gh a fixed circ u i t d u e t o

a gi v e n m o t i o n o f t h e li n es o f i n d u c t i o n a cro s s i t s b o u n d a ry ,

s u c h m o t i o n b e i n g t h e n e g a t iv e o f t h e ( a b oli s h e d i
) m o t o n o f
t he circ u i t The m a t t e r i s t h e r e fo r e s i m plifi e d i n t r e a t m e nt
.
, , , .

For i n t he fo rm e r w a y t he pro c e s s o f d e m o n s t ra t i ng ( 1 5 ) which

, ,

I ha v e r e fe rre d t o a s a n e x a m i n a t i on i n d e t a il i s r ea lly ,
”

c o ns id e r a bly c o m pl e x i n v o lvi n g t h e t r a n s l a t i o n r o t a t i o n a n d
, , ,

d s t o t o n o f a n e l e m e n t a ry circ u i t ( o r e q u iv a l e n t ly for a ny
{ i ri
c irc u i t ) .Fi x i n g t h e circ u i t d oe s a w a y wi t h t hi s a n d w e h a v e ,

m e re ly t o e x a m i ne wh a t h a pp e n s a t a s ingl e e l e m e n t o f t he cir
c u i t a s i n d u c t i o n s w e e p s a cros s i t i n i n cr e a s i n g t h e i nd u c t i o n
, ,

t hr o u gh t h e circ u i t a n d t h e n a pply t he r e s u l t i ng fo r m u l a t o
,

I n the c ons id e ra t i on o f a s i ngl e el e m e nt i t i s i m m a t e ri a l wha t ,

t he s h a p e o f t h e circ u i t m a y b e 3i t m a y t h e r e fo r e b e ch os e n t o b e
, ,

a un i t s qu a re i n t he pl a ne of t he p a p e r one of w h o's s i d e s A B , , ,

i s t h e e l e m e nt o f u n it l e n g t h No w s u pp o s e t he i n d u c t i on a t A B
.
,

1 8 p e rp e n dic u l a r t o t h e pl a n e o f t h e p a p e r dir e c t e d d o wn w a rd s , ,

AB . Le t . a ls o fro m A t o . B b e t he p os i t iv e s e ns e i n t h e circ u i t .

It i s e vid e n t wi t h o u t
,
an
y a rg u m e n t a t i on t h a t t h e dir e c t i o n s
,
48 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEOR Y . CH . II .

increa s ing t he i nd u ct i on t hrou gh t he circ u i t a nd t h a t t he ra te ,

o f i t s i n cr e a s e s o fa r a s A B a l on e i s c o n c e r n e d i s s i m ply qB
, , ,

the prod u c t o f t he t e ns o rs o f t he v e l o ci t y q o f t ra n s v e r s e m ot i o n
a n d o f t h e i n d u c t i on B F u r t h e r i f t he v e l o ci t y q b e n ot wh o lly
.
,

t ra n s v e rs e t o B a s d e s cri be d b u t s t ill b e wh o lly t ra ns v e rs e t o

,

A B w e m u s t t a k e i ns t e a d o f q t he e ffe c t iv e t ra ns v e rs e c om
, , ,

p onent 9 s in 6 if 6 be t he a n gl e b e t w e en q a nd B m a ki ng ou r
, ,

re s u lt t o be qB s in 0 N ow t hi s i s t he t e nso r o f VqB wh os e
.
, ,

dire ct i on i s fro m A t o B The m o t i ona l e l e ct ric forc e i n t he

.

e l e m e nt AB i s t h e r e fo r e fr om B t o A a n d i s VB q b e c a u s e i t , ,

i s t he n e g a t iv e c ir c u i ta t i on which m eas u re s t he m a g ne t ic c u r
r e nt t hro u g h a circ u i t L a s t ly i f t he m ot ion o f B be not
.
,

wholly t ra n s v e rs e t o A B we m u s t f u rt he r m u l t iply by t he
,

c os i n e of t he a ngl e b e t w e en VB q a nd t he e l e m e nt A B .

Thi s m e r ely a m ou nt s t o t a ki ng t he e ffe c t iv e p a rt o f VB q a l ong

t he circ u i t S o fi na lly w e s e e t h a t VB q f u lly re pr e s e nt s t he
.
, ,

i m pr es s e d e l e ct ric fo rc e p er u ni t l e n gt h i n A B wh e n i t i s fix e d ,

a nd t he i n d u c t i o n m o v e s a cr o s s i t or t h a t i t s n e g a t i v e ,

e = VqB
re pre s e nt s t he m ot i ona l el e ct ric forc e whe n i t i s t he el e m ent .

A B t h a t m o v e s w i t h v e l o cit y q t hro u gh t he i n d u c t i o n B N OW , .

a pply t h e pr o c e s s o f c i r c u i t a t i on a n d w e s e e t h a t e i s s u ch t h a t
,

i t s c u rl r e pre s e nt s t h e ra t e o f i n cr e a s e of i n d u c t i o n t hr o u gh t h e
u n i t circ u i t d u e t o t he m o t i o n a l o n e .

Thi s m a y s e e m r a t h e r la b ou re d; bu t i s p e rha p s qu it e a s m u ch
t o t he p o i nt a s a c o m pl e t e a n a ly t ic a l d e m on s t r a t i on wh e r e one ,

m a y ge t l os t i n t he m a z e of di ffe r e nt i a l c o e ffici ent s a n d h a v e ,

s om e di ffic u l t y i n i n t e rpr e t i n g t he a na ly t ic a l s t e p s e le c t r o m a g

n e t i c a l ly .

The fict it i ou s m o t i on of t he i ndu c t i on a b o v e a s su m e d ha s .

n ot hi ng t o d o wi t h t h e r e a l m o t i o n o f t he i n d u c t i o n t hr o u g h

t he m e di u m I f t h e r e b e a ny i t s e ffe c t i s fu lly i n cl u d e d i n t he
.
,

t e rm G t he r e a l m a gn e t ic c u rr e nt
,
.

The M ot i onal M a gne t i c For c e .

The m o t i ona l m a gn e t ic fo rc e h i m il a rly

’

§ 49 . m ay be s .

d e du c e d F irs t h a ve t he pri m i t i ve form of t he fi rs t la w of

”

. . we
c i r c u i t a t i on,
c u rl H J,
 A G N E TI C CONNECT I ONS . 49

wh e re Ji s t he c o m pl e t e e l ect ric

h= VD q ,

firs t re d u c e d d a rd
.

in ( )
1 9 t h e la w o f C i rc u it a t l o n is t o t he s ta n

wi t h t he s p e cia l fo rm of t he i m pre ss e d forc e h stat e d .

a nd
“
g
t he m a n e t ic fo rc e t o r e pres e nt g
t he m a ne t ic and e e l c t ric
“

Th e “
M a gne t o -
l ct ri c Forc e
e e .
”

§ 50. The a c t ivi t y of the m o t i on a l h i s fou n d by m u l t iplying

sam e t ra ns fo rm a t i o n as fro m ( )
1 1 t o

m a y be
di el e c t ric s su pp ort
5O ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

D e s crib e cl os e d s u rfa c e i n a di e l e c t ric a nd ob s e rv e t he ne t

a ,

a m o u n t o f d i s pl a c e m e n t l e a vi n g i t Thi s o f c o u r s e m e a ns t he
.
, ,

e x c e s s o f t h e q u a n t i t y l e a vi n g o v e r t h a t e n t e ri n g i t I f t he .

n e t a m o u nt b e z e r o t he r e i s n o e l e c t rific a t i o n wi t hi n t he r e gi o n
,

b ou n d e d by t he s u r fa c e I f t he a m ou n t be fi n i te t h e re i s j u s t
.
,

t h a t a m o u nt o f e l e c t rific a t i on i n t h e r e gi o n Thi s i s i nde p en .

d e n t a l t og e t h e r o f i t s di s t r ib u t i o n wi t hi n t he r e gi o n a nd of ,

t h e s iz e a n d s h a p e o f t he r e gi o n .

M o re fo r m a lly t he s u r fa c e i n t e gr a l o f t he di s pl a c e m e nt
,
-

l ea ving a ny cl o s e d s u rfa c e m e a s u re s t h e e l e c t rific a t i on w i t hi n i t .

Thi s b e i ng g e n e ra l if w e w i s h t o fin d t he di s t rib u t i o n o f
,

e l e c t rific a t i o n w e m u s t br e a k u p t h e r e g i o n i nt o s m a ll e r r e gi o n s ,

a nd i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r d e t e rm i n e t h e e le c t r i fic a t i o n s i n t h e m .

C a rry i n g t h i s o n d o w n t o t he i nfi n i t e ly s m a ll u n i t v ol u m e we
‘
, ,

by t he s a m e proc e s s o f s u rfa c e i n t e gra t i on find t he v ol u m e

-

d e ns i t y o f t he e l e c t rific a t i on I t i s t h e n c a ll e d t he div e rg e nc e
.

of t he di s pl a c e m e n t .

Th a t I s i n g e n e ra l t he d i v e rg e n c e o f a ny flu x 1 3 t he a m ou nt
, ,

o f t he fl u x l e a vi n g t h e u n i t v ol u m e .

A n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e d i v e rg e n c e o f t he di s pl a c e m e nt
,

m e a s u r e s t h e d e n s i tyfip f e l e c t rific a t i on .

S i m il a rl y t he div e rg e n c e o f t h e i n d u c t i o n m e a s u r e s t h e
,

m a gn e t ific a t i o n if t h er e i s a ny t o m e a s u r e which i s a v e ry
, ,

d ou bt fu l m a t t e r i n d e e d The re i s n o e vid e n c e t h a t t he fl u x
.

i nd u c t i on ha s a ny div e rg e n c e i t i s p u re ly a circ u i t a l flu x s o ,

fa r a s i s c er ta i n ly k n o w n a n d t hi s i s m os t i nt i m a t e ly c o n ne c t e d
,

wit h t he o t h e r m i s s i ng l in k i n a sy m m e t ric al e l e c t rom a g ne t ic

s ch e m e t h e u nk n o w n a g n e t ic c o n d u c t ivi t y
, ( ) m .

D i ve rg e nc e is re pr e s ent e d by div t h u s ,

div D p, ( )
1

div 3 ( )
2
'

if p a nd 0
'
a re t he e e l c t ri fica t i on a nd m a gn e t i fic a t i o n d ens it i e s
r e s p e c t i v e ly .

In a no t h e r fo r m ,
l c r ific a t i on i s t he s ou rc e o f di s pl a c e m e nt
e e t ,

a n d m a g n e t i fic a t i o n t h e s o u rc e o f i n d u c t i o n Ho w t h e s e fl u x e s .

a r e di s t rib u t e d a ft e r l e a v i ng t h e ir s o u rc e s i s a p e r fe c t l y i nd i f

fere nt m a tt e r s o fa r a s c o n c e rn s t h e m e a s u r e o f t he s t r e n g t h o f
,

t he s o u rc e s I n a n i s o t r o pic u n i fo r m m e di u m a t r e s t t he fl u x e s
.
,

n a t u r a lly s pr e a d ou t u n i fo r m ly a n d r a di a lly fr o m p o i n t s o u rc e s -
52 E LEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HE ORY . CH . II
.

l i nk at vi g ch rg
t he m o n a e p p o s e t h a t t he ch a rg e p
. If we su

mo ving wit h v l cit y u c

e o on s t it u t e s a curr e nt u p t h a t i s in , ,

t he s a m e s e ns e a s t he m o t i o n a nd s u ch t h a t t he v ol u m e
,

i nt e gra l of t he c u rre nt d en s i t y i s Up t h en t he c om pl e te ,

s y s t e m o f t hi s c onv e ct i on c u rr e nt a nd t he di s pl a c em e nt
”
,

c u rr e nt t o g e t he r fo rm a circ u i ta l flu x .

Thu s s u pp os e t h e cha rg e t o be firs t o u t s ide a cl o s e d s u r fa c e

,

a n d t h e n m o v e a cr o s s i t t o i t s i n s id e Wh e n o u t s id e i f t he
.
,

dis pl a c e m e nt go e s t hro u g h t he s u rfa c e t o t he i nn e r re gio n ,

i t l e a ves i t a g a i n O n t he ot h e r h a nd wh e n t he ch a rg e i s
.
,

i ns ide t he whol e di s pla c em e nt p as s es ou t w a rd The re fo re

, .
,

wh e n t he ch a rge I s I n t he v e ry a ct of cros s i ng t he s u rfa c e t he ,

di s pl a c e m en t t hro u gh i t o u t wa rd ch a ng e s fro m O t o p a nd t hi s ,

i s t he t i m e i nt e gra l o f t he di s pl a c e m e n t c u rr e nt o u t wa rd whil s t
-

t he ch a rg e cr o s s es Thi s i s p e rfe c t ly a n d s i m u lt a n e o u s ly com

.

e n s a t e d by t h e c o n v e c t i on c u rr en t m a ki n g t he wh o l e c u rr e nt
p ,

a l way s circ u i t a l .

The e l e c t ric c u rr e nt i s t he r e fo re m a d e u p o f t hr e e p a rt s
, , ,

t h e c on d u c t i o n c u rr e n t t h e d is pl a c e m e n t c u rr e n t a n d t he Gen
, ,
:

ve c t ion c ur r ent 3 t hu s ,

( )
6

b e i ng thev ol u m e d e n s i t y o f e l e c t rific a t i o n m o v i ng t hr o u gh
p
-

t he s ta t i o na ry m e di u m wi t h t he v e l o ci t y u .

I f t he m e di u m be a l s o m ovi ng a t v e l o ci t y q r e fe rre d to
fix e d s p a c e w e m u st u nd e rs t a nd by u a b o v e t he v el o ci t y al s o
,

re fe rr e d t o fi x e d s p a c e The v el ocit i e s q a n d u a re o nly t he

.

s a m e wh e n t he m e di u m a n d t he ch a rg e m o v e t o g e t h e r Thu s .
.

i t will c o m e t o t he s a m e t hi ng i f w e s t o p t he m o t i on o f t he
~

ch a rge a l t o g e t h e r a nd le t the m e di u m ha v e t he m ot i on e qu i v a
,

l e nt t o t h e form e r r ela t i v e m ot ion .

S i m il a rly i f t h e re s h ou ld be s u ch a t hi ng as di ve rgi n g i n
,
.

d u ct ion or t he m a gnet i fica t i on d e no t e d by a a b o v e t h e n w e

, ,

s h a ll b e o blig e d t o c on s id e r a m o v i ng m a gn e t ic ch a rg e a s c o n

t ribu t i n g t o t he m a g ne t ic c u rre n t m a ki ng t he c om pl e t e ma g
,

n e t ic c u rr e nt b e e xpr e s s e d by

if w b e t he v l ci ty
e o of t he m a gne t i fic a t i on of d en s i t y a .
 OU TL I NE OF ELEC T ROMA GNE T I C CONNEC T I O N S . 53

rd e r t o cl e a rly u nd e rs t a n d t he s e n s e i n which
‘

§ 53 . In o

m o t io n o f a ch a rg e t hro u gh a m e di u m o r m ot i o n o f t he,

m e di u m i ts e l f o r o f bo t h t og e t h e r wi t h r e s pe c t t o fi x e d s p a c e
, ,

i s t o be u nd e rs to od a nd o f t he p a rt pl a y e d t h e r e i n by t he
,

m ot i onal e l ec t ric and m a gne t ic forc e s, i t will be d e s ira bl e t o

g i v e a f e w ill u s t ra t i v e e x a m pl es o f s u ch a n a t u r e t h a t t h e ir

m e a ni n g c a n be rea dily foll o w e d fro m a d e s cri p t i on wi t h ou t ,

t h e m a t h e m a t ica l re pr e s e n t a t i o n o f t he r e s u l t s I t d oes not

.
,

indee d o fte n ha pp e n t ha t t his c a n be d o ne wi th profi t a nd

,

wi t ho u t m u ch circ u m l o cu t i on In t he pr e s e nt ca s e h o we v e r
.
, ,

i t i s ra t h e r e as i e r t o s e e t he m e a n in g of t he s ol u t i o ns fr o m a
d e s crip t i on t h an from t he fo r m u l ae
, .

I n t he firs t pl a c e le t u s s t a rt wi t h a s i ngl e ch a rg e p a t re s t
,

a t a ny p o i nt A i n a n i nfi n i t e i s o t r o p i c n o n c o nd u c t i n g di e l e c t ric
-

— e the r for e x a m pl e which i s a l s o t re s t Und e r t hes e

— a
, .

circ u m s ta n c es t he s ta t i ona ry c ondi t i on i s one of i so t rO p ic ra di a l

di s pla c e m e nt fro m t he cha rg e a t A a cc o rdi ng t o t h e i n v e rs e
s q ua re la w a n d t h e r e i s n o t hi ng t o di s t u rb t hi s di s tr i b u t i o n
, .

No w if t he wh ol e m e diu m a nd t he ch a rg e i t s e l f a re s u ppos e d
,

to h a v e a c o m m on m o t i on ( re fe rr e d t o a n a s s u m e d fi x e d s p a c e ,

i n t he b a ckgro u nd a s i t w e re ) n o ch a ng e wh a t e v e r will t a ke
, ,

pl a c e i n t he dis tribu t i on o f di s pla c e m e nt re fe rre d t o t he m o vi n g

c h a rg e. Tha t t hi s s ho u ld be s o i n a ra t i on a l sy s t e m we m ay
c o ncl u d e fro m t he r e l a t ivi t y o f m o t i on ( t he a b s o l u te m o t i o n o f

t he u n iv e rs e b e i n g q u i t e u nk no w n if n ot i nc onc e iv a bl e ) c o m
,

b i ne d wi t h O II r i ni t i a l a s s u m pt i on t h a t t he e l e c t ric fl u x ( a nd
t he m a g ne t ic fl u x not h e re pre s e n t ) re pre s ent s t a t es o f
 54 ELEC T ROMA G NE TI C T HEORY . CH . I I.

di s pl a c e m ent a nd v e l o ci ty o f t he m e di u m c om e s i n t o pla y
t he , ,

a n d i t i s s o c o n s t r u c t e d a s t o pr e ci s e ly a nn u l a ll m a gn e t ic

fo rc e u n d e r t h e circ u m s t a n c es a n d l e a v e t he di s pl a c e m e nt
,

( r e fe rr e d t o t h e m o vi n g m e di u m ) u n a flb c t e d ; or i n a n o t h e r ,

fo rm i t ch a n g es t h e la w o f c i r c u i t a t i on ( c u rl H = J) r e fe rr e d t o
,

fix e d s p a c e s o a s t o r e fe r i t i n t he s a m e fo rm t o t h e m ov i ng
,

m e di u m .

Th e r es u l t i s H O a n d D m o v e s wi t h t he m e d i u m
, .

S i m il a r r e m a rk s a pply t o o t h e r s t a t i on a ry s t a t e s Th e y a re .

u n a ffe c t e d by a c o mm on m o t i o n o f t h e wh o l e m e d i u m a nd t he

s ou rc e s o r q u a s i s ou rc e s ) a n d t hi s r e s u l t i s m a t h e m a t ic a lly
( -

o b t a i n e d by t h e m o t i o n a l e l e c t ric a n d m a g n e t ic fo rc e s .

S ou rc e a nd M e di u m i n R
e l a t i v e M ot i on A C ha rg e .

s u d d e nl y j
er k e d i nt o M ot i on a t t h e S p e e d of r op a g a P
t i on . G e ne r a t i on of a S p h eri c a l E l e ct r om a gn e t i c S h e e t 3
u l t i ma t e l y P
l a ne E qu at i ons of a ur e El e ct r oma gne t i c
. P
Wav e .

B u t t he c a s e i s e nt ire ly a l t e r e d if t he ch a rg e a n d t he
m e di u m h a v e a r e l a t iv e t ra n s l a t i on a l m o t i o n .

S t a r t a g a i n wi t h Ch a rg e a n d m e di u m a t re s t ; a n d t he d i s
p l a c e m e n t s t a t i o n a ry a n d i so t r o pic a lly r a di a l N e x t i n t ro d u c e
.
,

t h e fa c t ( t h e t r u t h o f w hich will b e fu lly s e e n l a t e r) t h a t t he

m e di u m t ra ns m i t s a ll d i s t u rb a n c e s of t he fl u x e s t hro u g h
it s el f a t t he s p e e d ( c er t which c a ll 1) 3 a nd le t u s s u dde nly
,
‘

s e t t he ch a r g e m o vi n g i n a n y dire c t i o n r e c t ili n e a rly t hr o u gh

t he m e di u m a t t hi s s a m e s p e e d 22 ,
The qu e s t i on i s wh a t wi ll
.
,

h a pp e n ?
A p a rt o f t he r e s u l t c a n be fore s e e n wi t h o u t m a th e m a t ic a l
,

in v e s t ig a t i on 3 t he r e m a i nd e r i s a n e x a m pl e o f t he t h e o ry of t he
s i m pl e s t s ph e ric a l w a v e giv e n by m e i n
“
E le c t r om a gn e t ic W a v e s
”
.

L e t A ( i n F ig 1 ) be t he i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n o f t he ch a rg e w h e n i t
.

firs t b egi ns t o m o v e a nd le t A C b e t he d ire ct i o n o f i t s s u b

,
.

s e qu e nt m o t i o n . D es cri b e a s ph e re o f ra di u s A B = vt 3 t h e n a t ,

t he t i m e t t he ch a rg e ha s r e a ch e d B N o w fro m t he m e re fa ct
.
,

t h a t t he s p e e d o f pr o p a g a t i on i s c i t fo ll o ws t h a t t he d i s
,

pl a c e m e nt o u t s id e t he s ph e r e i s u n dis t u rb e d I t i s cl e a r t ha t .

t h e re c a nn o t b e a ny ch a n g e t o t he right o f B b e c a u s e t he ,

ch a rg e ha s o nly j u s t r e a ch e d t h a t pla c e a nd di s t u rb a nc es o nly

,
cha rg e a t e v e ry m om e nt o f i t s p as s a ge fr o m A t o B w i ll s h ow
t h a t n o di s t u rb a n c e c a n h a v e go t o u t s id e t h e s ph e r e Th
. e

ra di a l li ne s t h e r e fo r e re pr e s e n t t he a c t u a l di s pl a c e m e nt a s
, , ,

w e ll as t he o rigi na l di s pl a c e m en t t h o u gh of c ou rs e i n t he
, ,

l a tt e r c a s e t h e y e x t e n d e d to t he p oi n t A
,
.

W e h a v e n o w t o c om pl e t e t he d e s cr i p t i on of t h e s ol u t i on .

n o di s pl a c e m e n t w h a t e v e r I ns id e t h e

FI G 1
. .

t he t h e re fo re ,

dis pl a c e m e nt o v e r t he s ph e ric a l s u rfa c e .

d o s o i n t he s i m pl e s t
56 4
ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

Thi s c om pl e t e s t he c a s e s o fa r a s t he di s pl a c e m e nt i s Coir
c e r ne d . B u t t h e s ph e ric a l s u rfa c e c o n s t i t u t e s a n e l e c t ro
ma gne t ic s h e e t a nd c o rr e s p o n di ng t o t h e di s pl a c e m e nt t h e re
,

is a di s t rib u t i o n o f c o i n cid e nt i nd u c t i on This i n d u ct i on i s .

p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t h e t a nge nt i a l di s pl a c e m e n t a nd t h e re fore ,

foll o w s t he lin e s o f l a t i t u d e I t s dire c t i o n i s u p t hro u gh t he

.

p a p e r a b o ve A ( a t E for e x a m pl e ) a nd d ow n t hro u gh t he
, ,

p a p e r b e lo w A ( a t F for e x a m pl e ) The t a ng e nt i a l dis pl a c e

, .

m e nt a nd i n d u c t i o n s u r fa c e d e n s i t i e s ( o r fl u x e s p e r u n i t a re a o f
-

t he s h e e t ) sa y D O a nd B 0 a re c onne c t e d by t he e q u a t i on
, , ,

B0

DO c 0
.

O r, if E 0 a nd H 0 be t he qu iva l e nt
e fo rc e s got by d i vidi n g
c a nd by u
,
r e s p e c t iv e ly t h e n s i n c e )
, ,
u cv = 1
2
,

H 0
c 0,

E0 w
,
v H o
.

Or, e xpre s s i n g t he m u t u a l dire c t i on s as w e ll ,

H0 Vv D O,
E0 VBov 3

w he re v i s t he v e c to r v e l o ci ty o f t he el e c t ro m a g ne t ic s h e e t a t
t he pl a c e c o ns id e r e d Th e se l a s t a re i n fa c t as w e s ha ll s e e
.
, ,

la t e r t he gen e ra l e qu a t i on s o f a wa v e front or of a fre e wa v e

, ,

which t h ou gh i t m a y a t t e nu a t e a s i t t ra v e l s d o e s n ot s u ffe r ,

di s to rt ion by m ix i ng u p wi t h o t h e r dis t u rba n c e s .

No w as t im e goes o n t he ch a rge a t B m o v e s o ff to t he ri ght

,
'

, ,

t he e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic s h e e t s i m ul t a ne ou s ly e x p a ndi ng The e x .

te rn a l di s pl a c e m e nt t h e r e fo re be c om e s i nfi n i t e s i m a l ; like wi s e
, ,

t ha t on t he D s id e o f t h e s h e re P ra c t ic a lly t h e r e fo re we
.
, ,

ar e fi na lly l e ft wi t h a pl a ne e l e c t rom a g ne t ic s h e e t m ov i ng
p e rp e ndic u l a rly t o i t s e l f a t s p e e d c a t o ne p oi nt of which ,

i s t he m o vi n g ch a rg e fr o m whic h t he di s pl a c e m e n t d iv e rg e s
,

u ni fo rm ly i n t h e s h ee t fo ll o w i n g t h e re fo r e t h e la w o f t he
, , ,

i n v e rs e firs t p o we r ( i ns t e a d of t he o rigi na l i n v e rs e s q u a re ) a o ,

c om p a ni e d by a di s t rib u t i on of i ndu c t i on i n circl e s rou nd t he

a xi s o f m ot i o n v a ryi n g i n d e n s i t y wi t h t he di s t a n c e a cc o rdi ng
,

t o t he s a m e la w a nd c onn e c t e d wi t h t he di s pl a c e m e nt by t he
,
 OU TLI NE OF ELEC TROMAGNE T I C CONNECT I ONS . 57

B which i t h
,
s en o f i ns e ns ibl e c u rva t u re .

S u d d e n S t op p a g e of C ha rg e . P l a ne S he e t m ov es on .

H vi g t h
a n us r d t he r a di a l i so t ropic di s pla c e m e nt
t u ne
s t a t i o n a ry ch a rg e i nt o a t ra v e lli ng p la n e d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
‘

s u dd e nly r e d u c e t h e ch a rge t o r e s t We .

FI G 2. .

som e t im e ha s l psed
e a ,
t he fo m e r r i s ot ropic d is t rib u t i on

Fi g 2 b e t he
. p os i t i on of t he ch a rge at t h e m o m e nt

n t he
 8 ELEC TRO MAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

e el c t ro m a g n e t i c sh e e t No w t h e a ct u a l s t a t e o f t hi ng s i s
.
,

d e s cri be d by s a yi ng t h a t
The pl a n e s h e e t D OE m o v e s o n q u i t e u n a l t e re d ,

e x c e t a t i t s c o r e C w h e r e t h e ch a rg e h a s b e e n t a k e n o u t
p , .

The s t a t i o n a ry ra di a l di s pl a c e m e nt o f t he c h a rg e i n i t s
n e w p o s i t i o n a t B i s f u lly e s t a bli s h e d wi t hi n t he s ph e r e wi t h ,

ou t a n
y i n d u c t i on .

Th e i n t e rn a l di s pl a c e m e n t j o in s i t s e l f on t o t he e x t e rna l
i n t he pl a n e s h e e t o v e r t h e s ph e ric a l s u r fa c e by l ea ki n g i n t o
, ,

i t a n d t h e n foll o wi ng t he s h o rt es t r o u t e t o t he p o l e C Th a t i s .
,

t he t a ng e n t i a l di s pl a c e m e n t foll o w s t he li n es o f l on gi t u d e .

Th e i n d u c t i o n i n t h e s ph e ric a l s h e e t i s Opp os i t e ly
dire c t e d t o b e fo r e s t ill ho w e v e r fo ll o wi ng t he lin e s o f l a t it u d e
, , , ,

a n d b e i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h t he t a n g e nt i a l di s pl a c e m e n t by t h e

fo rm e r r e l a t i o ns .

I n t i m e t h e r e fo r e t h e pl a n e s h e e t a n d t he Sph e ric a l s h e e t go
, ,

o u t t o i nfi n i t y a n d t h e r e i s l e ft b e hi n d s i m p l y t he r a di a l d i s
,

pl a c e m e nt o f t h e s t a t i n a ry ch a rg e o .

M e d i u m m ov e d i ns t e a d of Ch ar g e . Or b ot h mov e d
wi t h s ame Rl e ativ e Ve l o c i t y .

56 . No w r e t u rn
,
c a s e o f § 5 4 a nd re fe rri n g t o Fi g
t o the ,
.

s u pp os e i t t o b e t h e ch a rg e t h a t i s k e p t a t r e s t whil s t t he ,

m e di u m i s m a d e t o m o v e b odily p a s t i t fr o m righ t t o l e ft a t .

sp e ed s o t h a t t h e r e l a t iv e m o t i o n i s t he s a m e a s b e fo r e We .

m u s t n o w s u pp o s e B t o b e a t r e s t t h e ch a rg e b e i ng t h e r e o rigi
,

n a lly ,
a n d r e m a i n i ng t h e r e whils t i t i s A t h a t i s t ra v elli ng
,

fr o m righ t t o l e ft a n d t h e s ph e ric a l s u rfa c e h a s a m o t i o n c om

,

p o u n d e d o f e x p a n s i on from t he c e nt re A a nd t ra ns l a t i o n wi t h
it, A t t e n di n g t o t hi s t he fo rm e r d e s crip t i o n a ppli e s e x a c t ly
,
.

Th e e x t e r na l di s pl a c e m e n t i s c on t i nu o u s ly a l t e ri n g a n d t h e r e ,

i s e l e c t ric c u rr e n t t o c o rr e s p o nd bu t t h e r e i s n o m a g n e t i c
,

forc e ( e x c e p t i n t he s ph e ric a l s h e e t ) a nd t hi s i s a s b e fo r e s a id
, , ,

a cc o u n t e d fo r by t he m o t i o n a l m a g n e t ic fo rc e .

The fi n a l r e s u l t i s n o w a s t a t i on a ry pl a n e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c “

s h e e t as i n fa c t d e s crib e d b e fo r e i n § 4 5 wh e r e w e c o n s id e r e d
, , , ,

t he di s pla c e m e n t a n d i n d u c t i o n i n t he s h e e t t o b e k e p t u p
s t e a dily by e l e c t ric a n d m a g ne t ic fo rc e s i m pr e s s e d by t he

m ot io n
60 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

int e rn a l di s pl a c e m e nt i s t o be a b oli s h e d Tha t i s t o s a y i n

.
,

Fi g 3 t he di s pl a c e m e nt c o n v e rg e s u n i fo r ml y t o F i n t he pl a n e
.

s h ee t t h e r e t h e n fl o ws w i th o u t l e a k a g e t o t he o pp o s i t e p o l e C
,

al on g t he li n e s o f l ongi t u d e a n d t h e r e div e rg es u n i fo rm ly i n
,

t he o t h e r pl a ne s h e et E a ch di s pl a c e m ent s h e e t ha s i ts co rre
.

s p o nd i ng c o i ncid e n t i nd u c t i on a cc o rdi n g t o t h e fo r m e r fo r m u l ae
,
.

Th e y all m o v e ou t t o i nfi ni ty l e a vin g n othing b e hin d a s t he re

, ,

i s no sou rc e l e ft .

FI G 6 . .

S p h eri c al S h e e t w i t h ou t Pl
A p p end a g e s p r od u c e d by
a ne

s u d den j e rk i ng a p art o f Op p os i t e C ha r g es .

§ 58 . S i m il a rly , le t t h e r e b e
p a ir o f c o in c i d ent or i nfi n i te ly
a

cl o se o pp os i t e ch a rge s wi t h n o di s pl a c e m e nt a n d le t t h e m be
, ,

s u dd e nl y j e rk e d a p a rt e a ch m o v i n g a t t he s p ee d o f pro p a g a
,

t i o n of di s t u rb a n c e s The r e s ul t is s i m ply a s i ngl e s ph e ric a l

.

w a ve wi t ho u t pl a ne a pp e nd a g e s a n d wi t h ou t l e a k a g e of t he
, ,

di s pl a c e m ent The ch a rg e s a re a t opp o s i t e p ol e s a t t he e nd s

.
,

o f th e a xi s o f m o t i on a nd t h e di s pl a c e m e n t j u s t fl o w s o v e r t he
,
 OU TLI NE OF ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C C ONNEC TI ONS . 61

to t he ot he r s y mm e t ric a lly . Th e r e i s t he

Fi g 3 . l
a so s h o w s t hi s ca s e ,
i f we l e a v e ou t t he pl a n e s h e e ts a nd ‘

A ft e r a s u fli c i e n t i
h a v e pra ct ic a lly t wo wid e ly s e p a
t m e , we
r a t e d pl a ne e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic s h e e t s a l th o u gh t h e y a re re a lly
,

p ort i on s of a l a rg e Sphe ric a l s h e e t .

N o w i m a gi n e t he m o t i on o f t h e t wo ch a rg es t o be r e v e rs e d
,

if w e s im u l t a n e o u s ly r e ve rs e t h e i n d u c t i on i n t he s ph e ri c a l
Sh e e t wi t h o u t a lt e ri ng t he di s pl a c e me nt i t will s t ill be an
, ,
.

e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic s h e e t bu t will c o nt r a c t i ns t ea d o f e xpa n di ng
, .

'
I t will go o n c ont ra ct in g t o n o thi n g wh en t h e ch a r ges m ee t . .

I f t h e y a r e t h e n s t o pp e d n ot h in g m o re h a pp e ns B u t if t he .

ch a rg e s c a n s e p a ra t e a g a i n t he res u l t 1 8 a n e xp a nding s ph e ric a l

,
.

e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic s h e e t a s be fo r e .

C o ll i s i on of Equa l C ha rge s of sa me N a me
‘
.

§ 59 . I f, i n t h e c ocas e
llidi n g pl a n e s h e e t s wi t h ch a rg e s
of ,

§ 5 7,
t h e y b e o f t he s a m e name t h e n o n m e e t i n g
, i t i s t he , ,

i nd u c t i on t h a t v a n i s h e s whil s t t he di s pl a c e m e nt i s d o u bl e d
, .

Th a t i s we h a ve m o m en t a rily a pl a n e s h e e t of di s pl a c e m e nt
,
.

I f t he ch a rg e s be k e p t t og e t h e r t h e re a fte r t hi s pl a n e ,

s h e e t s pli t s i n to t wo pl a n e e l e c t r om a g ne t ic s hde t s j o i n e d by

a s ph e ric a l s h e e t A t t h e c e nt r e o f t he l a s t i s t he ( d o u bl e d)
.
.

ch a rge 2p which s e nds i t s dis pl a c e m e nt i s ot ropic a lly t o t he

,

s u rfa c e o f t h e s ph e r e wh e r e i t i s pick e d u p a n d t u rn e d r o u n d
,

t o w a rd s on e p ol e o r t he o t h e r The e q u a t o r o f t he s ph e r e i s t he
.

li ne of divi s i on o f t he opp os i t ely fl owi ng di s pl a c e m e nt s The .

di s pl a c e m ent ge t s gre a t e r a n d gre a t e r as t he p ol e s a re ne a re d ,

t he t o t a l a m o u n t r e a chi n g e a ch p ol e b e i n g p ( h a l f t he c e n t ra l
ch a rg e ) which t h e n div e rge s i n t he p la n e s h e e t t ou chi ng t he p ol e
,
.
 62 ELE CTROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

p oi nt ch a rge e x p a nd s i n a circ u l a r ri ng u p on t he c o nd u c t i ng
-
,

p l a n e,
t hi s ri n g b e i n g t h e e q u a t o r o f t h e
( c o m pl e t e ) s ph e r e .

T hi s c a s e i n fa ct m e re ly a m o u nt s t o t a ki ng o ne h a l f o f t he
, ,
-

s ol u t i o n i n 5 8 a n d t h e n t e r m i na t i n g t h e di s pl a c e m e nt
,

n o r m a ll y u p o n a c on d u c t o r .

I n Fi g 4 A i s t h e o ri gi n a l p os i t i o n o f p o n t h e c ond u c ti ng
.
,

pl a ne C A E a n d wh e n t he ch a rg e ha s re a ch e d B t he di s pl a ce
,

m e nt t e rm in a t e s u p o n t he pl a ne i n t h e circl e D F
‘
.

FI G . 4 .

I ns t e a d of a pl an e c on d u c t i ng b ou n d a ry we m a y s i m il a rly
,

h a v e c on ic a l b ou nd a ri es i nt e rna l a n d e xt e rn a l ( o r o n e c o nic a l
,

b o u n da ry a l one ) wi t h p or t i on s o f p erfe c t s ph e ric a l w a v e s r u n

,

n i n g a l o n g t h e m a t t he s p e e d c .

I f t h e t wo c on ic a l b ou nd a ri e s h a v e n e a rl y t he s a m e a n gl e ,

a n d t hi s a n gl e b e s m a ll w e h a v e a s o r t o f c o n c e n t r i c c a bl e
,

( i nn e r a n d o u t e r c o n d u c t o r wi t h di e l e c t r i c b e t w e e n ) o f c o n
,

ti nu o u s ly i ncr e as i n g t hick n e s s The c a s e o f u n i fo rm t hick n e s

.
s

i s in cl u d e d a s a n e x t r e m e c a s e ; t he ( p o r t i on o f t h e ) s ph e ric a l
w a v e t he n b e c o m e s a pl a n e w a ve .
 OU TLI NE OF ELE C TROMAGNE TIC CONNEC T I ONS
'

. 63

S h e et .

§ 6fl . The r of
nat u e a s ph e r i c a l e l e c t r o m a g ne t i c s he e t

e x p a n di n g o r c o n t r a c t i ng a t s p e e d wh e n i t i s ch a rg e d i n
a n a rbi t r a ry m a n n e r m ay a l s o b e r e a dily s e e n by t h e fo r e g o i n g
. ,
.

be en li t a ry p o i nt ch arg e or e l s e a p a ir a t o pp os it e p ol e s
a so -
,
.

No w t h e g e n e ra l c a s e o f a n a rb i t ra ry d i s tr ib u t i o n o f e le c t i fi
,
r

c a t i on c a n be foll o we d u p from t h e c a s e o f a p a i r o i '

c h a rg e s n ot at o pp os i t e e nds of a d i a m e t e r a n d e a ch ,

of t h es e m ay b e t a k en by i t s el f by m e a n s o f a n o pp os i t e
c h a rg e a t t he c e n t r e o r e x t e r n a lly s o t h a t i n t e gr a t i o n d oe s
,

t he r e s t O f t h e w ork Whe n t h e r e i s a p a i r o f e qu a l ch a rg e s
.

o f Opp os i t e s ig n w e d o n o t n e e d a ny e x t e r n a l o r i nt e rn a l

c ompl e m e nt a ry e l e c t rific a t i on bu t w e m a y m a k e u s e o f t h e m
,

a rg u m e n t a t iv e ly 3 or w e m a y l e t
*
o ne ch a rg e l e a k o u t wa rd ’

t he o t h e r i n wa rd a n d h a v e t h e e x t e r n a l a nd i n t e r n a l e l ec
‘

t ri fic a t i on i n r e a l it y The l e a k a g e s h o u ld b e of t h e i s o t r o p i c
.

ch a ra c t e r a l w a y s B u t t h e i nt e r n al e l e c t rific a t i on n e e d not be
.

a t t h e c e n t r a l p o i nt I t m a y b e u n ifo r m ly di s t ri b u t e d u p on a
.

c on c e n t r i c S p h e r e Th i s a g a i n m ay be s t a t i ona ry or i t m a y
.
, , ,

i t s el f b e i n m o t i o n e x p a n d i n g o r c o n t ra c t i n g a t t h e s p e e d c
, .

The e x t e rn a l e l e c t rific a t i on t o o m a y b e o n a c o n c e n t r i c
, ,

s ph e ric a l s u r fa c e which m a y be i n s i m il a r m o t i on The

, .

s h e e t s t o o m a y be o f fi ni t e d e p t h a n d a rb i t r a rily e l e c t rifi e d
, , , ,

s o t h at w e h a v e a ny v ol u m e di s t ri bu t i on o f e l e c t rific a t i on
-

m ovi n g i n s p a c e i n ra d i a l li ne s t o o r fr o m a c e nt re a c com ,

a ni e d by e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic di s t u r b a n c e s a rr a n g e d i n s ph e ric a l
‘

of t hi s ch a r a c te r , t h e n a t u re
‘

of wh os e l i
s o u t on s c an be re a dily
64 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C THEOR Y . CH . II .

O nly wh en t he t ot a l cha rg e on t he s ph e ric a l s h e et i s z e ro c a n

we di s p e nse wi t h t h e s e e x t e rna l a ids ( which t o u s e d e p e n di ng
u p on t he c on di t i o ns o f t h e pr obl e m ; t h e n t he di s pl a c e m e nt
)
has s o u rc e s a nd s i nk s o n t he s h e e t which b a l a n c e o n e a no t h e r .

The c o rr e s p on di ng i n d u c t i on i s a lwa ys p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he

res u l t a nt t an ge nt i a l di s pl a c e m e nt a nd i s gi v e n by t he a b o ve ,

fo rm u l a o r B o = q ,
D O wh e r e D O is t h e t a ng e n t i a l di s pl a c e
, .

m e n t i n t h e s h e e t ( v o l u m e d e ns i t y x d e p t h ) .

O ne c as e w e m ay n ot ic e If t he d e ns i t y o f e l e c t rific a t i o n be
.

u n i fo r m o v e r t h e s u rfa c e t h e r e i s n o i nd u c t i on a t a ll
, Tha t i s .
,

i t i s n o t a n e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic s h e e t bu t o nly a s h e e t o f e le c tr ifi ,

ca t i o n w i th o u t t a ng e nt i a l dis pl a c em e nt a nd t h e re fo re wi t hou t
, ,

i nd u c t i o n .

S o wi t h a c o nd e nse r c o ns i s t i ng o f a p a ir of c on c e ntr ic s h e ll s
,

u ni fo rm ly e l e c t rifi e d e i t h e r o r b o t h m a y e x p a n d o r c o n t ra c t
,

wi thou t m a gn e t ic fo rc e Thi s is h o w e v e r not p e c u li a r t o t he

.
, ,

c a s e O f m ot i o n a t s p e e d c A ny s p e e d will d o B u t i n g e ne ra l
'
. .
,

if t he s p ee d be n o t e x a c t ly 12 t h e r e r e s u l t di ff u s e d di s t u rb ,

a nc e s The e l e c tr om a gne t ic w a v e s a re n o l onge r o f t he s am e

.

p u r e t yp e .

G e ne r a l R em a rk s of t h e C i r cu i t a l L a w s . A mp ere
’
s R ul e

for d e r i v i ng M a gnet i c Forc e

t he fr om t he C u rr ent .

R a t i ona l C urr e nt e l e me nt -
.

§ 62 . l a w
The t wo s o f c i rc u i t a t i o n did no t s ta r t i nt o fu ll

a c t i v i t y a ll a t o n c e O n t he c o n t ra ry a l t h ou gh t h e y e x pres s
.
,

t he fu nd a m e nt a l e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic pri ncipl e s c on c e rn e d i n t he
m os t c o nci s e and cl e a r m a n n e r i t was c om p a ra t iv ely l a t e i n ,

t he hi s t o ry of el e c t r o m a g ne t i s m t h a t t h ey b e c a m e cl e a rly r e
c ogn ise d a nd explici t ly fo rm u l ari s e d W e h a v e not h e r e ho w .
,

e v e r t o d o t he w o rk o f t he e l e c t ric a l T o d hu nt e r b u t o nly t o
, ,

not ic e a fe w p o i nt s o f i n t e r es t .

The firs t la w h a d i t s firs t b e gi nn i n gs i n t he di s c o v e ry of

O ers t e d t h a t t he e l e c t ric c o nflic t a c t e d i n a r e v olvi ng m a nne r
’

.
,

a n d i n t he al m o s t s i m u l t a ne o us r e ma rk a bl e i n v es t ig a t i o ns o f

A m per e I t did n o t h o we v e r r e c e i v e t he a b o v e u s e d fo rm o f
.
, ,

e x pr e s s i o n In fa c t i n t he l o ng s e r ies of i nv e s t ig a t i ons i n
.
,

e l e c t r o dy na m ic s t o which O e rs t e d s di s c o v e ry a nd t he w o rk o f
’
-
,

A mp er e H e nry a nd Fa r a d a y g a v e ri s e i t wa s c u s to m a ry t o
, , , ,

c ons id er an el e m ent of a c ond u c ti on c u rre nt a s g e ne ra t i ng a

 NE or ELECT ROMAGNE TI C CON NEC TI ON S . 65

m a g ne t ic fo rc e . N a tu ra l as t hi s c ou rs e m ay
wa s a n u nf o r t u na t e on e for i t
,
l e ft t he qu es t i on
of t he c u rr e nt o p e n ; a nd i t is qu i t e e a sy t o s e e

cl ose d c u rre nt s a re c on c e rned In a m e di u m o f ,

ivi t y t his wa y of re g a rdi ng t he rel a t i on b e t w e e n

,

su i ta bl e t o t he circ u m st a n c e s s t a t e d .

I f G i s t he d e ns i t y o f c on du c t i o n c u rr en t at an
y pl a c e ,
t he

of H t hu s foll o w s t he la wi nv e rs e s qu ar e
of t he
c e a l o n g a ny ra di u s v e c t o r pr o c e e di n g fro m t h e

nt ; b u t i n p as s i n g fro m o ne r a di u s v e c t or t o
,

ncli n a t i o n t o t h e a xi s o f t he

c u rrent by m e a ns o f t he fa c t or s in 6 ( wh e r e 6 i s t he a ng le

t he c u rre nt el e m e nt or t he li ne s of H a re circl es a b ou t t hi s a xi s
-

, .

B u t fr om t he M a xw e lli a n p o i nt o f vi e w t hi s fi e ld o f H i s th a t

cu rre nt , of whic h t he c u rr ent e l e m ent

-
m e nt i on e d i s on ly a.

cu rre nt e l e m ent s t he e x t e rna l p OI ion of t he

-

by m u t u a l c a nc elli ng a nd t h e re i s l e ft only
,

fo r m u l a ( )
1 t o c a lc u l a t e
66 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

M a xw ell r e s u l t will n ot b e t he r e a l m ag ne t ic forc e

. B u t t he
u nl es s t he d i s t rib u t i o n o f i nd u c t i v i t y i s u n i fo r m Wh en , . 1.

va ri e s we m ay re ga rd t he m a gn e t ic forc e o f t he c u rr e nt t hu s
,

Ob t a ine d a s a n i m pre s s e d m a g ne t ic forc e a n d t h e n c a lcu l a t e ,

wh a t i nd u ct i on i t s e ts u p i n t he fi eld o f v a ry i ng i ndu c t ivi t y .

T hi s m a y b e re g a rd e d a s a n i nd e p e nd e nt probl e m .

I n p a s s i n g w e m a y r e m a rk t h a t we c a n m o u nt fr om m a g n e t ic
,

cu rrent t o e l e c t ric fo rc e by a for m u l a pre ci s ely s i m il a r t o

bu t s u bj e ct t o s i m il a r r e s e rv a t i ons .

Fe a t u r e M a xw e ll s S y s t em A dvi ce t o
’
Th e C ar di na l of

a nt i -
M a xw e lli a ns .

§ 63 . B u t t hi s m e t h o d of m o u nt i ng fr om
c u rrent t o m a g ne t ic
forc e ( or e q u iv a l e n t m e t h o d s e m pl oyi n g p o t e n t i a l s ) i s q u it e
u ns u i t a bl e t o t h e t r e a t m e nt o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic w a v e s a n d i s ,

t h e n u s u a lly o f a q u i t e u n pr a c t ic a l n a t u r e B es id es t h a t t he
.
,

f u n c t i on e l e c t ric c u rr e n t i s t h e n o ft e n a q u i t e s u b s idi a ry
“ ”

a nd u n i m p or t an t q u a n t it y I t i s t he t wo fl u x e s i n d u c t i o n a n d
.
,

d i s pl a c e m e nt ( o r e q u iv a l e nt l y t he t wo fo rc es t o c orr e s p on d ) ,

t h a t a r e i m p or t a nt a n d s ig n ific a nt ; a n d if w e wi s h t o k n o w t h e
e l e c t ric c u rr e nt h c h m b e q u i t e a u s e l e s s pi e c e o f i nfo r m a
( w i a
y
t io n
) w e m a
y d e riv e i t r e a dil
y f r o m t h e m a g n e t ic fo rc e by

di ffe r e nt i a t i on t h e s i mplici t y o f t h e pr o c e s s b e i ng i n s t r iki n g

c o n t r a s t t o t h a t O f t h e i n t e gr a t i o n s by which w e m a y m o u nt

fro m c u rre nt t o m a g ne t ic fo rc e .

To e x e m pli fy c on s i d e r t he ill u s t ra t i o ns o f pl a ne a n d
,

s ph e ric a l e l e c tr o m a g n e t ic w a v e s o f t h e s i mpl e s t t yp e giv e n i n

5 3 t o 6 1 a nd o b s e r v e t h a t whil s t t h e r e s u l t s a re r a t i on a lly
,

a n d s i m ply d es crib a bl e i n t e r m s o f t he fl u x e s o r fo rc e s e t t o
y ,

d e s crib e i n t e rm s o f el e ct ri c c u rre nt ( a nd d e riv e t he r e s t fr o m

i t ) w o u ld i nt ro d u c e s u ch c om pl i c a t i ons a n d ob s c u ri t i e s a s w o u ld
t e n d t o a ny t hi n g b u t i nt e ll i gibili t y .

No w M a xw e ll m a d e t h e firs t la w o f c ir c u it a t i on ( not ho w
"

, ,

e v e r i n i t s c o m pl e t e fo r m pr a c t ic a lly t h e d e fi n i t i o n o f e l e c t ric
, )
c u rre nt Thi s i nv olv e s v e r y i m p or t a n t a n d fa r r e a chi ng c on
.
-

s e q u e nc e s Tha t i t m a k e s t h e e l e c t ric c u rr e nt a lw a y s c irc u it a l

.

a t o nc e do e s a wa wi t h h t f i n d e t e r m i n a t e a nd highly
y a o s o

s p e c u l a t iv e pr obl e m s r e l a t i ng t o s u pp os i t i t i o u s u n cl os e d c u r

re nt s I t a l so n e c es s i t a t es t he e x i st enc e o f e l e c t ric c u rre nt i n

.

p e r fe c t n o n c on d u c t o r s o r i n s u l a t o r s
-
Thi s ha s a lwa y s b ee n a
.
68 ELE C T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

m agne t i s a t i on Thi s s o m e wha t s i m plifi es t he m a t h e m at ic s

.
,

a n d pl a c e s t he e s s e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s m o re cl e a rly b e fo re t he e e
y .

C onne c t e d wi t h t hi s i s a di ffe re nt rec k on i n g o f t he e ne rgy o f a n

i nt ri ns ic m a g ne t i n o rd e r t o ge t c ons is t e nt re s u l t s
, .

The s e c o n d ch a n g e which i s not m e re ly one of a fo r m a l

,

ch a ra c te r bu t i s a n e x te ns i on of a n obli ga t o ry chara c t e r i s t he
, ,

i nt ro d u c t i on of t he h t erm t o r e pres ent t he m o t i ona l ma gne t ic

fo rc e . I n g e n e ra l pr obl e m s r e l a t i n g t o e l e c t ro m a g ne t i c w a v es
i t i s e q u a lly i m p o rt a nt wi t h t he m o t i o na l e l e c t ric fo rc e .

The t hird ch a n g e i s t he i nt ro d u c t i on ( fi rs t d one I t hi nk by , ,

P r o f F i t zg e r a ld ) o f t h e t e r m t o e xplici t ly re pr e s e nt t he c o n
.

v ec t i on c u rr e n t or e l e c t rific a t i o n i n m o t i o n a s a p a rt o f t h e t r u e
~

c u rre nt A l t h o u gh Ma x we ll did not hi msel f e xplici t ly r e p r e

.

s e n t t hi s which w as a r e m a rk a bl e o v e rs igh t he was s t ron gly

, ,

i ns i s t e nt u p on t he circ u i t a l nat u re of e l e c t ric c u rr ent a nd ,

w ou ld d ou btl e s s h a v e s e en t he o ve rs ight t he m o m e nt i t wa s
s u gg e s t e d t o hi m No w t h e re a r e s p o ts o n t he s u n a n d I s ee
.
, ,

no g o o d r e a s o n why t he m a ny fa u lt s i n M a x w e ll s t r e a t i s e
’

s h o u ld b e ig no r e d I t i s m os t o bj e c t i ona bl e t o s t e r e o t yp e t he
.

w o rk o f a gr e a t m a n a pp a r e nt ly m e r e ly b e c a u s e i t was s o gr e a t
,

a n a d v a n c e a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e gre a t r e s p e c t t h e r e by i nd u c e d
,
.

The r e m a rk a ppli es g e n e ra lly t o t he s ci e n c e o f Q u a t e rn i ons ,

for i ns t a n c e w hich if I u nd e rs t a n d righ t ly P rof T a i t w ou l d

, , , .

pre se rv e i n t he form giv e n t o i t by H a m il ton I n a pplic a t i o n .

t o Ma x w ell s t h e o ry I a m s u r e t h a t i t i s i n a m e as u r e t o t he
’
,

re c ogn i t i on of th e fa u lt s i n his t rea t i s e t ha t a cl e a re r vi e w of .

t h e t h eory i n i t s broa d e r s e ns e i s d u e .

I nt r o d u ct i on of th e S e c ond C ir c u i t al L aw .

§65 . c d
The circ u i ta l l
s e on
a w lik e t h e firs t ha d a n e xp e r i , ,

m e nt a l o rigi n o f c ou rs e a nd lik e t he fi rs t w a s l ong i n a p p roxi

, , , ,

m a t i n g t o i ts pr e s e nt fo rm — m u ch l ong e r i n fa c t t h o u gh i n a , ,

diffe re nt m a nn e r The e xp e ri m ent a l fo u nd a t i on was Fa ra d a y s

.
’

re c o gn i t i on t ha t t he volt a ge i nd u c e d i n a c on d u c t ing circ u i t

wa s c ondit i o ne d by t he v a ri a t i o n O f t he nu m b e r of li nes o f fo rce
t hrou g h i t .

B u t ra t h er r e m a rk a bly m a t h e m a t ici a ns did not p u t t hi s

‘

, ,

s t ra igh t i n t o s y m b o l s for a n e l e m e nt a ry circ u i t bu t w e nt t o ,

w ork i n a m o re r o u n da b o u t wa y a nd e xpr es s e d i t t hro u gh t he ,

m e di u m o f a n i n t e gra t i on e x t e nd e d a l on g a c on cr e t e circ u i t ;
 69

Fo r he d e v o te d t he gre a t e r p a rt of h is

wh a t w e re
whic h a r e
t im e ,
it i s e a s ily t o b e

he wro t e c o nc e rn i ng
 7O ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . I I.

c i rc u i t a li t y c u rr e nt a n d n e x t t he p ot e nt i a l m et h od s
i n t he ,

e m pl oy e d
[J J
. Th o m s on s
. .R e p o r t o n E l e c t ric a l Th e o ri e s
’ “

c ont a in s a n a cc o u nt o f m a n y A s a v e ry fu ll e x a m pl e t h a t .
,

( m os t a s t o u n di ngly c o m pl e x i n v e s t ig a t i o n o f C l a u s i u s i n t he ,

s e c o n d vol u m e o f h is M e ch an i s ch e W ar m e t he o r i e
“
m a y be ,
”

r e fe rre d t o ] B u t i f t he cri t ical re a d e r w ill l oo k t hrou gh t h e s e

.

i nv e s t iga t i ons a nd eli mi na t e t he p ot e nt i al s he w ill fin d as a

, , ,

u s e fu l r e s id u u m t h e s e c ond circ u i t a l la w 3 a n d b r i n gi ng i t
‘

, ,

i nt o f u ll vi e w will s e e t h a t m a ny o f t h es e i n v e s t ig a t i ons a r e
.
,

p u re ly a rt ificia l e l a b ora t i ons d e v oid o f phy s ic a l s ig nific a n c e , ,

g ro pi ng s a ft e r m a re s ne s t s s o t o s p e a k No w u s in g t his la w
'
’ ‘

, .
,

i n t h e i n v e s t ig a t i o ns i t will b e s e e n t o i n v o lv e m e r e ly a s a
'

, ,

m a t t e r o f t h e m a t h e m a t ic a l fi t n e s s o f t hi ng s t he u s e o f a no t h e r , ,

viz t he firs t circ u i t a l la w a n d s o t o j u s t i fy M a x w e ll i n hi s

.
, ,

d o c t ri ne o f t he c ir c u i t a li t y o f t he c u rr e nt The u s e fu l m o ra l .

t o b e d e d u c e d i s I t hi nk t h a t i n t he ch o ic e o f v a r i a bl e s t o e x
, ,

pre s s p hy s ic a l ph e n o m e na o n e s h ou ld k e e p a s cl os e a s p os s ibl e
,

t o t h o s e w i t h which w e a r e e x p e ri m e n t a lly a cq u a i n t e d a nd ,

w hich a re o f d y n a m ic a l s ig nific a n c e a n d b e o n o n e s g u ard

’
,

a g a i n s t b e i ng le d a w a y fr o m t h e s t r a igh t a n d n a rr o w p a t h i n

t he p u r s u i t o f t h e W ill o t h e wi s p
’
- o -
.

A s r e ga rd s t he t e r m s i n t he e x pr e s s i o n o f t he s e c o nd la w
which s t a n d fo r u nk no wn prop e rt i e s t h e y m a y b e re g a rde d ,

m e r e l y a s m a t h e m a t ic a l e x t e ns i ons which by s y mm e t rizi n g t he ,

e qu a t i o n s r e nd e r t h e c o rr e c t e l e c t ric a n d m a g ne t ic a n a l o gi e s
,

pl a i n e r a n d s o m e t i m e s a s s i s t worki ng o u t B u t s om e o t h e r
,
.

e x t e n s i on s o f m e a n i n g y e t t o b e c o n s id e r e d h a v e a m o r e s u b ;
, ,

s t a nt i a l fo u n d a t i on .

M ea ni ng of Tru e C u rr e nt . C ri t e ri on .

h
One e e x t e ns i o n s r e fe rs t o t he m e a n i n g t o b e
of
§ 66 . e s t

a t t a ch e d t o t h e t e r m c u rr e nt e l e c t ric or m a g n e t ic r e s p e c t iv e ly
, .

A s we h a v e s e e n e le c t ric c u rre nt wh i ch w a s origi n a lly c ondu c

, .
,
»

t i o n c u rr e nt o n ly h a d a s e c on d p a r t t he dis pl a c e m e nt c u rr e n t
, , ,

a dd e d t o i t by M a x we l l t o pro du c e a circ u i t a l flu x ; a nd f u rt h e r
, ,

wh e n t h e re i s e l ec t rifica t i on i n m ot i on we m u st w orki ng t o t he , ,

s a m e e n d a dd a t hird t e rm t he c o n v e c t i o n c u rr e nt t o preserv e
, , ,

c i r c u i t a li t y .

A fou r t h t e r m m a y n o w be a dd e d t o m a k e ru e
“ ”
u
p t h e t
c u rre n t, wh en t he m e di u m s u pp or t i ng t he fl u x es is i n m o t i on .
 OU T LI NE OF ELE CT ROMAGNE TI C CONNEC T I ONS . 71

ot h e r i ntri ns ic fo rc e s t h a t go w i t h t h e m i n t h e t wo
v o l t a ic t h e r m o e l e c t ric & c 3 9 ) 3 d e n ot i ng t h e
a ws
( ,
-
, .
,

e a nd h a n d t h e l a t t e r by 9 0 a n d h o
,
The t w o .

a nd
8 o f c ir c u i t a t i on ( )
1 3 3 8, ( )
7 n ow

c u r1 .

( H —
n, ( )
1

— c u rl ( E — eO — e )
No w t ra n s fe r t he e a nd h t e r m s t o t he r l g ht s id e , pr o d u c ing
( l)
.

c u rl H ho) = J0 C
— c u rl ( E — eo )
w h e re j a nd g a re t he au x il i ri a es b e fo r e u s e d, g l v en by
j =
,
11 , g c u rl e .

I t i s t he new v e c t o rs Jo a nd G0 w hich s ho u ld be re g a rd e d as

u x i li a r i e s j a nd h e m s e lv e s circ u i tal v e c t ors

g a re t ,

fi rs t s igh t a pp e a r t o be a ny r e a s on for fu r th e r
m e a n i n g o f t r u e c u r re nt wh e n s e p a r a t e d i nt o
fo r t he c u rr e n t J i s circ u i t a l a n d s o i s J0,
“

e t h e s a m e a s J wh e n t h e m e di u m i s s t a t i o n ,

c u rre nt a s a f u nc t i on of
i ng t he
t he m a g ne t ic fo rc e t he e x t e nd e d m e a n i ng o f t r u e c u rre nt i s n et
,

8 a S i m plific a t i o n Fo r w h e r e a s .

e d e d u c t fr o m t he fo rc e I: o f t h e flu x
on
( )
2 w
i n t ri n s ic forc e s o bu t a l s o t he m o t i ona l forc e 6 ~

e ffe c t iv e fo rc e wh os e c u rl m e a s u r es t he c u rr e n t ;

r e, fro m t h e s ou rc es of e ne rgy w hi a re i nd e

t he fo rc e of t h e fl u x, which spe cifi e s t he l c

e e

e m e di u m ,
72 ELEC T ROMAG NE T I C T HEORY . CH . II .

t ric c u rrent a l t h ou gh t h e re i s no m a gn et ic forc e B u t a cco rd

,
.

ing t o t he o t h e r wa y t h e re i s no t r u e c u rre nt a nd t he a bs en c e ,

of m a gn e t ic fo rc e i m pli e s t he a b s e nc e o f t ru e e l e c t ric c u r r e nt .

B u t s t ill t hi s qu es t i on r e m a i ns s o far s om e wh a t o f a c on
, ,

v e nt i o n al o ne I s t h e re a ny t e s t t o b e a ppli e d which s h a ll
.

e ffe c t u a lly di s cri m in a t e b e t w e e n J a nd J0 as t he t r u e c u rr e nt 2

Th e re wou ld a ppe a r t o be one a nd o nly one v iz t h a t e 0 b e i ng .

,

a n i n t ri ns ic fo rc e i t s a c t ivi t y wh a t e v e r i t b e s a y e oz
, ,
e xpr e s s e s , ,

t he ra te o f c o mm u nic a t i on o f e ne rgy t o t he e l e c t ro m a gne t ic

s y s t e m fr om a s o u rc e no t i ncl u d e d t h e r e i n a n d n o t c on ne c t e d ,

w i t h t he m ot i ona l fo rc e e Wh e n t he m e di u m i s s t a t i ona ry x
.

is J a nd t he q u e s t i o n i s i s x t o be J or J0 ( o r a ny t hi n g e l se )
, ,

wh en t he m e diu m m o v e s ?
No w t hi s q u es t i on ca n o nly be a ns w e re d by ma ki n g i t a p a rt
o f a m u ch l a rg e r a n d m o r e i m p o rt a n t o n e t h a t i s t o s a y by a ,

c om pre h e ns i v e e x a m i na t i on o f a ll t he fl u x e s o f e n e rgy c o n c e rn e d

i n t he e qu a t i ons or a n d t h e ir m u t u a l b a rm o

n i s a t i on Thi s b e i n g d on e t he re s u l t i s t ha t e OJ0 i s t he a c t i v it y
.
,

of c so t h a t i t i s J t h a t i s t he m e a s u re o f t he t ru e c u rre nt
o , 0 ,

wi t h t he s i mpl e r re l a t i on t o t he fo rc e o f t h e flu x ; a nd i t is
na t u ra lly s u gg est e d t h a t i n c as e o f fu r t h e r p os s ibl e e x t e ns i ons ,

we s h ou ld foll o w i n t he s a m e t ra ck a n d c ons id e r t he t r u e c u r ,

r e nt t o be a lw a y s t he c u rl o f i d p d ly
( H h o) n e e n e n t o
-
f t h,e

ma k e u p o f i t s c o m p on e nt p a r t s .

Thi s i s not t he pl a c e for a fu ll i n v e s t iga t i on of t hi s c om ple x

qu e s t i on bu t t he m a i n s t e p s c a n b e giv e n ; n ot for t he e xhibi
,
‘

t i on o f t he m a t h e m a t ic a l w o rki ng which m a y e i t h e r be t a k e n
,

for gra nt e d o r fill e d i n by t h os e wh o c an d o i t bu t e s p e ci a lly

, ,

wi t h a v i e w t o t he u n d e rs ta ndi ng i n a broa d m a nn e r o f t he
c ou rs e o f t he a rgu m ent Up t o t he present I h a ve u s e d t he
.

not a t i on o f v e c t o rs fo r t he c o n ci s e a n d pl a i n pres en t a t i on o f

pri ncipl e s a n d re s u l ts b u t not for wo rki ng p u rp os e s Thi s

, .

c ou rs e will be c ont i nu e d no w Ho w t o wo rk v e c t o rs m a y fo rm
.

t h e s u bj e c t o f a f u t u r e cha p t e r I t i s no t s o h a rd wh e n y ou
.

kn o w ho w t o d o i t .

The P ers i s t e nc e of Ene rgy . C ont inui t y i n Ti me a nd S p a ce

a nd Fl ux of Ene rgy .

§ 67 . The prin cipl e of t he c on s e r va t i on or p e rs i s t e nc e of

e ne rgy is c e rt a inly a s old as Ne wt on wh en v i e we d from t he
,
 OU TL I NE OF ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C CONNECT I ONS . 73

g oo d i n t he i n
.

who c o u ld n ot t e ll y o u c o rre c t ly wha t t he pri ncipl e m e a nt or ,

e ne rgy e i t h e r t o s a v e hi s li fe a l t h o u gh he m igh t t e ll y o u t h a t
, ,

So it will be wi t h t he m od e rn v i e w o f t he e t h e r as t he
t hr o u gh which e n e rgy i s b e i ng s e nt w h e n a w ir e s u p
'
 74 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

p os s e s s e d c o nt i n u i t y i n t i m e o nl y i t mi gh t go o u t o f e x i s t e nc e
,

at on e pl a c e a nd c o m e i n t o e x i s te n c e s i m u l t a ne o u s l y a t
a not h e r Thi s i s s u ffici e nt for i t s c o ns e rv a t i on Thi s vi e w
. .
,

h o we v e r d o es n ot r e c om m e n d i t s e l f The a l t e rn a t ive i s t o
, .

a s s e r t c o nt i n u i t
y o f e x i s t e n c e i n s p a c e a l s o a n d t o e n u n ci a t e ,

t he pri n c i pl e t h u s
Wh e n e n e rgy g o e s fro m pl a c e t o pl a c e i t t ra v e rs e s t he ,

i nt e r m e di a t e s p a c e .

Thi s i s s o i nt e lligibl e a nd pra c t ic a l a fo rm o f t he prin cipl e ,

t h a t w e s h ou ld d o o u r u t m o s t t o c a rry i t o u t .

The id e a t h a t e n e rgy ha s p o s i t i on t h e r e fo r e n a t u r a lly

, ,

i nv olv e s t h e id e a of a fl u x of e ne rgy L e t A be t h e v e c t o r flu x .
'

o f e n e rgy o r t h e a m o u nt t r a ns fe rr e d p e r u n i t o f t i m e e r u ni t
, p
o f a r e a n o r m a l t o t h e dir e c t i o n o f i t s t ra n s fe r ; a n d le t T be

t he d e n s i t y o f t h e e n e rgy W e m a y t h e n w ri t e
.

c on v A T , ( )
5

d iv A ( )
6

Th a t i s t he c o nv e rg e n c e of th e fl u x o f e n e rgy i s a cc o u n t e d for
,

by i n cre a s e d e n e rgy i n t he u ni t v ol u m e wh e re i t c onv e rg e s ;

o r t h e div e rg e n c e o f t he fl u x o f e n e rgy o r t he r a t e a t which
, ,

i t l e a v e s t h e u n i t v ol u m e i s a cc o m p a n i e d by s i m u l t a n e ou s a nd
,

c orre s p ondi n g de cr e a s e i n t he d e n s i t y o f t h e e ne rgy .

Exa mp l es . C onv e ct i on of Ene rgy a nd Fl u x of Ene rgy d u e

to an a ct i v e S t r e ss . G ra v i t a t i ona l d i ffic u l t y .

§ 68 . h
No w, e r e a re n u m e r o u s c a s es i n which t he fl u x of
t
e n e rgy i s p e r fe c tly pl a i n a n d o nly n e e d s t o b e p o i nt e d o u t t o
,

b e r e c og ni s e d The s i m pl e s t O f a ll i s t h e m e re c on v e c t i o n o f
.

e n e rgy by m o t i o n o f t he m a t t e r wi t h w hich i t i s a s s o ci a t e d A .

b ody i n t ra n sl a t ion a l m ot i on for i n s t a n c e c a rri e s i t s e ne rgy

, ,

wit h i t ; n ot m e re ly t he kine t ic e ne rgy of i t s t ra n sl a t i ona l

m ot i on bu t a l s o i t s r o t a t i ona l e n e rgy i f i t r ot a t e s a nd lik e
, ,

wi s e t he e n e rgy O f a ny i nt e rn a l vibra t o ry or r ot a t o ry m o t i ons

i t m a y p o ss es s a n d o t h e r e ne rgy n o t k no wn t o b e ki n e t i c
, ,

a nd t h e r e fo r e i ncl u d e d u n d e r p ot e n t i a l e n e rgy which we

'
“
,

m a y h a v e g o o d r e a so n t o l o c a l i s e i n t h e b o dy E v en . .

i f p a r t o f t h e e n e rgy be o u t s id e t he b ody y e t i f i t be , ,

as s o ci a t e d wi t h t h e b o dy i t will t ra v e l w i t h i t on t he wh ol e
, , .
 6 ELECTROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 11

i ns ta nc e a nd we k no w t h a t i t t a kes s e ve ra l m inu t e s t o com e 1

,

i t c om e s t hro u gh t he e t h e r wi t h o u t bri ngi ng t he e t h e r wi t h i t ;

,

i t i s n o t a c o nv e c t i on o f e ne rgy t h e re fore O f c o u rs e t o a vo id
,
.
,

c on fu s i o n i t i s w e ll t o di s t i ng u i s h e t h e r fr o m o rdi n a ry m a t t e r
,

by i t s s e p a ra te n a m e 3 bu t i t i s i m p o rt a nt t o not e t ha t i t ha s
s o m e o f t he ch a ra c t e ri s t ic s o f o rdi na ry m a t t e r I t n e e d n ot b e .

g ra vi ta t i ng m a t te r 3 i t is p e rh a ps m o re lik e ly t o be t he m edi u m
, ,

o f gra v i t a t i o na l a c t i on t h a n t o g ra v i ta t e i t s e l f .

I n d e fa u l t o f a bili t y t o r e prese nt t he fl u x o f gr a v i t a t i ona l

e n e rgy i t s e n t ry i nt o a b od y m u s t be o t h e rw i s e r e pr es e nt e d t h a n

by t he c onv e rg e nc e of a flu x T u rn ( 7 ) i nto .

fq c on v A l
'‘
.
( )
8

Hre e fq i s t h e c t i vi ty o f t he fo rc e f a nd i ndicat e s e ne rgy c om

a ,

m u ni c a t e d t o t he u ni t v ol u m e i n a n u ns ta t e d m a nne r g e ne ra t e d ,

w i t hi n t he u n i t v ol u m e s o t o s p e a k The fo rc e f i s t hu s a n
, .

i m pre s s e d fo rc e By t hi s d e vic e we c a n a ll o w fo r u nkno wn

.

flu x es o f e n e rgy W e s h o u ld a l s o e xplici t ly r e pr e s e nt t he
.

c o nv e c t iv e fl u x Th u s
.
,

f q c on v ( q T A ) i
'
( )
9 ‘
,

wh e re A i s t he flu x o f ene rgy ot h e r t ha n c on ve c t iv e n o t as s o ,

c ia t e d w i t h f .

Wh e n a s t re s s w o rk s for e x a m pl e we s ha ll h a ve a fl u x of
, ,

e n e rgy A
, which c a n h a rdly be c ons id e r e d t o be c on v e c t iv e i n
, ,

t he s e ns e e xpl a i ne d a flu x o f e ne rgy t hr ou gh m a t t e r o r e t h e r
, ,

a s i n w a v e pro p a g a t i o n t hrou h a n e l a s t ic s olid o r r a di a t i on

g ,

t hr o u gh t h e e t h e r W e c a n h o w e v e r s om e t i m e s r e d u c e i t t o
.
, ,

t he fo r m ( H I a nd t h e n i t w o u ld ap p ea r t o be c on v e c t i on o f
,

e n e rgy .

Thi s o cc u rs i n a m o vi ng fric t i onl e s s fl u id for e x a m pl e wh en , ,

t he s t r e s s i s a n i s ot r o pic pr e s s u r e p The fl u x o f e n e rgy o t h e r

.

t h a n c on v e c t iv e i s p q B u t wh e n w e p a s s t o a l e s s id e al c as e
.
,

a s a n e l a s t ic s o lid i n which t he s t r es s i s o f a m o r e g e n e ra l
,

cha ra c t e r t he e ne rgy flu x e xpre s s i ve o f t he a ct ivi ty o f t he

,

s t r ess t a k e s t he fo rm

( )
1 0

whe r e P i s t he v e c t o r e xpre ss i ng t he p u ll p er u n i t a rea on t he

,

pl a ne p e rp en dic u l a r t o t he v e l oci t y q I n t hi s e q u a t i on 9 is .

t he t e nso r o f q .
 77

ical q u e s t i on t h a t m a y be unde r c on

t h a t i t i s c on v e n i e n t to divid e t he

e ne rgy , a nd ki ne t ic e ne rgy a nd w a st e d
, ene rgy .

we ha ve t he foll o wi n g a s a pra c t ic a l form ,

flu x , p a rt ly c onv e c t iv e wi t h t he fa c t o r q U b e i n g t h e d e n s i t y
, ,

O f p o t e nt a l e n e rg y a n d T t ha t o f ki n e t ic e n e rgy a n d p a r t ly
i , ,

n o n c o n v e c t iv e viz
-
, A w hich m ay be d u e t o a w o rki n g s t r e s s
.
, ,
.

A l s o fq i s t he a c t ivi t y o f i m pr e s s e d fo rc e ( h e r e m e re ly a t ra ns *

la t i on a l fo rc e )
. Th u s o n t h e l e ft Sid e o f e qu a t i on ( 1 1 ) we
h a v e a s t a t e m en t of t h e s u pply o f e ne rgy t o t he u ni t v ol u m e
78 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . I I.

rra ng e d t o s h o w t he flu x o f e n e rgy a n d c a n a l wa y s b e ob t a i ne d
'

a ,

w h e n t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n a r e k n ow n a n d a l s o t h e n a t u r e o f .

t h e s t o r e d a n d w a s t e d e n e rg i es .

E l e ct r oma gnet ic A p p lica t i on

. . M e d i um at R est . Th e
P oy nt ng i Flu x .

§ 70 . No w , i n l c
t he t r o m
e ea g n e t ic c a s e t he e q u a t i‘

o n s of ,
“

m o t i o n a r e t he t wo circ u i t a l l a w s a n d t o fo r m t h e e q u a t i on,

o f a c t ivi t y w e m a y m u l t iply ( 1 ) by ( II
, ho h ) a n d ( 2 ) by — —

a nd a d d t he r e s u l t s r e l s e m u l t iply 3 by H
( E e0 e ) o
( ) ( h o)
a nd 4
( ) by ( E e 0)
a n d a d d t he r e s u l t s T h e e qu a t i o n o f a c t ivi t y
.

t h u s o bt a i n e d h a s t h e n t o b e dy na m ic a lly i nt e rpr e t e d i n a cc ord

a n c e w i t h t he pri n cipl e o f c o n t i nu i t y o f e n e rgy :

Wh e n t he m e d i u m i s s t a t i on a ry t h e r e 1 8 no di ffic u l t y wit h
,

t he i n t e rpre t a t i o n W e o bt a i n
.

w ,

wh e r e W is a ne w v e c t o r giv e n by
W = V<E — no> < )
1 3

a nd U Is l c t ric e n e rgy T t he m a g ne t ic e n e rgy a n d Q t he

t he e e , ,

w a s t e p e r u ni t v ol u m e .

O n t h e l e ft s id e o f ( 1 2 ) i s e x hibi t e d t he r a t e o f s u pply o f ‘

e n e rgy fr o m i n t ri n s ic s o u rc e s O n t he righ t s id e i t i s a cc o u nt e d
.

fo r p a r tl y by t h e w a s t e Q a n d by i n cr e a s e o f t he s t o r e d e n e rgy
,

U a nd T The r e s t i s e x hibi t e d a s t he div e rg e n c e o f t h e flu x W

.

iv e n by W e c o n cl u d e t h e r e fo r e t h a t W e x pr e s s e s t he
g , ,

fl u x o f e n e rgy i n t he e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic fi e ld w h e n i t i s s t a t i o na ry .

Thi s r e m a rk a bl e for m ul a wa s firs t di s c o v e r e d a nd i nt e rpre t e d

by P r o f P oyn t i ng [P ML Tr a ns 1 8 8 4 Pt
. . a n d i n d e p e nd e nt ly
, ,
.

by m y s el f a li tt l e l a t e r I t wa s t hi s di s c o v e ry t h a t b r o u gh t
.

t h e pri ncipl e o f c on t i nu i t y o f e n e rgy i nt o pr o m i n e n c e B u t it .

s h o ul d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h e r e is n o t hi ng p e c u li a rly e l e c t ro

m a g n e t ic a b o u t a fl u x o f e n e rgy I t i s h e re m a d e di s t i n c t
.
,

b e c a u s e t he e n e rgy i s di s t i n c t ly l o ca li s e d i n M a x we ll s t h e o ry ’
.

Th e flu x of e n e rgy t a k e s pl a c e i n t h e dir e c t i on p e rp e n dic u l a r

t o t h e pl a n e c on t a i n i ng t h e e l e c t ric a n d m a g n e t ic fo rc e s ( o f t he

fi e ld ) s a y
,

( )
1 4

E = e 0 + E1 3
‘ 0
80 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEOR Y CH
‘

. . II .

( which a r e h e r e e q u a l ) o f t he e l e c t ric a nd m a gn e t ic e n e rgi e s .

I n t hi s e x a m pl e which is a ppr o xi m a t e ly t h a t o f ra di a nt e ne rgy

,

fro m t h e s u n t h e id ea o f a flu x o f e n e rgy a nd t he c oncl u s i on

, ,

t h a t i t s pr o p e r m e a s u re i s t he d e ns i t y o f t he e ne rgy m u l t ipli e d
by t he w a v e v e lo cit y a re p e rfe c t ly pl a in a n d r eas on a bl e No w
, .
,

m a n y c a s e s o f t h e pro p a g a t i on o f w a v es a l on g wire s c a n be
r e d u c e d t o t hi s s i m ple c a s e wi t h a c orre ct ion for t he res i st a nc e
,

o f t he wir e a n d o t h e r c as e s c a n b e re pr e se n t e d by t wo o r m o re
,

o pp os i t e ly t ra v e lli ng pl a n e di s t u rb a n c e s In a v e ry c om pl e x .

e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic fi e ld t h e flu x o f e n e rgy i s n e c e s s a rily a l so v e ry
,

c om pl e x a n d h a rd t o foll o w ; bu t t he fu nd a m e nt a l principl e s
,

c on c e rn e d a r e t he s a m e t hrou gh ou t .

The flu x o f e n e rgy W a ri s e s fro m t h e i nt e rn a l s t r u c t u re of

t he e t h e r I t i s s o m e wh a t a na l og o u s t o t h e a c t ivi t y o f a s t r e s s
. .

B u t t he only dy n a m ic a l a na l o gy t h a t i s s a t i s fa c t o ry i n t hi s
r e s p e c t i s t h a t fu rn i s h e d by S i r W Tho ms on s rota t i ona l e t h e r
.
’
,

wh e n i n t e rpre t e d i n a c e rt a i n m a nne r s o t ha t 2 E s ha ll re p re ,

s en t a t o rq u e a n d H t h e v e l o ci t y o f t h e m e di u m
,
wi t h t he ,

r e s u l t t h a t ( on t hi s u nd e rs t an di ng) VEH i s t he flu x of e ne rgy ,

whil s t U i s t he p ot e nt i a l e ne rgy of t he rot a t i on a nd T t he ,

kin e t ic t ra n s l a t i o na l e n e rgy B u t i t i s v e ry d i fli c u lt t o e xte n d

.

t hi s a n a l o gy t o i ncl u d e e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic ph e no m e na m or e c o m
ee A pp e n dix a t t he e nd o f t hi s ch a p t e r
p r e h e ns i v e ly
[S .
] .

Ext ens i on t o a M ov i ng M e d i um . Pu ll i nt erp r et a t i on of

t h e Equa t i on of A ct i v i t y a nd d eri v a t i on of t h e Fl u x
of E ne rgy .

§ 71 . Pa s s i ng no w t o t he c as e of a mo v i g m di
n e u m, weh a ll s

o bt a i n fr o m e q u a t i ons
, § 6 6 , t he e q u a t i on o f a c t ivi t y ,

( e0 e
) J ( 0
h + h ) G = EJ + HG

di v V( E eo e ) ( H h0 h) .
( )
1 6

O r fr om e q u a t i on s § 6 6, w e m a y ge t t he fo rm

c oJ0 b oCr0 div V( E e 0) (H

EJO HG , ( )
1 7

a n d fr o m t h e s e a v a ri e t y O f o t h e r fo rm s m a y be d e riv e d .

The dy na m ic a l i n t e rpr e t a t i on i n a cc ord a n c e w i t h t he pri n

c i p le o f c o n t i n u i t y o f e n e rgy i s n o t s o e a s y a s i n t h e fo r m e r

ca s e . I ha v e r e c e n t ly giv e n a f ul l d is c u s s I O n of t h e s e
 W = V( E e o) ( II -
h o),

to t hi s for m wh e n a t re s t .

t he re i s t he c onv e c t iv e fl ux o f e n e rgy
( )
1 9

i s t he v e l o ci t y o f t he m e di u m .

t h e r e i s a flu x o f e ne rgy r e pre s e nt i ng t he a c t i vi t y ,

in as s o cia t i on wi t h t hi s s t re s s ,
a c on v e c t iv e

q ( U0 To) .

gi ve n by ( 1 8 ) a nd
 B u t t he kn o wn t e rm s on t he right s id e o f
un , wi t h t he
z e ro s u ffi x m a y be e nt ir e ly e li m i na t e d i ncl u di ng t h os e m X by
, , ,

m a ki ng u s e o f t he s e c o n d a ry e q u a t i on o f t ra n s l a t i o na l a c t ivi t y

m
U, 5 T, div q ( U,
Q, . .
( )
2 5

wh e re P i s t he t ra n s la t i o n a l forc e d u e t o t he s t re s s * .

Wh en t hi s i s d one e qu a t i on ( 2 4 ) t a k e s t he fo r m
,

( )
2 6

w h e re t he e ne rgy flu x r ep re s e nt e d i ncl u d e s t he P oy nt i n g fl u x ,

t he s tre s s flu x, a nd t he c on v e c t i v e fl u x of e l e c t ric a nd m a g n e t ic
e n e rgy .

W e m ay ob s e r v e t h at xpr es s i on ( 2 0) for A o cc u rs
i n t he e t he
t e rm q (U T ) s o t h a t t hi s t e rm m a y be e lim i na t e d fro m
,

m a king t he e n e rgy fl u x i n i t b e c o m e

V( E Ve H VEh .

( 27)

B u t t h es e ch a ng e s wi t h a v i e w t o t he s i m pli fic a t i on o f e x pre s
,

s i on ca u s e u s t o a l t o g e t h e r l o s e s igh t O f t he dyn a mic a l s igu i

,

fica nc e o f t he e q u a t i on o f a c t ivi t y a nd of t he s t r e s s fu nc t i o n , .

E q u a t i on ( 2 6 ) i s t h e r e fo r e t he b e s t fo rm
, ,
.

I t s h o u ld b e u n d e rs t o o d t h a t i t i s a n id e nt i t y s u bj e c t t o t he ,

t wo l a w s o f c i rc u i t a t i o n a n d t h e d is t rib u t i o n o f e n e rg y a cc o rd
i ng t o t h a t o f E a n d H i n t he fi e ld B u t i t s h o u ld be a l s o
.

m e nt i one d t h at i n t h e e s t a bli s h m e n t o f ( 2 6 ) i t ha s b e e n a s s u me d
t h a t t he m e di u m a s i t m o v e s Ca r ri e s i t s i nt ri ns ic pro p e r t i e s o f
, ,

p e rm it t ivi t y a nd i nd u c t i vi ty wi t h i t u nch a n g e d Tha t i s t h e s e .

,

prop e rt i e s d o not a l t e r for t he sa m e p o r t i on o f t he m e di u m , ,

i rr es p e c t iv e o f i t s p os i t i o n a l t h ou gh wi t hi n t h e s a m e u n it
,

v ol u m e t h e se pro p e rt i e s m a y b e ch a n gi ng by t h e e x i t o f o ne

a n d e nt ry o f a n o t h e r p a r t o f t he m e di u m o f di ffe r e nt p e r m i t

t i vi t y a nd i nd u c t ivi t y u n d e rs t a n di n g by m e di u m wh a t e v e r
”

i s s u pp o r t i n g t h e fl u x e s wh e t h e r m a t t e r a nd e t h e r t o g e t h e r o r
, ,

e t h e r a l o n e ; a nd i t i s a l s o t o b e u n d e rs t o od t h a t t he t hr e e

v e l o ci t i e s q u a nd W
, , a re id e nt ica l o r t h a t e l e c t rifica t ion , ,

which i s a lwa y s fou n d a s s oci a t e d w it h m a t t e r m o v e s w i t h t he ,

m ediu m which i s t h e n t h e m a t t e r a n d e t h e r m o vi n g t o g e t h e r
, , .

I n ot h er r e s p e c t s e q u a t i on i s u nr e s t ric t e d a s r e g a rd s e i t h e r
h om oge ne it y a n d i s ot ropy in re s p e c t t o p e r m i tt ivi ty i nd u c t ivi t y , ,

a nd c o n d u c t ivi t y ( e l e c t ric a n d fic t i t i o u s m a g n e t ic )
, .

I re
g t
ret h v moi pa en t d D
sr e B t
res e et i n f r m vi g t i n
u r o n s no
’
o o a o n s ra

H d i t n ti ly by v t iv l t i f
.

fig ure. e oe s en re co se r d m y bj t i n
a e e as c o rc e s , a n o ec o

d oe s not a p p ly ]
.
84 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 11 .

whe re Q ,
i s t he r
s t ess v ct r c nj g
e o o u ate t o P, 3 t h e s e a r e i d e nt i
c ally t he sa me wh e n t he r
s t ess is irrot a t i on a l . Thi s gi v e s
N (U H ) . ( )
2 9

fr o m which w e obt a in . PN by m e re ly e x ch gi g
an n E a nd D ,
a nd

H a nd B 3 t h u s

P, E BN. H EN N( U T) .
( 30)
T hi s i s t he s t ess r v ct r
e o for a ny pla ne d e fi ne d by N; a un it
v e t t or n o rm a l pl a ne
t o t he .

B u t i t i s o nly i n e ol o t ro pic bod i e s t h a t we h a v e t o di s t i ng u i s h

b e t we e n t he dire c t i ons of a fo rc e a nd o f t he c o rre s p o ndi ng
P u t t i ng t he s e o n o n e s id e a nd c ons id e ri n g onl y ordi
w

flu x .
,

n a ry i s o t r o py t he i nt e rpr e t a t i on i s s i m pl e e no u gh
,
I t will be .

ob s e rv e d t h a t t he e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic s t re s s ( 3 0) di v id e s i nt o a n

e l e c t ric s t re s s
E DN . N .
% ,
ED ( )
3 1
a nd a m a g ne t ic r
st es s

H BN .

( 3 2)

To find t h e ir m e a n i n g , t a k e N i n t r p r ll l to u ns a a e a nd p e rp eni
d i c u la r t o t he fo rc e E ( o r t o D i c i t dir c t i n i
, s n e s e o s t he sa m e
) .

I n t he firs t c a s e , t h e s t re s s ( )
3 1 b e c om e s
N( ED N .
§ ED N U,

i ndic a t ing a t e n s i o n p a ra ll el t o t he e l e ct ric fo rc e o f a m o u nt U

e r u ni t a r e a
p .

I n t h e s e c o n d c a s e w h e n N i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o E w e h a v e
, ,

D N 0 s o t h a t t h e s t r ess i s
,

N U,

t h a t i s a pr e s s u re o f a m ou n t U This a ppli es t o a ny dir e c t i on

,
.

p e rp e ndic u l a r t o E s o t h a t t he e l e ct ric s t re s s c ons i s ts o f a

,

t e n s i o n U p a ra ll e l t o t he e l e c t ric fo rc e c o mbi ne d wi t h a n e q u a l ,

la t e ra l pre s s u r e .

S i m il a rly t h e m a gn e t ic St res s c o ns i s t s of a t e ns i on T p a ra ll el
t o t he m a g n e t ic fo rc e c om bi n e d wi t h a n e q u a l l a t e ra l pre s s u re ;
,

I t will a l s o b e fo u n d t h a t t he t e n s o r o f t he e l e c tric s t re ss
ve c to r i s a lway s U a nd t h a t of t he m a gn e t ic s tres s vec t or is
,

a l wa y s T The foll o wi ng c on st ru c t i on ( Fi g 5 ) i s a l s o u s e fu l
. .

L e t A B C be t he pl a ne on which t he e l e c t ric s t re s s i s r e q u ire d ,

B N t he u n i t n or m a l BE t he e l e c t ric forc e B P t he s t r e s s
, , ,
.
 85

wi t h t h e m re pre s e nt s rm a l p u ll
‘

,
a nd a no on t he

i nt o a ta n g ent i a l pu ll , or a s he ari ng r
s t es s ,

FI G . 5 .

t gl e s t o N
an . Fu rt h e r i n cre a s e i n
N bri ng s B P t o t he ot h e r s id e of BC and h
w en E
 86 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . II .

is by ob s e rv a t i on of t he s e force s i n t he firs t pl a c e foll o we d by ,

t he i n d u c t i o n o f t h e l a w s t h e y o b e y a nd t h e n by d e d u ct i v e ,

w ork t h a t t he c a rvi ng o u t of s p a c e i nt o t u b e s of forc e follo ws ;

,

a nd n o w fu r t h e r ,
w e s e e t h a t t he l o c a li s a t i o n o f t h e s t o r e d
,

e n e rgi e s a cc o rdi n g t o t h e s qu a r e o f t h e e l e c t ric a n d m a gn e t ic

,

fo rc e r e s p e c t iv e ly c o m bi n e d wi t h t h e t wo circ u i t a l l a w s l e a d s
.
, ,

d e fi ni t ely t o a s t re s s e x i s t i n g i n t he el e c t ro m a gn e t ic fi eld ,

w hich i s t h e n a t u r a l c on c o m i t a nt o f t h e s t or e d e ne rgy a nd ,

which i s the i mm e di a t e c a u s e o f t h e m e cha n ic a l forc e s ob s e rv e d

i n c e rta i n c a s e s B u t t he t h e o ry o f t he s t re ss g oe s s o fa r be
.

o n d e x p e ri m e nt a l k n o wl e dg e i n s o m e r e s p e c t s a l t h o u gh a gr e e
y ,

i n g w i t h i t i n o t h e rs t ha t w e c o u ld o nl y e x p e c t i t t o b e t r u e i f
, .

t h e t h e o r e t ic a l fo u n d a t i o ns w e r e a ls o ri g i dly t r u e i n a ll r e s p e c t s .

S u ch i s n ot t he c a s e h o w e v e r ,
To b e g in wi t h t he w a y o f e x
.
,

pre s s i ng t h e a c t i on of o rdi na ry m a t t e r m e re ly by a l t e r ing t he

v a l u e s of t he t wo e t h e r c ons t a nt s a nd by a fr es h pr op e r ty , ' ,

t h a t o f c on d u c t ivi t y i s e x t r e m e ly b a ld
, I t i s i nd e e d s u rpri s
.
, ,

i ng wh a t a v a ri et y o f ph e n o m e n a i s e x pl a i ne d by s o cr u d e a
m e t h od .

Th e o bj e c t i o n i s s o m e t i m e s m a d e a g a i ns t s om e m o d e r n t h e o
r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e nt s t h a t t he y a r e c o m plic a t e d C o n s id e re d a s .

a n a rg u m e nt t h e o bj e c t i o n i s v a l u e l e ss a n d o nl y w o r t h y o f
, ,

s u p e rfici a l m i nd s Wha t e ve r d o t h e y e xp e c t ? D o t h e y n ot
.

kn o w t ha t e x p e ri m ent a l kno wl e dg e e ve n a s a t pre s e nt e x i s t e nt

, ,

s h o ws t h a t t he t h e o ry o f e l e c t r o m a g ne t i s m w hen m a tt e r i s ,

pres e nt m u s t t o be c om pre h e ns iv e be s om e thi n g fa r m ore ( i n

, , ,

s t ea d o f l e s s ) c o m plic a t e d t h a n t h e o ry as n o w d e v e l o p e d ? The

l a tt e r i s a s i t w e r e m e re ly a ro u gh s k e t ch of a m ost e l a b o
, ,

r a t e s u bj e ct only s m a ll p a r t s of which ca n be s e en a t one

,

t im e .

I n t h e n e x t pl a c e e v en i f we t a k e t he s t a t e d i n fl u e n c e of
,

m a t t e r o n t h e e t h e r as s u ffi ci e nt for t he p u rp o s es o f a r o u gh
s k e t ch t h e t h e o ry O f t he s t r e s s s h o u ld , e x c e p t i n c e r t a i n r e l a
,
.

t i v ely s i m pl e c a s e s b e r e c e i v e d wi t h m u ch c a u t i on
, Why t hi s .

s h o u ld be s o will b e a pp a r e n t on e x a m i n i ng t h e m a nn e r i n which

t he s t r e s s h a s b e e n o b t a i ne d fr om t he circ u i t a l l a ws If w e i n v e e .

t i ga t e t h e s u bj e t s ta t ic a lly a nd s t a rt i ng fr o m c e r ta i n m e cha nic al

c

, ,

forc e s r e g a rd e d a s k n o w n e nd e a v o u r t o a rriv e a t a s t res s which

,

s ha ll e x pl a i n t h os e fo rc e s w e s h a ll fin d t h a t t he pro bl e m i s e s s e n
,

t i a lly a n i n d e t e r m i na t e one A ll s ort s o f s t re s s fu nc t i ons m a y

.
88 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . II .

re gi ons , l c t ric fi e ld i s e nt ire ly co nfi ne d t o t he l a tt e r

a nd o u r e e .

The s e c on d c ondi t i o n ( 2 ) i m pli e s t a ng e n t i a l c on t i nu i t y o f E

a t t h e b ou nd ar y o f t he n o n c o n d u c t o r s o t h a t a s t h e r e i s n o E
-
,

i n t he o t h e r o r c on d u c t i n g s id e t h e r e m u s t be n o t a ng e nt i a l
,

E o n t he n o n c o nd u c t i ng s id e
-
The lin e s of forc e t h e re fo r e
.
, ,

t e rm i na t e p e rp e ndic u l a rly o n t he c o n d u c t i ng m a t te r Whe t he r .

the c ond u c to r s a re a l s o di e l e c t ric s or n o t i s q u i t e i m m a t e ri a l .

The dis pl a c e m e nt a l s o t e rm i n a t e s n o rm a lly On t h e c o n d u c t i n g

s u rfa c e i n t he u s u a l c as e o f i s o t r o py Th u s D t he t e ns o r o f D
.
, ,

m e as u res t he s u rfa c e d e ns i t y o f e l e ct rifica t i o n wh e n t he p os i t i ve ,

dire ct i on O f D i s from t he c on d u c to r t o t he i ns u l a t o r B u t i n .

ge ne ra l i t i s t he n orm a l c om p one nt o f D t ha t i s D N wh e r e , ,

N i s t he u n i t n o rm a l v e c t o r t h a t m e a s u re s t he d e ns i t y o f t he
,

e l e c t rific a t i o n B e s id e s t hi s t h e re m ay be i nt e ri or e l e c t rific a t i on
.
,

o f t he n o n c o nd u c t o r i t s v o l u m e d e n s i t y b e i ng m e a s u r e d by t he
-
,

div e rg en c e O f t he di s pl a c e m e nt The a rr a ng e m e nt o f t he
.

e l e c t ric fo rc e s o t h a t t he circ u i t a l v o l t a g e s h a ll be z e ro
,

t hr o u gh o u t t he n o n c on d u c t o r a nd giv e t he pr op e r i n t e rna l
-
,

e l e c t rific a t i o n a n d t he ch a rg e s o n t he c o n d u c t o rs i s u n iqu e ly
, ,

d e t e rm i na t e .

We ha v e t h u s t he o rdi na ry c a s e o f a n u m b e r o f ch a rge d con

d u c t ors i n a i r wi t h t he di ffe r e nc e t h a t t he a i r o r p a r t s t h e r e o f
, , ,

m a y be r e pl a c e d by m a tt e r o f di ffe r e nt p e rm i t t ivi t y It is a l so .

t o be not e d t h a t o ne non c on d u c t i ng r e gi on which i s e n t ire ly

-

se p a ra t e d fr o m a n o t h e r by c o n d u c t i n g m a t t e r m a y b e t a k e n by

i ts e l f a n d a ll t he r e s t ig nor e d
, .

No w fi rs t wit ho u t re pla cing t he a ir by m a t t e r of diffe rent

,

p e rm i t t i v i t y we s ee t ha t t h e r e ar e t wo e nt irely di ffe re nt wa y s
,

of c o n s id e ri n g t he m u t u a l a c t i o n s of t he c o nd u c t o rs The old .

wa y i s a n a l o g o u s t o N e w t o n s wa y o f e x pres s i ng t he fa c t o f
’

g r a v i t a t i o n . W e m a y s a
y t h a t a ny e l e m e nt o f e l e c t r ific a t i on
p
'
r e p el s a ny o t h e r p wi t h a fo rc e

M 4W
P
2
.

if r be t he di s t a n c e b e t we e n t he t wo cha rg e s a nd t h a t t he ,

r e s u l t a nt o f a ll s u ch fo rc e s m a ke s u p t he re a l fo rciv e .

I n t h e o t h e r w a y a ppr o pri a t e t o t he phil os o phy o f Fa ra d a y

, ,

as d e v e l o p e d by M a x w e ll t h e s e fo rc e s a c t i n g a t a di s t a n c e a re
,

m a t h e m a t ic a l a b s t ra c t i on s o nly a nd h a v e n o r e a l e xi s t e n c e
, .

'

Wh a t i s r e a l i s a s t re s s in t he e l e c t ric fi e ld o f a p e c u li a r na tur e
, ,
 O UTL I NE OF EL E C T ROMAGN E TI C CO NN ECTI ONS . 89

b e i ng a t e n s i o n o f a m o u nt U pa ra ll e l t o E c o m bi ne d w i t h a n e qu a l
,

l a t e ra l pre s s u re a nd i t i s t he a c t i on of t hi s s t r es s t ha t c a u s es
,

t h e e l e c t rifi e d c on d u c t o rs t o m o v e o r s t ra i ns t h e m a cc o rdi n g t o
, ,

t he wa y t h e y a r e s u pp ort e d wh e n by c ons t r a i nt s t h e y c a nnot

,
(

a ppr e ci a bly m o v e .

S i n c e t h e e l e ct ric fo rc e i f no rm a l t o t he c on d u c t i ng s u rfa c e s ,

t he s t r e s s v e c t o r i s e nt i re ly a n o r m a l p u ll o f a mou nt U p e r
u ni t a r e a a n d t he m o t i o n s or t e nd e nci es t o m o v e o f t he c on
,

d u ct ors a r e p e rfe ct ly a cc o u n t e d for by t hi s p u ll Th ey d o n ot .

m o v e b e ca u s e o f e l e c t ric a l fo rc e s a c t i ng a t a di s ta n ce a cro s s t he
a i r b u t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e s u bj e c t e d t o m o vi n g fo rc e o n t h e s po t
,

by t he s t r e s s t e rm in a t in g u p on t h e m .

Th u s a ch a rge d s o a p b u bbl e i s s u bj e c t e d t o a n e x t e rn al ra di al
-

t e ns i o n a n d t h e re fo r e e x p a n d s ; a nd s o n o d o u b t d o e s a ch a r e d
,
g , ,

m e t a l s ph e re t o s o m e s m a ll e xt e nt
, The p a ra ll e l pl a t e s O f a .

c o nd e n s e r a r e p u ll e d t o g e t h e r Wh en t h e y a re v e ry l ar ge
.

c o mp a r e d w i t h t h e ir di s t a n c e a p a rt t he fo rc e on e i t h e r I s ,

3 E D x a ea , r

Hr e e E i s t he t r a n s v r v lt g divid d by
e se o a dis tan c e be
e e t he
t we e n t he pl a t e s s o t h a t i f t he pl a t e s be c onn e c t e d t o a c o ns ta n t
, ,

s o u rc e o f v o l ta g e t h e a tt ra c t i o n v a ri es i nv e r s e ly s t he s q u a r e
.

, a
o f t h e di s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m 3 wh e r e as i f t h e pl a t e s b e i n
.
,
,

S u la t e d a n d t h e ir ch a rg e s c on s t a n t t he a t t ra c t i o n i s t he s a m e
.
,

.at an
y di s t a n c e s u fli c i e nt ly s m a ll c o m p a r e d wi t h t he s iz e o f t he

pl a t e s .

B u t by s u ffici e ntly s e p a ra t i ng t he pl a t e s or by u s i n g s m a ll e r ,

pl a t e s t he di s pl a c e m e nt w hich w as fo r m e rly a l m os t e nt irely

, , ,

b e t we e n t h e m will s pr e a d o u t a nd w ill te rm i na t e i n a p p re c i
‘

, ,

a bl e a m o u n t u p o n t h e s i d e s r e m o t e fro m o n e a n ot h e r By t he .

p u ll on t h e rem ot e s id e s t h u s prod u c e d t he a t t ra c t i on will be

l es se n e d a n d t he f u rt h e r t he pl a t es a r e s e p a ra t e d t he m ore
,

d i s pl a c e m e n t g oe s t o t h e ir b a ck s a n d t h e l e s s t he a t t r a c t i on
, .

Wh e n t he d is t a n c e i s gr e a t e nou gh i t t e n d s t o be s i m ply t he
a t t ra c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o p o i nt ch a rg e s Th u s t he a t t ra ct i on .

b e t we e n t wo dis t a nt o pp os i t e ly c ha rg e d c o nd u c ti ng s p h e res ,

which v a ri e s clos ely as t he i n v e rs e s qu a re o f t he di s t a nc e ,

 90 ELEC T ROM AGNE TI C T H EORY . CH . II

t he no m a r l p u ll on e i t h e r i s m a d e a li t t l e gre a t e r o n t he s ide
ne x t t h e o t h e r t h a n o n t he r e m o t e s id e A l s o t he i n v e rs e
.
,

s q u a r e la w i t s e l f which i s e x a c t l y t r u e fo r p o i nt ch a rg e s
,
i ,

m e r e ly t he u l t i m a t e li m i t o f t hi s o p e ra t i o n .

S o m e a t t a ck s h a v e b e e n m ad e o n t he la w o f i n v e rs e s q u a re s ,

e s p e ci a lly i n i t s m a g ne t ic a s p e c t B u t t h e s e a t t a ck s a pp e a r t O
.

h a v e b e e n fou nd e d u p on m i s a ppre h en s i on The la w i s t r u e .

,

a nd a l wa y s w ill be .

Th e m ov i ng For c e on E l e ct ri fica t i on, bodil y and s u p erfi cia l .

Ha rmoni sa t i on .

§ 75 . In t he b o v e e lae c t r os t a t ic a ppl i c a t i o n o f t he s t r e s s i t ,

wi ll be Ob s er v e d t h a t t he t e ns i on a l one c o m es i nt o pl a y a t ,
.

l ea s t e xplici t ly o wi n g t o t he t u b e s o f di s pl a c e m e n t t e rm in a t i ng
,

p e rp e ndic u l a rly on t he c ond u c t o rs Thu s e a ch t u b e m a y be .

co m p a r e d wit h a r op e i n a s ta t e o f t e ns i o n p u lli ng wh a t e ve r ,

i t s e nd s m a y b e a t t a ch e d t o B u t t he l a t e r a l pre s s u r e i s
.

n e e d e d t o k e e p t he m e di u m i t s e l f i n e q u ilibri u m s o t h a t t he ,

o nl y pl a c e s wh e re t r a ns l a t i o na l fo rc e a ri s e s fr o m t he s t r e s s i s

wh e re t h e re i s e l e c t rifica t i on The m e ch a ni c a l fo rc e i s
.

P = E d W D = Ep

p e r un i t v ol u m e Thi s i s t he forc e o n v ol u m e e le c t r i fica t io n

.
, .

a nd i s t he r e s u l t o f t he di ffe r e n t i a l a c t i o n o f t he s t r e s s r o u n d

a b o u t t he e l e c t rific a t i o n a s i n t he c a s e o f t he i nv e r e s q u a re
,
s

la w b e t w e e n p oi nt ch a rg e s l a t e ly m e nt i on e d
,
Th e c orr e s p o n d .

ing s u r fa c e fo rc e i s
r= i E DN = N U

p e r un it r
a ea . h e re D N i s t he s u rfa c e e qu iva l e nt o f
No w ,
div D s o
,
t h e re
i s a t firs t s igh t a di s cr e p a n cy b e t w e e n t he e x
pre ss i o ns for t he fo rc e p er u ni t v ol u m e a n d p er u n i t a r e a

o n b o dily a nd s u rfa c e e l e ct rific a t i o n Ho w t he c o e ffici e nt

.

5
. c o m es i n m a y b e s e e n by t a ki ng t h e li m i t i ng fo r m o f t h e

pr e vi ou s e xpre ss i on L e t t h ere be a t hin Sk i n of e l e c t rific a t i on

.
,

o f a m o u n t a p e r u n i t a r ea E fa lli ng o ff fro m E o u t s id e t o 0
ins id e t he s k in E vid e nt ly t he m ea n E i s 5E s o t h a t t he
. 1 ,

t ota l forc e on u ni t a r e a o f t he s ki n ob t a i ne d by s u mm a t i o n
o f t he fo rc e s o n t he v ol u m e e l e c t rific a t i o n i n t he s ki n i s n o t ,

Ea b u t § a
,
Thi s i s m e rely a m a t h e m a t ic a l h a rm oni s a t ion .
92 ELEC TR OMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . II .

A c on d u c t o r i s t hen a c on d u ct o r a ll t hro u gh a nd not a ,

h e t e roge neo u s m i xt u re ; a nd t he s u rfa c e o f a c ond u c t o r i s a n

u nbro k e n s u r fa c e The e l e c t rific a t i on o n i t i s t h e r e fo re s u rfa ce
.

e l e c t rific a t i o n
,
a nd ha s n o d e p t h Fo r i t t o be o t h e rwi s e i s
.

s i m ply t o m a k e n o ns e n s e I t i s d es i ra bl e t o b e c o n s i s t e nt i n
.

w o rki ng o u t a t he o ry fo r t he s a k e o f di s t i nc t ne s s o f ideas ; i f
, ,

t h e n w e wi s h t o giv e d e pt h t o s u r face e l e c t rific a t i on a nd s t ill

, ,

k ee p i n h a rm ony wi t h M a x well s t h e ory we m u s t cha nge ou r ’

,

w a y o f r e g a rdi n g a c on d u c t o r a n d b ri n g i n h e t e ro g e ne i t y
, .

E a ch vi e w i s t r u e i n i ts o wn w a y 3 b u t a s i n t h e m a t h e m a t ic a l
,

t h e o ry c o n t i n u i t y o f s t r u c t u re i s t a ci t ly a s s u m e d we h a v e a ,

s i m u l ta n eo u s e va n es c e n c e o f o n e di m e ns i o n i n t h e di s t rib u t i on

o f e l e c t rific a t i on .

Th e s a m e q u e s t i on o ccu rs i n a not h e r fo r m i n t he e s t i m a t i o n
o b bo d i ly e l e c t rific a t i o n w h e n t he m e a n i ng o f v o l u m e d e n s i t y
,

o f e l e c t rific a t i o n i s c o ns id e re d Whe n a ir i s e l e c t rifi e d i t i s

.
,

prob a bl e t ha t t he e l e c t rific a t i o n i s c a rri e d u p o n t he fore ig n

p a r t icl e s s u s p en d e d i n t he a i r a nd i t m a y be p a r tly u p on t he
,

a i r m ol e c u l e s t h e m s e lv e s I n e i t h e r c a s e i t i s u l t i m a t e ly s u r fa c e
.

e l e c t rific a t i o n
, a n d q u i t e di s c o n t i n u o u s B u t m e re ly fo r t he .
,

s a k e o f fa cili t y o f w o rk i n g i t i s d e s ira bl e t o ig no re a ll t he d is
,

c ont i nu i t y a nd as s u m e a c ont i nu ou s a nd pra c t ic ally e q u iv a l e nt

,

d i s t rib u t i on o f b o dily e l e c t rific a t i o n Thu s as pr e vi o u s ly we

.
,

sa w s u r fa c e d e n s i t y t o b e a ki n d o f v o l u m e d e n s i t y s o n o w w e ,

s e e t h a t v o l u m e d e ns i t y i s a ki n d o f s u rfa c e d e ns i t y Wh e n .
,

t h e r e fo r e w e s a y t h a t t he t ra ns l a t i o na l fo rc e p e r u n i t v o l u m e
_

i s Ep wh e re E i s t h e e l e ct ric fo rc e a nd p t he v o l u m e d e ns i t y of
,

e l e c t rific a t i on w e r e a lly m ea n t h a t Ep i s t he a v e r a g e o b ta i ne d
, ,

by s u mm a t i on o f t he t ra ns l a t i ona l forc e s o n t he m u l t i t u di no u s
,

e l e c t rifi e d p a r t icl e s e v e ry o ne o f t h es e fo rc es b e i ng i t s e l f a
,

d i ffe re nt i a l e ffe c t as b e fo r e s e e n viz

,
t h e r e s u l t a n t o f t he
,
.
,

u n e qu a l p u ll s o n di ffe r e nt p a r t s o f a p a r t icl e e x e rt e d by t he

e l e c t ric s t r es s
.

A s e t h e r ha s s om e o f t he pro p e r t i e s o f m a t t e r a nd a s e le c t ri ,

fic a t io n i s fo u n d i n a s s o ci a t i on wi t h m a t t e r i t i s p os s ibl e , ,

h o w e v e r i m pr ob a bl e t ha t e t he r i t s e l f m a y b e c om e e l e c t rifi e d
,
.

B u t o f t hi s n o t hi n g i s k no w n N o r m o re i m p o r t a n t ly i s i t
.
, ,

u n d e rs t oo d why t h e e l e c t ric s t r es s a pp e a rs t o a c t di ff e r e n t ly o n

p os it iv e ly a nd o n ne g a t iv ely e l e c t rifi e d m a t t e r B u t i f we .
,

b e gi n t o ta lk a b ou t wh a t i s not Und e rs to od we e nt e r i lli m i t ,

 OU T LI NE OF ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C CONNEC T I ONS .

t hi ngs as t h ey a r e not as t he y m igh t be Th e re i s a s ou nd o f

, .

s p e ci o u s pl a u s ibili t y h e re which i s gra t e fu l a nd c om fo rt ing 3

,
.

bu t a s a m a tt e r o f pl a i n fa ct q u e s t i ons o f phy s ic s ne v e r a r e
, ,

t h e o ri s e d u p o n a s t h e y a r e b u t a l wa y s a s t h e y m ight be
,
It is .

a n e c e s s i t y t o li m i t t he fi e ld o f i n q u iry for t o t a k e t hi ng s a s ,

t h e y a r e o r a s t h e y see m t o he wo u ld l e a d a t on c e t o a c o m
, ,

p e t e t a ngl e
l F or t h e p r obl e m a s i t pre s e nt s i t s e l f i n r e a li t y
.
, ,

t he r e i s a l wa y s s u b s t i t u t e d a fa r Si m pl e r o n e c o n t a i ni n g c e r t a i n ,

fe a t u r e s o f t he re a l o n e e m ph a s i s e d a s i t w e re a n d o t h e rs , ,

a l t og e t h e r o m i t t e d Th e j u v e n il e s w ho t a k e t hi ng s a s t h e y
.
,

a r e d o n o t d o i t 3 t h e y o nl y t hi n k s o
,
Th e y m a y st ra i n o u t a .

fe w g na t s s u cc e s s fu lly bu t s w a ll o w q u i t e u na wa re s a ll t he
, , ,

c a m e l s i n A ra bi a B u t t he pri ncipl e a nd pra c t ic e of li m i ta ti on

.

a n d s u b s t i t u t i o n i s t h e s a m e a ll o v e r ; i n p o li t ic s fo r i ns t a nc e
‘

, ,

w h e r e a fic t i t i ou s Bri t i s h C o ns t i t u t i o n d o es br a ve d u t y as a ,
-

s car e cro w a n d i n o t h e r u se fu l w a y s
,
.

El e c t ri c Fi e l d d i s t u rbe d B od y
by Fo r e i gn . Effe ct of a

S p h e r i ca l N on c ond u ct or -
.

§ 77 . To fu r t h e r eig x m pli fy t h
n ific a n c e o f t he e l e c t ric
e e s

s t r e s s l e t u s i nt r o d u c e a fo r e ig n b ody i nt o a s t a t i o na ry e l e c t ric
,

fi e ld The fi e ld will be di s t u rb e d by i ts i nt ro d u ct i on a nd will

.
.

,
'

s e tt l e d o w n t o a n e w s t a t e 3 t he c ha ng e d e p e ndi ng u p on t he

n a tu r e o f t he fo re ig n b o dy , wh e t he r c o nd u c t i ng o r n o n c o n d u c t -

i n g i n s u b s t a n c e or s u p e rfici a lly a n d u p o n wh e t h e r i t ha s a
, ,
'
.

cha rg e i t s e lf or c onta i ns a ny o t h e r s o u rc e of di s pla c e m ent If

, . .

i t be a g oo d c o nd u c t o r e it h e r ch a rg e d or u nc ha r ge d t he fi na l
, f
.

s t a t e r e a ch e d v e ry q u ickly will b e s u ch t ha t t he di s pl a c e m e nt
, ,

will t e rm i n a t e n orm a lly u p on i t s s u rfa c e t hu s re p rod u ci ng t he ,

n

pre vi ou s c a s e 7 4 to B u t i f i t be a n on c o nd u c t o r t he -

,
.
94 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

The n s u pp o s i ng t he e x t e rna l fi eld t o be d u e t o c h a rge s u p on

,

i ns u l a t e d c on d u c to rs o r t o i nt e rna l el e c t rific a t i on i n t he a i r
( k e p t a t re s t for t h e p u rp os e s o f t h e a rg u m e n t) no ch a ng e will ,

oc c u r i n t h e ir a m o u nt s ; b u t t h e r e will b e m e r e ly a n a l t e ra t i o n

i n t he d i s t rib u t i o n o f t h e e l e c t rific a t i on o n t h e c ond u c t o rs ,

c a u s e d by t h e di s pl a c e m e n t b e c o m i n g d e n s e r wi t hi n t h e fo r e ig n

b ody t h a n b e fore ( or l e s s d e ns e i f i t s p e r m i t t ivi ty c a n b e l e s s

,

t ha n t ha t o f t he a i r ) The i nt ri n s ic e l e c t rific a t i on o f t he b o dy
.

i t s el f if a ny m u s t a l s o be a llo w e d for ; b u t s h ou ld i t h a ve
, ,

n on e pr e vi o u s ly i t w ill r e m a i n u ne le c t r ifie d w h e n i nt r o d u c e d
,

i nt o t he fi eld a n d t he di s pl a c e m e nt will p a s s fre e ly t hrou gh it

, ,

a n d o u t a g a i n i n a s ol e n o id a l m a nn e r Thi s i s e x pr es s e d by
.

t h e s u rfa c e c on di t i o n

D N 4

w h ere D 1 a nd D 2 a r e t he di s pl a c e m e nt s i n t he a i r a nd fore ig n
body r e s p e c t ive ly a t t h e ir i nt e rfa c e a n d N 1 N2 a r e t he u ni t
, ,

n o r m a l s fro m t he i nt e r fa c e t o t he t wo m e di a .

The o nly qu i t e s i m pl e c as e ( e xc e p t i ng t h a t o f i n fi n i t e p la ne
s h e e t s ) i s t h a t o f a s ph e re o f u ni fo r m p e r m i t t i v i t y br o u gh t i n t o

a pr e vi o u s ly u n i fo rm fi e ld The u l t i m a t e di s pl a c e m e n t i n t h e
.

s ph e r e i s t h e n p a ra ll e l t o t h e o rigi n a l di s pl a c e m e n t i n t h e a i r .

I t m a y v a ry b e t w e e n z e r o a nd t hr e e t i m e s t he o r i gi n a l d is p l a c e
m e n t a s t he p e r m i t t ivi t y o f t he s ph e re v a ri e s from z e ro u p t o
,

i nfi nity It i s c e rt a i nly a li t t l e s u rpri s i ng t ha t t he u l t i m a t e

.

d i s p l a c e m e nt wi t h i n fi n i t e p e rm i t t ivi t y Sh ou ld be o nly t hr e e
t i m e s t he o rigi n a l ( a n d i t i s n ot m u ch l e s s wh e n t he p e rm i t t ivi t y
i s o nly 1 0 t i m es t h a t o f t he a i r ) 3 whil s t o n t he o t h e r h a nd t h e
, ,

ze ro di s pl a c e m e nt wh e n t he p e rm i t t ivi t y i s z e ro ( a qu i t e id e a l
c a s e) i s ob v i ou s e n ou gh b e c a u s e t he di s pla c e m e nt n e v e r e n t e rs
,

t he s ph e r e a t a ll b u t g oe s r o u n d i t
,
The o rigi na l u n i fo r m
.

fi eld m a y be c on v eni e nt ly t ha t b e t we en t he p a ra ll e l pl a t e s o f a
v e ry l a rg e a i r c ond en se r Th e r e i s h o we ve r a d ou bl e a c t i on
.
, ,

t a ki ng pl a c e . Wh en t he t ra ns v e rs e v ol ta g e o f t he c o nd e ns e r i s
m a i nt a i ne d c on s t a nt by c onn e c t i o n wi t h a s u i t a bl e s ou rc e t he ,

inse r t i on o f t he fore ign b ody which i ncre a s e s or re du c e s t he

,
’

p erm it t an c e of t h e c onde ns e r will i ncre as e o r re d u c e i t s ch a rg e

,

u n d e r t he a c t i on o f t he c on s t a n t s o u rc e b e s id e s c o nce nt ra t i n g
,

t he di s pl a c e m e nt wi t hi n t he bo dy or t h e re v e rs e Wi t h c on s t a n t
, .

c h a rg es h o w e v e r wh e n t he pl a t e s ar e i ns u l a t e d t he i n s e r t i o n
, , ,
96 E LEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I I.

I f t he s tr e s s be ro t a t i ona l t yp e t h e re will be a n i n
of t he ,

t e rn a l t o rq u e ( p e r u n i t v ol u m e ) as w e ll a s a t ra n s la t i o na l
forc e . S t ill h o w e v e r t he r e s u l t a nt fo rc e a n d t o rq u e d u e t o
, ,

t h e s u r fa c e t ra c t i ons will c a nc e l t h os e d u e t o t he i nt e rna l fo rc es

a nd t o rq u e s .

In c a s e t h e re be a ny d ifli c u lt y i n c o n c e i vi ng t he t ra c t i on e x e rt e d
on t he s u rfa c e o f a b o dy by t he s t r e s s wi t hi n i t s e l f we m a y ,

re pl a c e t he s u dd e n c es s a t i on of t he s t re s s by a gra d u a l c e ss a t ion
t hr o u gh a t hi n s ki n The s olid i s t h e n u n d e r t he i nfl u e n c e of
.

c ont i n u o u s b o dily forc e o nly ( a n d t o rqu e al s o i f t he s t re s s be ,

ro t a t i on a l ) c on v e ni e nt ly d ivi s ibl e i nt o t he i nt e rna l fo rc e a ll

o v e r a n d t he fo rc e i n t he s ki n
,
O t h e r wi s e i t i s t he s a m e
. .

No w p u t t he s o l i d pi e c e b a ck i nt o i t s pl a c e a g a i n S i n c e it s .

o wn s t r e s s b a l a n c e s i t s e l f w e s e e t h a t wh a t e v e r t he fo rciv e o n
,

t he pi e c e m a y b e i t m u s t b e s t a t ic a lly e q u iv a l en t t o t he a c t i o n
u po n i t s b ou n d a ry o f t he e x t e r na l s t r e ss o nly c o n s t i t u t i n g a n ,

e x t e rn a l s u r fa c e t ra c t i o n Th e re n e e d be no c onne c t i o n b e t we e n
.

t he e x t e rnal a nd t he i nt e rn a l s t r e s s The l a tt e r m a y be a ny .

t hi ng w e lik e s o fa r a s t he r e s u l ta n t fo rc e a n d t o rq u e o n t he
,

pi e c e a r e c on c e rn e d The di ffe r e nc e will a ri s e i n t he s t ra i ns

'

prod u c e d or i n t he r el a t i ve i nt e rna l m ot i ons wh e n for o ne s t re ss

, ,

a no t h e r i s s u b s t i t u t e d ,»

El ect ri c A p p li ca t i on of t he P i ncip l e R
r . l ta nt A ct i on on
es u

S olid B od y i nd e p e nd e nt of t he I nt erna l S t r es s w hi ch ,

is s t a t i a ll y c i nd e t ermi na t e . R eal S urfa c e Tra cti on i s

t h e S tr e ss D i fierenc e
‘

§ 79 . R et u n nr i g t o t he e h a t wh a t e v
l e c t ric
e r fi ld
e ,
we s ee t .

be t h e n at u r e of t h e re a c t i on of t he fo r e ign b o dy on t he o rigi na l
s ta t e o f t he fi e ld t he r es u l t a n t m e ch a n ic a l a c t i o n on t he b o dy
,

as a w h ol e i s fu lly re pre s e n t e d by t he s t re s s i n t he a i r j u s t

ou t s id e i t i n i t s a c t u a l s t a t e a s m o difi e d by t he pr e s e n c e o f
, ,

t he bo dy a nd t h a t w e n e e d n ot c on c e rn ou rs e lv e s wi t h t he
,

int e rna l s t a te of s t ress No r a re w e li m i te d i n t hi s r e s p e ct by

.
, ,

a n y a ss u m e d pro p o rt i on a li t y o f e l e c t ric fo rc e t o di s pl a c e m e nt

i n t he b ody or a s s u m e d a b s e n c e o f a b s o rp t i on o r o t he r i r r e g u
, ,

lari t i es a nd c om plic a t i ons Tha t i s we ne e d n ot h a v e a ny

.
,

t h eo ry t o e xplici t ly a cc o u nt for t h e ch a ng e m a d e i n t he e l e c t ric

fi e ld by t he b ody Nor d o we ga in a ny inf orma t ion rega rdi ng
.
 OU TL I NE OF ELEC TROMAGNE T I C CONNEC TI ONS . 97

t he i nt e rn a l s tr e s s from m e rely a kn o wl e dg e of t he e x t e rna l

,

s t r es s a l t h ou gh t h a t i n v olv es t h e r e a c t i o n o f t he b o d y o n t h e
,

e l e c t ric fi e ld This i s t he m e a n in g of t he s t a t ic a l i nd e t e r
.

m i na t e ne s s o f t h e s t r es s b e fo r e r e fe rr e d t o a nd t h e prin cipl e ,

a ppli e s g e n e r a lly .

The a i r s t r e s s v e ct or P will u s u a lly h a v e b o t h a n or ma l and

a t a n g e nt i a l c om p one nt a t t he s u rfa c e o f a b o dy V1 Z ,

U c os 26 no rm a l ,

U s in 26 t a n g e nt i a l ,

if 6 be t he gl e b e t w e en t he n orm a l N t o t he s u rfa c e ( dra w n

an .
.

fr om t h e b o dy to t h e a i r ) a n d t he e l e c t ric forc e E a n d U t h e
'

d e n s it y of t he e l e c t ric e n e rgy o r t he t e n s or o f t he s t r e ss v e c t o r
, .

I n onl y on e c as e h o w e v e r will t hi s e x t e rn a l s u rfa c e t ra c t i o n

, ,

r e pr e se nt t he r e a l forciv e i n d e ta il ( a s w ell a s i n t he l u m p ) ;
viz wh en t h e re i s no s tre s s a t a ll on t he ot h er Side o f t he
.
,
'

b ou nd a ry t h a t i s i n t h e c as e of a c on d u c t o r i n s ta t ic e qu ilibri u m
, , .

I n g e n e ra l t he r e a l s u rfa c e forc e I s r e pr e s e nt e d by t he v e ct or
,

P l — P z t he s t re s s di ffe re n c e a t t he b o u nd a ry P I b e i n g t h e
, ,

e x t erna l a n d P t he i n t e rn a l s t r es s v e c t o r which t w o s t r e s se s
2 ,

m a y i f w e pl e a s e be i m a gi ne d t o b e u n i t e d c ont i n u o u s ly by a
, ,

gra d u a lly ch a n gi ng i nt e rm e di a t e s t r e s s e x1 s t ing i n a t hi n s ki n ,

a n id ea a ppr opri a t e t o m o l e c ul a r t h e o ri es ay b e r e m e m
( I t m .

b e re d t h a t P wh e n p o s i t i v e m e a ns a p u ll ) E a ch o f t h e s e m a y .

be s pli t i nt o a n o r m a l a n d a t a ng e nt i a l c om p one nt N ow t h e .
,

t ang e nt i a l c om p one nt s a r e

UI s in 2 61 a nd U2 s i n

whe re t he s u fli x
1
rel a t es t o t he a i r, a n d
2
t o t he ot her m e di u m .

13l 1
s in 61 cos 61 a nd E D s in 62 c os

Bu t h ere we h a ve norm a l c ont inu i t y o f t he flu x D a nd t ang ent i a l

'
,

c ont inu it y o f t he forc e E 3 ( oth e rwi s e t he s u rf w o u ld be

el e c t ri fi e d a nd c ov e r e d wi t h a m a g ne t ic c u rr e n t s h ee t) ; t h a t i s

D1 cos 61 D2 c os
98 ELE C T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I I.

th e c t u a l t ra c t i on i s e nt ire l y n orm al b ei ng t he di ffe renc e of t he

a ,

no rm a l c om p on e nt s o f P a n d P or
I 2 , ,

UI c os 2 61 U2 c os 2 62 ,
which i s t he sa me a s
( b e i ng su bj e ct to

§ 1
D co s 61 ( E1 c os 61 E2 c os

% 1
E s in 61 ( D 1 s i n 61 D 2 s i n 62 ) 7
( )
The c oe flfic i e n t c om es i n for a s i mil a r r e a s on
b e fore § 7 5 to , .

Thi s formu l a ( 6 ) or ( 7 b e in g t he r e a l s u rfa c e t ra c t i on wh en

E v a ri e s as D i n t he b ody a nd t he s t re s s i s o f t h e s a m e t yp e a s
,

in a i r fu rn i s h es a s e c on d wa y o f c a lc u l a t i ng t he r e s u l t a nt forc e
,

a n d t o rq u e o n t h e b o dy wh e n i t s p e r m i t t ivi t y i s u n i fo r m ; a n d
,

i t i s not e w o r t hy t h a t t he s u r fa c e t ra c t i on i s a s i n t h e c a s e o f a n ,

e l e c t rifi e d c o nd u c t o r i n e q u ili b ri u m e n t ir e ly n o r m a l a l t h o u gh
, ,

i t m a y n o w b e e i th e r a p u ll or a p u s h .

Tra ns la t i ona l Forc e d u e t o Va ri a t i on of P rmit t i i t y

e v .

H rm
a i
oni s a t o n w i t h S u r fa c e Tr a c t i on .

§ 80 . N ti g th
o n at ch a n ica l fo rc e o n t he e l a s t ic a lly
t he m e
e l e c t riz a bl e b o dy i s s i t u a t e d wh e r e t h e ch a n g e o f p e rm i t t ivi t y

o cc u r s a n d i s i n t he d i r e c t i o n o f t hi s ch a ng e i t m a y b e i nfe rr e d
, ,

t h a t wh e n t h e p e r m i t t ivi t y v a ri e s c o n t i n u o u s ly t h e r e i s a b o dily
t r a n s l a t i o na l fo rc e d u e t o t he s t r e ss v a ri a t i o n which i s i n t he
dire c t i on of t he m os t ra pid ch a ng e o f p e r m i tt ivi t y Thi s i s i n .
,

fa ct wh a t t he s t re s s v e c t o r i n dic at e s wh e n c v a ri e s c o nt i n u ou s ly
, ,

v iz t he forc e re pres e nt e d by
.
,

% V
2
E C U
Vo ,
wh e re vc m e a n s t h e v e c t o r ra t e o f fa s t es t i ncr e a s e o f c r ou n d
a b o u t t he p o i nt c o n s id e r e d S i nc e U § cE t he s e c on d fo rm
= 2
.
,

w ll e u nd e rs t o o d m ea n i n g t h e v e c t o r s l op e o f U a s
ln
( )
8 i b ,

d e p end ent u p on t he va ri a t ion o f 6 only .

Thi s b o dily forc e a nd t he pre v i ou s s u rfa c e fo rc e m a y b e ha r

,

m oni s e d by l e tt in g c v a ry n o t a br u p t ly b u t c ont i n u o u s ly fr om ,

t he v a l u e o n o ne s id e t o c o n t h e o t h e r s id e o f t h e s u r fa c e o f
2
di s c ont inu i t y t hrou gh a t hin s ki n a nd s u mm i ng u p t he t ra ns
, ,

l a t iona l forc es i n t he s ki n by t he fo rm u l a Thu s if mb e ,

 1 00 ELECT ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

t he i nv e rse s qu a re of t he di s t a n c e fro m i t s c ent re He re t he

.
.

non p e rm i tt i v e b ody i s r e p e ll e d fo r t he li n e s o f fo rc e go r o u n d
-
,

i t a nd t he l a t e ra l pr e s s u r e c o m es fu lly i nt o pl a y a n d i s gr ea t e r
, ,

on t he s id e n e x t t h e ch a rg e d s ph e r e O n t he o t h e r h an d wi t h .
,

t he i nfi ni t e ly p e r m i t t i v e b ody c on c e nt ra t i n g t he di s pl a c e m e nt
, ,

i t i s t he t e ns i on t h a t c o m es fu lly i nt o pl a y a nd t hi s b e i ng ,

gre a t e r on t he s ide n e x t t he cha rg e d s ph e re t he r es u lt i s a n ,

a t t ra c t i o n The p e rm i t t a n c e of t h e s ph e r e a l s o i s i n cre a s e d in
.
, ,

t he l a t t e r c a s e a n d d e cre a s e d i n t he fo r m e r— t h a t i s wh e n t he
, ,

n a t u r a l m ot i on o f t he b ody t o or fr o m t he s ph e r e i s a ll o w e d 3

s o
,
si c
n e t h e t o t a l e l e c t ric e n e rgy s § S V wh e r e S i s t he p e r m i t
i 2

t a n c e a nd V t h e v ol t a g e o r e qu iv a l e nt ly % VQ if Q i s t he
'
, , , ,

ch a rg e we h a v e a lw a ys a di m inu t i on of e n e rgy wh e n t he
,

n a t u ra l m o t i on i s a ll o w e d wh e t h e r r es u l t i n g fr o m a t t ra c t i on or
,

re p u l s i on i f t he ch a rg e i s c onst a n t ; bu t a n incre a s e o f en e rgy

,

i f t h e v ol t a g e i s c on s t a n t .

I n i nt e rm e di a t e c a s e s th e t e n s i on i s d o m in a nt wh e n t he c of
t h e b o dy e xc e e d s a nd t he pr es s u re i s d om i na nt wh e n i t i s l e s s
,

t h an t h a t o f t he a i r t h e r e b e i n g p e r fe c t e qu ilibri u m o f a pi e c e
,

o f a ny s h a p e i n a ny fi e ld if t h e r e b e e qu a li t y o f p e rm i t t ivi t y ,

a n d t h e r e for e n o di s t u rb a n c e o f t h e fi e ld H e r e we s e e t he p a r t .

pl a y e d by t he la t e ra l pre s s u r e i n t he c a s e of c on d u c t o rs i n
e q u ilibri u m I t ha s n o i n fl u e n c e on t h e m i m m e di a t e ly a n d
.
,

m igh t b e t h ou gh t wh olly u nn e c e s s a ry b u t i t i s e q u a lly ,

i m port a nt wi t h t he t ens ion in t he non con d u c t i ng di e l e c t ri c -

its e lf .

M a gne t ic S t r e s s Forc e du e t o A bru p t or G ra dua l Cha ng e of

.

I nd u ct i v i t y M ov ement of Ela s t i ca ll y M a g net i s e d B od i es

. .

§ 82 . Pa s s ing c o rr e s po n di n g m a gn e t ic s id e of t he
now t o t he
s t re s s qu e s t i o n w e m a y o b s e rv e t h a t t he a na l ogy is a n i m p e rfe c t
,

one . Thu s pr oc ee din g a s a t t he b e ginn i ng o f § 7 4 t o ha v e a

, ,

s t a t i on a ry m a g n e t ic fi e ld wi t h ou t i m pre s s e d fo rc e s w e s ha ll ,

fin d t h a t t h e r e m u s t fir s t b e n o m a g ne t ic c on d u c t i o n c u rre nt 3
a n d n e xt t h a t t h e g a u ss a g e i n a ny circ u i t m u s t b e z e r o
,
The .

m a gn e t ic fo rc e w e t h e n c on cl u d e t o be co n fin e d e nt ire ly t o t he
m a gn e t ic a lly n on c on du ct in g r e gi ons a nd t o t e rm i n a t e p e rp e n
-
,

di c u lar ly u p on t h e ir b ou nd a ri e s Thu s we c om e t o t he .

co nc e p t i o n o f a nu m b e r o f d e t a ch e d m a gn e t ic c ondu c to r s im
 OU TL I NE OF ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C CONNEC T I ONS . 1 01

m ers ed i n a m a gne t ic a lly

c ondu ct iv e m e di u m t h es e c on
non -

d u ct orS h a v i ng m a gn e t ic ch a rg es o n t h e m m e a s u r e d by t h e
a m o u nt o f i n d u c t i on l e a v i n g or t e rm in a t i ng u p o n t h e m wi t h
,

p os s ibl e a s so ci at e d vol um e m a gne t i fica t i on i n t he n on c ond u c t -

in g m e di u m .

The m a g ne t ic s t r es s will e x e rt a no r m a l t r a c t i on

NT % p H N ?

p e r un i t a r ea on t he c o n d u c t o rs ,
a nd a forc e

HC '
H div B . 1 3)

p er u n i t v o l u m e o n t ridi m e ns i o na l m a gn e t i fic a t i o n o f d e n s i t y , 0

m ea s u re d by t h e dive rg e n c e o f t he i nd u c t i on Th e s e a re a n a l o .

g o u s t o t h e fo rc e s o n s u r fa c e a n d v ol u m e e l e c t rific a t i o n .

Al s o wh e n t he I n d uc t ivi t y
, va ri es we s h a ll h a ve a norm a l
u.
, ,

s u rfa c e t ra c t i o n o f a m o u n t ,

TI c os 2 61 — T2 c os 26 ( )
1 4

p e r u n i t a r e a a n al ogo u s t o
,
.
wh e n a
,
c ha n g e s v a l u e a bru p t ly
a t t h e i n t e r fa c e o f t wo m e di a 3 a n d a fo r c e

w
i w
p e r un i t v ol u m e wh e n ) v a ri e s c o nt inu o u s ly
,
a .

The forc e s h o w e v e r a r e a b s e nt b e c a u s e o f t he a h
, ,

s e n c e o f m a g n e t ic c on d u c t ivi t y a n d i n c o nn e c t i o n t h e r e wi t h
, , ,

t he a b s e n c e o f B u t ( 1 2 ) m a y he s o m e t i m e s
”
m a gn e t ific a t i on .

u s e d n e v e r t h e l e s s wh e n i t i s t h e s t r es s a cr oss a ny s u r fa ce f t ha t
, ,

i s i n q u e s t i on a n d w e cr e a t e s u r fa c e m a gne t i fica t i on by re g a rd
,

i ng o ne s id e o nly .

W e a r e t h e re fo re l e ft wi t h t he forc es
, ,
d e p e nding
u p on v a ri a t i o n o f i n d u c t i v i t y a bru p t o r gr a d u a l ,
Th es e e x .

pl a i n t he m e cha n ic a l a c t i on u p on e l a s t ic a lly m a gn e t i s e d
m e di a , t h e m o t i o n s o f b odi e s t o or fr o m a m a g n e t p ol e ,

a cc o rdi ng as t h e y a r e p a r a m a g n e t ic o r d i a m- e t ic which i t , ,

s h o u ld b e r e m e m b e r e d d e p e n d s f u n d a m e n t a ll y u p o n t he v a ri a
,

t i on i n t h e i n t e ns i t y o f m a g n e t ic forc e n ea r t h e p ol e 3 a nd t he
ax i a l e qu ilibri u m o f a p a r a m a g ne t ic ba r a n d e q u a t ori a l e qu i ,

li bri u m o f a di a m a gn e tic b a r Fa ra da y s r e m a rka bl e s a g a cit y

.
’

le d hi m t o t he e ss en c e o f the e x pl a n a t i on o f t h e s e a nd ot h e r
 1 02 ELE CTR OMAGNET I C THEOR Y . CH . II .

S ir W Th om son Q u e s t i o ns re l at i ng
. . to dia m a gne t ic p ola ri ty
a re , i n c o m p a ri s on m e re t rifli ng , .

Fo rce on El e ct ri c C u rr e nt C ond u c t or s . Th e La t era l Pre s s ur

be c ome s p r omi ne nt , bu t no S t r es s Di cs ont i nu i t y i n g ener al .

§ 8 2a . B u t t he m a g n e t ic h
st ess r
e r w o rk t o d o t h a n t o
ha s ot

m o v e e l as t ic a lly m a g ne t i s e d m a t t e r u n d e r t he c i rc u m s ta n c e
s t at ed . Wh olly i nd e p e n d e nt o f m a g n e t i s a t i on i t pro d u c e s t he ,

v e ry i m p or t a n t m o vi ng fo rc e on c on d u c t o rs s u pp o rt i ng e le ct ri
c u rre nt firs t m a t h e m a t ic a lly i nve s t iga t e d by A m p ere
,
.

The l a t e ra l pr e s s u re o f t he s t r es s h e r e c om e s pr o m i n ent ly
i nt o v i e w wh e n w e ig nor e t he s t re s s i n t h e i n t e ri o r o f t he con
,

d u c t o rs s o t h a t t he s t re s s v e c t o r i n t he a i r a t t he b ou nd a ry 0
,

a c o n d u c t o r r e pr e s e nt s t h e m o vi n g fo rc e o n i t p e r u n i t a r e a .

Thu s t wo p a ra ll el c on d u c t i ng wir e s s u pp ort i ng s i m il a r c u rr e nt s

,

a t t ra c t o ne a n o t h e r b e c a u s e t h e ir m a g n e t ic fo rc e s a r e a ddi t iv e
,

o n t he s id e s r e m o t e fr o m o n e a n o t h e r re nd e ri ng t he l a t e ral ,

pre ss u r e o n t h e m gr e a t e r t h e r e t ha n o n t he s id e s i n prox i m i ty .

B u t w h e n t he c u rre nt s a r e di s s i m il a r t he m a g ne t ic forc e i
gre a t e r on t h e s ide s i n prox i m i t y a nd t h e r e fo re t he l a t e r al , , ,

pre s s u re of t he s t r e s s i s gre a t e r t h e re pr o d u ci ng r e p u l s i on , .

P r o c e e di ng fu r t h e r a nd c on s id e ri ng t he st r e s s wi t hi n t he
,

c ondu ct o r a l s o a cc ordi ng t o t he s a m e la w we find t hi s p e cu

, ,

l ia ri t y . I n t h e c a s e of u nm a gn e t i s able c on d u c t or s ( typifi e d
pra c t ica lly by c opp e r) t h e re i s n o s u p e rfici a l di s c ont i nu it y i n
,

t he s t r e s s a n d t h e r e fo r e no s u r fa c e fo rciv e o f t he ki nd s t a t e d
, ,

Thi s m a y b e e a s ily s e e n from § 7 9 t ra ns l a t i ng t he r e s u l t s fr om

,

t he e l e c t ric t o t he m a g ne t i c s t re s s Th e re i s n o t a ng e nt i al
.

di s c ont i n u it y i n t he s t r e s s b e c a u s e t he n orm a l i nd u c t i on a n d
t a n g e nt i a l m a gn e t ic forc e a r e c o nt i n u o u s 3 a n d t h e r e i s no d i s
c ont inu i ty i n t he n orm a l c o m p one nt o f t he s t re s s b e c a u se ( s inc e
t h e re i s n o di ffe r e n c e o f i nd u c t ivi ty ) t he n o r m a l m a g n e t ic fo rc e
a nd t h e t a n g e n t i a l i n d u c t i o n a r e a l s o c o n t i n u o u s .

u r n E t o H a n d D t o B a n d U t o T a nd
In ( 7 t , , ,

note t h a t a s t ra n s fo r m e d a r e t r u e wh en t he fo rc e a n d flu x
,

a r e e x ch a ng e d s o t h a t t he t ra n s fo rm e d e xpr es s i o ns
, ( )
6 or 7 )
(
v a ni s h .

I n t he c a s e o f a r e a l c ond u ct or t h e re fo r e wi t h fi n i t e v o l u m e
, ,

d e ns i t y of e l e c t ric c u rre n t t he m ov in g forc e i s di s t rib u t ed

,
 1 04 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . II .

O n e wa y xhibi t i ng t h e m e ch a nica l a c t i on on a m a gne t o r

of e ,

o n m a g n e t i s e d m a t t e r g e n e ra ll y i s t h a t giv e n by M a xw e ll i n hi s
,

ch a p t e r o n t he s t re s s e s ( Vol . Thi s I b e li e v e t o be qui t e

e rro n eou s for m a n y r e a s o n s t h e pri n cip a l b e i n g t h a t i t d o e s
,

n ot h a r m on i s e wi t h hi s s ch e m e g e n e ra lly a n d t h a t i t l u m p s t o
,

g e th e r i nt ri ns ic a nd i nd u c e d m a g net i s a t i on which ha v e e s se n ,

t i a l d i fle r e nce s a nd a r e phy s ic a lly di s t i nc t Th e re a re m a ny

.

o t h e r w a y s o f e xhibi t i n g t h e r es ul t a n t fo rc e a nd t o rq u e as m a d e

u p of e l e m e nt a ry fo rc e s a c t i n g u p o n m a g ne t i s a t i o n o r o n fr ee
, ,

m a gne t i s m o r o n t he v a ri a t i on o f m a gn e t i s m e s t i m a t e d i n
,

di ffe rent w a y s I t i s u nne c essa ry t o e nt e r i nt o d et a il r e ga rdi ng

.

t hem . Nob ody w o u ld r e a d it I t will be s u fli ci e nt t o p o i n t o u t

.

t he p a r t ic ul a r w a y which h a r m on i ses wi t h M a xw e ll s s ch e m e i n
’

g e ne ral i n t he form i n which I dis pl a y i t wi t h a s p e ci a l e st i

, ,

m at i on o f m a g ne t ic e ne rgy P rop or t i o na li t y o f fo rc e a nd flu x
.

i s as s u m e d The w a n t o f t hi s prop o r t i on a li t y I s q u i t e a s e p a ra t e
.

qu e st i on G i v e n a d e fi ni t e re la t i on b et w een forc e a nd flu x t he
.
,

a cc o m p a nyi ng ch a ng e I n t he s t r es s v e c t o r i n a cc o rd a n c e wi t h
,

t he c ont i nu i t y o f e n e rgy c a n b e e s t i m a t e d
, Thi s I h a ve r e
.

c e nt l
y s h o w n h o w t o d o i n a n o t h e r pl a c e which ,
Sh a ll n o t b e

m ore e xplici t ly r e fe rr e d t o .

Int ri ns ic m a g ne t i s a t i on p os s es se s t h e p e c u lia ri t y t ha t i t i s i n ,

a m a nn e r o u t s id e t h e dy n a m ic a l s y s t e m fo r m u l a t e d i n t he
,

e l e c t r om a g n e t ic e q u a t i on s i n a s m u ch as i t n e e ds t o be e x
,

h i bi t e d i n t h e m t hro u gh t h e m e di u m o f a n i m pr e ss e d fo rc e ,

a l t h o u gh t hi s i s di s g ui s e d i n t he o rdi n a ry m o d e o f r e pr e s e nt a

t i on. C a lli ng t hi s i nt ri n s ic m a g ne t ic fo rc e h 0 ( a ny di s t rib u t i on ) ,

a s b e fo re t he i n d u c t i on d u e t o i t i n a m e di u m o f a ny i n d u c t ivi t y
,

( v a ryi ng c on t i nu o u s ly o r a br u p t ly i f r e q u ir e d ) i s fo u n d i n t he
,

s a m e w a y a s t h e di s pl a c e m e nt d u e t o i nt ri ns ic e l e c t ric fo rc e i n

a n on c on d u c t i n g m e di u m o f s i m il a rly di s t rib u t e d p e rm i t t ivi t y 3

-

or as t h e c ond u c t i o n c u rre n t d u e t o t he s a m e i n a m e di u m o f

s i m il a r c ond u c t ivi t y 3 o r ,
t o m a k e a fou rfold a n a l ogy a s t he ,

m a gn e t ic c on d u c t i on c u rre nt d u e t o h O i n a ( fic t i t i o u s ) m e di u m
o f s i m il a r m a g n e t ic c o n d u c t ivi t y .

I m ay h e re p oi nt o u t t ha t a cl e a r r e c og ni t i on o f t he c o rre c t
a n a l o gi e s b e t w e e n t he e l e c t ric a n d m a g ne t i c s id e s o f e l e c tr o

m a g ne t i s m i s e ss e nt i a l t o p e r m a ne nt ly u s e ful w o rk Ma n y
‘

h a v e b ee n m i sl e d i n t hi s r e s p e c t e s p e cia lly i n c o m p a ri ng
,

M a xw ell s di s pl a c e m ent wi t h m a gn e t ic p ola ri s a t i o n The t ru e

’
.
 O UTL I NE OF ELEC T ROMA GNE TI C CONNE C TI ONS . 1 05

l g u e o f D i s B I nv es t iga t i on s ba s e d u p on t he fa l s e
a na o .

fo u n da t i on m e nt i one d c an l e a d t o n o t hi ng b u t c onfu s i o n .

The re a r e en ou gh s ou rc e s o f e rro r wi t h ou t bri ngi n g i n gra t u i t

o u s ones .

N pr es u mi ng we h a ve i ndu c t i on s et u p by ho ho w i s t he
o w, ,

e n e rgy t o be r e ck on e d ? I r e ckon i t s a m o u nt p e r u ni t v ol u m e
t o b e % HB g e n e ra ll y wh e t h e r o u t s id e o r wi t hi n t he m a g ne t 3
,

o r , i n t he u s u a l i s o tr opic c as e § p H or 2 Thi s m a k e s
,

t he t o t a l w o rk d on e by h 0 t o b e h OB p e r u n i t v ol u m e if h0 i s ,

s u dd e n ly e s t a bli s h e d ; o f wh i ch o n e h a l f i s w a s t e d a nd t he ,

r e s t r e m a i n s a s s t or e d m a g n e t ic e ne rgy Tha t i s .
,

RT B% E B, ( 1 7)
i f t he 2 i ndic a t e s s p a c e s u m m a t i on If h0 be s u dd e nly d es
-
.

t r oy e d t h e e ne rgy ET i s s e t fr ee a nd i s di s s ip a t e d m a i nly by
, ,

t h e h e a t o f c u rre nt s i n d u c e d wi t hi n t h e m a g ne t i t s e lf a n d s u r
r ou ndi ng c on d u c t ors Thi s i s t he m e a ni ng o f § H B b e i n g t he
.

s t o r e d e ne rgy p e r u n i t v o l u m e B u t i t m a y n o t b e i mm e di a t e ly
.

a v a il a bl e To t a k e a n e x t re m e c a s e i f w e h a v e a c o m pl e t e
. ,

m a gne t ic circ u i t s o m a g n e t i s e d i n t ri n s ic a lly t h a t t h e r e i s n o

,

e x t e rn a l fi e ld t he e n e rgy as a b o v e r e ck o n e d i s t h e gre a t es t
, , ,

p os s ibl e s in c e H = h0 B u t i t i s n ow n o t a t a ll a va il a bl e u nl e s s
,
.
,

h0 b e d e s t r o y e d O n t he o t h e r h a nd M a xw e ll w o u ld a pp e a r t o
.
,

h a v e c on s id e re d t he e ne rgy o f a m a g ne t t o b e %u( H h0) 2 2 —

,

which i s z e ro i n th e j u s t m e nt i on e d c a s e Thi s r e ck oni ng d oe s .

n ot h a rm on i s e wi t h t h e c o nt i nu i t y o f e ne rgy a l t h o u gh i t has ,

s igni fi c a n c e c ons id e re d a s e ne rgy m ore or l e s s i m me di a t ely

,

a v a il a bl e wi t h o u t d e s t r u c t i o n o f h o The c onn e c t i on O f t h e t wo
.

r e ck on i ngs i s s h o wn by
Ei hoB Z i ol o
h ‘h 2 2( H ho) 3 ( )3
1 8

or, wh en H a nd B a re p a r a ll el ,

E h oB = 2
i a ho2 — 2 a <H -
ho> 2
.
( )
1 9

No w, cc ordi ng t o t he r e ck on ing ( 1 7 ) of t he s t ore d e ne rgy

a ,

a n d t h e c o n s e qu e nt flu x o f e n e rgy t he s t re s s v e c t o r d e riv e d ,

t h e r e fr om i n dic a t es t h a t t h e m o vi ng fo rc e p e r u n i t v o l u m e i s

F = Vj , B .

w h e re j ,
c u rl h ,
.
 1 06 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . II

The i nt e rpre ta t i on i s t h a t t he v e c t o r j 0 r e pr e s ent s t he d i s t r i

bu t i o n o f ( fic t it i ou s ) e l e c t ric c u rr e n t which w o u ld u nd e r t he , ,

s a m e circ u m s t a n c e s a s r e g a rd s i n d u c t ivi t y s e t u p or b e as s o , ,

c i a t e d w i t h t h e s a m e di s t ri bu t i o n o f i n d u c t i o n B a s t h e i nt ri ns ic
,

m a gne t i s I t m a y b e r e m a rk e d t h a t t h e i nd u c t i on d u e t o a n
.
:

i nt ri ns ic m a g ne t ic forc e d o e s n ot d e p e nd u p on i ts di s t rib u t i on .

prim a rily b u t s ol e ly u p on t ha t o f i t s c u rl
, .

S u b s t i t u t i n g t hi s cu rr e nt s y s t e m for t h e i nt ri ns ic m a gne t i s a
t i o n e q u a t i o n ( 2 0) i ndic a t e s t h a t t he m o vi ng fo rc e i s
“
,
the
e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic fo rc e c orre s p on din g t h e r e t o a cc ordin g t o ,

82 . The a cc o m p a nyi n g s u rfa c e di s t rib u t i on o f c u rr e nt r e p r e ,

s e nt i n g t h e a bru p t c e s s a t i o n o f 11 m u s t n ot b e fo rg o tt e n or
0 , ,

w e m a y le t i t c e a s e gra d u a lly a nd h a v e a c u rr e nt l a y e r I n t he
,

s k i n O f t he m a g ne t I t m a y be fa r m o re i m p o r t a nt t h a n
.

t he i nt e r na l c u rr e nt which m a y i nd e e d , b e n o n e xi s t e n t
, ,
-
.

Fo r i ns t a nc e i n t h e c as e o f a u n i fo r m ly l ongi t u di nally m a g
,

ne t i s e d ba r t h e e qu iv a l e n t c u rr e n t fo rm s a cyli n dric a l s h e e t
'

r o u nd t he m a gnet In g e ne ra l t he s u r fa c e r e pr e s e n t a t iv e o f
~

.
,

J0 Is

( )
2 2

wh e r e N i s a u n i t n o rm a l dra w n fro m t he b o u n d a ry i nt o t he
m a gne t It s h o u ld a l s o n o t be fo rg ott e n t h a t i f t he i n d u c t ivi t y
.

ch a ng e s t h e r e i s a l s o t he m o vi n g fo rc e ( 1 5 ) o r ( 1 4 ) t o b e
,
.

r e ck one d b es ide s t h a t d ep e nd e nt u p on t he i nt ri n s ic m a gnet i s a

,
~

t ion .

Forc e on I nt r i ns i ca l l y E l e ct ri ze d M a tt e r .

§84 . The l c t ric a

e en a l o g u e o f i n t ri ns ic m a g ne t i s a t i o n i s i n

t r i n s i c e l e c t ri s a t i on r e pr es e n t e d i n a s olid di e l e c t ric i n whic h

,

a b s o rp t i o n has o cc u rr e d a nd p erh a p s i n pyro e l e c t ric cry s t a l s

”
.
,

I t s e e m s v e ry pr o b a bl e t h a t t h e re i s a t r u e e l e c t ri s a t i o n q u i t e ,

a p a rt fr o m c o m plic a t i o ns d u e t o c o nd u c t i o n s u rfa c e a c t i o n s , ,

a nd e l e c t r o ly s i s Whe n form u l a t e d i n a s i m il a r m a nne r t o i n

.

t r i n s i c m a g ne t i s a t i o n by m e a ns o f i n t ri ns ic e l e c t ric forc e 9 0
, ,

pro d u cin g di s pl a ce m e nt a cc ordi ng t o t he p e rmi tt ivi t y of t he

m e di u m ( w hich d is pl a c e m e n t h o we v e r i s no w a l so a ffe c te d by
, ,

t he pr e s e nc e o f c o nd u c t i n g m a t t e r) a nd wi t h a s i m il a r r e ck on ,

i ng o f t he s t or e d e n e rgy viz é cE Z p e r u n it v o l u m e wh e r e B
,
.
, ,
.
1 08 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . II .

The di vi s ion of t he r es u l t a nt t ra ns l a t i on a l forc e i nto a

n u m b e r o f di s t i n c t fo rc e s i s s om e t i m e s u s e l e s s a nd a r t i fi ci a l .

B u t a s m any o f t h e m c a n b e i s ol a t e d a n d s t u di e d s e p a ra t e ly
, ,

i t i s n ot d e s ira bl e t o o v e rl oo k t h e divi s i on .

The e qu ilibri u m o f a di e l e c t ric m e di u m fr e e fro m e le c t ri fic a

t i on a n d i nt rin s ic fo rc e s whic h o b ta i ns wh e n t he e l e c t ric a nd
,

m a gn e t ic fo rc e s a re s t e a dy i s u p s e t wh e n t h e y v a ry
, Th e re i s .

t h e n t he e l e c t r o m a gn e t ic fo rc e i n v i r t u e o f t h e di s pl a c e m e n t
el e ct ric c u rr e n t a n d t he m a g ne t oe l e c t ric fo rc e i n v ir t u e o f t he
( )
m a gn e t ic c u rr e nt 3 t h a t i s ,

F = Vi > R + VD R

w h e re W i s t h e flu x o f e ne rgy; H e re we ne gl e c t p os s i bl e s m a ll
t e r m s d e p e n di ng o n t h e m o t i o n o f t h e m e di u m .

Th a t t he re s h ou ld b e i n a m a t e ri a l di e l e c t ric m o vi ng fo rc e
, ,

bro u ght i nt o pl a y u n d e r t he a c t i o n of v a ryi n g di s pl a c e m e nt a n d

i nd u c t i on d o e s n o t p re s ent a ny i m prob a bili t y B u t i t i s l e s s .

e a s y t o gra s p t he id e a w h e n i t i s t he e t h e r i t s e l f t h a t i s t he

di el e c t ric c onc e rne d P e rh a p s t hi s i s for s o m e p e o pl e b e c a u s e

.
, ,

O f Old a s so ci a t i on s —t h e e l a s t ic s olid t h e o ry o f ligh t fo r i n ,

s t a nc e wh e r e in di s pl a c e m e nt o f t he e t h e r r e pr e s e nt s t he
,

d i s t u rb a n c e .

B u t i f we t a k e a n a ll r o u nd v i e w o f t he e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic c on
ne c t i on s a n d t h e ir c o ns e q u en c es t he id e a o f m o v i n g forc e o n
,

t he e t h e r wh e n i t s e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic s t a t e i s ch a n gi ng will be
fou n d t o b e q u i t e n a t u ra l i f n o t i m p e r a t iv e ly n e c e s s a ry
, We .

d o k n o w s om e t hi ng a b o u t h o w di s tu rb a n c e s a r e prop a g a t e d
t hr o u gh t h e e t h e r a nd we c a n o n t h e s a m e pri n c ipl e s a ll o w
, , ,

for b odily m o t i o n o f t he e t h e r i t s e l f F u r t h e r r e a c t i o n s o n t he
.
,

e t h e r t e n di n g t o m o ve i t
,
a r e i n dic a t e d
,
B u t h e re w e a re
.
-

s t o pp e d W e h a v e n o k no wl e dg e o f t he d e ns i t y o f t he e t h e r
.
,

nor o f i t s m e ch a n ic a l pr op e rt i e s i n b u lk s o fr o m d e fa u l t o f re a l
, ,

da t a a r e u n a bl e t o s a y e x c e p t u p on s p e c u l a t iv e d a t a wha t
, , ,

m ot i ons a c t u a lly r e s u l t a n d wh e t h e r t h e y m a k e a ny s e ns ibl e

,

di ffe r enc e i n ph e nom e na c a lc u l a t e d on t he s u pp os it i on t ha t t he

ethe r i s fi x e d .
 O UTLI NE OF ELEC TROMAGNE T I C CONNEC TI ONS . 1 09

86 . l a s t form u l a we s e e t ha t t o h a v e m o vi ng fo rc e
F rom t he
i n a n on c o n d u c t o r ( fre e from e l e c t rifica t i on ti c ) r e qu i re s n ot
-

,
.

m e r e ly t h e c oe x i s t e n c e o f e l e ct ric a nd m a g ne t ic fo rc e b u t a ls o ,

t h a t on e or ot h e r o f t h e m o r b o t h s h o u ld b e v a ryi ng wi t h t he
, ,

t im e Th a t i s wh e n t he e ne rgy flu x i s s t e a dy t h e re i s no
.
, ,

m o v i ng fo rc e b u t wh e n i t v a ri e s i t s v e c t o r t i m e v a ri a t i on
, ,
-
,

di vi d e d by 0 e x pr es s e s t h e m oving forc e
2 ’
,
.

The dir e c t i o n o f W i s a n a t u ra l on e t o ch oos e as o ne o f t h e

a x e s of r e fe r e n c e o f t he s t r e s s b e i n g p e rp e n dic u l a r t o b o t h I}
,
.

a n d H which i n dic a t e t he a x e s O f s y m m e t ry o f t h e e l e c t ric a n d

,

m a gn e t ic s t r e ss e s The t wo l a t e ra l pr e s s u r e s c o m bi n e t og e t he r
.

t o pr o d u c e a s t r e s s o n t he W pl a n e

( )
3 1

wh e r e W 1 i s a u ni t v e ct or p a ra ll e l t o W ( Ta k e N = W 1 i n t he .

g e ne ra l fo rm u la ( 3 0) 7 2 for P N) .

I f f u r t h e r I : a nd H a r e p e rp e ndic u l a r t o o n e a no t h e r t he
, , ,

s t r e s s e s o n t h e pl a n e s p e rp e n dic u l a r t o t h e m a r e

Pm E1 ( U T) ,

PH I H1 ( T U) ,

which a re a l so e nt ire ly n or m a l H e re I] , a nd H1 a re u nit

.

v e c t ors Thu s W 1 i s a lways a pri ncip a l s t re s s a x i s whil e

.
, ,

B , a nd H 1 b e c o m e t h e o t h e r p a ir o f pri n c i p a l a x e s wh e n t h e y
a r e p e rp e n dic u l a r a s i n v a ri o u s c a s e s O f e l e c t ro m a g n e t ic w a v e s
, .

Thu s w h e n a l ong s t ra ight wire s u pp o rt s a s t e a dy c u rr e nt or ,

e l s e i s t ra n s m i t t i n g w a v e s t he pri n cip a l a x e s o f t he s t r e s s a t a
,

p oi nt n e a r t he w ire a r e r es p e c t iv ely p a ra ll el t o i t a nd p e rp e n
d i c u la r t o i t r a di a lly a nd circ u l a rly
, The firs t o ne ha s a
.

pre s s u r e ( U + T) a c t i ng a l on g i t t he s e c on d ( p a ra ll e l t o E) a
,

pre s s u r e ( T U ) a nd t he t hird ( p a r a ll e l t o H) a pres s u re

—
,

( U — T
) ( Thi. s l e g i t i m a t e u s e o f pr es s u re m u s t no t b e c o n

fo u n d e d w i t h t h e u t t e rly v ici o u s m i s u s e O f pr e s su r e t o i n di
 110 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

c ase of a s o li t a ry wa ve or t ra i n o f wa v e s wi t h n egligibl e d i s t or
t i o n U a n d T a r e e q u a l a n d t h e r e i s b u t o n e pri n cip a l s t r es s
, ,

vi z t h a t wi t h a x i s p a ra ll e l to W a pr e s s u r e 2 U o r 2 T
.
,
It i s
,
.

t hi s pr e s s u r e ( or i t s m e a n v a l u e ) t h a t i s r e fe rr e d t o a s t h e
pre ss u re e x e r t e d by s ol a r r a dia t io n a nd i t s s p a c e v a ri a t i on co n ,
-

s t i t u t e s t h e m o vi n g fo rc e b e fo r e m e nt i o n e d Thi s m a t t e r i s .

s t ill i n a s o m e wh a t s p e c u l a t iv e s t a g e .

I t i s n a t u r a l t o a s k wh a t p a r t d o t h e s t re s s e s pl a y i n t he
pro p a g a t i on o f di s t u rba n c es ? The s t re s s es a nd a cc o m p a ny i ng
, s t ra i ns i n a n e l a s t ic b o dy a r e m a t e ri a lly c o n c e r ne d i n t he t ra n s

. m i s s i o n o f m o t i o n t hro u gh t h e m a n d i t m i gh t b e t h o u gh t t h a t
,

i t w o u ld be t h e s a m e h e re B u t i t d o e s n ot ap p ea r t o be so
.

fr o m t he e le c t r om a g ne t ic e q u a t i o n s a n d t h e ir d y n a m ic a l c o n
s e q u e nc e s t h a t i s t o s a y w e r e pr e s e nt t h e pro p a g a t i on o f d is
—
“

t u rba n c es by p a r t ic ul a r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s p a c e a nd t he
t i m e va ri a t i o n s o f E a n d H 3 a n d t h e e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic s t re s s
-

a nd p o s s i bl e b o dily m o t i o n s s ee m t o b e a cc o m p a n i m e nt s ra t h e r

t h a n t he m a i n t h e m e .

D ep e nd e n e c of l u x e s d u e t o a n I mp r ess e d Forc i v e u p on
t he F
its G e ne ra l D e mons t ra t i on of t hi s P r op e rt y
C u rl onl y . .

§ 8 7 I n 38 3 i t wa s r e m a rk e d t h a t t he flu x i nd u c t i o n d u e t o
.

a n i nt ri ns ic m a g n e t ic fo r civ e d e p e n d s n o t u p o n i t s e l f dir e c t ly ,

b u t u p o n i t s c u rl a n d i n § 8 4 a s i m i la r pr o p e r t y w a s p o i nt e d
,

.
ou t c onn e c t i n g t he flu x di s pl a c e m e n t a nd i n t ri n s i c el e c t ric
fo rc e Th a t i s t o s a y t he fl u x e s d e p e n d u p on t he v e c t o rs j 0
.
,

a nd g n o t u p on 9 0 a n d h o Thi s r e m a rk a bl e a n d a t fir st
o
.
, ,

Sigh t s t ra n ge prop e rt y which i s g e ne ra l a d m i t s of b e i ng

, , ,

d e m ons t ra t e d in a m a nn e r which s h a ll m a k e i t s t r u t h e vid e nt

i n a wid e r s en s e a n d l e a d t o a c o nn e c t e d pr o p e r t y o f c ons id e r
,

. a b l e i m p o r t a n c e i n t he t h e o ry O f e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic w a v e s .

L e t t he r e be a ny i m pr e s s e d fo rciv e e 0 i n a s t a t i o n a ry m e di u m .

I t s a c t ivi t y i s e oJ p e r u n i t v ol u m e wh e re J i s t he e l e c t ric c u r
'

r e n t a nd t h e t o t a l a c t i v i t y i s
,
wh e re t he 2 i n dic a t es s u m
m a t i o n t hr o u gh a ll s p a c e o r a t a ny ra t e s o far a s t o i ncl u d e
,

e v e ry pl a c e wh e r e e e x i s t s I t s e q u iv a l e n t i s Q. t h e t ot al ra te
o 0 ,

o f w a s t e o f e n e rgy a n d t h e r a t e o f i n cr e a s e o f t he t o t a l s t o r e d
.

e n e rgi e s s ay U a n d To
0,
Th us .
,
112 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II.

of s u ch d e t a il s a s a re n ot c on c e rn e d i n eq u a t i on
. su ch as

t he d i s t rib u t i o n o f c on d u c t ivi t y p e rm i t t ivi t y & c t he

~

, , .
, or of
.

fo rc es b e i ng li n e a r fu n c t i on s o f t h e fl u x e s .

I d e nt i t y of t he Di st u rba nc e s d u e t o Im p r e s s e d For ci v es
h av i ng t he s a me C ur l . Exa mp l e —
A . S i ngl e C i r cu i t al
S ou rc e of Di stu rba nc e .

88 . R r i g t o ( 3 4 ) a g a i n we s e e t h a t a ny t w o i m pr e s s e d
et u n n ,

fo r c i v e s pr o du c e t he s a m e r es u l t s i n e v e ry p a r t ic u l a r a s r e g a rd s ,

t he v a ryi n g s t a t e s o f I : a nd H g one t hrou gh if t h e ir c u r l i s ,

t he s a m e Fo r t h e di ffe r en c e o f t h e t wo for c i v e s i s a n i rr ot a
‘

t i ona l fo rciv e a n d i s i n o p e r a t iv e
, H e re i t i s des ira ble t o t a ke
.

FI G 6
. .

an e xplici t e x a m pl e fo r ill u s t ra t i on of the m e a n in g a nd e ffe c t .

D e s crib e a li ne a r circ u i t i n s p a c e a n d a s u rfa c e b o u nd e d by t he

,

circu i t ( Fig O v e r t hi s s u rfa c e w hich c a ll S le t a n i m pr e s s e d

, ,

fo rc e V a c t n o r m a lly V b e i n g t h e s a m e a ll o v e r t he s u rfa c e
, .

Thi s s y s t e m of forc e i s irr ot a t i o na l e v e rywh e re e x c e p t a t t he

b ou n di ng circ u it wh e r e t h e r e i s a circ u i t a l di st rib u t i on of g 0
,

t h e c u rl o f c o of s t r e n g t h V
, .

N o w o u r pre s e nt pr o p o s i t i o n a s s er t s t h a t t h e di s t u rb a n c e s
,

d u e t o V o v e r t h e s u rfa c e S a r e i n e v e ry r e s p e c t t he s a m e as
. .

t h os e d u e t o V ( t h e s a m e n o r m a l i m pr e s s e d forc e ) Sp re a d ,

o v e r a ny o t h e r s u rfa c e b o u n d e d by t he s a m e circ u i t The .

c om pre h ens i v e n e s s o f t hi s prop e r ty m ay be ill u s t ra t e d by s u p

p o s i n g t h a t o ne s u r fa c e i s wh o lly i n a no n c o n d u c t or
_ whil s t -

,
 O UTLI NE OF ELE CT ROMAGNE TI C C ONN EC T I ON S . 113

t he ot h e r p as s e s t hrou gh a c o nd u c t o r ; or t ha t on e s u rfa c e is

a nd t hrou gh a no t he r c on d u c to r i ns u l a t e d from t he firs t Thu s .

,

in t he di a gra m le t S be t he firs t S ii rfa ce ( i n s e ct i on ) a nd S

, I ,

t he s e c ond p a s s i n g t hr ou gh a c on d u c t o r re pr e s ent e d by t he
,

Sh a d e d r e gi on The p o i nt s A B a r e wh e re t he c om m on
.
,

b ou nd a ry o f t he t wo s u rfa c e s c u t s t he p a p e r whil s t t he a rro w s ,

s e r v e t o Sh o w t he di r e c t i o n o f a c t i o n o f t he im press e d fo rc e .

S 2 i s a no t h e r s u rfa c e o f i m pr e s s e d fo rc e a l so r e a chi ng i nto t he

,

c ondu c t o r No w a ll t h es e for ci v e s ( e a ch by i t s e l f) will p rodu c e

.

t he s a m e fi na l s t a t e o f di s pl a c e m e nt i n t he di e l e c t ric a nd
e l e c t rifica t i on o f t he c o n d u c t o r a n d will d o s o i n t he sa m e
,

m a nne r 3 t h at i s t he e l e c t r om a gn e t ic di s t u rb a n c e s g e ne ra t ed
,

will be t he sa m e wh en e xpres s e d i n t e rm s of B a nd H The .

dis t ribu t ion of ene rgy fo r ex a m pl e a nd t he s t re ss e s w ill be

, , ,

t he sa m e .

B u t t h e re m u s t be di ffe re nc e m a d e by t h u s s hift in g t he
s om e

s ou rc e o f e ne rgy O bvi o u s ly t h e na t u re of t he flu x of e ne rgy

.

i s cha ng e d Thi s b e ing

.

wh e re we d e d u ct t he i nt ri n s ic forc e s t o ob t a i n t he forc e s e ffec

t i v e i n t ra n s fe rr i ng e ne rgy we s e e t h a t e v e ry ch a n g e m a d e i n
,

t he di s t rib u t i on of t he i nt ri ns i c s ou rc e s a ff e c t s t he fl u x of
e n e rgy i n Spi te o f t he i n d e p e n d e n c e o f E a n d H of t h e ir d i s t r i
,

b u t i ons ( s u bj e ct t o t he lim i t a t i on ment i on e d) I n o u r e x a m pl e .

,

h o we ve r t he only ch a nge is i n t he s h e et of im pres s e d forc e

,
114 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . II .

i n fini te ly ra pidly t h e re m ight be s om e di ffic u l t y i n re c og ni s i ng

t he pro p e rt y b e c a u s e t he s t e a dy s t a t e a ppro pri a t e t o t he
,

ins t anta n e ou s s ta t e o f t he i m pr e s s e d for c e w o u ld e x i s t

( if t he c o nd u c to r w e re a w a y ; bu t
) a s we s h a ll s ee l a t e r
, ,

th e s pee d o f pr op a g a t i on i s a lw a y s fi ni te d e p e ndi ng u p o n t he
,

valu es of c a nd p i n t he m e di u m ; a nd c on du c t ion does not a lt er

.

t hi s pr op e rt y a l t h ou gh by i t s a t t e n u a t i ng a nd di s t or t i ng e ffe c t s
,

i t m ay profo u n dly a l t e r t he n a t u re of t he r e s u l t a nt ph e nom ena .

Wi th t h en a fi n i t e s p ee d of prop a ga t i on we h a ve m e re ly t o
, , ,

c a u s e t he i m pr es s e d forc e t o var y o r fl u c t u at e s u ffici e nt ly

ra pidly to Ob t a in dis t i nc t e vid e nc e of t he e m a na t i on o f w a v e s
fr om t he r e a l s ou rc e s o f di s t u rba n c e T h u s le t t he s o u rc e be
.
,

FI G . 7 .

circ u l a r in a pl ane p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he p a p e r ( Fi g a nd A B .

,

t he p o i nt s wh e re i t c u t s t h e p a p e r Wh e n t he s o u rc e i s s u dd e nly
.

s ta rt e d t he circl e A B A i s t he firs t li ne o f m a g n
,
e t ic fo rc e At .

an
y t i m e t l a t e r s u ch t h a t wt i s l e s s t h a n t h e di s t a n c e $ A B
, ,

t he e l e c t r om a gn e t ic di s t u rb a n c e will b e c o n fi ne d wh olly w i t hin

a rin g Sha p e d r e gi on h a vi n g t h e circ u l a r s o u rc e fo r c o r e a nd o f
-

ra di u s 'vt ro u nd A or r ou n d B Bu t wh e n t he di s ta n c e ot i n
.
r

cre as e s t o § A B o v e rl a pping c om m e nc es a nd a li t t l e l a te r t he r e
,

i s ( as i n t he Sh a d e d p a rt o f t he fig u re ) a r e gi o n o cc u pi e d by t wo
c oincide nt w a v e s cros s ing o ne a no t h e r N o w t he u n i on o f
.
,

t h e se w a v e s pr od u c es t he s t ea dy s t a t e o f di s pl a c e m e nt wi t h ou t
m a gn et ic fo rc e— t h at i s wi t hi n th e Sh a d e d re gi on t he m a g ne t ic
,
116 ELEC TROMA GNE TI C THE ORY . CH . II .

All i m pre s se d v lt g
o a e s a nd ga ul ess di ffi cu lt
ss a g es a re m or e or

t o u n d e rs ta nd B u t t h e r e n e e d be n o d ou b t as t o t he g e ne ral
.

t r u t h of t he pr op e rt y if t he c i rc u i ta li ty o f the c u rre nt ca n be
t ru s te d .

The Eru p t i on “ ”
of 4 7r s .

90 . I t m a y h a v e b e e n Obs e rv e d t h a t t he equ a t i ons e m pl oye d

by me i n t he pr e c e di ng di ffe r fro m t h os e i n u s e i n al l m a t h e
m a t i ca l t r e a t i s e s onbj e c t i n a c e r t a i n re s p e ct ( a mongs t
t he su

o t h e rs i ch c which u a lly s o
) m a s t he s t a nt 4 i
'

, n as u o n s us 71

o b t r u s iv ely pro m i n e nt ha s b ee n c o ns pic u o u s by i t s a bs e n c e

,
.

Th i s c onst a n t 4 wa s fo rme rly s u ppos ed t o be a n e s s e nt i a l p a r t

72

o f a ll e l e c t ric an d m a gn e t ic t h e o ri e s O ne o f t he e a rlie s t .

re su l t s t o which a s t u d e nt o f t he m a t he m a t ics of e l e c t rici t y

w as i nt ro d u c e d i n p r e M a xwe lli a n d a y s was C o u l om b s la w o f
’
-

t he r e l a t i on b e t w e e n t he d e ns i t y o f t he e l e c t ric l a y e r on a
c on d u c t o r a nd t he i nt e ns i t y o f e l e c t ric fo rc e j u s t o u t s id e i t s a y ,

E = 4 7ro ; '
l
( )
a nd , s n e i c th ispro v e d by m a t h e m a t ic s i t s e e m e d t h a t t he
was ,

4 w a s a n e s se nt i a l ra t i o b e t w e e n t wo phy s ic a l q u a n t i t i e s viz
1: ,
.
,

e l e c t rici t y a nd t he fo rc e i t e x e r t e d o n o t h e r e l e c t rici t y N e ve r .

a hi n t w as g i v e n t h a t t hi s 4 was p u re ly c o n v e nt i o na l 3 i t w a s
7:

n o t i nd e e d e v e n r e c o g ni s e d t o be c o n v e nt i o n a l a nd i s n o t a t
, , ,

t he pr e s e nt d a y i n s om e q u a r t e r s T he n a ga i n a t t he b egi n
.
, ,

ni ng O f m a g n e t i s m w a s G a u s s s c el e bra t e d t h eo r e m pro vi n g
’
,

m a t h e m a t ic a lly t h a t t he t ot a l flu x of m a gn e t ic fo rc e o u t wa rd
t h ro ugh a cl o s e d s u rfa c e e q u a ll e d pr e ci s e ly 4 1: t i m e s t he t o ta l
a m ou nt of m a g ne t i s m e n cl os e d wi t hi n t he s u rfa c e 3 and for a ll ,

t h a t m igh t a pp e a r t o t he c ont ra ry t hi s r e m a rk a bl e r e s u lt ,

flo we d o u t n e c e s s a rily from t he prop e rt i e s of t he po t e nt i a l

fu nc t i o n a nd i t s d e r iv a t iv e s a n d o f t h e t hre e dir e c t i o n c os i n e s
,

o f t he n o r m a l t o a n e l e m e nt o f t h e s u rfa c e I t was fu nny .

v e ry fu nny H O W e v e r t he 4 m ana ge d t o find i ts wa y i n wa s

. 7:

t h e p u zzl e i n t h es e a nd s i m il a r r es u l t s ; for i ns t a n c e i n t h e ,

w e ll known
-

p . 1 4 1m , 2)

whe re p i
. s t h e p e r m e a bili t y a n d K a no t h e r phys ic a l pro p e rt y ,

t he s u s c e p t i bili t y t o m a g ne t i sa t i on of a s u b s t a nc e The d a rk
. .
 OU T L I NE OF ELEC T ROM AGNE T I C CONNEC T I ONS . 1 17

m y s t e ry w as ca reful ly c ov e re d u p by t he m a t h e m a t ic s I t was .

as ha rd t o u n d e rs ta nd a s t he m on a rch fo u n d i t t o e x pl a i n t h e .

pre s en c e o f t he a pple i n t he d u m pli ng— ho w did t he goo dwife

m ana g e t o g e t i t i n ? Nor wa s t he m a t t e r r e nd e re d pl a i n e r by
M a x w e ll t h o u gh t hi s t h e o ry o f
'
M axw e ll s gre a t t re a t i se .

e l e c t ric dis pl a c e m e nt e xpl a i n e d t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e 4 ( i n t he 1:

cor re s p o n di ng e l e c t ric t h eor e m) a s if i t we r e a m a tt e r of

,
.

phy s ic s i ns t e a d a s i s t he fa c t of irr a t i onally ch os e n u nit s

, , ,
.

A s t he pr e s e nt ch a p t e r has b e e n m a i nl y d e v o t e d t o a g e ne ra l
o u t li ne o f e l e c t ro m a gn e t ic t h e o ry e x pr e s s e d i n form u l ae i n v olv

i ng ra t i ona l u n i t s i t will b e fi t t i n g i n bri ngi n g i t t o a c on cl u

, ,

s i o n t o e xpl a i n h e re t h e r e l a t i on t h e s e r a t i ona l u n i t s b ea r t o
,

t he o rdin a ry irr a t i o na l u ni t s .

Th e Ori gi n a nd S p r ea d of t h e Er u p t i on .

rigi
The o f t he 4 a b s u rdi t l i h wi d
‘

§91 . n o y a y n t e s 72o m o f
o u r a n c e s to r s li t e ra lly The i n v e rs e s q u a r e la w be ing re c og
,
-
.

n i s e d s a y t ha t t wo ch a rg e s 91 a n d 9 2 r e p e ll e d o n e a not h e r wi t h
,

a fo rc e v a ry i ng i nv e rs ely a s t he s q u a re o f t h e di s t a nc e b e t w e e n

t h e m ; t h us ,

F ( )
3

wh e re a c o n s t a n t ; w h a t w a s m o r e n a t u ra l t h a n t o m a k e
is a

t h e e x pre s s i on O f t he la w a s s i m pl e a s p o s s i bl e by givi ng t h e
c on s t a nt a t he va l u e u n i t y if i nde e d i t we re t h o u gh t Of a t a ll 2
, , ,

O u r a n c e s t o rs c o u ld n o t s e e i nt o t he fu t u r e t ha t is t o s e y
‘
—
, ,

b ey o nd t h e ir nose s a nd p e rc e iv e t h a t t hi s sy s t e m w oul d w o rk
,
—

o u t a b s u rdly Th e y w e re s u ffici e ntly wi s e i n t h e ir g e ne ra t i on

.
,

a n d w e r e n o t t o bl a m e .

B u t a ft e r l e a r n i n g t h a t c e rt a i n phy s ic a l q u a nt i t i es b e a r t o
,

o n e a n o t h e r i n v a ri a bl e r e l a t i o ns w e s h o u ld i n fo r m i ng a s y s t e
, ,

m a t ic r e pr es e nt a t i on o f t h e s a m e e n d e a v o u r t o a v o id t h e i nt ro ,

d u c t i o n o f a rbi t ra ry a nd u nn e c e s sa ry c on s t a nt s This v a l u a bl e .

pri ncipl e was re c ogni s e d t o a s m a ll e x t e nt by ou r a n c e s t ors as ,

a bov e 3 i t w a s e m p ha s i s e d b M a x w e ll a nd Je nk i n i n t h e i r
y
li tt le t re a t i s e o n u n i ts i n on e o f th e R e p or t s o f t he B A ; .

C o m m it t e e on El e c t ri c a l S ta n d a rd s ( 1 8 63 A pp e ndix C 3 p 5 9 , .

o f S p on s R e pri nt ) Thu s re fe rrin g t o t he m a gnet ic la w o f

’
.
,

i n v e rs e s q u a r es w e h a v e t he foll o w i ng
,
1 18 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . on .

The r gt h O f the p ol e i s ne c es sa ri ly d e fine d a s prop or

st en

t i ona l t o t h e forc e i t i s c a p a bl e of e x e rt i n g on a ny o t h e r p o l e .

H e nc e t he forc e f e x ert e d b e t we e n t wo po les o f t he s t re ngt hs m

a nd m m u s t b e pr op o r t i o na l t o t he prod u c t mm Th e fo rc e
1 , ,
.

7 i s a l s o fou n d t o b e i n v e rs e ly pr op or t i o na l t o t he s q u a r e o f t he
"

dis tan c e D s e p a ra t i ng t he p ol es a nd t o d e p e n d o n n o ot h e r
, , ,

q u a nt it y 3 h e nc e we h a v e u nless a n a bsu r d a nd u seless coefi czent

, ,
'

be i ntr odu ced,

f = mm D
l /
O b se rv e t he w ord s which I h a v e i t a lici s e d Wh e n i t i s con .

s i d e r e d wh a t M a xw e ll ha d t h e n d on e i n t he wa O f fr a m i ng a
y
broa d t h e ory of e l e c t rom a gnet i s m i t i s m a rv ell ou s t h a t h e ,

s h o u ld h a v e wri t t e n i n t h a t w a y By m e re forc e of h a bit on e

.

m igh t i n d e e d n ot c on s id e r t h e re t o b e a n yt hin g a n o m a l ou s
, ,

a b ou t t h e 4 i n C ou l o m b s a nd G a u ss s t h e o re m s B u t did not
’ ’
72 .

M a xw e ll s e l e c tro s t a t ic e n e rgy K QE/ 8 a n d hi s m a g ne t ic e n e rg y

’ 2 7r

e r u n i t v o l u m e l o u dly pr o cl a i m t h a t t h e re wa s s o m e
p
t hi ng ra dic a lly wr ong i n t he s y s t e m t o l e a d t o s u ch a m o d e o f
e xpr e s s i on which fa u l t s h o u ld b e a t t e nd e d t o a n d s e t ri gh t a b
,

i ni ti o e s p e ci a lly i n fra m in g a p e r m a ne nt s y s t e m o f pra c t ic a l

,

u ni t s which w a s wh a t M a xw e ll a nd hi s c oll e a g u e s w e r e a b ou t ?
,

I t w o u ld s e e m t h at t h e pr o cl a m at i on fe ll u p on d e a f e a rs fo r ,

not o nly w e r e t h e u n i t s irr a t i ona lly c on s t r u c t e d bu t i n hi s ,

Tr e a t i s e which foll o w e d s om e y e a rs l a t e r we find t he foll o wi n g

, ,

s t a t e m e nt ( p 1 5 5 s e c o n d e di t i on )
.
,
Aft e r a n a cc o u n t O f hi s
.

t h e o ry of e l e c t ric di s pl a c em e nt w e a r e t old t h a t t h e t h eory “

,

c om pl e t e ly a cc ou nt s for t he t h eore m of A r t 7 7 t ha t t he t ot a l .
,

i n d u ct i on t hr o u gh a cl os e d s u rfa c e i s e qu a l t o t he t ot a l qu a nt it y
of e l e c t rici t y wi t hi n t h e s u rfa c e m u l t ipli e d by 4 Fo r wh a t 71

we h a v e c a ll e d t he i n d u c t i on t hr ou gh t h e s u rfa c e i s Si m ply t h e
e l e c t ric di s pl a c e m e nt m u l t ipli e d by 4 a n d t he t o t a l di s pl a c e
72

m e nt ou t w a rd i s n e c es sa rily e qu a l t o t he t o t a l ch a rg e wit hi n
t he s u r fa c e Th a t i s hi s th e ory of el e ct ric di s pl a c e m ent
”
.
,

a cc o u n t s for t h e 4 S o i t s e e m s t o d o ; a nd y e t t he 4 has no '

72 71

e s s e n t i a l c o nn e c t i o n wi t h hi s t h e o ry o r wi t h a n y o n e e l s e s
’
.
,

T h ou gh by no m e an s e v id e nt u nt il i t i s p oi nt e d ou t i t i s e nt ire ly ,

a q u e s t i o n o f t h e pro p e r ch o ic e o f u n i t s a n d i s i nd e p en d e nt o f ,

a ll t h e o ri e s o f e l e c t rici t y I t d e p en ds u p on s om et hi ng m u ch
.

m or e fu nd a m e nt a l .
 1 20 ELE C T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . I I.

Us i ng ,
p ora rily t he l a ng u a g e of li ne s o f forc e o r of t u be s
t em , ,

o f fo rc e which h o we v e r a s h e r e s o m e t i me s w o rk s o u t r a t h er
( , , ,

nons e ns ic a lly ) w e m a y s a y t h a t a u n i t p ol e s e nd s o u t one li ne

,

o f fo rc e o r o n e t u b e w h e n r a t i o na lly e s t i m a t e d
, , .

Ne x t t h e re i s t he prop e r m e as u re o f t he s t re ng t h O f cir
,

c u i t a l fl u x e s t o be c o n s id e r e d ; e l e c t ric c u rr e n t fo r i ns t a n c e , .

t h a t t he c i r c u i t a t i on of t he
t o t he c u rr e nt t hr ou gh t he
o f t h e s t re n gt h o f t he c u rr e nt

as u s u a l di v idi ng by 4 , 12

o f t he irr a t i o n a l r e ck o n i n g

W e m a y t h e re fo r e e xp e c t
t h a t wh e n t h e p o i nt s o u rc e s a re m ea s u r e d ra t i on a lly t he 4 ,
7.

wi ll di sa pp ea r fro m t he r e ck o n i ng O f e l e c t ric c u rre n t ma ki ng ,

t he c i r c u i t a t i on o f m a gne t ic fo rc e t he pr o p e r r e ck o ni ng This .

i s so as m a y be e a s ily s e e n by s u b s t i t u t i n g for a li ne a r
,

e l e c t ric c u rr e n t a n e q u iv a l e n t m a gn e t ic Sh e ll a n d s o bri ngi ng ,

i n p o i nt s o u rc es di s t r ib u t e d o v e r i t s t w o fa c e s .

Thu s i n ra t i o na l u n it s i f we h a v e a p oi nt s o u rc e 9 o f d is
, ,

pl a c e m e nt a nd a p oi nt s o u rc e m o f in du c ti o n we ha v e
, ,

B ( )
6

to e xpre ss di s pl a c em ent a n d i nd u c t i on a t di s t a nc e
t he w h en
t he fl u x e s e m a n a t e i s o t r o pic a lly 3 a nd

H (u m/ w . ( )
7

if a nd m/u are t he m e a s u re s
rc e s of el e c t ric a nd
of t he s ou

m a g ne t ic forc e r e s p e c t iv e ly I n t he m a g ne t ic c a s e m m a y r e p r e
.

s e nt t he s t r e ng t h o f a p o l e o n t he u nd e rs ta ndi ng t h a t ( Si n c e
,

t he i nd u c t i on i s r e ally circ u i ta l ) w e ig nor e t he fl u x c o m i ng t o t he

p o l e ( as a l o ng a fil a m e n t a ry m a gn e t ) a nd c o n s id e r o nly t he ,

div e rgi ng i nd u c t i on A l so . .

H = G / 2 7rr ( )
8

e xpr es s es i
i y o f m a gne t ic forc e a t di s t a nce r from
t h e nt e n s t a

l ong s olit a ry s t ra ight c u rre nt of s t re ngt h C .

Obno xi ou s Effe c t s ru p t i on of t he E .

§ 93 . C on s id e ri ng m e r e ly t he fo rm u l ae b e l o ngi ng to p o int
s ou rc e s wi t h u n i fo r m div e rg e nc e w e s e e t h a t t he , e ff e c t o f
 OU TL I NE OF ELEC TROMAGNE T I C CONNEC T I ONS .
121

a li t y a nd irra t i o na l u n i t s for pra c t ic a l c o n v e ni e nc e B u t

u se .
,

a s a m a tt e r o f fa c t i t w o rk s o u t q u i t e di ff e r e nt ly
,
For t he .

u n n a t u ra l s u ppr e s s i o n o f t h e 4 i n t he fo r m u l ae O f c e nt r a l
7:

fo rc e wh e r e i t ha s a righ t t o be driv e s i t i nto t he bl o od t h e re

, , ,

t o m u l t iply i t s e l f a nd a ft e rw a rd s br e a k o u t a ll o v e r t h e b ody
,

o f e l e c t r om a gn e t ic t h e o ry Th e fe w fo rm u l ae wh e r e 4 s h o u ld '
. 71

be ar e pri ncip a lly s ch ol a s t ic for m u l ae a nd lit t l e u s e d ; t he m any

form ul ae wh e r e i t i s fo rc e d o u t a r e on t he c on t ra ry u s e fu l
‘

, ,

fo rm u l ae o f a c t u a l pra c t ic e a n d of t he pra c t ic e o f t h e o r A
, y .

pra c t ica l t h e ori s t w o u ld k no ck t h e m ou t me r e ly from t he

t ro u bl e t h e y giv e l e t a l one t he d e s i re t o s e e t hi n g s i n t h e ir
,

r igh t pl a c e s Fu rt h e rm o r e i t s h o u ld b e r e ma rk e d t h a t t h e
.
,

irra t i ona li t y of t he fo rm u l ae i s a gr e at i m p e di m e n t i n t he wa y
o f a cl ea r u n d e rs t a n di n g o f e l e c t ro m a g n e t ic t h e o ry The .

i nt e rpre t at i on o f e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) a b o v e fo r i ns t a n c e o r o f t he
‘

, ,

s i m il a r w ell k n ow n e q u a t i on
-

pr es e nt s s o m e d ifli c u lt y e ve n t o a s t u d e n t o f a bili t y u nl e s s he
‘
,

be giv en b e fo r e h a n d a hi nt or t w o t o a s s i s t h i m Fo r if is . K

a r a t i o na l phy s ic a l q u a n t i t y t h e n i c a nn ot be 3 or i f w i s right
,
t
, ,

t h e n K m u s t b e wr o ng O r a Q a n d 3 m u s t he i nc on gru o u s
.
, , .

The 4 i s a l s o p a r t icu l a rly i nc o n v e ni e n t i n d e s crip t iv e m a t t e r

7:

rel a t ing t o t u b es of forc e or fl u x a n d i n e v e ryt hin g c onne c t e d ,

wi t h t h e m .

Thi s di fii cu lty i n t he w a y of u n de rs t a ndi n g t h e i nn e r m e a n ’

i ng of t h e o ry i s s t ill fu rt h e r i n cr e as e d by t h e 4 n o t e n t e ri ng 72

i nt o t he m a gn e t ic form u l ae i n t he s a m e wa y a s i nt o t he e l e c t ric .

Thu s i t i s g
, ? a n d § / 4 which a r e a n a
7r l o g u e s A g a i n i n m a n y .
,
‘

Fo r i ns t a nc e ,
in in in § QE§ L i n QBQE , a nd in s om e

t h e r e for e ,
 1 22 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C THEORY . CH . I I.

A Pl ea for t h e R emov a l of t h e Eru p t i on by t he Ra di ca l C ure .

§ 94 . The qu es t i on wh a t i s t o be d one ? A r e w e
no w is,
m od e r n pig m i e s , who
by l ooki n g o v e r t he s h ou ld e rs o f t he
gi a n t s c a n s e e s o m e wh a t fu rt h e r t h a n t h e y did t o g o on p e rp e ,

t ra t i ng a n d p e rp e t u a t i n g t h e ir e rro rs fo r e v e r a n d e v e r a nd ,

e v e n l e g a li s i ng t h e m ? If t h e y a r e t o be e nfo rc e d i t i s t o b e ,

h op e d t h a t i t will not be m a d e a p ena l offen c e no t t o u se t he

l e ga l a nd i m p e ri a l u n i t s .

The bra in w as t i ng p e rv e rs i t y o f t he Bri t i s h na t i on i n s u b

-

m i tt i n g y e a r a ft e r y e a r t o b e r u l e d by s u ch a h e t e r o g e n e ou s
a n d i nc o n gr u o u s c o ll e c t i o n o f u n i t s a s t he y a rd foo t i n ch m il e , , , .

k not p o u nd o u n c e pi nt q u a r t g a llon a cr e p ol e h o rs e p o w e r
, , , , , , , ,
-

, .

et c .
,
etc h a s b e e n r e p e a t e dly l a m e n t e d by w ou ld be r e fo r m e r s
.
,
-
,

who w o u ld i n t ro d u c e t h e c o m m on s e n s e d e ci m a l s y s t e m ; a n d
-

a m o n g s t t h e m h a v e b e e n pr o m i n e nt e l e c t rici a n s w ho h o p e d t o

ins e r t t he t hi n e n d of t he w e dg e by m e a ns o f t he d e ci m a l s u b
divis i on o f t he e l e c t ric a l u n it s a nd t h e ir c onn e c ti on w i t h t he
,

m e t r e a nd gr a m m e a n d t h u s l e a d t o t he a b o li t i o n o f t he pre s e n t
,
.

Bri t i s h s y s t e m o f w e ight s a nd m e a s u r e s wi t h i t s a b s u rd a nd
u s e l e s s a rbi t r a ry c o n n e c t i n g c o n s t a n t s B u t wh a t a s a t ir e i t
. ]

i s u p o n t h e ir l a b o u r s t h a t t he y s h o u ld h a v e fa ll e n i nt o t h e v e ry
‘

i t t h e y w e re pr o fe s s e dly a v o i di n g ! T h e p e r v e rs e Bri t i s h
p
n a t i on pra c t ic a lly t he Brit i s h e n gi n e e rs h a v e s u r ely a righ t
— —

t o e xp e c t t h a t t he e l e c t rici a n s will first s e t t h e ir o wn h o u s e i n ?

o rd e r .

The O hm a n d t he v ol t e t c a r e no w l e g a li s e d s o t h a t a s I
,
.
, , ,

a m i n fo rm e d i t i s t oo l a t e t o a l t e r t h e m
,
Thi s i s a n on s eq .
,

h o w e v e r for t he y a rd a n d t he ga ll on a r e l e ga li s e d 3 a n d i f i t is
,

no t t oo l a t e t o a l t e r them i t c a nn o t b e t o o l a t e t o p u t t he n e w
,

fangl e d O hm a nd i t s c om p a n i o ns righ t I t i s n ev er t o o l a t e t o
.
.

m end N0 ne w phy s ica l l a b ora t ory d e t e rm i na t i o ns will b e

.

ne e d e d The v a l u e o f
. has b e e n c a lc u l a t e d t o h u n dr e d s O f
ar

pl a c e s o f d e ci m a l s 3 SO t h a t ra t i o na l Oh m s v ol t s e t c c a n be n ow
;
, , .
,

fix e d wi t h t he s a m e de gre e of a ccu ra cy a s t he irra t i on a l one s , .

by a ny c a lc u l a t o r .

Wh e n I firs t brou gh t u p t hi s m a t t e r i n The E lectr i c i a n i n .

1 8 8 2 3 e x pl a i ni n g t he o rigi n O f t he 4 a bs u rdi t y a nd i t s c u r e
-

,
7: ,

I did not go f u rt h e r t h a n t o u s e ra t i ona l u n i t s i n e x pl a i n i ng t he

 1 24 ELECTROMA GNE TI C THEORY . CH . II .

i
ra t ona l u n its as pr e c e di ng ( e x c e p t t h at wh en v e c to r re la
i n t he
t i ons ar e no t i n q u e s t i on w e n e e d no t e m pl oy s p e ci a l t ype ) a n d ,

t he c o rre s p on di ng qu a nt it i e s i n irra t i on a l u n i t s by t he s a me
s ym bo l s wi t h t h e s u ffix 3 t h u s 9 a n d -
Al s o d e no t e ( 4
, by :12 72 .

Le t g, be t he i rra t i ona l ch a rg e which r e p el s a n e qu a l

irra t i ona l ch a rge a t di s t a n c e r wi t h t he s a me forc e F as a
ra t i o n a l ch a rg e 9 r e p e l s a n e qu a l c t rg e a t t h e s a m e di s t a nc e
'

p :

Th e n ,

T h e re fo re
( )
1 0

AS re ga rd s t he r a t i o of t he u n it s i t i s s u ffici e nt m e r e ly t o ,

Ob s e r ve t ha t t he m a gn i t u d e o f t he nu mb e r e x pre s s i n g a
u a nt i t y v ri i v r ly Siz i Th
.

q a e s n e s e a s t h e e o f t he u n t i s .

a ppli e s t hrou gh o u t s o t h a t w e n e e d n o t bri ng i n u ni t s a t all

, ,

b u t k e e p t o t he c on cre t e s a pp e a ri ng i n fo r m u l ae .

By ( 1 0) w e S h a ll h a v e
q= p U D C

i pi O
-

s
Dz C

if p is vl d e ns i ty of e l e c t rific a t i on
o u me -
s u rfa c e d e ns i t y ,
0
'

D di s pl a c e m e nt C e l e c t ric c u rre nt d e n s i t y ( O i e l s e t he t o ta l
,
'

di s pl a c em e nt a n d c u rr e nt ) .

S inc e D c E, an d D,

whil s t D = a D, by we h a ve a lso

wh e re A i s t he t i m e i nt e gr a l o f E V t he li n e i nt e gra l of E or
-

,
-

volta g e e i m pre s s e d e l e ctric forc e;P e l e c t ric p ot e nt i a l or p ot en

,

t i a l di ffe re n c e .

The p e r m i t t i vi t y c i s t he s a m e i n b ot h s y s t e m s S O i s t he .

r a t i o c /c o f t h e p e rm i t t ivi t y t o t h a t o f e t h e r o r t h e s p e cifi c
, ,

i n d u c t i v e c a pa ci t y ( e l e c t ric ) The ra t i ona l p e r m i t t a n c e o f a

.

u ni t c u b e c on d en s e r i s c a n d t he irr a t i o na l i s c / 4
,
I f S is ,
2r .

t he p e rm it ta n c e o f a ny c ond e n s e r
g
S a 8”
 O UTL I NE OF ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C C ONN E C TI ONS .

a nd i ts ene rgy is
V
§ Q V
fit § S V 2
5 ?»
8 5V
if Q is it s ch a rg e a nd V it s v ol ta g e . We a sol h a ve
gE D
-
§ , ,
E U § o E 2
§ c E,
2
/ 4 71

t he firs t a n d s e cond sets rel a t in g to l c t ric

e e e ne rgy ,

t o m a g ne t ic e n e rgy .

B y O h m s la w ’

V = RC , a nd V, = R C , 3

t h e refore by ( 1 1 ) a nd
( )
1 3

wh e r e r is r e s is t i v it y , so t hat
EC RC , RO Z R, C , 2
.

Ra t i ona l v . I rra t i ona l Ma gnet i c P ol e s .

96 . r ep u l s i on b e t w e en t w o m a gne t ic p ol e s m and m
I f t he
i s F a t di s t a n c e r an d t hi s i s a l s o t he r e p u l s i on b et w e en i rr a
,

t i ona l p ol e s m, a nd m i w e h a v e ,

wh e re [ i s t he i ndu c t i v i t y of t he m e di u m c omm on t o the t wo

I ,

s y s t e m s a s i s lik e wi s e [ /p 0 t he r a t i o of p t o t h a t of t he e t h e r
,
L
L .
,

or t he p e r m e a bili t y SO .

Hr e e s om e dis cre p a n ci e s c om e in . For

B :
uH, a nd Bi : 5
[ H, 3 ( )
2 4

so we have ( )
2 5

wh ere 52 i s m a gnet ic p ot e nt i a l or ga u s sa g e . If I be i ntri ns i c

m a g ne t i sa t i on ( i nt e ns i t y of) t h e n ,
 1 26 ELEC TROMAGNET I C T HEORY . CH . I I.

fr om which ,
a nd by we h a ve
I = xI, . 2
( )7

The e qu a t i on B uH,
i n t h e s e ns e u se d by m e, e xp and s to
‘

F) , ( )
2 8

wh e re h is i nt ri ns ic , a nd P i s t he m a g ne t ic fo rc e of t he fi e ld .

A l so
c
=
c o< 1 K
) no 4m ) ,

so we h a ve by ( 2 8 )
,
and

B = I + P0P + HOKFI

wh e re po K I i s t he
‘
i nd u c e d m a g ne t i s a t i o n .

If L i s i nd u c t a nc e ,
wh e nc e if

M is mu tu a l ind u c tan c e .

In t he c o mm on e q u a t i on ,

B, r, 4H ,

t he i nt ri ns ic a nd i n d u c e d m a gne t i s a t i on s a r e l u m p e d t oge th e r
for one t h in g a nd i t i s a s s u m e d t h a t u0 = 1
,
The qu a nt i ty K .

is t h u s e s s e nt i a lly a n u m e ric whil s t , i s o nly a nu m e ric by

,
u

a s s u m p t i on B u t whi l s t n p , w e h a v e K r
.
= = 2
A l t h ou gh
,
K
,

ma g ne t i s a t i on wh et h e r i nt ri ns ic o r i nd u c e d ar e o f t he s a m e
, ,

kin d as i nd u c t i on y e t t he re ck oning i s di s cr ep a nt C om p a re
,
.

( )
2 7 wi t h ( )
25 f or B a n d B , I n ( )
2 7 a l s o . I m a
y b e e i t h e r ,

i nt ri n s ic o r i n d u c e d SO fa r a s t he r a t i o as g oe s
,
.

The c om m on e q u a t i on div D p b
,e c o m e s , ,,

div D p,

a nd t he cha ra c t e ri s t ic e qu a t i on of P o i s s on b e c om e s
V 2 I)
p/ c,

t he 4 71 '
go ing ou t by t he ra t iona li s a t ion . Bu t P

by
'

P E p / 4 7rr c .

The d e fini t i on of c u rr ent d e ns i t y ,

C u rl Hi

b e c om e s c u rl H C
1 28 EL E CT ROMAGN E TI C THE OR Y . CH . II .

Bu t t h e di ffi cu lt i es in t he wa y o f a c om pl e t e and s a ti sfa ct ory

re pre s e nt a t i on o f e l e c t r om a g ne t ic ph e n o m e na by a n e l as t ic

s o lid e t h e r are i n s u p e ra bl e R e c o gn i s ing t hi s S i r W Thoms on

.
, .

ha s r e c ent ly bro u gh t o u t a n e w e t h e r ; a ro t a t i ona l e t h e r It .

i s i nc om pr e s s ibl e a n d h as n o t r u e ri gidi t y bu t p os s e s se s a q u a s i
, ,
.

r igidi t y a ri s i n g fr o m e l as t ic r es i s ta n c e t o a b s ol u t e r o t a t i o n .

The s t re s s c o ns i s ts p a rt ly o f a hydr o s t a t ic pre s s u r e ( wh i ch I

s ha ll ign o re l a t e r) b u t t h e re i s n o di s t o rt i ng s t r e s s a n d i t s
, ,

p l a c e i s t a k e n by a r o t a t i ng s t r e s s I t giv e s ri s e t o a t ra ns
.

la t i ona l fo rc e a nd a t o rq u e I f E b e t he t orq u e t h e s t r e s s o n
.
,

a ny pl a n e N u n i t no r m a l s s i m ply VEN t h e v e c t o r pr o d u c t
( ) i ,

o f t he t o rq u e a nd t h e n o rm a l v e c t o r .

Th e fo rc e i s — c u rl E W e h a v e t h e re fo r e t he e q u a t i on of
.

m o t ion
c u rl E H u
, ,

i f H i s t he v e l oci t y a nd I t he d e n s i ty
‘ B u t a l as t he t o rqu e.
, ,

i s pro p or t i ona l t o t he r o t a t i on T hi s gi v es
.

E
curl H e ,

wh e re c i s t he c om plia n cy t he re cipro ca l o f t he q u a s i rigidi t y

,
-
.

No w t h e s e a re t he e qu a t i o ns c onne c t i n g e l e c t ric a n d m a gne t ic

fo rc e i n a no n c ond u ct i n g di e l e c t ric wh e n u i s t he i nd u ct i v i t y
-
,

a n d c t h e p e r m i t ta n cy W e h a v e a p a ra ll e lis m i n d e t a il no t
.
,

m e r e ly n s om e pa rt ic l r
i u a s T h e k in e ic e e rgy § uH
t
. n 2 r e re
p
s e nt s t he m a gn e t ic e ne rgy d t e p ot e t i a l e ne rgy i oE t he
h
a n n 2
, c

e l e c t ric e n e rgy . The v e c t o r flu x of e ne rgy i s VEH t he a c t ivi t y

-
,

o f t he s t r e s s
.

Thi s m o de of r e pres e nt a ti on di ffe rs fro m t ha t of S i r W . :

T homs on who re pre se nt s m a gnet i c fo rc e by rota t i on Thi s

,
.

s y s t em m a k e s e l e c t ric e n e rgy ki ne t ic a n d m a gn e t ic e n e r y
g ,

p o t e n t i
,
a l which I d o n ot fin d s o ea s y t o fo ll o w .

No w le t u s if p oss ibl e e x t e n d ou r a n a l o gy t o c on du c t ors

, , .

L e t t he t ra n s l a t iona l a n d t he rot at i ona l m o ti o ns be b ot h fr ic

t i ona lly r e s i s t e d a nd le t t he a bo v e e q u a t io ns be c om e
,

c u rl E = kE + cE .

whe re g i s t he t ra ns l a t i ona l fr i c t i ona lit y ; It will b e c ons id e re d

la t e r
. W e h a ve now t he e q u a t i ons o f e l e c t ric a nd m a gn e t ic
force in a di e l ec t ric wi t h d u pl e x con d u c t i v i t y k be i ng t he ,
 OU T L INE OF ELEC TROMAGN E T I C CONNEC T I ONS . 1 29

l c t ric
e e a nd g t h e m a n e t g ic c o n d u c t i v i ty ( by a na o l gy wi t h el ec

We h a v e t h e r e fo re s t ill a p a ra ll e li s m i n e ve ry d e ta il W e
, , .

h a ve w as t e of e ne rgy by fric t i on 9 H ( t ra ns l a t i ona l ) a nd ICE2

2

( r o tat i o na l ) I f g /.
p k / c t h e pr o p a g a. t i o n o f di s t u rb a n c e s

will t a k e pl a c e pre ci s e ly a s i n a n o n c ond u c t i n g di e l e c t ric

.
-

t h o u gh w i t h a t t e n u a t i o n c a u s e d by t he l os s o f e ne rgy .

To s h o w h o w t hi s a na l ogy w o rk s o u t i n pra c t ic e c o n s id e r a ,

t e l e gra ph circ u i t which i s m os t s i m ply t a k e n t o be t hre e

,

cO a xial t u b es
-
L e t A B a nd C be t h e t u b e s 3 A t he i nn e r
.
, , ,

m os t C t he ou t e rm os t B b e t w e e n t h e m ; a ll cl o s e ly fi t t e d
, , .

Le t t h e ir m a t e ri a l be t he r o ta t i ona l e t h e r I n t he fi rs t pl a c e .
,

s u pp os e t h a t t h e r e i s p e rf e c t s li p b e t w e e n B a n d i ts ne ighb o u rs .

Th e n wh en a t o rq u e i s a ppli ed t o t he e nd o f B ( t he a x i s of
,

t o rq u e t o be t h a t o f t he t u b es ) a n d circ u l a r m o t i on t h u s ,

giv e n t o B t h e m ot i on i s ( i n v ir t u e o f t he p e r fe c t s lip ) t ra ns
,

m i t t e d alo ng B wi t h o u t ch a ng e o f t yp e a t c o ns t a n t s p e e d a n d
, , ,

wi t h ou t a ffe ct i n g A a n d C .

Thi s i s t he a n a l og u e of a c on c e nt ric c a bl e i f t he c ond u ct o rs ,

A a n d C be p e r fe c t c o nd u c t o rs a nd t h e di e l e c t ric B a p e r fe c t ,

i ns u l a t o r The t e rm i na l t o rqu e c o rre s po n d s to t he i m pre s s e d

.

v olta ge I t s hou ld be s o dis t rib u te d o ve r t he end of B t ha t t he

.

a ppli e d fo rc e t h e re i s circ u la r t a n g e n t i a l t ra c t i on v a ry i ng ,

i nve rs ely a s t he di sta nc e fr o m t he a x i s ; lik e t he di s t rib u t i o n

o f m a g ne t ic fo rc e i n fa c t , .

N o w if w e i nt rod u ce t ra ns l a t i ona l a nd r ot a t i ona l re s i s t a n c e

,

in B in t he a bo v e m a nne r s t ill k e e pi n g t he s l ip p e rfe c t we

, , ,

m a k e t he di e l e ct ric not o nly c on d u ct i ng e l e c t rica lly b u t a l so

m a gne t ic a lly Thi s will not d o A boli s h t he t ra ns l a t i ona l r e
. .

s i s t a n c e i n B a l t o g e t h e r a nd le t t h e re b e n o s lip a t a ll b e t w ee n
,

B a nd A and B a nd C Le t a ls o t he re be rot a t iona l res is tan c e

, .

in A a nd C .

W e h a ve n ow t he a na o u e l g
rea l c a bl e t wo c ond u c t o rs of a

s e p a r a t e d by a t h ird Al l a r e di e l e c t ri cs b u t . 6 m iddl e o ne
.
,

Sh ou ld h a v e pra c t ica lly v e ry s light c ond u c t i vi t y s o t ha t i t i s ,

v ry high c nd cti vi t y
e o u , so t hat t h ey a re p i
r e- e m n e nt ly co n
1 30 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 1 1.

I t is re m a rka bl e t h a t t h e qu a si r ota ti ona l r e s i s t a n c e i n A a nd

-

C s h ou ld t e n d t o c o u n t e ra c t t he di s t o r t i n g e ffe c t o n w av es O f
t he qu a s i r o ta ti ona l r e s i s t a n c e i n B
-
B u t t h e t w o ro t a t i o n s
.
,

i t s h o u ld be Ob s e rv e d a r e pr a c t ic a lly p e rp e n dic u l a r b e i n g
, ,

a xi a l o r l on gi t u di n a l ( n o w ) i n A a n d C an d t r a n s v e r s e o r
,

ra di a l i n B ; d u e t o t he re l a t ive s m a llne s s of k I n t he mi ddl e

t u be .

To m a k e t hi s n e u t ra li s i n g pr o p e rt y w ork e x a c t ly we m u s t
t r a ns fe r t he r e s i s t a n c e in t h e t u b e s A a n d C t o t he t u b e B a t ,

t h e s a m e t i m e m a k in g i t t r a n s l a t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e Al so re s t o r e .

t he s lip . Th e n we c a n h a v e p e rfe c t a nn ihila t i o n o f di s t o rt i on

i n t h e prop a g a t i on of di s t u rb a n c e s viz wh e n k a n d g a r e s o
'

,
.
,

prop or t i on e d a s t o m a k e t he t wo w a s t e s of e n e rgy e qu a l In . .

t he p a s s a g e O f a di s t u rb a n c e a l o n g B t h e r e i s pa r t i a l a b s o rp t i on ,

bu t n o r e fl e c t i on .

B u t as re g a rd s t h e m e a n i ng o f t he a b o v e k t h e r e i s a d i fli
cu lt y . In t he o r i gi n a l r o t a t i o na l e t h e r t h e t orq u e v a ri e s a s t he
rot a t i on I f we s u p e ra dd a r e a l fric t i ona l r e s i s t a nc e t o rot a t i on
.

w e ge t a n e q u a t i on O f t h e fo r m

E b e i ng ( as b e fore ) t he t orqu e ,
a nd H t he v l ci y
e o t . B u t t hi s
n ot o f t he righ t fo r m which b o v e)
is ,
is ( as a

cu rl H
t he re for e s o me s p e ci a l a rra nge m e nt i s r e qu ire d ( t o pro d u c e t he
di s s ip a t i on o f e n e rgy which d oe s not o b v i ou s ly pre s e nt
i t s el f i n t he m e ch a n ics o f t he r o t a t i on a l e t h e r .

O n t he o t h e r h a n d i f we fo ll o w u p t he o t h e r s y s te m i n
, ,

which m a gn e t ic forc e i s a lli e d w i t h r ot a t i on w e m a y p u t 9 0 ,

:
,

le t B be t he v e l o ci t y a n d H t he t o rq u e u t he c o m pli a n cy ,

c t he d e ns i t y a n d It t he t r a n s l a t i o n a l fri c t i on a li t
, y T hi s gi v e s .,

c u rl E u
,
H
c u rl H H ICE C .

W e t h us r e pre sent a h o m o g e ne o u s c on d u c t i ng di e l e c t ric wi t h ,

a t r a ns la t i ona l r e s i s t a n c e t o c a u s e t he Jou le a n w a s t e o f e n e rgy .

 C HA P TER I II .

THE E E ME L NTS OF VEC T OR IA L A L G E BRA A ND

A N A L YS I S .

S ca l a rs a nd Ve c t ors .

97 . O rdina ry a lg e bra
w e ll kno wn t re a t s o f qu ant i t i es
,
as is ,

a n d t h e ir r e l a t i on s I f h o we v e r w e e x a m i ne g e o m e t ry w e
.
, , ,

s h a ll s oo n fin d t h a t t he fu n d a m e nt a l e nt i t y c on c e r n e d n a m e ly ,

a s t ra igh t li n e wh e n r e g a rd e d a s a n e nt i t y c a nn o t b e t r e a t e d
, ,

s i m ply as a q u a n t i t y i n t he a lg e bra ic a l s e n s e I t has i n d e e d .

, ,

s iz e v iz
,
i t s l e n g t h 3 bu t wi t h t hi s i s c o nj o i ne d a no t h e r i m p o r
.
,

t a n t pr o p e rt y i t s dir e c t io n
, Ta k e n as a wh ol e i t i s a Ve c t or
.
, ,

I n c ont ras t wi t h t hi s a n ordi na ry q u a nt i t y h a vi ng s iz e o nly i s

, , ,

a S ca la r .

A g a i n if we c o ns id e r t he m a t h em a t ic s of phy s ic a l q u e s t i o ns
, ,

w e find t wo di s t i n c t kin d s of m a gn i t u d e s pro m i ne n t ly pre s e nt .

Al l s u ch m a gni t u d e s as m ass d e ns i t y e ne rgy t e m p e ra t u r e a re

, , , ,

e v id e nt ly q u a n t i t i e s i n t he s i m pl e a lg e bra ic a l s e ns e ; t h a t i s ,

s c a l a r m a g ni t u d e s o r s i m ply s c a l a rs
, A c e rta in ( i t m a y be
.

a n u n s t a t e d ) u n i t o f d e ns i t y for i ns ta n c e b e i n g i m pli e d a n
, y , ,

d ens it y i s e xpre s s e d by a s i m ple nu mb e r ( The q u es t i on of t he .

“
dim e ns i ons of phys ica l m a gni t u d es i s not i n q u es t i on ) All .

m a gn it u d e s wh a t e v e r which h a v e no dire c t iona l p e cu li a ri t y

a nd which a r e e a ch s p e cifi e d by a s i n gl e n u m b e r a r e s c a l a rs ,

a nd s u bj e c t t o s c a l a r alg e b ra .

B u t s u ch m a gni t u d e s as dis pl ac e m e nt v e l oci t y a cc e l e ra t i on , , ,

fo rce m om e nt u m e l e c t ric c u rre nt

, , which h a v e dire ct i on a s
,

w ell as s iz e a n d w hich a re fu lly s p e cifi e d by s t a t e m e nt o f t he

,

Si ze a nd dir e c t i on a r e v e c to r m a gni t u d es or Sim ply v e ct o rs

, , .
 h re a v e ct o r alge bra a nd a na lys is a pp rOp ri a t e t o v e c t ors 3 and i t
t e
i s t he o bj e c t o f t he pre s e nt ch a p te r t o gi v e a b ri e f a cc ou nt o f
t he l a t t e r e s p e ci a lly i n r e s p e c t t o i t s a pplic a t i o n t o e le c t ro ma g
,

ne t i s m .

9 8 A lg e bra ic a l
. ly t ica l g e o me t ry i n t he u s u a l C a rt es i a n
o r a na

for m t h ou gh d e a li ng u l t i ma t e ly wi t h v e c t o r s i s n ot v e c to ria l
, ,

a lg e br a I t i s i n fa c t a r e d u c t i on t o s c a l a r a lg e bra by r e s o l u
.
, ,

t i o n o f e v e ry v e ct o r i nt o t hr e e r e c t a n g u l a r c om p o ne nt s whi ch ,

a r e m a n ip u l a t e d a s s c a l a rs S i m il a rly i n t he u s u a l t re a t m e n t
.
,

O f phy s ica l v e c t o rs t h e r e i s a n a v o id a n c e o f t h e v e c t o rs t he m
,

s e lv e s by t h e ir r e s ol u t i o n i n t o c o m p on e nt s Th a t t his i s a
.

h ighly a rt ificia l proc e s s i s Obvi o u s b u t i t i s o ft e n co nve ni e nt

, .

M o r e o ft e n h o w e v e r t he C a r te s i a n m at h e m a t ic s i s ill a d a p t e d
, ,
-

t o t he w o rk i t has t o d o b e i ng l e n g t hy a n d c u m br o u s a n d
, ,

fre q u e nt ly c a lc u l a t e d t o c o n ce a l r a t h e r t h an t o fu rn i s h a nd
e x hibi t u s e fu l r e s u l t s a n d r e l a t i on s i n a r e a dy m a nne r Whe n
.

w e w o rk dire c t ly w i t h v e c t ors we h a v e o u r a t t e nt i on fix e d
,

u p on t h e m a nd o n t h e ir m u t u a l r e la t i o n s 3 a n d t h es e
, ar e

w hos e i nn e r m e a n i ng i s
vid ent at a gl a nc e t o t he pra c t i se d
e

e ye . P u t t he s a m e fo r m u la h o w e v e r i nt o t he C a r t e s i a n fo rm
, , ,

a n d— wh a t a di ffe re nc e The fo rm u l a which wa s e x p res s e d by

s tu dy of t he c o m pl e x a rra y o f s y m bol s i s t h e n r e qu ire d t o find o u t

wha t i t m ea ns 3 a nd e e n t h o u gh t he n ot at i on be t horou ghl y
,
v

s y m m e t ric a l i t b e c o m e s a w o rk o f t i m e a nd g rea t p n e nc e
,
a .
1 34 LE CTROMAGNE TI C T HEORY
E . CH . I II .

s to ry ho w e v e r I f ou r obj e ct be u l t i m a te ly phy s ic a l ra th er
,
.
,

t h a n m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e n t h e m ore cl os e ly w e c a n id e n t i fy t he
,

s y m b ol s wi t h t h e ir phy s ic a l r e pr e s e nt a t iv e s t h e m o r e u se fu lly

c a n w e w o rk w i t h a v o id a n c e O f u s e l e s s
,
t h o u gh e q u a lly t r u e —

m a t h e m a t ic a l e x e rci s es The m e re s igh t o f t he a rra n g e m e nt

.

o f s y m b ol s s h o u ld c a ll u p a n i m m e di a t e pic t u r e o f t he phy s ic s

s y m b o li se d s o t h a t o u r fo rm u l ae m a y b e c o m e a li v e a s i t w e r e
, ,
.

No w t hi s i s p o s s ibl e a n d i n d e e d c om p a ra t iv e ly e a s y in
, , ,

ve cto ria l a na ly s i s ; bu t i s ve ry d ifli c ult i n C a r t e s i a n a na lys i s ,

b e y ond a c e r t a i n p oi nt o wi ng t o t he g e om e t ric a lly progre s s ive

,

c om pl e x i t y o f t he e xpre s s i o ns t o be in t e rpre t e d a nd m a n ip u
l at e d Ve ct ori a l a lg e bra i s t he n a t u ra l l a n g u ag e of v e c to rs
.
,

a n d n o o ne who ha s e v e r l e a r nt i t n o t t oo l a t e i n li fe h o w
( ,

e v e r will e v e r c a r e t o g o b a ck fro m t h e vi t a li t y o f v e c t o rs t o
)
t he b u lky i n a n i m a t e ne s s o f t h e C a r t e s i a n s y s t e m .

A bs t r u s i t y of Q u a t e rni ons a nd C omp a r a t i v e S i mp li c i t y

r
ga i ne d by i gn o i ng t h e m .

99 . B u t s u pp os i n g a s i s g e n e ra lly s u p p os e d
,
v e c t or ,

a lg e bra is s om e t hi ng a w f u lly di ffic u l t i nv olvi ng m e t a

“
,
”

phys ic a l c on s id e ra t i on s of a n a b s t r u s e n a t u re only t o be ,

t h o ro u ghly u n d e rs t oo d by c ons u mm a t e ly pr o fou n d m e t a p hy s i co

m a t h e m a t ici a n s s u ch a s P r o f T a i t for e x a m pl e
,
. We ll if SO
, .
, ,

t h e r e w ou ld no t b e t he s ligh t e s t ch a nc e for v e c t o r a lg e bra a nd

a na ly s i s t o e v e r b e c o m e g e n e ra lly u s e ful
; a nd I s h o u ld n ot b e
wri t ing t hi s n or s hou ld I h a v e for s e v e ra l y e a rs p as t p e rs i s t e d
, , ,

i n u s i ng v e c t o r a lg e bra i n e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic t h eo ry a pr o ph e t m —

h o wli n g i n t he wild e rn e s s I t will r e a dily b e c on cl u d e d t he n

.
, ,

t h a t I b e li e v e t h a t t he v e c t o r a n a ly s i s i s g o i n g t o b e c om e
ge ne ra lly u s e d i n s ci e nt ific w o rk a nd t h a t wh a t i s n ee d e d i s ,

a w fu lly di ffi c u l t Th e re wa s a t i m e i n de e d wh e n I
“ ”
not .
, , ,

a l t h o u gh r e c o g n i s i n g t h e a ppr o pri a t e n e s s O f v e c t o r a n a ly s i s i n

e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic t h e o ry ( a nd in m a t h e m a t ic a l phy s ic s g e ne
ra lly did hi n k i t wa s h a rd e r t o u nd e rs t a n d a nd t o w o rk
) ,
t
t h a n t h e C a r t e s i a n a n a ly s i s B u t t h a t w a s b e fo re I ha d
.

t hr o wn O ff t he q u a t e rn i onic old m a n O f t he s e a w ho fa s t e ne d hi m
- - - -

s e lf ou m y Sh o u ld e rs wh e n r e a di n g t he o nly a cc e s s ibl e t r ea t i s e

o n t h e s u bj e c t — P r o f T a i t s Q u a t e rn i o ns B u t I ca m e la t e r
’
. .

t o s ee t ha t s o fa r a s t he
, v e c t o r a n a ly s i s I r e qu ire d w a s
c o nce rn e d t he q u a t e rn i on w a s n o t o nly n o t r e q u ire d bu t w a s
,
~

,
1 36 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I II.

El eme nt a ry Ve c t o r A na l y s i s i nd ep e nd e nt of t he

Qua t e rni on .

§ 1 00 . S u pp os e a c o p
s u fli c i e n t ly
m e t e n t m a t h e m a t ici a n

d es ire d t o find o u t fr o m t h e C a r t e s i a n m a t h e m a t ic s w ha t v e c t o r
a lg e bra wa s lik e a nd i t s l a w s
,
H e c o u ld d o s o by c a r e fu l
.

i ns p e c t i on a nd c om pa ri s on o f t he C a rt e s i a n fo rm u l ae He wou ld .

find c e r ta i n c o m bin a t i on s o f s y m b ol s a nd q u a nt i t i e s o cc u rri ng

a g a i n a nd a g a i n u s u a lly i n s y s t e m s o f t hr e e s
,
H e m igh t .

i nt rod u c e t ent a t i vely a n a bbre v ia t e d n ota t i o n for t h e s e c om

b i n a t i o ns A ft e r a li t t l e pra c t ic e he w o u ld p e rc e iv e t he l a w s
.

a cc o rdi ng t o which t h e s e c o m bi n a t i on s a ros e a n d ho w t h ey

o p e ra t e d Fi na lly he w o u ld c om e t o a v e ry c o m p a c t s y s t e m
.
,

i n which v e c t o rs t h e m s e lv e s a nd c e r t a i n s i m pl e f u n c t i o ns o f
v e c t ors a pp ea red a nd wou ld be d eligh te d t o find t ha t t he r u l es
,

for t he m u l t iplic a t i o n a n d g e n e ra l m a n ip ul a t i on o f t h ese v e c tor s

w e r e c o ns id e ri n g t h e c o m pl e xi t y o f t he C a r t e s i a n m a t h e m a t ic s
,

o u t o f which h e ha d di s c o v e r e d t h e m o f a n a l m os t i n cre dibl e ,

s i m plici t y B u t t h e r e w o u l d b e n o Sig n of a q u a t e r ni o n i n h i s
.

r e s u lt s for o ne t hi ng ; a n d for a n ot h e r t h e re w ou ld be no
, , ,

m e t a phy s ic s o r a b s t r u s e r e a s on i n g re q u ir e d t o e s t a bli s h t he
r u l e s of m a nip u l a t ion o f his v e c to rs Ve ct or a n a ly s i s i s i n i t s
.
,

e le m e n t s e nt ir e ly i n d e p e nd e n t o f t he e x c e e di ngly di ffic u l t
,

t h e o ry o f qu a t e r n i o ns 3 t h a t i s wh e n t he l a t t e r i s t re a t e d
,

u a t e rn i on i c a lly a b i ni ti o
q .

“
Q u a t e rn i o n I t hi nk d e fi ne d by a n A m e ric a n s ch ool
”
wa s, ,

girl t o be a n a n ci e n t r e ligi ou s c e re m ony Thi s wa s h o we v e r .

”
, ,

a c o m pl e t e m i s t a k e The a nci e n t s
. u nlik e P r o f T a i t — kne w .
—

n o t a n d did n o t w o r s hi p Q u a t e rn i on s
,
The q u a t e r n i o n a nd .

i t s l a w s w e r e d is c o v e re d by t h a t e x t ra ordi na ry g e ni u s S i r W .

H am ilton A qu a t e rnion i s ne it h e r a s ca la r n or a v e c t or bu t
.
, ,

a s o r t o f c o m bi n a t i o n o f b o t h I t ha s n o phy s ic a l r e pre s e nt a
.

t i v e s bu t i s a highly a b s t ra c t m a t h e m a t ic a l c o nc e p t I t i s t he
‘

.
,

op e ra t o r which t u rns on e v e c t o r i nt o a n ot h e r I t has a

“ ”
.

s t r e t chi n g fa c u l t y fir s t t o m a k e t h e o n e v e c t o r b e c o m e a s l o ng
,

a s t h e o t h e r ; a n d a r o t a t i n g fa c u l t y t o bri ng t he o ne i n t o , .

pa ra ll eli s m wi t h t he o t h e r .

N o w in Q u a t e rn i ons t he qu a t e rni on IS t he m a s t e r a nd la y s ,

d o wn t he la w t o t he v e c t o r a nd s c a l a r E ve ry t hi ng re vol v e s .
s d t hi s e s t a bli s h m e nt
t oo . I t is d o ne i n t he c d ch a p t e r o f
s e on

Ta it s t r ea t i s e I n e v e r
’
. u n d e rs t oo d i t ,
bu t ha d t o p ass o n .

of t he i m p o r ta nt ch a ng e s m a d e t h e re in i n t h e t hird e di t i on .

s cal a r a nd v e ctor prod u c ts of a p a ir of v e c t o rs ,

t he l a ws of

which is as v e x a t io u s a nd bra i n w as t in g
-
as it i s u nn e c es s a ry .

Ta i t v . G i bbs a nd G ibbs v . Ta i t .

1 01 . C o n s id e ri n g t h e lig a t i ons I a m p e rs ona lly u nd e r t o

ob

Pro f Ta i t ( in s pit e o f t ha t l a m e nt a bl e s e c ond cha p t e r) it doe s

.
,

s e e m u n gra t e f u l t h a t I s h o u ld c o m pl a i n B u t I h a v e a t h ea rt .

t h e s pr e a d Of a w o rki n g k no w l e dg e o f e l e m e n t a ry v e c t or
a n a l y s i s q u i t e a s m u ch a s P r o f T a i t h a s t he e x t e ns i o n o f t he
.

t h e o ry o f q u a t e rn i o n s B e s id e s Pr o f Ta i t ha s as s u me d a v e ry
.
,
.

c o ns e rv a t iv e a t t it u d e in re l a t i o n t o H a m il t on s gra n d s ys t em ’
.

For i ns t a n c e t o m o r e t h a n o n e c o rre s p o nd e nt w ho ha d
“ ”
,

w ri t t e n fo r e x pl a n a t i o n o f s om e t hi n g t h e y fo u n d ob s c u r e — a nd

t h e s a m e t hi n g o cc u rr e d t o m e— d e s crib e d i n hi s t r e a t i s e by
It i s e vid e n t “
o n fu ll c o ns id e r a t i o n d e cide s n ot
“ ”
he
, , ,
1 38 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . I II .

A na ly s i s , r
a s o t of he rm a phrodi t e m on st e r c om p ou n d e d o f t he ,

n o t a t i o ns o f H a m il t o n a nd G ras s m a nn G ra s s m a n n I m a y
”
.
,

Ob s e rv e e s t a bli s h e d i nter a li a a c a lc u l u s of v e c t o rs bu t n ot
, , , ,

O f q u a t e rn i o n s .

P r of W G ibb s i s w e ll a bl e t o t a k e c a re o f hi m s e l f
. . I m ay .
,

h o w e ve r re m a rk t h a t t he m o di fi c a t i on s r e fe rr e d t o a r e e vid e nc e
,

o f m o dific a t i on s b e i n g fe l t t o b e n e e d e d 3 a n d t h a t P r o f G ibb e s
’
.

p a m phl e t ( NO T P UB LI SHED N e wha v en 1 8 8 1 4 pp ,

i s n ot ,
-

,
.

a qu a t e rn i o nic t r e a t is e b u t a n a bl e a n d i n s om e re s p e ct s
,

o rigi n a l li t t l e t re a t i s e on v e c t or a n a ly s i s t h o u gh t o o c on d e n s e d
, ,

a n d a l s o t o o a dv a n c e d for l e a r ne r s u s e 3 a n d t h a t P r o f G ibb s
’
.
,

b e i n g n o d o u b t a li t t l e t ou ch e d by P r of T a i t s c ond e m na t i on .
’
,

ha s r e c e nt ly ( i n t he p a g e s o f N a tu r e) m a d e a p o w e r fu l d e fe n c e o f
hi s p os i t i on H e h a s by a l o n g w a y t h e b es t of t he a rg u m e n t
.
,

u n l e s s P r o f T a i t s r e j o i n d e r ha s s t ill t o a pp ea r P r o f G ibb s
’ ‘

. . .

cl e a rly s e p a ra t e s t he qu a t e rn i o nic q u e s t i on fr o m t he qu e s t i on
of a s u i t a bl e n ot a t i o n a nd a rg u e s
, s t r o ngly a g a i ns t t he
qu a t e rn i on ic e s t a bli s h m e nt o f v e c t o r a n a ly s i s I a m a bl e ( a nd .

a m h a ppy o e x pr e s s a g e n e r a l c on c u rr e n c e O f o pi n i o n wi t h
) t
hi m a b o u t t he q u a t e r n i on a n d i t s c o m p a r a t iv e u s e l e s s ne s s i n
,

pra c t ic a l v e c t o r a n a ly s i s A s re ga rd s hi s n o t a t ion h o we v e r I
.
,
’

d o n ot lik e it M i n e i s T a i t s bu t s i m plifi e d a n d m a d e t o
’
.
, ,

h a rm on i s e wi t h C a rt e s i a n s .

A bo l i t i o n of t h e M i nu s S gn i of Q u a t e rni ons .

1 02 . Q u a t e r n i on s t he s q u a r e o f a u n i t v e c t o r i s 1
In , .

Thi s Sing u l a r c on v e n t i o n i s qu a t er ni oni ca lly c on v e ni e nt Bu t i n .

t he pr a c t ic a l v e c t o r a na ly s i s o f phy s ic s i t i s p a rt ic u l a rly i nco n

v e n i e nt , b e in g i n d e e d a n ob t r u s iv e s t u m bli ng bl ock
, A ll -
.

p os i t i v e s c a l a r pr od u c t s h a v e t he m i nu s Sign pre fi x e d 3 t h e r e i s
t h u s a w a n t o f h a r m o ny wi t h s c a l a r i nv es t ig a t i o ns a n d a ,

diffic u l t y i n r e a dily p as s i n g fr om C a r t e s i a ns t o Vec t ors a n d

c on v e rs ely My n ot a t i on on t he ot h e r ha nd i s e xpres s ly
.
, ,

a rr a ng e d t o fa cili t a t e t hi s m u t u a l c o n v e r s i on .

A S r e ga rd s t he e s t a bli s h m e nt o f t he e l e m e nt a ry v e ct o r a lg e bra ,

t h a t i s q u i t e s i m pl e ( fr e e d fr o m t he q u a t e rn i o n ) 3 i t a ll fo ll o w s
fr o m t h e d e fi n i t i on s o f a v e c t o r a n d o f t h e s c a l a r a n d v e c t or
pro d u ct s of a p a ir o f v e c t o rs .

No w I c a n i m a gi n e a q u a t e r n i o n i s t ( u nl e s s pre j u dic e d ) a d m i t
t ing t he s i m plici t y o i es ta bli s h m e nt a n d o f o p e r a t i o n a n d t h e ,
I 4O LECT ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY
E . CH . III .

d e s ira ble t h a t t hi s sh ou ld be d o ne i n ord e r t o fa cili t a t e t he

,

r e adi ng o f v e c t ori a l w ork by s h ow i n g a t a gla n c e which l e tte rs

,

a r e v e c t o rs a nd which a r e s ca l a r s a n d t h u s e a s i n g t he s t re s s
,

a nd s t ra i n o n t he m e m o ry Thi s i s a ll t he m ore i mp ort a nt

.

b e c au se t he ma n ip ul a t i on o f v e c t ors som et im e s di ffe rs fro m t ha t

o f s c a l a rs .

Now P rof Ta i t u s u a lly indica t e s v e c tors by G re e k let t e rs

. .

B u t i t i s w e ll k no w n t h a t a c on s id e ra bl e fa m ili a ri t y wi t h t he
G r e e k l e tt e rs — s u ch a s i s a cq u ir e d by s t u dyi n g t he li t e ra t u re
o f a n ci e n t G re e c e i s r e q u ire d b e fo r e t h e y c a n b e re a d a nd
—

m a n ip u l a t e d wi t h fa cili t y O n t h e o t h e r h a n d fe w a r e G r e e k
.
,

s ch ol a r s
,
a n d i n fa c t m a n y p e o pl e t hi n k i t i s a b o u t t i m e t he

d ea d l an gu a g e s w e re b u ri e d G re e k l e t t e rs a r e a t a ny ra te
.
, ,

n o t v e ry w e ll a d a p t e d t o a v e c t or a n a ly s i s which a i m s a t

pra c t ic a lit y .

M a x w e ll e m pl oye d G e r m a n o r G o t hic t yp e Thi s wa s a n

.

u n fo r t u n a t e cho ic e b e i n g by i t s e l f s u fli c ie nt t o pr ej u dic e
,

r e a d e rs a g a i ns t v e c t ori a l a na ly s is P e rha p s s o m e fe w r e a d e rs
.

w ho we re e d u c a t e d a t a c o mm e rci a l a c a d e m y wh e r e t he w r i t i ng
O f G e r m a n l e t t e r s w a s t a u gh t m igh t b e a bl e t o m a na g e t he

G e r m a n v e c t o rs wi t h o u t m u ch di ffic u l t y ; bu t t o o t h e rs i t i s a
w o rk o f gr e a t p a i ns t o fo r m G e r m a n l e t t e r s l e gibly No r i s .

t he r ea di n g o f t he pri nt e d l e t t e r s a n e a s y m a t t e r S om e o f .

t h e m a re s o m u ch a lik e t h a t a cl os e s cr u t i ny w i t h a gl as s i s
n e e d e d t o di s t i n g u i s h t h e m u nl es s o n e i s ly n x e y e d
,
Thi s i s a
-
.

fa t a l Obj e c t i o n B u t irr e s p e c t iv e O f t hi s t he fl o u ri s hi n g
'

.
, ,

o rn a m e n t a l ch a r a c t e r o f t h e l e t t e r s i s a g a i n s t l e g i bili t y In .

fa c t t he G e r m a n t yp e i s so t h or o u ghly u npra c t ic a l t h a t t he
,

G e rm a ns t h e m s e lv e s a r e givi n g i t u p i n fa v ou r o f t he pl a in
Ro m a n cha ra c t e rs which he w ho ru ns m a y re a d It is a re lic
, .

o f m e di ae v a l m o nk e ry a n d i s q u i t e u n s u i t e d t o t he pr e s e n t
,

d ay . Be s id e s t h e r e c a n be li t t l e d o u b t t h a t t he pre v a l e n t
,

s h o r t s igh t e d n e s s o f t he G e r m a n n a t i o n h a s n a gre a t m e a s u r e )
( i
a ri s e n fro m t he ch a r a c t e r o f t h e pri n t e d a n d w ri t t e n l e t t e r s

e m pl o y e d fo r SO m a ny g e n e ra t i o ns b i nh e ri t a n c e a n d a cc u
y ,

m u la t i on . I t b e c a m e ra ci a l ; c u l t iv a t e d i n y o u t h i t w a s i nt e n ,

s i fie d i n t h e a d u l t a n d a g a i n t ra n s m i t t e d t o p o s t e ri t y
,
G e rm a n .

l et t e rs m u s t go .

R ej e c t ing G e r ma ns a nd G re e k s I form e rly u s e d o rdina ry

,
'
Rom a n l e t t e rs t o m e a n t he s a m e as M a xw e ll s c o rre s p ondi ng
'
 ELEMEN T S

G e rm a ns The y a r e pl a i n e no u gh o f c ou rs e ; bu t a s b e fore
.
, ,

m ent i on e d a r e o p e n t o o bj e c t i on
,
Fi n a lly I fo u nd s a lv a t i on i n
.
,

Clar e nd ons a n d i nt rod u c e d t h e u s e o f t he ki n d o f t yp e s o

,

ca lle d I b e li e v e for v e c t ors ( Phi l M a g A u g u s t

, ,
. a nd .
, ,

ha v e fo u n d i t t h o ro u ghly s u i t a bl e I t i s a l wa y s i n s t ock i t i s
.

v e ry n e a t ; i t i s p e rfe c t ly l e gibl e ( s o m e t i m es a l a rm i ngly s o) a nd ,

i s s u it a bl e fo r u s e i n fo rm u l ae a l on g w i t h o t h e r t yp e s R o m a n or ,

i ta lic as t he c as e m a y be c on t ras t i ng a nd a l s o h a rm onis ing

,
-

w ell w it h t h e m .

S o m e t i m e s bl o ck l e t te rs h a v e b e e n u s e d ; bu t i t i s s u ffici e nt
m e re ly t o l oo k a t a m ix e d fo rm u l a c o nt a i n i ng t h e m t o s e e t h a t
t h e y a r e n ot q u i te s u i t a bl e I s h ou ld m e nt i on h e re h o we ve r
.
, ,

t h a t i t i s n o t th e m e r e u s e o f s p e ci a l t yp e s t h a t c o nv e rt s s c alar
t o v e c t o r a lg e bra Fo r i ns t a n c e e n gi ne e rs h a v e o ft e n t o d e a l
.
,

w i t h v e c t or m a gn i t u d es i n t h e ir c a lc u l a t i on s bu t n ot ( s a ve ,

e xc e p t i o na lly) i n t h e ir v e c t o ri a l s ig n ific a t i o n Th a t i s i t i s
‘

.
,

m e re ly t h e ir s iz e t h a t i s i n qu e s t i o n a nd wh e n t hi s i s t he c as e
,

t h e r e i s n o p a r t ic u l a r r e as o n why a s pe ci a l ki nd o f t y p e s h ou ld
be u s e d wh et h e r bl o ck s or a n ot h e r s o rt
, .

In c onn e c t i on wi t h C l a re nd o n t y pe a r e m a rk m a y be m a d e ,

o n a s u bj e c t which i s i m p o r t a n t t o t he c o m m u ni ty i n g e n e ra l .

I refe r t o t he r e t rogra d e m o v e m e nt i n t yp ogra phy which has

be en goi ng on for t he l a s t 2 0 y ea rs or s o M a ny p eo pl e who .
,

p oss es s fa irly g o o d a nd n orm a l ey es igh t find a di fficu lt y i n ,

rea ding print e d boo k s wi t h o u t s t ra in ing t he e y es a nd do no t ,

k no w t he reas on Th ey m a y t hink t he pri nt i s t oo s m a ll or

.
,

t h a t t he ligh t i s n o t g ood o r t h a t t h e ir e y e s a r e n ot righ t B u t

, .

t he s iz e o f t yp e p er 3 6 ha s li t t l e t o d o wi t h i t s l e gibili t y a far

m o re i m p o rt a nt fa ct o r i s t he s t yle o f t yp e e s p e ci a lly a s r e g a rd s ,

t he fi ne ne ss o f t he m a rks pri nt ed Th e o ld s t yl e
. r e vi v e d a ,
”

ge ne ra t i on s in c e a nd no w l a rgely i n u s e di ffe rs from t he m ore

, ,

l e gibl e m od e rn s t yl e ( of t hi s pa g e for i ns t a n c e ) i n t wo re ,

sp e ct s . It has c e rt a i n e cc e nt ricit i e s of s h a p e w hich m a k e i t ,

s o m e wh a t l e s s e as y t o r ea d bu t m o re i m po- t ly t he l e tt e rs
, ,

o n t he t yp e s a re c u t a g oo d d ea l fi n e r which r e s u l t s i n a p a l e ,

i mpres s i on as i f t he i nk w e re wa t e ry Thi s i s t he m a in c a u s e
, .

v ry
e ll pri nt i s ea s y
sma to rea d i f i t be bold
‘

a nd bl a ck n ot,

t hi n a nd p a l e I t w o u ld . be a pu blic b e n e fi t if t he re t rogra d e
1 42 E ECT
L R O MA G N E T C THEORY
I . CH . 111 .

to dri v e ou t t he m od e rn s ty l e di s c a rd e d N o t t h a t t he l a t t e r
, .

i s p e rfe c t A s t ill b et t e r s t yl e w o u ld be a rriv e d a t by t hick e n

.

i ng t h e fine li ne s i n i t prod u ci ng s om e t hi ng i nt e rm e di at e
,

b e t we en i t a nd t he C la r e n d on s t y l e ( which l a s t of c ou rs e w ou ld , ,
.

be t oo m u ch o f a g oo d t hi ng ) A s e v e ry o ne who h a s ha d t o .

r ea d M S S k no ws t he m os t l e gibl e h a n d w ri t i n g s
.
,
irr e s p e ct iv e —

o f t he pr op e r fo r m a t i o n o f t he l e t t e r s — a r e t h o s e i n which t he

wri t i ng ma s t e r s fine u p s t roke i s di s c a rd e d N o w i t i s t he s a m e

-
’
.

i n pri nt Thicke n t he fine li nes a n d t he e ffe c t i s m a gic a l

.
,
.

N ota t i on . Te ns or an d C omp one nt s of a Ve c t o r . Uni t

Ve c t or s of R f r nce e e e .

1 04 . The t e ns o rv e c t o r i s i t s s iz e or m a gn i t u de a p a r t
of a ,

fro m di r e c t i on O t h e r i m p or t a n t c onne ct e d qu a nt i t i e s a r e i ts
.

t hre e r e c t a ng ul ar s c a l a r c o m p on e nts t h e C a rt es i a n co m p o —

h e nt s — which a r e t he t e ns ors o f t he t hr e e r e c t a ng u l a r v e c t o r

c o m p on e nt s It i s u s u a l i n C a r t e s i a n w o rk t o u s e t hr e e s e p a
.
, ,

ra t e l e tte rs for t h e s e c o m p o ne nt s a s F G H o r u v w ; or , , , , ,

f ,
7
7 ,f ( be
, O n e o bj e
. c t i o n t o t hi s pr a c t ic e i s t h a t w h e n t h e re

i s a l a rge n u m b e r o f v e c t o r s t he m e m o ry i s s t ro ngly t a x e d t o
r e m e m b e r t h e ir pr o p e r c o n s t i t u e n t s A n o t h e r i s t he pr o dig a l.

w as t e of u s e fu l l e tt e rs O n e a lph a b e t i s s oon e xh a u s t e d a nd
.
,

o t h e r s h a v e t o b e dr a wn u p o n .

I n my not a t i on t he s a m e l et t e r s e rv e s fo r t he v e c t o r i t s e l f ,

a n d for i t s t e ns o r a n d c o m p on e nt s Thu s E d e no t i n g a ny .
,

v e c to r i ts t ens or i s E a nd i ts c o m pone nt s a re E1 E2 E3 S i m i
, , , , .

l a rly t he t e ns o r o f a i s a a nd t he c o mp on e nt s a r e a l a 2 a s
, , A , , .

la rg e sto ck of l ett e rs i s t hu s s e t fre e fo r o t h e r u s e .

B u t a r e m a rk m u s t be m a d e c on c e rn in g M S w ork a s d i s .
,

t ingu i sh e d from pri nt e d w ork I n M S w o rk i t i s i n c on v e n i e nt

. .

t o b e a t t h e t ro u bl e o f wri t in g t wo kin ds o f l e t t e r s o rdi n ar y

l e t t e rs will s u ffic e for b o t h s c a l a rs a nd v e ct ors O r t he o rdi .

n a ry l e t t e r s r e pr e s e nt i n g v e c t o rs m a y re c e i v e so m e c on v e nt i o na l

m ark t o v e c t oris e t h e m B u t pr e s u m i ng o rdi na ry l e t t e rs ar e

.
,

wri tt en s om e t hi ng i s r e qu ire d to di st i ng u i s h b e t we e n t he v e cto r

,

a nd i t s t e n sor Thi s m ay be s a t i s fi e d by c all ing E0 t he t e ns o r

.

of 3 . O nly wh en a n i n ves t ig a t i on i s t o b e wri t t e n o u t fo r t he

pri nt e rs i s i t n e c e ss a ry t o b ri ng i n s p e cia l l e tt e rs a nd t hi s i s ,

m os t s i m ply d one by a c on v e nt i ona l m a rk a ffi x e d t o e v e ry

( t o b e
) v e c t or C om p os i t o rs a r e v e ry i nte llig e nt r e a d m a t h e
.
,
1 44 E EC T
L RO M A G N ET C THEORY
I . CH . I II .

The m e a n i n g ddi t i on o f v e c t o rs in t hi s e x a m pl e i s s i mply

of a

t he ca rry i n g o u t of t he o p e r a t i o ns i m pli e d by t he i ndivid u a l

v e cto rs a dd ed t he ge om e t ri ca l v e ct or m e a ning a di s pl a ce m ent
,

i n s p a c e o r t ra n s l a t i on fr o m o ne p o i nt t o a n o t h e r
,
The o rd e r o f .

a ddi t i on i s i n di ffe r e n t s i n c e t he r e a r e s i x w a y s o f g o i n g fr o m
,

one c o rn e r t o t he o pp os it e o ne o f a brick a l o n g i t s e dg e s .

W e s e e t h a t a ny v e c t or m ay be e x pr e s s e d a s t he s u m of
t hree m u t u a lly pe rp e ndic u l a r v e c t o r s v iz i t s v e c t o r proj e c t i ons
, .
,

on t h e a x e s F u rt h e rm o re by t he u s e of a s k e w p a ra ll e l e pip e d
.
,

ins t e a d o f a brick w e s e e t h a t a ny v e c t o r m a y be e xpr es se d a s

th e s u m of t hr e e o t h e r v e c t o rs h a vi n g a ny dir e c t i o ns w e pl e a se ,

p ro vid e d t h e y ar e i n d e p e n d e nt o r n o t a ll i n t he s a m e pl a ne
, .

For in t he l a t t e r c as e t he p a ra ll e l e pip e d d e g e ne ra t es t o a pl a ne
fi g u re .

FI G 1 . . FI G 2 . .

Bu t i t i s p e rha p s b e st t o e xpl a i n ve c t or a ddit i on i n ge ne ra l

wi t h ou t any re fe re n c e t o a x es Thu s le t a a nd b be v e ct o rs t o
.

be a dd e d a m e a ni ng t ra n s l a t i on fr om P t o Q i n t h e firs t fig u r e
, ,

or t h ro u gh a n e q u a l di s t a nc e a l on g a ny p a ra ll e l li ne as fr o m ,

S t o R i n t he se c on d fi g u r e whil s t b m e a ns t ra ns l a t i on fr om Q
,

t o R i n t he fi rs t fi gu re or t hrou gh a n e q u a l di s t a n c e a l o ng a ny
,

p a rall el li ne as fro m P t o S i n t he s e c ond fig u r e I n t he fi rs t

, .

c as e p e rfo rm i ng t he o p e ra t i on a firs t a nd t h e n b w e go from

, .
, ,

P t o R m d Q in t he se c on d c as e wit h b firs t a nd t h e n a w e go
’

, ,

fro m P t o R md S The fin a l r e s u l t in e i t h e r c as e i s e q u iv a l e nt t o
’

direc t t ranslat i on from P t o R s ym boli s e d by the v e c t o r q , .

( m
The b o v e m ay be e xt e n de d t o a ny n u m b e r of ve c tors Or we
a .

m ay reaso n t hu s — L et A be a ny gi v en v e c tor t ra ns l a t i ng s ay
.
, , ,
 FI G . 5 .

a + b+ c + d i n t he fig u re .
'

The fi n a l re s u l t of t he s u cc e s s iv e
t ra n s l a t i o n s is a l wa y s t h e s a m e, viz t he dire c t t ra ns la t i on A
.
, .

( )
6

T hu s a ny v e c t o r A m a y be s pli t u p i nt o t he s u m o f a ny
.

n u m b e r n o f v ect o r s o f which n , 1 a r e p e r fe c t ly a rbi t ra ry fo r ,

i ns t a n c e a b c in t he fig u re The r e m a i n ing one ( 1 i s of

‘
, , , ,

c o u rs e not a rbit ra ry I t i s t he v e ct or re qu ir e d to c o mpl e t e

, .

t he circ u i t o f v e c t ors .

Th e v e ct o rs n e e d no t be i n on e pl a ne No r n e e d t he p a t h
.

foll o w e d c on s i s t o f fi n i t e s t ra igh t p ort i on s I t m a y be wh olly .

a c u rv e d circ u it we s h a ll h a v e
1 46
‘

E ECT
L R O MA G N ET C T HEORY
I . CH . I II.

ch a nge in 8 m ade in an i nfi n it e s i m a l
p a l ong t he circ u it st e ,

t ha t is i t i s t he v e c t o r e l e m e n t o f t h e circ u it i t s e l f
,
.

I n a v e c t o r e q u a t i on e v e ry t e rm i s a v e c t o r o f c o u rs e how , ,

e v e r t he i n di v id u a l t e rm s m a y b e m a d e u p a n d e v e ry v e c t or ,

e q u a t i on e xpr e s s e s t he fa c t s y m b oli s e d by or by 2 a = o

wh en t he v e ct o rs a r e fi ni t e I n t he l a t t e r c a s e a ma y be a l s o
.
, .

r e g a rd e d as A s t he fini te ch a ng e i n t he v e c to r 8 fr o m a ny fi x e d
,

o rigi n pr o d u c e d by p a s s in g fr o m b e gi nn in g t o e nd o f t he
ve c tor a .

The s ign pr e fi x e d t o a v e c t o r i s t h e s a m e a s m u l t iplic a t i on

by 1 a nd i ts e ffe ct i s s i m ply t o re ve rs e t he dire c t i on of t ra ns

,

l a t i on O r i t m a y be r e ga rd e d a s r e v er s m g t he t e nso r wi t h ou t
.
,

a l t e ri n g t he dir e c t i o n : t h u s

—
a = — a
~

) x a
l

Thu s ,
in an
y v c t r q e o e u a t o n, i fo r e x m pl
a e

we m a y t ra ns fe r an
y t r
e m s t o t he ot e h r s id e by p r e fixi n
g t he

s ign . Thu s ,

a + b+ c — d — e -
f=
=
( )
1 0

In t he for m xpre s s t he fa c t t h a t t ra n s l a t i on i n a circ u i t

( )
9 w e e

i s e qu iva l e nt t o n o t ra n s l a t i o n In h o w e v e r we e x pre ss
.
,

t he e q u iv a l e n c e of t wo t r a n s l a t i o n s by di ffe re nt p a t h s fr om on e
po i nt t o a nothe r . _

If any t r ou bl e he e xp e ri e nc e d i n s e ei ng t h e n e c e s s a ry t ru t h o f
or a circ u i t i n wh a t e v e r o rd e r t he a ddi t i o n he m a d e t h e
( )
9 f ,

m a tt e r m a y be cli n ch e d by m e a ns o f i j k t he u n i t r e c t a ng u l a r , , ,

v e ct ors as we sa w b e fo re t he re sol u t i on o f v e c to rs int o ,

re c t a n g u l a r c o m po n e nt v e c t o rs d e p e n d s o nly u p on t he pr op e rt i e s

o f t h e righ t a n gl e d t ri a n gl e Thu s s plit u p t he v e c t o rs a b c

.
, ,

i nt o com p on e nt s we h a v e ,

a. i ar1,
ja2 k a g,
b i b1 j b2 11 63 ,
'
c 16 1 j C2 k c3 ,

Now a dd u p. A ll v c t r p r ll l t
e o s a a e o i a dd l n s a a c l r fa s hi on,
for t h e re i s no ch a nge of dir e c t i on . S im il a rly for j a nd so

we h a ve
1 48 E ECTL R O MA G N ET C THEORY
I . CH . 111 .

A l t h o u gh t hi s i s pl a c e for e x e rci s e s a nd e x a m pl e s y e t
n o t t he ,

it i s w o rt h whil e t o p o i nt o u t t h a t by m e a n s o f t he a ddi t i on
prop e rt y of v e c t o rs a good d e a l of geom e t ry ca n be s i m ply
d one — b e t t e r t h a n by Eu clid a c ons id e ra bl e p a r t of wh ose 1 2 ,

b oo ks cons i s t s o f e x a m pl e s o f ho w not t o d o i t ( e s p e ci a lly

B oo k The r e i s a S o ci e t y for t he I m pro v e m e nt o f G e o me tric a l
T e a chi ng I h a ve n o k no wl edge of i ts work ; bu t as t o t he
.

n e e d o f i m pr o v e m e nt t h e r e c a n b e n o q u e s t i o n whil s t t he r e ign

o f E u clid c o n t i n u e s My o wn id e a of a u s e fu l c o u rs e i s t o b e gi n
.

wi t h a ri t h m e t ic a nd t h e n n ot E u clid bu t a lge bra N e xt n ot

, , , .
,

E u clid bu t pr a c t ic a l g e o m e t ry s olid as w e ll as pl a n e
,
not ,

d e mons t ra t i on s bu t t o m a k e a cqu a inta nc e The n n ot Eu clid

, .
, ,

bu t e l e m e nt a ry v e c t o rs c onj o i ne d wi t h a lg e bra a n d a ppli ed t o , ,

geom et ry A ddi t i on firs t ; t h e n t he s ca la r pro du c t This

. .

c o ve rs a l a rg e grou n d Wh e n m ore a d va nc e d b rin g i n t he .

,

ve cto r prod u ct Ele ment ary ca lc u l u s s h o u ld go o n s i mu lt a ne

.

ou s l a n d c o m e i nt o t he v e c t o r a lg e br a ic g e o m e t ry a ft e r a bi t
y , .

E u clid m igh t be a n e x t ra c o u rs e fo r l e a r ne d m e n lik e H o m e r , .

B u t E u clid for childre n i s ba r ba r o u s f “

Th e S c a la r Pr odu ct of Tw o Ve ct ors . Not a t i on a nd

Il l u s t ra t i ons .

§ 1 07 . C o m ing xt t o t he pro du c t s of ve ct o rs i t i s t o
ne , be
not e d at t he b e gi nn i n g t h a t t he ordi na ry id e a o f a pro d u c t in

F r om The E l ec tr i c i a n , D e c e m b er 4 , 1 89 1 , p . 1 06, I l e a rn t ha t t he
co rr ec t tit l e of t he s o c i e t y a bo v e a ll d d
u e to is t he A s s o c i ti a on f o r t he
I m p r o v e m e nt of G e o m e t r i ca l l v Te a c hi n g .
“
I t w as fo u n
-
dd w e ,
e be i e e,

ab ou t t y en g by f w t
e ars h awh l i d h t E li d f
o a e ea c ers , o r ea se t a uc or

chi l d iren M H vi i d p t i t i m p ly b b
s , as r . ea Th sp m p hl te u s ,
s ar ar ou s . ree a e s

h v b
a e p b l i h d by M
e en u M m i ll
s ed C yl l b f ple ss rs . ac an an o . — a. s a us o a ne

g m t y
eo e r p ,
di g t E l id B k I t VL ; th f m d
c o rr e s on n o uc ,
oo s . o a no er o o ern

pl ane g m yeo d e trth f li dy m i M

an ano Sw S er o near na cs . ess r s . a n, o nn e n

sc h i d C
e n an h v p bli h d o . l m t yg m ti l
a e u i d th
s e an e e en ar eo e r ca c o n cs , a n e re

th l b
e a f th A
ou r s i ti
o pp t h
e t pp d Th A
ssoc a i ti on a ea r o a ve s o e . e s soc a on

h ash d t a t ggl o g i t th
s ru bb v ti li m f t h m d
e a a ns e stu o rn c o n en o na s o e o er n

sc h lm too wh p l d th t h
as e r , o t m k y h g be
ea s f th a e c a nn o a e an c an e, ca u s e o e

U iv i t i id bl fi ght M H mbl i S m i th m m ’
n e rs Af t es . er a c on s e ra e , r . a n s co on

s e ns e p f f E l
r oo s o i d p b l m w uc p t d b y C m b i
’
s d g mroi e s e r e ac ce e a r e e xa ners .

S m ll t h vi ibl
a as el t f t h A i t i h v b t h i d i ti t
s e r esu s o e s s oc a on a e e e n, e re s a s nc

ch g an f f l i g t ki g p l
e o ee w i th
n g d t g m t y b th
a n da ce re ar o eo e r ,
o a s an e u ca»

ti onal bj t su d ec i mp l m t f
an i tifi w k A t p
as an t g m t y e en o s c en c or . rese n eo e r

i t gh t
s au b dly as G k v i t h b t p bl i h l ; d t h
a as re e ,
e en n e es u c sc oo s an e

ed ti
u ca l v l f G k i i m a y p t high th t h t f E l id
on a a ue o re e s n n r es ec s er an a o uc .
"
b e c a u s e t h ey a r e n o t s c a l a rs W e c a nn ot t h e re fo re s a y b e fo re
‘
.
, ,

h a nd wh a t t he pr od u c t o f t wo v e c to rs ou ght t o b e o r d e t e r ,
- a

m i n e t hi s q u es t i o n by a ny pri o r r e a s o ni n g o f a l e gi t i m a t e na t u re .

W e m u s t e x a m i n e i n w h a t way v e c t o rs e nt e r i n t o c o m bi na t i o n
as pro d u c t s a n d t h e n i n t ro d u c e d e fi n i t i o n s a n d c o n v e nt i o n s O f
,

not a t i o n t o gi ve e x pr es s i o n t o t he fa c t s i n t h e s i m pl e s t a nd

m o s t c o n v e ni e n t w a y A ft e r t hi s t he w o rk i s d e d u c t i v e
.
, .

By t his e x a m i na t i on we a r e le d t o re c og n i s e t wo dist i n c t
ki nd s o f pr od u c t s of a p a ir o f v e c t o rs t he s c a l a r pro d u ct a n d
,

t he v e c t o r pro d u c t I t i s wi t h t he fo rm e r o f t h e s e t h a t we ar e
.

n o w i mm e di a t e ly c o n c e rn e d .

W e d ef i ne t he s c a l a r pro d u c t o f a p a ir o f v e c to r s A a nd B ,

wh os e t e ns o rs a re A a nd B a nd wh o s e i ncl u d e d a ngl e i s 6 t o
, ,

be t he s c a l a r A B cos 0 a nd we d e no t e i t by A B
, Th u s .

AB = AB c os 0

d e fine s t he sc a l a r
prod u ct a n d i t s n ot a t l on .

To s e e i t s fu ll s ig nific a n c e a nd ho wi t w o rk s o u t le t u s fir s t ,

a pply 1 2 t o t h e u n i t r e fe r e n c e v ec t o rs i j k w hich a re ca p e r
( ) , , , ,

e n di c u la r by ta ki ng A a n d B t o be o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e m I n
p ,

t u rn .F i rs t m u l t ip lyi ng e a ch o f i j k by i t s el f w e g e t
, , ,

( )
1 3

wi t h t he c onv e nt i on b orr o we d fro m s c a l a r a lg e bra t h a t ii is

e q u iv a l e nt ly d e n o t e d by i Thi s m a y be c a ll e d t he s qu a re
2
.

of i . I n e a ch o f t he t hr e e c a s es ( 1 3) t he v e c t o rs m u l t ipli e d

t ha t t he c l r prod u c t
s a a ,

i t s t e ns o r or
1 50 ELECT ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I II .

Tha t i s t he s ca l a r pr od u c t o f t wo p e rp endic u l a r u n i t v e c t o rs i s
,

z e ro . The s a m e i s o f c ou rs e t r u e o f a ny t wo p e rp e ndic u l a r
, ,

ve ct ors Thu s t he e q u a t i on A B = O m ea ns t ha t A is p e rp e n
. .

dic u la r t o B u nl e ss i nd e e d o n e or ot h e r o f t h e m i s ze r o
, , .

W e h a v e a ls o L,
A B = c os 0 ( )
1 6 ,

by dividing ( 1 2 ) by A B or t he s c a l a r prod u c t of a ny t wo
,

ve ct ors I s t he c os in e o f t he in cl u d e d a ngle Thi s is

,

p os i t iv e ly from c onc u rre nt c o in cidenc e s o t h a t as ,

0 to A I B 1 g oe s fr om 1 t hro u gh 0 t o l a nd t h e n t hro u gh ,

0 a g a in t o 1 .

The re i s s t ric t ly no o cc a s i on t o i nt rod u c e t rigonom e try Or

, , .

we m igh t m a k e t he t rig ono m e t ry b e a s i m u l t a ne ou s ly d e v e l o p e d

s u bj e c t . I t i s i n fa c t a bra n ch o f v e c t o ri a l a lg e bra b e i ng
, , ,

s c a l a r d e v e l o p m e n t s o f p a r t s t h e re o f W e m a y e m ploy t he id ea
.

o f p e rp e n dic u l a r pr o j e c t i o si ply r l hu s we m a y s a y t h a t t he ‘
n m i .
,

s c a l a r p ro d u c t o f a p a ir o f u n i t v e c t o rs i s t he e n gt h o f t he
l
proj e c t i on o f e i t h e r u p on t he o t h e r a nd t ha t t he s ca l a r
pr o d u c t of a ny v e c t o r A a nd a u n i t v e c t o r i i s t he proj e c t i on o f
A u p on t h e a x i s O f i ; a nd c o m pre h e ns iv e ly t h a t t he s c a l a r
, ,

prod u c t A B o f a ny t wo v e c t ors A a n d B i s t he pro d u c t of t h e

t e ns or of e i t h e r i n t o t he pr oj e c t i on ( p erp e ndic u l a rly ) u p on i t o f
t h e ot h e r I t i s th e e ffe c t i v e prod u c t s o t o s p e a k“ I n ph y s ic a l
.
,

m a t h e m a t ic s s c a l a r pr o d u c ts fr e que ntly h a v e r e fe re n c e t o
e n e rgy or a c t i v i t y or c o nn e c t e d q u a nt i t i e s
, , Thu s i f P be a .
,

fo rc e a n d v t h e v e l o ci t y o f i t s p oi nt o f a pplic a t i o n t h e ir s c a l a r ,

pro d u c t I v i s t he a c t ivi t y o f t he forc e i t i s t he pr od u c t of t he

‘

s p e e d a n d t he e ffe c t i v e fo rc e Whe n t he fo rc e a nd t he v el oci t y

.

ar e p e rp e n dic u l a r t h e a c t ivi t y i s n i l a l t h o u g h t he v e l o ci t y m a y
, ,

be ch a ngi ng — a fa c t which fa m ili a ri t y d o e s no t r e n d e r l es s

s t riki n g Wh en F a nd v a re p a ra ll e l ( w he t h e r c on c u rrent or
.

not ) Fv b e c o m e s t he s a m e as F1) i n t h e c o m m on m e a n i ng o f a
, ,

pro du ct A n ot a t i ont ha t h a r m on i s e s i n t hi s wa y i s ob v i ou sly

.

a co n v e n i e n t o ne .

N o t ic e a l s o t h a t A B = B A as i n s c a l a r a lg e bra
, , , .

A fre qu e nt ly o cc u rri ng o p e ra t i on i s t he s u rfa c e i nt egr a l of

t he nor m a l c om p one nt o f a v e c t o r ; for e x a m p le t o e xpr e s s t he ,

a m o u n t o f i nd u c t i o n t h ro u gh a s u rfa c e H e r e t he id e a o f .

u n i t n o r m a l v e c t or N is u se fu l The norm a l c om p one n t o f B

.
152 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 111 .

c l r prod u c ts whi ch wi ll go far t o j u s t i fy t h e m a s w orking

of s a a ,

u t ili t i es .

W e kno w t h a t i n s c a l a r a lg e bra wh e n we h a ve a pro d u ct ,

w e m a y e xpr e s s a: by t he s u m of a ny nu m b e r of ot h e r
qu ant i t i e s a nd s i m il a rly a s re g a rd s y a nd t h e n ob t a in t he
, ,

co m pl e t e pro d u c t my by a ddi n g t oge t h e r a l l t he c o m p one nt

pr odu c ts Obt a i n e d by m u l t iplying e v e ry e l e m ent of as i nt o e v e ry

e l e m e n t o f y ; a n d t h a t t hi s pr o c e ss m a y be c a rri e d o u t i n a n
y
o rd e r
.

Now in ve c t or a lg ebra w e kno w a lre a dy t ha t t he re i s a

, ,

a rt i a l s i m il a ri t y v iz t h a t we can d e c o m p os e a v e c t o r A i nt o
p ,
.
,

t he s u m of a ny n u m b e r o f ot h e r s a n d s i m il a rly a s r e g a rd s B
, .

The qu es t i on no w i s wh e t h e r t he s c a l a r prod u c t A B i s t he s u m
of a ll t he s c a l a r pr o d u c t s m a d e u p o u t o f t he c o m p o ne n ts o f A

p a ire d wit h t he c om p one nt s o f B t a ke n i n a ny ord e r For , .

e x a m pl e if ,

The w e r i s Ye s a nd t he proc e s s of m a nip u l a t i on i s t he

an s ,

s a m e a s i n s c a l a r a lg e br a t h a t i s a s i f a ll t h e v e c t ors w e re
, ,

s c al a rs . Mo r e ov e r t hi s prop e rt y a d m i ts of d e m o ns t r a t i on i n
,

a s u ffi ci e nt ly s i m pl e m a nn e r a s t o e na ble o n e t o s e e i t s t ru t h
'

S t a rt wi t h t he v e c t o r A a n d fi rs t s pli t i t u p i nt o
,

A =a+b+a

t wo or hr e e ve c tor c o m p o ne nt s b e i ng s u ffi ci e nt for ill u s t ra t i on

t .

N o w pr oj e c t t he v e c t o r A p e rp e n dic u l a rly u p on a ny a x i s s a y ,

t ha t of i A cc ordi ng t o o u r d e fi n i t i on o f a s c a l a r pro du c t t he
.
,

proj e c t i on i s A i No w i t r e q u ir es no for m a l d e m ons t ra t i on

.
'

bu t b e c o m e s e vid e nt a s s o on a s t he m e a ni ng of t he pro p o s i t i on
is c o rr e c t ly c on c e iv e d t h a t t he proj e c t i o n of A u p on a ny a xis
,

i s t he s a m e a s t he s u m o f t he pr oj e c t i on s o f i t s c o m p one nt
v e cto rs a b c on t ha t a x is Tha t i s t he l a t t e r proj e ct ions
, , , , .
,

ar e e i t h e r a ll p os i t iv e o r a ll n e g a t iv e a n d fit t og e t h e r t o m a k e
,

up t he proj e c t i o n o f A ; o r e l s e s o m e m a y b e n e g a t i ve a n d
ot h e rs p os i t iv e wh e n t h e re i s o v e rl a ppi n g a n d c a n c e lli n g b u t
, ,
 I f we now m u l t iply ( )
1 9 by a ny c l r B s o t h a t Bi 3
s a a ,
:

which is a ny v e c to r s i n c e
, i m ay ha v e a ny dir e c t ion we ob ta i n
,

( )
2 0

t he sam e a s i f w e m u l t ipl y ( )
1 8 by B dir e c t .

S i m il a rly , w e m a y s pli t u
p B i nt o t he s u m o f a ny n u m b e r of
~
o t he r v e c to rs , s a y ,

B d e f

If we su b s t i t u te t hi s i n ( 2 0) w e h a ve

N ow m ake u s e of t he s am e
rea s o ni ng w hich e s t a bli s h e d ( 1 9 )
.
a nd a ppli e d t o t he bra ck e t e d v e c t o rs ; a nd w e e s t a blis h
t he pr o p ert y fu lly wi t h t h e r e s u l t
*

t he exp a ns i on be in g d one fo r ma lly a s i n s c a l a r a lg e bra i n e ve ry

r e s p e c t s m oc t he va ri ou s t e rm s m a y be wri t t e n i n a ny o rd e r ,

.
a n d ea ch m a y be r e v e rs e d t h u s a d , da ,
.

I h a ve a lre a dy re m a rk e d t h a t a g oo d d ea l of g e om e t ry m a y
b e d one by t he a ddi t i o n pro p e r ty a l o ne The ra ng e o f a pplica
.

t i on i s gr e a t ly e x t e nd e d by t he u s e o f t he s c a l a r pro d u c t a nd t he
'

f u nd a m e n t a l pro p e rt y

AB ( l
A i A ,j A 3k ) ( Bl i B ,j B3k ) .
1 54 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I II

t he direc t ion cos i nes o f t he v e ct ors e a ch pro d u c t r e fe rri n g t o

,
“

on e a xi s In ( 2 3) w e m a y i f we pl e a se v e c t o ri s e t he s i x s c a l a rs
.
, ,

on t he righ t s id e .

S i nc e t he s q u a re o f a v e c t o r i s t he s qu a re of i t s t e ns o r we ,

m a y e xpr e s s t he t e n s o r a t o n c e i n t e r m s o f t he t e n s o rs a nd t he
cos i n e s o f t he a n gl e s b e t w ee n a s e ri es o f v e c t o r s i nt o which t he

o ri gi na l v e c t o r i s r e s o lv e d Th u s for t wo
.
, ,

=A2
( E) 2 2
A — — 2A B + 3 ;

a nd s i m il a rly for t hr e e ,

( )
2 6

Hr e e
( )
24 a nd
( )
2 5 a pply to a p a ra ll e l ogra m , a nd
( )
2 6 t o a

p a ra ll el e pip e d In . if A a nd B be t he v e c t or s id es of
a pa ra ll el ogr a m t he n ( A + B ) a nd ( A B ) a re t he v e ct o r
,
-

di a gon als ; s o ( 2 4) giv e s t he l e ng t h of o ne di a g ona l a n d ( 2 5 )

t h a t o f t he o t h e r .

A ddi ng ( 2 4 ) a n d ( 2 5 ) we Ob t a i n

( + R) ( R) 2 (A ( 7)
2 2 2
A A 2

e xpre ss ing t h a t t he s u m o f t h e s qu a re s O f t he di a g o na l s e q u a l s
t he su m of t he s q u a re s of t he fo u r s id e s S i m il a rly by s u b
.
,

t ra c t i o n
( A + B )
2
( A R) = 4 A 3 ,
2
_
( )
2 8

e xpr e s s i ng t he di ff e re n c e of t he s qu a r es of t he dia g ona l s a s fou r

t i m e s t he s c a l a r pr o d u c t o f t wo v e c t o r s id e s .

Eq u a t i o n ( 2 7 ) a l s o s h o w s t h a t t he s u m o f t he s qu a r es of t he
di st a nc es of t he ends of a ny di a m e t e r of a s ph e re from a fi x e d
p o int i s c on st ant For i f A i s t he v e c t or from t he fix e d p o i nt
.

t o t he s ph e r e s c en t r e a nd B t he v e c t o r fr om t h e c e nt r e t o o ne
’
,

e nd o f t he di a m e t e r t h e n A + B a nd A B ar e t he v e c t o rs
' —
,

from t he fix e d p oi nt t o t he e nd s o f t he di a m e t e r Wh e nc e by .
,

7 h e pro p o s i t i on
( 2 t .

Th e re i s a n a p p lic a t i on o f t his i n t he ki n e t ic t h e ory o f g a s es .

For wh e n t wo e l as t ic s ph e r e s c ollid e t h e y k e e p t he s u m of t h e ir
kin et i c e ne rgi e s c ons ta nt I f t h e n t h e ir ve l o ci t i es b efore
.
, ,

co ll is i on b e A + B an d A B t h e ir v e l o ci t i e s a ft e r c olli s i on are
,

i ndic a te d by v e c t o rs fr om t he o rigi n ( i n t he v e l oc i t y di a gra m)

1 56 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I I I.

Ho w sh ou ld we h o we ve r find t he m i n t e rms o f r a lge bra ica lly ?

, ,

To find a: w e m u s t Op e ra t e o n t he e q u at i o n i n s u ch a m a nne r as
t o c a u s e t he j a nd 1: t e rm s t o di s a pp e a r N o w t hi s w e c a n d o .

by m u l t iplyi ng by i For i i s p e rp endic u la r t o j a nd s o t ha t

.

m ul t ipl i c a t i on by i giv e s
2
ri 701
.

S i m il a rly, r j 3x a nd rk 2.

From t hi s b v i ou s c a s e w e ca n c oncl u d e w h a t t o d o wh en
o t he
re fe re nc e v e ct o rs a re n ot pe rp e n dic u l a r for i ns t a n c e i n ,

wh e re a b c a r e a ny i n d e p e nd e nt v e c t ors
, ,
. To find f w e m u s t
m u l t iply by a v e c t o r p e rp e ndic u l a r t o b a nd c , s ay 1, so t ha t
l b = 0 a nd l c = 0
, Th e n .

rl = f al , h e re fore f rl/a l
t .

S i m il a rly t o i s ol a t e g a nd h s o t h a t we g e t
,

§a+fl r
b+
r
fle
a1 bm on

wh e re l, m, n c t o rs n or m a l t o t he t hr e e pla n es o f b c
a re ve , ,

a nd a h ,
Thi s e xhibi t s e x plici t ly t he e x p a n s i o n o f a ny v e c t or
.

i n t e rm s of a ny t hre e i nd e p e nd e n t v e c t o r s a b c a s t he t hre e , , ,

e d g e s o f a s k e w p a ra ll e l e pip e d Thi s c a s e o f c o u rs e r e d u c e s ‘

.
, ,

t o t he pr e c e di ng C a rt e s i a n c a s e by t a ki ng a b c t o be i j , , , ,

wh e n l m n will a l s o be i j k or a ny s c a l a r m u l t iple s o f t he
, , , , ,

s am e .

O b s e r ve t he p e c u li a ri t y t h a t a u x ili a ry v e c t o rs a r e u se d , ea ch
of which i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t w o o t h e r s t h a t i s to , , t he pl a ne
c on t a i n i n g t h e m Th e se a u x ili a ry v e ct ors bri ng
. us t o t he
s t u dy o f t h e v e c t o r pr o d u c t .

Th e Ve ct or Pr o du ct of Tw o Ve c t o rs . I l l u s t ra t i ons .

111 . xili a ry v e c t o rs j u s t e m pl oy e d i n t h e e xp a ns i on Of
The au

a v e c t o r i nt o t he s u m o f t hre e v e c t o rs h a v i n g a n i n d e p e n d e n t
y
dire ct i o ns are e x a m pl e s of ve c t o r pro d u c ts Two ve c to rs b e ing
, .

giv en t h e ir v e c to r prod u c t i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o bo t h o f t h e m

, .

O f c ou rs e di s re g a rdi ng m a g n i t u d e t h e r e i s b u t o ne s u ch
, ,
in qu es t i on for i t will be ob s e rve d t ha t on e of t he v e c t ors
, ,

1 m n a pp ea r s bo t h i n t he nu m e ra t o r a n d i n t h e d e nomi
, , ,

na t o r o f o ne o f t he t hr e e fr a c t i o n s i n e qu a t i on s o t h at

t h e v a l u e s o f th e fra c t i o ns a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he te ns o r s o f
t he a u x i li a ry v e c t o r s .

B u t the v e c t o r prod u c t of t w o v e c t o rs ha s a s t ric t ly fixe d -

t e n s o r d e p e ndin g u p on t h os e of t he c om p o ne nt v e c t o rs a nd
,

t h e ir i n cli n a t i o n The re i s p a r t ic u l a r a d va n t a g e i n t a ki n g t he
.

t e n so r o f t he v e c t o r pro d u c t o f a a nd b t o b e a b s in 6
. Th u s .

w e d efin e t h e v e c t o r pro d u c t o f t wo v e c t o rs a a nd b wh os e .

t e ns o rs ar e a a nd b a nd wh os e i n cl u d e d a n gl e i s 6 t o b e a
, ,

FI G 5
. .

t hird v e ct or c w ho s e t e ns or c e qu a ls a b s i n 6 a nd wh os e dirc o
‘

t i o n i s p e rp e n dic u l a r t o t he pl a n e o f a a n d b t h e p o s it iv e
”

dire c t i on of 0 b e i ng s u ch t h a t p os i t iv e or right h an d ed r ot at i on -

a b o u t 0 c a rri e s t he v e c t o r a t o b Thi s v e c t or pro d u c t i s

.

d e not e d by
c Va h,

a nd i t s t e n s o r m a y be d en ot e d by Voa b ,
so t hat we have
c Voa bv a b S in 6
.
 58 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . III .

a be t o wa rd s t he r h a n d b t o w a rd s t he e a s t on t h e e a rt h s
no t ,
’
.

s u rfa c e ; t h e n c i s s t ra i gh t d o wn wa rd s A g a i n i n F i g 5 t he .
, .
,

d ir e c t i o n o f c i s d o w n w a rd s t hro u gh t h e p a p e r a n d i t s t e n so r ,

i s t he a re a o f t he p a r a ll e l ogra m u p o n a a nd b .

L e t b be fi x e d whil s t a m o v e s r o u n d s o a s t o v a ry t h e a ngl e
,

6 S t a r t i ng from c o i n cid e n c e wi t h 6 0 t he t e n s o r o f c i s z e ro
.
,
:
, .

I t r ea ch e s a m a xi m u m ( d o wn w a rd s ) wh e n 6 i s a righ t a ngl e ,

a n d fa ll s t o z e r o a g a i n wh e n 6 r e a ch e s t wo q u a dr a nt s a n d a i s ,

i n t h e s a m e li ne wi t h b t h o u gh di s c u rr e n t A ft e r t hi s i n t he
,
.
,

n e x t t wo q u a dra nt s t he s a m e nu m e ric a l ch a n g e s
, a r e g o ne

t hrou gh ; bu t n o w t he s i n e b e i n g n e g a t i v e 0 m u s t b e u pw a rd s
, ,

f r o m t he p a p e r .

The u ni t r e fe r e n c e v e c t o rs i j k a r e s o a rr a n g e d t h a t wh e n , , ,

in a i s i a nd b i s j t h e n c i s k
. n o t i n g i n Fi
, g 6 t h at k .
,

i s s u pp o s e d t o go d o w n w a rd s or a w a y fr o m t he r e ad e r T hu s , .
,

i n a cc o rd a n c e w i t h o u r d e fi n i t i o n w e h a v e

i = 1, Vk i = j a ( )
3 5

b e c a u s e t he m u t u a l gl e s q u a dra nt s a nd t he t e n s o rs u n i t y
'

an a re .

b s e rv e t he pre s e rva t i on t h e c y clic a l o rd e r i j k i n

‘

O of , ,

A l s o we h a v e
,

VII 0, i 0, k 0, ( )
3 6

v c t r p ir d
be c a u s e t he c i cid t
e o s a e a re o n en .

By t h d fi i t i n t h r v r l f t h rd r
e e n o , e e e sa o e o e of t he l e tt e rs in
a v ct r pr d c t n g t i v it Th
e o o u e a es . us

Va h Vb a .

( )
3 7

S i nc e t he t e n sor of Va h i s a b s in 6 a nd t he c l r pro d u c t
s a a

ab is a b cos 6, we h a ve ‘

) ( Va b) ( b)
? ? 2
( ab a .
( )
38

C om bi na t i ons of Thr ee Ve ct or s . The P r ll l p i p

a a e e e da l

P r op ert y .

112 A v e c t o r pr od u ct b e i ng a v e c t o r o f c ou rs e c om bine s wi th
.
, ,

o t h e r v e c t o rs t o m a k e s c a la r a nd v e c t o r pr o d u c t s a g a i n Thu s .

ova h w h e re c i s a ny n e w v e c t o r m e a n s t he s c a l a r pr o d u c t o f c
, ,

a nd Va h a nd VcVa b m ea ns t he v e c t o r pr o d u c t o f c a nd Va h .

The se a re b ot h i m p o rt a nt c o mbina t ions which o ccu r fre q u en tly , ,

a nd t h e ir i nt e rpr e ta t i on s a n d e xp a n s i on s will b e g i v e n pre s e nt l y

. .
1 60 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . III .

TO pro ve t h is m u l t iply ( 4 1 ) by a a nd b in t u rns t o fo rm t he

,

s c a l a r pr o d u c t s a c a n d be D o t hi s by t h e r u l e e m b o di e d i n .

e q u a t i on W e ge t

ac a
1 “3 52 ) “2 “1 63 ) a
s

be bl ( “2 1’s “3 62 ) be “1 63 ) be “2 61 )
Bu t , by c a nc e lli ng r righ t di s a pp e a r
"

, a ll t he t e m s on t he .

Tha t is,
ac 0, bc 0 .

F ro m t h e s e kn o w t h a t c i s p e rp endic u l a r
we
‘

t o a. a nd to b .

I t i s t h e re fo r e Va h i ts e l f or a m u l t ipl e o f t he
, , , same. To find
i ts t e n s o r s q u a r e , W e ge t
2 b
c
( a
3 l ( )
4 2

B u t t hi s m a y , by c o m mon a lg e bra , be t ra n s fo r m e d t o

2
(
?
6 a
1
“2 2
“32
) 6
( 1
2
53 2
) “2 62 ( )
43

Th a t i s, c 2
a
‘
z
b 2
( a h)
2
, ( )
44

or, 0
2
G 6
2 2
( L 0 cos
2 2 2
6 ( a bs in

The t e n s o r c i s , t h e re fo r e , t h a t
l it s of Va h i ts elf , or e se

ne g a t i v e E q u a t i on ( 44) i s t he s a m e a s
. i n a s ligh t ly
di ffe re nt form Equ a t i on ( 4 1 ) i s pro ve d e xc e p t t h a t i t r e m a i ns
.
,

t o be s e e n wh e t h e r t he righ t m e m b e r r e pr es e nt s Va h or i ts
n e g a t i ve .

To d o t his w e m a y r e ma rk t h a t t he a ngl e b e t w e e n t wo
,

pl a nes i s t he s a m e as t he a ngl e b et we e n t he no rm a ls t o t he
pl a ne s if t he n orm al s c o i ncide wh en t he pl a n es d o s o t h a t t he
, ,

t hre e qu a n t i t i e s i n in which a r e t he s c al a r p ro
h a x e s a r e a l s o t he a re a s o f t he pr oj e c t i o ns
j e c t i o n s o f c o n t e ,

o f t he a r ea Voa b o n t h e pl a n e s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t h e m We .

h a v e t h e r e for e only t o v e ri fy t h a t t he proj e c t i on o f a ny plan e

o n t h e pl a n e n o rm a l t o o n e o f t h e a x e s i s gi v e n c o rr e c t ly i n

s ign by T a k e a re c t a ngl e p a ra ll e l t o t he j 1: pl a n e , , ,

s id e s p a ra ll e l t o j a nd k t h a t i s a ej a nd 63k ; s o t h a t
, ,

Hr e e G 6
2 3
i s t he pr oj e ct i on of t he re c ta ngl e on a p a ra l le l pl a ne ,

a nd is c orr e ct ly p os i t iv e .
 Vac i ( a c
2 3
G 0
3 2 )
A d d t h es e t og et h e r . We g e t

Va b + Va c = i [
a
2 ( 3
6 c
3 ) a
3 ( 2
6 c
2) ] ( )
4 7

B u t t he righ t m e m b e r, by d e fi ni t i on of a v c t r pr
e o o du c t , or by
m e a ns Va ( b c) Tha t i s
.
,

S i m il a rly Vd ( b c) d Vd c .

S o, by a ddi ng t h e s e a ga i n ,

V( a d) (b c) Va h Va c d Vd e, ( )
50

a v ry rem rk bl
e a a i m p or ta n t fo r m u l a It s h o w s t h a t t he
e and .

v e ct o r produ c t o f t wo v e cto rs A a nd B e qu a l s t he s u m o f a ll
, ,

t he v e c t o r pr o d u c t s w hich can b e m a d e u p o u t o f t he co m
p o n e n t v e c t o r s [( a + d ) a n d ( b + c ) i n i n t o which we m a y
d ivid e A a nd B pr ovid e d we k e e p t he c o m p on e nt s of A a lwa y s
,

b e fore t h os e of B The n e c es s i t y o f t hi s prov i s o o f c ou r s e

.

foll o w s fro m t he r e v e r s a l of Va h wi t h t he o rd e r o f a a nd b .

A lt h ou gh ( 5 0) o nly s h o ws t hi s for t wo c om p one n ts t o e a ch

d e nt ly appli e s t o a ny n u m b e r o f c om p on e n ts .

S u bj e c t t o t he li m i ta t i on na m e d t h e fo r m ul a ( 5 0) ,
i s p re

No w t he tr u t h o f ( 1 7 ) c o u ld be s een wi th ou t m u ch t rou bl e .

A s i m il a r pr o o f o f o n t he o t h e r b a n d w o u ld n o t be a t a ll ,
 ELE C TROMAGNETI C T HEORY . CH . I II .

Exa mp l e s r ela t i ng t o Ve c t or Prod u c t s .

By m e a ns o f t he form u l a ( 4 1 ) we ca n a t on ce ob t a i n
114 .

t he c a rt es i a n e x p a ns i on of t he p a ra ll e l e pip e d a l c Va b Us e .

e q u a t i on a ppli e d t o r e me mb e ri ng t h a t c i s no w a ny
ve ct o r a nd we ge t ,

c Va b ( 0
1 ( a b
2 3 2 ,)
0
2
a b
s l
a b
1 3 ) + a 72
( )
5 1

By r ea rra nge m ent of t e rms on the righ t s id e of t hi s p u t t i ng ,

t he a s ou ts id e t he bra ck e t s w e o b t a i n a Vbc a nd p u t t i ng t he
’
, ,

b 8 o u ts id e we ob ta i n c a a nd t h u s v e ri fy ( 40) a g a i n
, , .

The ve c t o r Vc Va b i s p e rh a p s m os t s i mply e x p a nd e d t hro u gh

, ,

i j
, ,
Fi rs t wri t e d for Va h t h e n by ( 4 1 ) we h a v e ,

Vod i ( c2 d 3 c d
3 2 )
N xt p e ut for d l , d 2, d 3 t h e ir vl
a u es i n t e r ms o f a s a nd
’
bs ,
’

gi v n i n
e a nd we ha ve
VcVab i [c, ( a l b2 G
2 1)
6 c
3
?
63 l
) 1 a b
l 3) ]

i [a 1 ( b202 6303 )

Nex t ,
a dd a n d s u b t ra c t a b c ,
l l l
a nd we ge t

VcVa b i [a l bc bl a c]

L tly r c nv r t f lly t v c t r
as , e o e u o e o s , a nd we ha ve
VcVa b = a bc— b . ca. .
( )
5 2
L 3 s I Z
'
2 s
“

Thi s i mp or tant form u l a s h ou ld be re m e m b er e d T hat VcVa b .

i s i n t he pl a ne o f a a nd b i s e v id e nt b e fo re h a nd b e c a u s e Va h ,

i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t hi s pl a n e a nd m u l t iplyi ng by Vc s e nd s i t ,

b a ck i nto t he pl a ne I t i s t h e re for e e xpre s s ibl e i n t e rm s of a

.
, ,

a nd b as i n , which s h o ws t he ma gn i t u de of t he c om
o n e nt s
p .

In s om e m o re
c ompl e x for mu l ae i t i s s u ffi ci e nt t o re m em b e r
t he pri ncipl e u p o n which t h e y a r e fo u nd e d a s by i t s a i d t h e y ,

c a n be r e c o v e r e d a t a n t i m e Th u s i n t he c a s e of
y .

( )
5 3

alre a dy t re a t e d eq u a t i on , if w e u se no w Vho for l, which

was b e for e a ny m u l t ipl e
, , of it, a nd s i m il a rly for m a nd n we ,

e c e a r Va b
b c
a Vbc c a. c Va b
1 64 EL E C T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY .
‘
v

cH . I II .

i t s el f c onc e rne d For t he a ddit i on o f diffe re nt i a t i ons d oe s

is .

n o t u s u a lly i nt ro d u c e a ny t hi n g n e w i n t o t h e al g e bra Thu s i n .

,

t he a na l y s i s o f v a ryi ng v e c t o rs we h a v e t he s a m e v e c t o r
,

a lg e bra wi t h n e w v e c t o r s i n t r o d u c e d t h es e b e i n g d e ri v e d fro m
,

o t h e r s by t he pr o c e s s o f di ffe r e n t i a t i on .

The id e a s c on c e rne d i n t he di ffe re nt i a t i on of a v e c t o r wi t h

r e s p e c t t o a s c al a r a re e s s e n t i a lly t he s a m e as in t he di ffe re nt i a
t i on o f a s c a l a r Thu s i t be i n g a s c a l a r f u n c t i on o f x i e a
.
, ,
. .
,

qu an t i ty wh os e va l u e d e p ends on t ha t o f x we kno w t h a t i f ,

A n i s t he i n cre m e nt i n at c o rre s p on di n g t o t he i n cr e m e nt Am
i n x t h e n t he r a t i o A n/Ax u s u a lly t e nd s t o a d e fi n i t e li m i t i n g
,

va l u e wh e n A90 i s i nfi n i t e ly re du c e d which li m i t d e not e d by , ,

d u /dx i s c a ll e d t he di ffe r e nt i a l c o e ffici e nt o f u wi t h r e s p e c t t o at

, .

Thi s I s h o u ld be s t rongly t e m p t e d t o c a ll t he di ffe re nt i a nt

of u t o w e r e I n ot i nform e d on t he high e s t a u t h ori t y t h a t
t he e x pr e s s i o n di ffe rent i a n t for di ffe r e nt i a l c oe ffici e nt i s
“ “

o bj e c t i o n a bl e B u t t he di ffe r e nt i a t i ng o p e ra t o r d ’dx which

.
,

a c t s o n t he o p e r a n d u m a y b e t e rm e d t he di ff e re nt i a t o r a s ,

has p e rh a p s b e e n d o ne by S yl v es t e r a nd o t h e rs Thi s wa y o f .

re g a rding a di ffe re nt i a l c oe ffici ent s plit t ing d n/da: i nt o ( d/dx)

,

a nd n s om e t i m e s l e a d s t o gr e a t s a v i n g o f l a b o u r t h o u gh w e a r e
, ,

n o t c o n c e rn e d wi t h i t i m m e di a t e ly .

The di ffe re nt i a l c o e ffi ci e nt i s t h u s s t ric t ly t he r a te of i n cre a s e

o f t he fu nc t i o n wi t h t he v a ri a bl e or t he i n cr e a s e o f t he f u n c
,

t i o n p er u ni t i ncr e a s e o f t he v a ri a bl e on t he t a ci t a ssu m p t i on , .

t h a t t he r a t e o f i n cr e as e o f t he fu n c t i o n k e e p s t he s a m e va l u e
t hr o u gh ou t t he wh ol e u n i t i n cr e m e nt i n t he va ri a bl e a s i t h as
for t he p a r t ic u l a r v a l u e o f t he v a ri a bl e c on c e rne d Thi s pl a n .
,

re fe rri ng t o u ni t i ncre m e nt i s o ft e n v e ry u se fu l The re s e rva t i on

,
.

i nv olv e d t h o u gh i t m u s t be u nd e rs t ood n e e d not be m ent i o ne d

, , .

Th e re i s a l s o t he m e t h od of di ffe re n ti a l s which i s o f s om e ,

i mp or t a nce i n v e c t or a n a ly s i s a s i t c a n be e m pl oy e d wh e n
,

diffe re nt i a l c oe ffici e nt s d o not e xi s t Th u s n b e i ng a fu nc t i o n

.
,

o f at wh ose di ff e r e n t i a l i s d x t he c orr e s p o ndi ng d i ffe r e nt i a l o f

, ,

u is
da =
f( x dx) -

f ( ); x

which by ,
e x p nding f
a re d u ce s to
pro vid e d w e n e gl e c t t he s qu a res a nd high e r p o we rs o f d x, t h a t
i s r e g a rd d x a s i n fi n i t e s i m a l a nd t h e re fo r e d n a l so
, , . A nd i f
t h e r e b e t wo v a ri a bl e s as i n n f ( x y ) t h e n w e h a v e
,
:
, ,

da y + d y)
-

f( x, ( 5 8)

l e a di ng to ( >
5 9
d

e x pr ing th di ff r t i l
e ss e e en a of u i n t e rm s of t h os e o f x a nd y .

N w l t t h p r nd b
o e e o e a e a v ct r f cti
e o un on o f sa
y, E . Fo r
i ns t a nc e ,
as di st a n ce m e a s u r e d a l ong a s t ra igh t li ne
m ay m e a n
o r a x1 s I n a n e l e c t r os t a t ic fi e ld wh e r e E t h e e l e c t ric fo rc e
,
will , ,

u s u a lly ch a n g e as w e p as s a l o ng t h e l i n e I t m a y ch a ng e co n .

t i n u o u s ly i n dir e c t i on a s w e ll a s i n m a g n i t u d e i n a ny c a s e t he ,

cha nge i t s e l f i n E b e t we e n t wo p oi nt s o n t he li n e i s a v e c t or ,

b e i ng t he v e c t o r A l l which m u s t be a dd e d t o t he B a t t he firs t
p oi nt t o prod u c e t h a t a t t he s e c on d p oi nt D ividi ng by Ax t he .
,

i ncre m ent i n x w e ge t t he v e c t o r A ll/Ax a nd t hi s wh e n t he

, ,

I n cr e m e n t s a re t a k e n s m a ll e r a nd s ma ll e r a ppr o x i m a t e s t o wa rd s ,

a d e fi ni t e li m i t i ng v e c t o r d e n o t e d by d E d x which i s by t he
/ , ,

m a nne r o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i on t he ra te o f i n cr e as e of B wi t h x or
, ,

t he i ncr e a s e i n B p e r u n i t i n cre a s e i n x .

W e h a v e a l s o i n di ffe r e nt i a ls
, ,

l e a di ng to dB
'

un d e r s t a ndi ng t h a t t he di ffe r e nt i a l s dr a nd d B a re i nfi ni t e s i m a l .

S i m il a rly t h e r a t e o f i n cr e a s e o f t h e v e c t o r dE/da; wi t h x i s
,

t he s e c on d di ffe r e nt i a l c oe ffici e nt d E/d a:

Z 2
a nd so o n .

Fu nc t i ons of Ve ct or s .

1 16 . In s em i -
C a r t e s i a n for m w e h a ve

Hr
e e thec l r s a a s E 1 , E 2 , E3 are f u nc t i o ns o f a7,

r e fe r e nc e v e c t ors i ,
j , k a re c o ns t a n t s so we h a ve
1 66 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY .
‘

CH . 11 1 .

2 2 2 2
d B al E
S i m il a rly, i ( )
6 4
2 2
dx
’
‘
a Jc d c:

sho ws the c om p on e nt s o f t he s e c on d di ffe rent i al c oeffici ent ,

o b t a i n e d by di ffe r e nt i a t i ng

No w t hi s s e m i C a rt es i a n pro c es s i s qu i t e ge ne ra l A ny v e c t o r
,
-
.

fu n c t i on m a y b e e xp r e s s e d i n t he fo r m a n d wh e n t he righ t
r

m e m b e r i s di ffe r e nt i a t e d t he d i fie re n t i a t i on s a r e p e rfo r m e d
‘

u p o n s c a l a r f u nc t i o ns The s a m e r e m a rk a ppli e s t o ( 63) a nd

.

&c s o we s ee t h a t t he r u l es for di ffe r e nt i a t i ng v e c t o r s

.
,

a nd fu n c t i o n s o f ve ct o rs wit h re sp e ct t o s c al a r v a riabl es
, ,

a re t he s a m e a s t h ose for di ffe r e n t i a t i n g s i m il a r f u n c t i on s o f

s c a l a rs s o fa r a s t he i nd e p e nd e nt a c t i on o f a d i fie r e n t i a t or o n
‘

t he s e p a r a t e m e m b e r s o f a pr o d u c t g oe s .

Th u s i n di ffe re nt i a t i ng a s c a l a r prod u ct A B wi t h r es p e c t t o
, , ,

a v a ri a bl e s c a l a r t we h a v e by
, , ,

. .

I31 l A z I32 + A 3 B3)

' '
2

o r, r e -
t ra ns form i ng to v ct r
e o s,

(1
-
AB = AB A B,
dt

j u st as if A a nd B w e r e s c al a rs . S i m il a rly , we ha ve
d
VA R VA B VA E, (6 )
6
dt

as we ma y see i m m e di a t ely by di ffe r e nt i a t i ng t he sem i C a rt es ia n

-

e xp a ns i on o f VA B e q u a t i o n
,
We have a ls o
d
A VB C A VB C A VB C A VBG,
dt

d
VA VBG VA VB C VA VB C VA VBC ( )
6 8
Cl;
.

Bu t, lt h ou gh w e pro c e e d form a lly as i n t he o rdi na ry

a ,

di ffe ren t ia t i on o f s c a l a rs a s r e ga rd s t he prop e rt i e s p e cu li a r t o

,

di ffe rent i a t i on ye t we m u s t a lwa ys r e m e m b e r t hos e which a re

,

p e c u li a r t o t he v e c t o r a lg e bra For e x a m pl e we m u s t not .

,

o nly o n t he l e ft s id e s b u t a l s o o n t h e righ t s id es o f ( 6 7 ) a n d
,
1 68 ELEC TROMAGN E TI C THEORY . CH . I II .

c orr e s p ondi ng i ncr em e n t i n AT i s t he v e c t o r chor d P Q t he ne w ,

v e c t o r o f t he c u rv e b e i ng O
Q t h a t i s r + Ar i ns t e a d o f O P or r
, , .

W e s ee t h a t Ar/A s i s a v e c to r p a ra ll e l t o t he ch ord wh os e t e ns or ,

i s t he r a t i o o f t he ch ord t o t h e a r c No w r ed u ce t he i ncre .

m e n t s t o n o t hi ng I n t he li m i t t he dir e c t i o n o f d r/ ds i s t h a t
.

o f t he t a ng e nt t o t he c u r v e a t P a n d i t s t e n s o r i s u n i t y s i n c e
, ,

t he ch o rd a nd t he a r c t e nd t o e q u a li t y Tha t i s .
,

dr — dx dz
T=
.

I _
+ J k _
, 7
( )1
dc ds ds

w h e re T i s the u ni t ve c to r t a nge n t a nd t he s e m i C a rt es i a n ,
-

e x pr e ss i on ( got by e xp a ndi ng r ) i s a l s o g i v e n I n t h e fig u re t he .

s iz e O f T i s q u i t e a rbi t ra ry s i nc e t he u n i t o f l e n g t h i s a rbi t ra ry
, .

N ext di ffe rent i a t e a ga in wi t h re s p e c t t o s t o ob ta i n t he

,

s e c on d di ffe re nt i a l c o e ffici e nt e /d s o r d T/ d s I t i s t he ch a ng e
'
2
.

i n t he u n i t ta n g e nt p e r u n i t s t e p a l on g t he c u rv e N o w a s t he .
,

u n i t t a ng e n t c a nn o t ch a n g e i t s l e ng t h i t c a n o nly ch a n g e i t s ,

dire c t i on ; a nd m oreove r t hi s ch ange i s a v e c t or p e rp en dic u l a r

, ,

t o t he t a ng e nt I t a n d t h e t w o t a n g e nt s i n i t i a l a n d fi n a l a r e
.
, ,

in s o m e p la ne u s u a lly t e r m e d t he o s c u l a t i ng pl a n e
, ,
I t i s t he .

pl a n e o f t he c u rv e for t he t i m e b e i ng u nle s s i t be a pl a ne ,

c u rv e wh e n i t i s t he pl a ne o f t he wh ol e c u r ve Th u s d T/ds
,
.
,

b e ing a t righ t a ngl e s to T p oi nt s from t he c u r ve t o wa rd s t he

,

c e nt re of c u rv a t u re for t he t i m e b e i ng Mo re ov e r i t s t e ns o r .
,

m e a s u re s t he c u rv a t u re For t h e u s u a l m e a s u re i s d 6/d s
.
,

wh e re d 6 i s t he a ngl e b e t w e e n t he t a ng ent s a t t he e nd s o f d s ,

a n d i t m a y be r e a dily s e e n t h a t t hi s i s t h e t e ns o r o f d T d s
/ .

Now t he r e cipr o c a l o f t h e c u rv a t u r e i s t h e ra di u s o f c u r va
t u re . I f t h e n R be t he v e c t o r fro m t he c u r ve t o t he c e nt re o f
cu rv a t u re C ( Fig 7 W e h a v e.

d 2
r dr 1
7
( )2
R
,
d3 2
d3

a nd t he v ct r fr
e o om t he o rigi n t o t he c e nt r e of c u r va t u re Is

r R .

No w, re fe rri ng t o t he s a m e fi g u re le t a p oi nt m ov e a l ong t he ,

c u rve d p a t h C on s id e r i t s v e l o ci t y a n d a cc e l e ra t i o n t a ki ng t
.
,

t h e t i m e for i n d e p e n d e nt v a ri a bl e W e h a ve .

( It dc
by
.
us n i g d en ot ing t he v e l o ci ty by V I t s t e ns or i s
a nd .
'

e i nt e rpr e t a t i on o f ( 7 3 ) i s s u ffici e nt ly o bvi o u s

/
v or d s d t T h .
,

s i nc e i t s ays t h a t t he m ot i o n i s ( m o m en ta rily ) a l o n g t h e
ta ng e n t a t s p ee d c
, .

D iffe rent i a te a ga in t o t W e ge t .

m 2
e dr
_
'
( )
7 4
as di dt

Tha t v c t r r t f cc l r t i n i xhibi t d
i s , t he e o a e o a e e a o s e e as t he su m

of t wo v c t r t h fir t b i ng t h t ng nt i l c m p n
e o s, e s e e a wh os e e a o o en t ,

t e n s o r e q u a l s t he ra t e o f a cc el e ra t i on o f s p e e d whil s t t he s e c o n d ,

we m a y e xp a n d t h u s by i ntr od u ci ng t he i nt e r m e di a t e va ri
’

a bl e 3

( )
7 5

h r
w e e t he h rd for m i s got by u s i ng
t i Th is s h o w s t h e
ra t e o f a cc e l e ra t i o n p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t he m o t i o n I t i s to w a rd s .

t he c en t re o f c u r va t u r e o f a m o u nt c /R t he w ell k no w n
,
2
,

re s u l t .

Tort u os i t y of a C u rv e, a nd Va ri ou s Forms of Exp a ns i on .

118 . r e fe rri ng t o Fi g 7 i f t he c u rv e be n o t a pl a ne
A ga in .
,

c u r ve or be a t o rt u ou s c u r ve t he o s c u l a t i ng pl a n e u nd e rg oe s
, ,

ch a ng e a s w e p as s a l ong t he c u rv e I t t u rns r ou n d t he t a n .

ge n t a nd t he m e a s u r e of t he t ort u os i t y i s t he a m ou nt o f t u rn
,

i ng p e r u ni t s t e p a l ong t he c u r v e I t i s d qb/ds i f d d i s t he
.
,
)

a ngl e b e t w e e n t he t wo os c u l a t i ng pl a n e s a t t h e e x t r e m i t i es o f

ds . I t i s e qu iv a l e nt ly d e no t e d by t h e t e n s o r o f d N/ds i f N b e ,

t he u n i t n or m a l t o t he os c u l a t i ng pl a n e Thi s i s s i m i la r t o .

t he e qu iv a l e n c e o f d 6/d s a nd t h e t e ns o r o f d T/d s i n m e as u ri ng
t he c u r va t u r e be for e n o t ic e d t h e e q u i v a l e nt pl a ne i n t h a t c as e
,

b e i ng t he pl a n e n orm a l t o T .

s y st e m ,
for we h a ve
N = VTR 1,

8 1 11 0 8
1 70 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I II .

l g t he c u rv e i n s u ch a w a y t ha t t he se a x e s k e e p a lwa y s
a on

c oin cid e nt wi t h t he T R I a nd N of t he cu r ve A s i t m ov e s
, ,
.
,

t he b ody rot a t e s I t r o t a t e s a b ou t t he N a x i s o nly wh e n t he

.

c u rve i s pl a ne bu t a b ou t t he T a x i s as w e ll wh e n t o rt u ou s
,
.

The v e c t o r ch a ng e ( i nfi n i t e s i m a l ) i n T i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o i t i n ,

t he o s c u l a t i n g pl a n e t h a t i s t he pl a ne wh os e n orm a l i s N
—
, ,

a n d i s dir e c t e d t o wa rd s t he c e n t r e o f c u rv a t u r e A nd t he .

v e c t o r cha nge ( infi ni t e s i m a l ) i n N i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o i t als o i n ,

t h e o s c u l a t i n g pl a ne a nd dir e c t e d t o wa rd s t he c e n t r e o f c u rva
,

t u re t he v e c t o r R r o m t he c u r v e t o t he c e nt r e o f c u r va t u r e
f
,

be i ng o n t he i nt e r s e c t i on o f t he t wo pl a n es m e nt i one d .

Va rio u s e xpress i ons for t he to r tu os i ty m ay be obta ine d L et .

i t be Y t he t e ns o r o f Y giv e n by ,

dN d

Th en by ( 7 6) a nd t he c ont ex t ( 7 7 ) gi ve s one e x pre s s i on

, , . A
s e c o nd i s g o t by p e r fo r m i n g t h e d I ffe r e n t i a t i o n givi ng ,

Y :
v 95 ?
R 1 + VT £
d
( )
7 8
d8 d3
B u t t he firs t t e rm o n the righ t is z ero by ( 7
, t he t wo v ct r
e o s

a ft e r V b e i ng p a ra ll e l S o .

gi v es a no t h e r e xpre ss i on . Or
dR
Y = VOT , ( )
8 0
d8

c ons id e ri ng t he t e ns or only . B u t, i c
s n e Y is p a r all e l t o R , , we
ha v e YR Y t he re for e by
1 ,

Y —
: R1 VT_ _ 1
( )
8 1
d8
is a t hird a n d e ntirely di ffe re nt e xpres s i on Tha t Y i s p a ra ll e l .

t o R I we m ay pro v e by ( 7 7 ) a nd M u l t iply ( 7 7 ) by N

g
ZN
YN N ”
m : 0 , ( )
8 2
3

i c
s n e N 2 : 1 .
( )
8 3
Thi s s h ows Y is p e rp en dic ul a r t o N I t 1 8 a l so by ( 7 9 ) .
, p e r

p e n d i c u lar to T . S o i t s dir e c t i on i s t h a t o f R .
172 ELECT ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH 1 1 1
. .

v e c t o rs . Al s o, c onv e rt
b o v e t o C a r t e s i a n fo rm t hro u gh
t he a

i j k a nd v e ri fy a ll t h e r e s u l t s o r c o rr e c t t h e m a s t he c a s e
, , , , ,

m a y be S p a c e i s t oo s h o rt h e r e fo r m u ch d e t ail
. .

Ha mi l t on s Fi ni t e ’
Di ff e r e nt i als I nc onv e ni e nt a nd Unne c e s sa ry .

§ 119 . d e s ira bl e t o s a y a fe w w ord s re ga rdi n g t he

It i s no w

m e t h o d o f t re a t i ng v e c t o r di ffe re n t i a t i o n e m pl oy e d by H a m il t o n ,

a nd foll o we d by T a i t The l a t t e r s p ea k s i n hi s t r e a t i s e ( ch a p t e r
.

I .
, t hird e di t io n) o f t he n o v e l di ffi c u l t i e s t h a t a ri s e i n
q u a t e rni o n d iffe re nt i a t i on ; a nd r e m a rk s t h a t i t i s a s t riki ng
circ u m st a nc e w he n w e c o ns id e r t he way in which N e wt on s
,
’

o rigi n a l m e t h o d s i n t h e di ffe re nt i a l c a lc u l u s h a v e b e e n d e cri e d ,

t o find t h a t H a m il t o n wa s o bli ged t o e m pl o y t h e m a nd n o t t he ,

m o r e m o d e r n fo r m s i n o rd e r t o o v e rc o m e t he ch a ra c t e ri s t ic
,

di ffic u l t i e s of q u a t e rni o n di ffe re n t i a t i on ( For t he w ord .

qu a te rn i on we m a y re a d v e ct or o r v e c t o ri a l h e re b e c a u s e a
,
”
,

v e ct or i s c ons id e re d by Ha m il t on a nd Ta i t t o be a qu a t e rn i on ,

o r i s o ft e n c o u nt e d as o ne T hi s pra c t ic e I s s o m e t i m e s c o n fu s i ng
. .

Th u s t he i m port a nt phy s ic a l op e ra t o r V i s ca ll e d a q u at e rn i on
o p e ra t o r I t i s r e a lly a v e c t o r
. I t i s a s u nfa ir t o c a ll a v e c t or
.

a q u a t e r n i o n a s t o c a ll a m a n a q u a dr u p e d ; a l th o u gh fo u r ,

i n cl u di ng t wo t he q u a dr u p e d m igh t be h e ld ( i n t he m a tt e r of
,

le gs ) t o i n clu de t he bip e d o r i nd e e d t he t r ip e d which , , , ,

wou ld be m ore a n a l ogou s t o a v e c t o r I t i s a l s o o ft e n .

i nc o nv e n i e nt t h a t t he n a m e o f t he s ci en c e v iz Q u a t e r ,
.
,

ni o n s s h o u ld b e
,
a m e r e r e p e t i t i on o f t he na m e o f t he
o p e r a to r Th e re i s s om e g a in i n cl e a rne s s by pr e s e rvi ng t he
.

na m e
“
qu a t e r ni on for t he r e a l q u a t e rni on t he q u a dr u p e d
” —
,

th a t i s t o s a y ) The m a t t e r i s ill u s t ra t e d by t he m o t i o n o f a
.

p o i n t a l on g a c u rv e B ut i t d oe s n o t a pp e a r
. fr om t hi s ,

ill us t r a t i o n wh e re t h e oblig a t i on t o d e p a r t from co mm o n u s a g e

,

com e s in .

The s u bj e c t i s h o w e ve r r e t u r ne d t o m o re g e ne ra lly i n
, ,

C h a p t e r I V on D i ff e re nt i a t i on wh e r e we a r e i n fo rm
.
,
e d t ha t
,

we re qu ire t o e m pl oy a d e fi ni t i on o f a di ffe r e nt i a l s om e wh a t
“

di ffe r e nt fro m t he ordina ry one b u t c o in cidi ng wi t h i t w he n ,

a ppli e d t o f u nc t i o ns o f m e re s c a l a r v a ri a bl e s H e re a g a i n ”
.
,

h o w e v e r a m os t s ea rchi ng e x a mi na t i on fa il s t o s h o w m e t he
,

ne c e s s i t y o f t h e r e qu ir e m e n t o r a t l e as t t h a t t he n e c e s s i t y i s , ,

de m on t ra te d s .
 .
To e x a m ine t hi s m a t t e r, c on s id e r for i m plicit y a fu n ct i on
s

u of a s i ngl e s c a l a r v ri bl
a a e a a nd a s i ngl e v e c t o r v a ri a bl e

say

Follo wm g t he c ommon m e t h od of i nfi ni t es i m a l diffe rent i al s , we

ha v e
( )
9 1

Th a t givi ng t he i nfi nit e s im a l i ncr e me nt s dr a nd d a t o r

is , on

a n d a w e pr o d u c e t he i n fi n i t e s i m a l i n cr e m e nt d a i n t h e fu n c t i o n .

He re da dr a nd da a r e t he diffe r en t ia ls a nd i t i s i m p ort a nt t o
, ,

r e m a rk i n c onn e c t i on wi t h t he foll o wi ng t h a t t hey ar e i nfinI

, ,

t e s im a l a nd t h a t d a i s r e a ll y t he I n cr e m e nt c o rr e s p o ndi n g t o
,

dr a nd da .

No w, H m ilt ni
di ffe r en t i a l s ha ve a di ffe re nt m ea ning
a o an .

Tho u gh t h ey wou ld be d e note d by d a dr a nd da y e t b e i ng , , ,

di ffe r e nt we s h a ll he re dign i fy th e m wi t h bra ck e t s a n d d en ot e

, ,

t h e m by ( d a ) ( dr ) a nd ( d a ) t o di s t i ng u i s h t h e m fro m t he
, , ,

di ffe re nt i a l s i n The H a m il t on i a n di ffe re nt i a l ( d a ) i s t h e n

d e fine d by

( )
d u "

f ( )
9 2

on t he un d e rs t a n di ng t ha t n i s i nfi ni t y a nd t ha t ( on which ,

r
st e ss is l a id) t he di ffe rent i a l s ( dr) a nd ( da ) a re fi ni t e a nd

Tha t t his proc es s i s circ u it ou s i s obvi o u s bu t i s i t ne c es s a ry ? ,

L e t u s e xa m i ne i nt o i t s m ea n ing a nd c om p a r e ( 9 2 ) w i t h ,

Fir s t di v id e ( 9 2 ) by n
,
W e t hen ha ve .

< >
d a
g dr >
n
_

n
( )
9 3

s ee a t a gl a nc e ,
t h a t ( 9 3) b e c om e id e n

da g3) , dr
n n
17 4 E LE CTRO MAGN ETI C THEORY . CH . III .

When we proc e e d t o fo rm a di ffe re nt i a l c oeffi ci ent a s du /d t , ,

i f r a nd a a r e fu nc t i o ns o f t or d u / d a i f r i s a fu nc t i on o f a
, ,
,

w e s e e t h a t t h e ir v a l u es a re e q u iv a l e nt ly e xpre s s e d by
u s i n g t he fi ni t e di ffe r e n t i a l s
a nd
; b e c a u s e t hi s m e r e ly
s a y s t h a t t h e v a l u e o f t he fr a c t i o n d u d t i s u n a ffe c t e d wh e n
/
t he n u m e ra to r a nd d e nom i na t o r a re e a ch m u l tipli e d by t he s a m e
q u a nt i t y.

I n t he a bo v e t he r eas oni ng i s t he s a me wh e th e r u i s a s c a l a r
, ,

or a v ec t o r fu n c t i o n o f r a nd a .

B u t whil s t t he d i ffe re nt i a l c oe ffi ci e nt c om e s o u t t he s a m e y e t ,

t he di ffe r e nt i a l ( d a ) i s n ot t h e i ncr e m e nt i n u b e l o n gi ng t o t he
fi ni t e i ncre m e nt s ( dr ) a nd ( da ) nor i s i t a ny t hi ng lik e i t e xcep
, ,

t i ons e xc e p t e d .

The a b o v e i s a s fa ir a nd as cl e a r a s t a t e m ent a s I c a n m a k e
o f t he di ff e r e n c e b e t we e n c o mm o n a n d fi n i t e di ffe r e nt i al s a s

a ppli e d t o v e c t o rs a n d w e s ee t h a t t h e H a m il t on i a n pl a n i s

o nly a r o u nd a b o u t a nd r a t h e r c o nf u s i ng w a
y o f e x pr e s s i n g wh a t
i s d one i ns t a nt ly w i t h i nfi ni t es i m a l di ff e r e nt i a l s B u t the n .

t he H a m il t o n i a n pl a n i s s a id t o be oblig a t o ry The re s t he ’
.

rub ! I c a n onl y gi ve m y o wn p ers ona l e xp e ri enc e A ft e r .

m u ddli ng m y wa y s o m e h o w t hr ou gh t he l a m e nt a bl e q u a t e r
n i oni o C h a p t e r II t he t hird ch a p t e r w as t ol e ra bly e a s y
.
, bu t
a t t he fo u r th I s t u ck a g a i n o n t hi s v e ry m a t t e r o f t he o blig a
,

t ory n a t u r e of t he fi ni t e di ff e re n t i a l s I a m no wi s e r no w a b o u t
.

i t t h a n I wa s t h e n P e rh a p s t h e r e i s s o m e v e ry pr o fo u n d a nd
.
-

o cc u l t m y s t e ry i nv o l v e d which c a nn o t b e r e v e a l e d t o t he v u lg a r

i n a t re a t i s e H a m il t on i s a n a m e t o c on j u r e by O r p e rh a p s .

I b e ga n t he s t u dy of q u a t e rn ions t oo s oon 1 Or p e rh a p s i t ”

i s o nly a fa d a ft e r a ll
, A nyw a y I a m willi ng t o l e a rn a nd i f
.
, ,

I li ve l ong e no u gh m a y r e a ch a s u i ta bl e a ge A t prese nt let

,
.

u s r e t u r n t o c o mm on i n fi ni t e s i m a l di ffe r e nt i a l s .

D et ermi nat i on of P os s i bili t y of Ex is t enc e of Different i al

C oe ffici e nt s .

1 20 . A l t h ou gh we m ay pl oy t he m e th o d o f di ffe re nt i al s
em

i n a n y e q u a t i o n i n v ol v i n g v e c t o r s u s i n g t h e s y m b o l d a n d
, ,

a l t h o u gh we m a t u rn i t i nt o a n e q u a t i on o f di ffe r e nt i a l c o e ffi
y
c i e nt s by ch a n gi n g d t o t he s c a l a r di ffe re n t i a t o r d d t
/ ( f or

e x a m pl e ) a s i n
, 1 1 6 y e t w e c a nn o t u s u a lly t u rn di ffe re nt i a l s
,

i nto di fferent i a l c oeffi cient s wh e n t he v a ri a bl e i s a v e c t or .

176 ELE C T ROMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . I II .

G e ne ra lly , if
R = iR1 + j R2 + k R 3 ( 1 0 3 )
is a fu nc t i on of

( 1 0 4 )
t h en R I , R2, R3 a re f u n c t i on s , u su a lly di ffe re nt o f x y a nd z
, , ,

a nd t he ra t i o of dB t o d r ( veen i n t he m os t g e n e ra l q u a t e r
n i o ni c s e ns e
) c a
, nn o t p os s ibly be fr ee d o f t h e di ffe re nt i a l s d x ,

E ve n wh e n we red u ce
g en era li ty o f t he pr obl e m by
t he
m a ki ng R a nd r s a y i n t he pl a n e o f i j wi t h z = 0
c o pl a na r , , ,

a nd R = O u s u a lly a d fi i di r i al co
3
dR /
, d r i s n o t e n t e ffe e n t
e ffi ci e n t I t o nly b e c o m e s o ne by s p e ci a l r e l a t i ons b e t w e en
.

t he di ffe r e nt i a l c o e ffici e nt s of R] a n d R2 wi t h r e s p e c t t o x a nd y ,

viz
d dR 2
cm l
d R 2

dx dy dy dx

Thi s is t he c t ori a l b a s i s o f t he l a rg e a n d i m p orta nt bra n ch

ve

o f m o d e rn m a t h e m a t ic s c a ll e d t he Th e o ry o f F u nc t i o n s which ,

a pp e a r s i n e l e c t ric a n d m a g n e t ic bidi m e ns i ona l pro bl e m s .

Vari at i on of the S iz e a nd Ort of a Ve ct or .

1 21 . S o m et i m es i t i s
c o n v e n i e nt t o h a v e t he v ri t i
a a o n of a

v e c t o r e xhibit e d i n t e rm s o f t he v a ri a t i ons of i ts t e nsor a nd

u n it v e c t o r o r i t s s iz e a nd or t
, Thu s from .
,

B = RR

we prod u c e by di ffe ren t ia t in g

, ,

I f t h e re be no v ri t i
a a on o f dir e ct i on t h e n ,

( 1 0 7 )
a nd i f the t ensor d oes not v ry whil
a , st t he dire c t i ond oes t h en ,

dR Rd .
( 1 0 8 )
D ividing ( 1 07 ) by t he c l r
s a a d R, we ge t a prop e r di ffe r e n tia l
coe ffici e nt
prov ide d d O . Fr om

1 10
am, dR,

prov ide d dR = O which m a k e s dR p erp endic u l a r t o R Bu t i t

,
.

i s a s w e ll t o a v o id fo r m s o f t hi s kin d ( wi t h a v e c t or v a ri a t i o n in
t h e d e n o m i na t o r e v e n wh e n by s o m e li m i t a t i on a s a b o v e we
) , , ,

c a n ge t rid o f t he di ffe r e n t i a l O f c o u rs e i n. wi t h ou t,

a ny li m i t a t i o n w e c a n ch a n g e d t o d d l or ot h e r s c a l a r di ff e
, / (
r e n t i a t or
) t h us ,

R= RR1 + R 1 R ( 1 1 1 )
I t i s t hi s ( s c al a r) ki nd o f di ffe r e nt i a t i on t h a t n ea rly a l wa y s
o cc u r s i n p hy s ic a l a pplic a t i o ns a n d t h e re i s n o a b s t r u s i t y a b o u t
,

it. S ee § l l 6 . Nor i s t h e r e a b ou t di ffe re nt i a l s pr o vid e d w e ,

d o n o t a t t e m p t t o m a k e di ffe re nt i a l c oe ffici e nt s wi t h re s p e c t t o
v e c tors or mak e t he di ffe re nt i a ls t h ems el ves fini te
, .

We h a v e a l so R 2
R 2
,

w hich , on di ffe re n tiat ion , gi v es

RdR RdR ( l l 2 )
o r, di viding by R ,

dR R l dR ’ ( 1 1 3 )
which s ay s t h at the i ncre ment i n t he t e ns or is t he c om p on e nt
a l on g t he v e c t o r of i t s v e c t o r ch a ng e dR wh ose fu ll e xpr ess i o n i s
,

gi v en by U s i ng ( 1 06) i n ( 1 1 3) we ge t
RdR 1 = 0 .

U s ing ( 1 1 3) in ( 1 06 ) w e ge t

m
e RdR 1 .

or, div iding by R ,

dR R dR
1 + o

R R

a ll of which re s u l ts m a y b e g e om et ric a lly i nt e rpre t e d .

In di ffe re nt i a ti ng the r e cipro c a l o f a v e c tor proc ee d th u s ,

wh ere ,
for d m ay be wri t t e n d /dt ,
&c .
1 78 EL ECT ROMAGNE TI C T HEOR Y . CH . III .

A not h e r way i s
1 R dB 1
d
R
— d
R é
—
W
l Rd
—
-

R
—
g ( 1 1 8 )

It m ay e as ily be s ho w n by ,
t h a t t h es e re s u l t s a re

equ iv a l e nt .

Enou gh has now b e en s a id a b ou t t he m ea n i n g a nd e fie c t o f

di ffere nt i a t ing v e c tors The i m p ort a nt v e ctor di ffere nt i a t or V
.

d ese rve s a nd d em a nd s a s e p a ra t e t re a t ment .

Preli mi nary on V . A xi a l Diff r ent i t i on

e a . Differ ent ia t i on
r t o M ov i ng M a tt er
refe re d .

§ 1 2 2 T
. h e H a m ilt oni a n v e c t or V o cc u rs in a ll phys ic a l
m a t h e m a t ic s i nv ol v i ng t hr e e di m ens i ons wh e n t re a t e d v e c ,

tori a lly . I t i s d e fi ne d by

v a i n fw —
d
da

i V1 j V2 k v s:

t he c d for m b e i ng m e rely a n e qu iva l ent one often m ore

s e on ,

c onve ni e nt a nd e a s i e r t o s et u p W e s ee t h a t the H a m il t on i a n
,
.

i s a fic t i t i ou s v e c t o r i na s mu ch a s t he t e nsors of i t s c o m p one n t s
,

a r e n ot m a g ni t u d e s b u t a re diffe r e nt i a t ors
, A s h o we v e r .
, ,

h
t e e s di ffe r e n t i a t o rs a r e s c a l a r — not s c a l a r m a g ni t u d e s bu t ,

s c a l a r o p e ra t o r s h a v ing n ot hing v e c t ori a l a b ou t t h e m t he

,
—

Ha milt onia n i n virt u e of i j k b eha v es j u st like a ny ot h e r v ec

, , , ,

t or pro v id e d i t s di ffe re nt i a t i n g f u nc t i ons a r e s i m u l t a n e ou s ly

,

a tt e n d e d t o O f c o u rse a n op e ra nd i s a lw a y s i m pli e d which

.
, ,

m a y be e i t h e r s c a l a r o r v e c t or .

The H a m il t on i a n ha s b e en ca ll e d N a bl a fro m i t s a ll e g e d ,

r e s e m bl an c e t o a n A s syri a n ha rp — pres u m ably only t he fra m e ,

t he re of i s m e a nt wi t h o u t a ny m e a ns of e vo ki ng m e l o dy
, On .

t he ot h e r h a nd t h a t b e t t e r kno w n m u s ic a l i n s t r u m e nt t he
, ,

Tri a ngle p e rha p s e q u a lly w e ll r es em bl es V a nd i t d oes not

, ,

wa nt st rings t o pl a y u p on .

Firs t not ic e t h a t

1V V 1: 3V 7 '
V2 9 kV v 3, ( 1 2 0)
and t h at t h e s e ar e all s p e ci a l c as es of t he c l r produ ct
s a a

NV N1 V 1 N2 V 2 N3 V3, ( 1 2 1 )
1 80 E LE CTR OMA GNETI C T HEORY . CH . I II .

prope rt y of t he m ov i ng m a tte r ( he re a s c al a r bu t it m ay equ a lly ,

w ell b e a v e c t or) a nd t h e r e for e a fu n c t i on of p os it i on a nd o f

, , ,

t i me . I t s r a t e o f ch a ng e wit h t h e t i m e a t a fixed p o i nt
i n s p a c e i s dw/d t a nd t he m a tt e r t o which t hi s r e fe rs i s ch a ngi ng
,
.

Bu t i f we wi s h t o kn o w t he r a t e o f t i m e ch a ng e o f w fo r t he -

sa me p o rt i on o f m a t t e r w e m u s t g o t h u s L e t 8w/ 3t d e no t e
, .

the res ul t t h e n ,

8w dw d w dx d w dy d w dz
+ + +
8t dt d 2: dt dy d l dz d t

by el ementa ry c alcul u s . Or

wh ere v 1 8 the v el ocit y o f t he m a t t e r .

Thi s i s t he e qu a t i on e x t e ns i v ely e m pl oy e d in hydr oki ne t ic s .

In e l a s t ic solid t h e o ry t he t e rm v V w i s g e n e ra lly o m i tt e d .
,

b e ing oft e n s m a ll c om p a re d wit h t he firs t t e rm o n t h e righ t .

Bu t i n s p e ci a l a pplic a t i on s i t m a y h a pp e n t h a t a ny o n e o f t h e
, ,

t hr e e t e rms i n ( 1 2 7 ) v a n i s h e s Th u s t he t e rm on t he l e ft s id e
.

ob v i o u s ly v a n i s h es wh e n 20 k ee p s t h e sa m e i n t he s a m e m a t t e r .

If h ow e v e r fo r w we s u b s t i t u t e a v e ct orf u nc t i on s a y A e v e n
, , , ,

t h ou gh i t m a y n ot s u ffe r ch a ng e a t firs t s igh t i n t he s a m e

m a t t e r y e t t he r o t a t i ona l p a r t o f t he m o t i o n will a l t e r i t by
,

t u rn i ng i t r ou nd s o t h a t BA / Ot will n o t v a n i s h
,
.

The Op e ra t o r 8/ 8t i s di s t ri b u t i v e lik e d /d t a nd v V a s , ,

e x e m pli fi e d i n

M ot i on of a Rigi d Body . R e s ol u t i on of a S p i n i nt o ot her

S p i ns .

§ 1 23 . I f t he m o v i ng
c m atte r is
onn e c t e d t h a t i t m o v e s so

a s a rigid b o dy w e , h v
a e a fu r t h e r d e v e l o p m e nt If we s e t a .

rigid b ody s pi n ni ng a b o u t a fi x e d a xi s wh os e dir e c t i on i s d e fi ned

by t he u ni t v e c t or a1 wit h a ngu l a r s p ee d a t he s p e e d o f a ny
, ,

po int P i n t he b o dy e qu a l s t he prod u c t of i t s p e rp e ndic u l a r

di s t a nc e from t he a x is i nto t he a ng u l a r s p e e d a nd t he dire c t i on ,

o f P s m ot i on i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he pl a n e t hr ou gh t he a xi s
’

c on t a i ni ng P Tha t i s a gi ven p a r ticl e d e s cribe s a circl e rou nd

.
,

t he a xi s T hi s i s ob v i ou sly ne c e ss i t at e d by t he rigid c on
.
 ELEMEN T S OF VEC T OR I AL ALGEB RA AND ANALYS I S . 181

ne c t ion of t he p a r t s of t he b ody ( or d e ta ch e d bo di e s ) . Th e
v e l oci ty of P is t h e re fo r e e x pr e ss e d by

v = Va r , ( 1 2 8 )
if a = d a l , a nd r v e ct or t o P from a ny p o i nt 0 on t he
i s t he
a xi s .Thi s i s by t he d e fi n i t i on o f a v e c t o r pro du c t .

He re w e m ay o bs e rve a s t riki ng a dva n ta ge p o s s e s s e d by t he

ve ct ori a l me t hod For o b tai ne d by e l e m e n t a ry c on s id e r
.

a t i o n s pr o v e s wi t ho u t a n y m o r e a d o t h a t a n g u l a r v e l oci t i e s
,

a b o u t di ff e r e nt a x es c o m p o u nd lik e di s pl a c e m e nt s t ra ns l a t i on a l ,

ve l ocit i e s or forc e s or i n s ho rt lik e v ector s Th u s i n ( 1 2 8 )

, , , , .
,

w e s e e t h a t t h e v e l o ci t y o f P i s t h e v e c t o r pr o d u c t o f a a n d r .

Th e l a t t e r fi x e s t h e p os i t i o n o f P The fo r me r d e p e n d s o n t he
.

s pi n i t s t e ns o r b e i ng t h e a n g u l a r s p e e d a n d i t s d ire c t i o n t h a t
, ,

o f t h e a x i s o f s pi n No w e v e ry v e c t or a s b e fo re s e en m a y be
.
, ,

e x pre s s e d a s t he s u m o f o t h e rs a cc o rdi n g t o t he r u l e o f v e c t o r
,

a dditi on B u t e v e ry v e c t o r h a s i t s s p e ci e s
. Th us I b e i ng a .
,

ve ct or di s t a n c e i t s co m p one n ts a re v e c to r di st a n c e s S i m il a rly
, .
,

a b e i ng a ve c t o r a xi s o f s pi n wi t h t e n s o r e q u a l t o t he a n g u l a r
,

s p ee d t he c om p one n ts of a for i ns t a n c e t he t hr ee te rm s on
, , ,

th e righ t o f
= ia + j a k a 3,
1 g

a re v ct r
e o s of t he na t u er
Th e r e fore a ny s pi n ma y be
sam e .

re pl a c e d by ot h e r s pi ns a b ou t o t h e r a x e s a cc o rding t o t he ,

v e c t o r la w O f c ou rs e t he b ody c a nnot s pi n a b o u t m ore t ha n

.

o n e a x i s a t o nc e b u t i t s m o t i o n i s t h e s a m e a s if i t c o u ld a nd
,

did Thi s prop e r ty i s n ot ori o u s ly di ffic u l t t o u nde rs t a nd by

.

C a rt e s i a n m a t h e m a t ic s .

The m os t g e n e ra l ki n d o f m ot i on t he rigid b ody c a n p oss e s s

i s ob t a i n e d by i m p o s i ng u p on t he r o ta t i on a l a ny t ra ns l a t i ona l
v e l o ci ty c omm on t o a ll p a rt s L et q be t his t ra ns l a t i onal .

velocit y t hen i ns tea d of

, ,

v =q+ Var .
( 1 2 9 )
H r b r v th
e e o se e at q is t he v l ci t y
p o int 0 or of a ny
e o of t he ,

o t h e r p o i n t o n t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n p a ss i n g t hr o u gh t he p o i n t 0 .

W e m a y infe r fro m t hi s t ha t if w e s hi ft t he o rigi n 0 t o Q a ,

1 82 EL E C TR OMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . 111 .

axi s of rota t io n i s no w t hrou gh Q . W e m ay for m a lly prov e it

thu s .T a ke
r h R , ( 1 3 0 )
wh e re h i s t he v ct r fr
e o om O to Q a nd R t he v c t r fr
e o om Q
to P . Pu t ( 1 30) i n t hen
( 1 3 1 )
But h e re q + Vah i s, by t he v l ci t y
e o of Q , say u,

s o we h a v e

v =u + Va R , ( 1 3 2 )
s ho wi ng t he v el o ci ty of P t o be t he s u m o f t he t ra n sl a t i ona l
veloci ty u a t a ny p oi nt Q pl u s t he v el ocit y a t P du e to rot a
,

t i on a b o u t t h e a xi s t hrou gh Q .

All m ot i on i s r e l a t i v e B u t o b s e r v e t he a b s o l u t e ch a r a c te r
.

of t he s pi n a . I t is a b s ol u t e j u s t b e c a u se i t i nv o l ves a nd
d e p ends e nt irely u p on re l a t i ve m ot i ons .

The t ra n s l a t i ona l v e l o ci t y u of t he p oi nt Q c on s i s t s o f a
m o t i on a l ong t he a xi s of r o ta t i on c o mbi ne d wi t h a t ra ns v e r s e
,

m o t i on . The l a t t e r m ay be got rid o f by s hi ft i ng t he a x i s .

Fo r if W i s t he v e l o cit y o f Q t ra ns v e rs e t o t he a xi s i f we go t o ,
.

t h e di s t a nc e w /a fr o m t he a xi s t hro u gh Q k e e pi n g i n t he pl a ne ,

t hro u gh t he a xi s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o W w e s h a ll r e a ch a pl a c e ,

wh e r e t h e v e l o ci t y d u e t o t he ro t a t i on a b o u t t he Q a xi s i s
i
e t eh r +W or — W a cc ordi ng t o whic h Sid e o f t he Q a x i s we
,

g o. C h oos i n g t h e l a tt e r wh e r e t he t r a n s v e r s e m o t i o n i s ca n
,
;

c ell e d a nd t ra ns fe rri ng t he a xi s t o i t we s ee t h a t t he ge ne ra l
,

m ot i on o f a rigid b o dy c ons i s t s o f a s pi n a b o u t a c e r ta i n
a x is which s t e r m e d t he c e nt ra l a xi s
) c bi wi h
( i o m n e d t a ,

t r a ns l a t i on a l ong t hi s a xi s Th a t i s i t i s a s cre w m ot i on I t
.
, .

m ay h o w e v e r be m ore c onv e ni e nt n o t t o e mpl oy t h e s cr e w

, ,
~

m o t i on wi t h a Shi ft i ng a x i s b u t t o u se , a n d le t u a n d a

be t h e t r a ns l a t i ona l a nd r o t a t i ona l v e l o ci t i e s of a p oi nt Q
fix e d i n t he b o dy .

W e m a y a l s o h a v e Si m u l t a ne ou s s pi ns a b o u t a x es which d o
n ot m e e t .Thu s le t R be t he v e c t o r from a ny o rigi n 0 t o a
,

p oi nt Q a b ou t w hich t h e re i s a s pi n a a nd r t he y e c t or from ,

O t o a ny o t h e r p o i nt P The n t he v e lo cit y o f P d u e t o t he
.

s pi n i s by
,
t h e pr e c e di n g ,

v = Va ( r R) .
1 84 ELE CTROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . OH . 11 1 .

Th u s we m a y h a v e a s ys t e m o f e l e c t ric di spl a c e ment D in a

,

di el e c t ric which m a y be m ov i n g t hrou gh i t i nd e p en de nt ly of

,

t o c a lc u l a t e D
p

a ny m ot i on i t m ay p o s s es s a n d a pply ( 1 2 7 ,
It .

i s h o w e v e r o nly i n r e l a t iv e ly s i m pl e c as e s th a t t hi s c a n be
, ,

foll o w e d u p F or it i s i m pli e d t h a t w e k no w t h e m o t i o n o f t he
.

di s pl a c e m e nt a nd ho w i t ch a ng e s i n i t sel f a nd t h es e m a y be ,

t hi n g s t o b e fo u n d ou t .
e

B u t s h o u ld t he di s pl a c e m e nt s y s t e m m ov e a s a rigid b ody ,

th e m a tt e r i s gr e a t ly s i m plifi e d Thi s will o cc u r wh en t he

.

sou rc e s o f t he di s pl a c e m ent e l e c t ri fi c a t i on for i n s t a nc e ) m o v e

( ,

as a rigid b ody a n d t he m o t i on i s o f a s t e a dy t yp e s o l on g
, ,

c ont i nu e d t ha t t he di s pl a c em e nt i t s el f ( i n t he m ov ing sy st e m )
i s s t e a dy . W ri t i ng D for w i n we s h a ll h a v e

dD
Va D ( u Va R) V D .

dt

He re Va D i s t he i va ri at i on of t he di spl a c em ent i n
ra t e of t me -

a m o vi ng e l e m e nt o f t he di s pl a c e m e n t s y s t e m c a u s e d by the ,

r ot a t i on I t i s z e ro wh e n t he di spl a c e m e nt i s p a ra ll e l t o t he
.

a xi s o f s pi n a nd a m a xi m u m wh e n i t p o i n t s s t ra igh t a w a y
,

from t he a xi s lik e t he s p ok e o f a wh ee l
, .

The di s pl a c e m e nt s y s t e m i s h o w e ve r n ot n e c e s s a rily or
, ,

u s u a lly t he s a m e wh e n i n s t e a dy m o t i o n a s wh e n a t r e s t .

In th e l a t t e r c a s e only c a n i t b e r e g a rd e d a s k n o w n i n i t i a ll y .

S e t i t s t e a dily m o v i ng a nd i t will ( by r e a s o n o f t h e s e l f
i nd u c t i on) be ch a ng e d t o a no t h e r di s pl a ce m e nt s ys t e m N e v e r .

t he le ss a l o n g wi t h t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic e q u a t i on s e n a bl e ,

u s t o fin d t he n e w di s pl a c e m e n t s y s t e m .

S h o u ld h o w e v e r t he v e l o ci t i e s o f t h e c onn e c t e d so u rc e s be
, ,

only a v e ry s m all fr a c t i o n o f t he Sp e e d o f pr o p a g a t i on o f d i s

t u rb a n c e s t hr o u gh t he m e di u m t he r e a dj u s t m e nt of t he d i s
,
-

pl a c e m ent as t he s ou rc e s m ove t a k e s pl a c e pra c t ic a lly

i nst a nt a ne ou s ly ( a s if t he s p e e d o f prop a g a t i on w e re i n fi n i t e ) ,

so t h a t t he di s pl a c e m e nt s y s t e m r e m a i n s u n ch a ng e d ; pres e rv i n g

i ts s ta t i o na ry t yp e whil s t i t m o v e s t hr o u gh t h e m e di u m a s
,

a rigid b o dy i n rig i d c o nn e c t i o n wi t h t h e s o u rc e s Thi

, ( s is .

Ob v i ou s ly qu i t e i nc orr e c t a t a gre a t d is t a n ce fro m t he s o u rc es ,

bu t t h e re t he e ffe ct s t h e m s e lv e s a re i ns e ns ibl e ) I n t hi s c a s e .
,

t o o i t i s cl e a rly u nne c es s a ry t h a t t he m ot i on o f t he s o u rc e s
,

s h o u ld b e s t e a dy Th u s i n.
, D b e c om e s t he k now n
 ELEMEN TS OF VEC T ORI AL ALGEB RA AND ANALYS I S . 1 85

di s pl a c e m ent sy s t e m ( of e qu ilibri u m ) m ov i ng a s d e fi ne d by u ,

a nd a which m a y v a ry a nyh o w
, .

S i mil a r c on s id e ra t i on s a pply t o s y s t e m s o f i nd u c t i on m o vi ng ,

wi t h t h e ir s o u rc e s A g e n e ra l ca u t ion h o w e v e r i s n e c es s a ry
.
, ,

wh e n t h e re a r e c ond u c t ors or o t h e r bodi e s i n t h e fi e ld n o t , ,

c ont a i ni ng s ou rc e s To k e e p t h e m fro m h a v i ng c u rr e nt s
.

i nd u c e d i n t h e m or i n o t h e r w y s u p s e t t ing t he r e g u l a ri t y of
,
a

t he m o vi ng s y s t e m t h e y s h o u ld a l so p a r t a k e i n t he m o t i on by
, ,

rig id c onn e c t i on .

M ot on Of ai S t r a i n Fi gu r e -
.

1 25 . E q u a t i on 1 3 6 l
ppli es t o t he m ot i on t hrou gh a
( ) a so a

m e di u m o f a s t r a i n figu r e t r e a t e d O f by D r C V B u r t o n
“ -
”
, . . .

i n t h e c u rre nt n u m b e r o f t h e P hi l M a g ( F e br u a ry . It .
,

i s s i m il a r t o t h a t o f s l o w m ot i o n o f a n e l e c t ric a l di s pl a c e m e nt
sys t e m .I m a gi ne a s t a t i ona ry i n fi ni t e e l as t ic m e di u m wi t h
i ne rt i a s o m e h o w s e t i nt o a s t ra i ne d s t a t e a n d let t he s p e e d o f
, ,

prop a ga t i on o f di st u rb a n c e s o f s t ra i n b e pra c t ic a lly i nfi ni te .

I f t h e n t he s t ra i n fig u r e c a n m ov e a b o u t t hr o u gh t he m e di u m
-

i t will d o s o as a ri gid b ody pr o v id e d t he s o u rc e s o f t he ,

s t ra i n d o s o I n t he a b o v e D m ay s ign i fy t he di s pl a c e m e nt
.
,

( o rdi na ry
) wh os
, e v a ri a t i on i n s p a c e c o n s t i t u t es t h e s t r a i n .

Th e n D i s th e v el o cit y of di spl a c e m ent a nd is e xpr es s e d i n ,

t e r m s o f t h e v e l oc i ty o f t he s t ra i n figur e From t he e x pre s

-
.

s i on for t he kinet ic e ne rgy of t he c o mpl e t e s t ra i n fig u r e -

t he m e ch a n ic a l forc es c on c e rne d ca n be d e d u c e d A s t hi s .

i s t o be d on e on dy na m ic a l pri ncipl e s i nv ol v i ng N e w ton s ’

l a ws w e m ay e xp e ct b e fo re h a n d t h a t a s t ra in figu r e s y m
,
-

m e t ric a l wit h r e s p e c t t o a c e nt re will b e h a v e a s a Ne w

t oni a n p o i nt m a ss 3 a s d o es a s i m il a r e l e c t ric a l di s pl a c e m e nt
-

fig u re . Bu t i n g e n e ra l
,
wi t h ou t symm et ry t he c a lc u
, ,

la t i on of t he forc es c onc e rn e d w ou ld be v e ry t rou bl es om e

i ndee d .

B u t t he r ea l di ffi c u l t y a pp ea rs t o m e I be ra t h er o f a
phy s ic al t h an a m a t h e m at ic a l n a t u re W e ha v e firs t t o ge t .

s om e id e a o f ho w t he s t ra i n figu r e i s k e p t u p L e t i t be -
.

s t a t i o n a ry first Then t he s t ra i n figu re i s re fe rr e d t o a

.
-

forc e d o r u nna t u ral s t a t e of t he m e di u m i n c e r t a i n pl a c e s .

A t any r a t e we r e qu i re i nt ri ns ic
,
s o u rc e s s om e whe r e a n d , ,

p e rha p s i t m ight for t his re as on be c onv e ni e nt t o c ons id e r

 t h ese p ort i ons of di u m ( wi th t he so u rc es) t o c ons t i t u t e
t he m e
t he a t om or m ol e c u l e r a t h e r t h a n t he wh o l e s t ra i n figu r e
,
-
.

No w h a vi ng got a s t a t i ona ry st ra in figu re ho w is i t t o be

,
-

s e t m o v i ng ? T hr ee wa y s s u gg e s t t h e m s e l ve s F irs t a bo dily .
,

mo t i on o f t he m e di u m c a rry i ng t he s t ra i n figu re wi t h i t Thi s -

.

i s pl a inly i na d m i s s ibl e N e xt a m ot ion of t he a to m ic p or ti ons

.

o nly o f t he m e di u m wi h e s o u rc e s t hr ou gh t h e r e s t o f t he
( t t h ) .

m e di u m e i t h e r di s t u rbi ng i t t o s o m e e x t e nt nea r by or n ot
, ,

d is t u rbi ng i t a t a ll— s lippi ng t hrou gh s o t o s p e a k Thi s ,

.

w ou ld c a rry on t he s t ra in fig u r e B u t i t i s i na d m i s s ibl e if i t
-
.
,

be o u r obj e c t n o t t o m ov e t he m e di u m a t a ll i n a ny p a rt .

Thi rdl y w e m ay k e e p t he wh ol e m e di u m a t r est a nd c a u s e

, ,

t he s o u rc es t h e m se l v e s t o m o v e t hr o u gh i t s o t h a t t he a t o m ic ,

p or ti ons of t he m e di u m ch a ng e B u t t h e re i s no m e ans for .

d oi ng t hi s pr e s e nt e d t o o u r c ons ide ra t i on : I t li e s b eyond

t he dy na m ic a l q u es t i on of t h e forc e s on a n a t om br o u gh t
int o pl a y if t he s t r a i n figu r e c a n m o ve i n t he m a nn e r s u p
-

p os e d The s e c ond c o u rs e a b o v e on t he o t h e r h an d i s m ore

.
, ,

i nt e lligibl e a l t h ou gh i t i m pli es s om e t hi ng a ki n t o liq u idi t y

, .

T h e se obj e c t i o ns a re h o we v e r o nly m a de s u gg e s t i ve ly
, ,
.

The m a t t e r i s s u ffi ci en t ly i m p or t a nt t o be d e s e r v i n g of a
t h or o u gh t hr e s hi ng o u t }

S p a c e Va ri a t i on
-
or S l op e VP of a S c a la r Func t i on .

§ 1 26 . i
The m plse s t a n d m o s t e a s ily u n d e r s t o o d e ffe c t o f V

u p o n a fu nc t i on i s wh e n i t a c t s u p on a s c al a r s a y P Thi s ,
.

i mpli es t h a t P i s a s c a l a r fu nc t i on o f p os it i on or of ac y 2 In , , ,
.

the m os t i m p o r t a nt a pplic a t i on s P i s s i n gl e v a l u e d a s wh e n i t -
,

re pr es ent s d e ns i ty or pre s s u r e or t em p e rat u re or e l e ct ric

, , ,

p ot ent ia l or t he c orre s p o ndi ng m a gnet ic p o t e nt i a l o f m a g ne t s

,
.

Bu t P m a y a l so b e m u l t ipl e x a s wh e n i t i s t he m a g ne t ic ,

p ot ent i a l o u t s id e a linear e l e c t ric c u rre nt A t pres ent le t P be .

s i mpl e x .

By ( 1 1 9 ) we h a ve
( 1 3 7 )
Of c ou rse , i c s n e vi s v e c t or a n d P s ca l a r t he res u l t i s a v e c t or ,
.

I t s m e a ni ng i s e as ily fou nd Fr o m t he fa ct i ndic a t ed i n ( 1 3 7 )

.

t h a t t he r e c t a ng u l a r s c a l a r c o mp on e n t s of VP are t he r a te s of
i ncre as e of P a l ong t h e a x es o f i j k w e m a y c on cl u de t h a t , , ,

I n ca s e o f e o lo tr o p y , ad d t o t he ri ght m em be r of
( 26 ) t he t e r m S a ,
wher e S i s t he t o r qu e a n d a. t he spin .
]
 88 ELE CTROMA G NE T I C T HEORY .
"

O H . In .

T he re s u l t i s av ct r p rp dic l r t t h pl n f N a d V P
e o e en u a o e a e O n ,

«
S in a ny o th r v c t r pr d c t
e e o v ni hing wh t h y
o u , a s en e a re

r ll el
pa a ,
a nd a m a xi m u m wh en t h e y a re p e rp en dic u l a r .

S c a la r Pr d u c t
o VD . Th e Th e or em D i erg nc e
of v e .

§ 1 27 Wh
. e n t h e o p e ra nd of v is a e o sa e a e v ct r y D w h v , ,

bot h t he s c a l a r pro d u c t a nd t he v e c t or pr o d u c t t o c ons id e r .

Ta ki ng t he form e r a l on e firs t w e h a v e
’

di v D VD VID , V2 D2 V3D 3 ( 1 4 3 ) .

Thi s fu nc t i on o f D i s c a ll e d i t s div e rg en c e a nd i s a v e ry i m p o r ,

t a n t fu n c t i o n i n phy s ic a l m a t h e m a t ic s I t s g e n e ra l s ign i fi c a t i on
.

will be b es t a ppr e ci a t e d by a c ons id e ra t i on of t he Th eorem of

D iv e rge nc e .

L e t li q u id be i n m o t i on The c ont i nu i t y of e xi s te n c e o f
.

t he m a t t e r i m p os e s c e rt a i n r e s t ric t i ons o n t he m ot i on The .

c u rr ent i s m q p er u n i t a re a w he re m i s the d e ns i ty a nd q t he
,

v e l o cit y B u t t o fu r t h e r s i m pli fy let m = 1 m a ki ng t he liq u id

.
, , ,

i nc o m pre s s ibl e Th e n t he c u rr ent i s s i m ply q which m e as u r e s

.
,

th e a m o u n t o f liq u id cr o s s i n g u n i t a r e a of a ny s u r fa c e p e r ,

n d i c l r to q e r s e c ond B t i f t h e s r fa c e be n o t e r en
p e u a p , u . u
p p
d i c u la r t o q t h e e ffe c t iv e fl u x i s o nly Nq t h e n or m a l c o m p on e nt
, ,

o f q i f N d e no t e s t he u n i t n o r m a l t o t he s u r fa c e
,
Th e r e for e .
,

2 N q or t h e s u m m a t i on o f N q o v e r a ny s u rfa c e e xpr e s s es t he
, ,

t o ta l fl ux o f liq u id t hr o u gh t h e s u r fa c e .

No w s u pp os e t he s u r fa c e ( fi x e d i n s p a c e ) i s cl o s e d Th en t he .

s u m m a t i o n r e pr e s e n t s t h e a m o u nt o f liq u id l e a vi n g t he e n cl o s ed

re g ion p e r s e c o nd thro u gh i t s b ou nd a ry i f N be t he o u t wa rd ,
.

no r m a l . Thi s a m o u n t i s e vid e nt ly z e r o b e c a u s e o f t he a s s u m e d ,

in c om pr e s s ibil i t y I f t h e n we o b s e r ve o r s t a t e t ha t E Nq is
.
, ,

no t z e r o e i t h e r t h e fl u id i s c om pr e s s ibl e o r e l s e t h e r e m u s t be
, ,

s o u rc e s o f liq u id wi t hi n t he r e g i on A d o p ti ng t h e l a t t e r id e a
.
,

b e ca u s e i t s i m plifi e s t he r eas oni ng we s ee t ha t t he s u mm a t i on ,

E NQ i s t h e a ppr opri a t e m eas u r e o f t he t ot a l s tr e ng t h of t he

s o u rc e s i n t h e r e gi on s i n c e i t i s t he r a t e a t which liq u id i s
,

b e i ng g en e ra t e d t h er e i n or t he ra t e of s u pply The p os it i on of
, .

t he i nt e rn a l s ou rc e s i s q u i t e imm a te ri a l a nd s o i s t h e s h a p e of , .

t h e r e gi o n a n d i t s s iz e o r t h e ma nne r i n which a s ou rc e s e nd s
, ,

o u t i ts liq u id e q u a bly or n ot i n all dir e c ti ons O we h a ve

) S .

2 Nq = 2 p , .
( 1 44 )
if p re present s t he r gt h
s t en of a so u rc e ,
a nd t he 2 i nclu d e s

Wh e n rc es a r e dis t rib u t e d c ont i nu ou s ly s o t h a t p i s

t he s ou ,

a c o nt i nu o u s fu nc t i o n o f p o s i t i o n i t s a ppr o pri a t e r e ck on i n g i s
’

e r u n i t v ol u m e Th a t t hi i t h div rg e n c f i cl r
p s . s e e e o q s e a

e n o u gh a cc o rdi n g t o t he e x pl a n a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o div e rg e n c e
,

al r e a dy gi v e n Th a t i t is t he s a m e a s Vq as in
, we ,

m a y pro v e a t on c e by t he C a r t e s i an fo r m t h e r e e xhibi t e d .

W e h a ve t o re ck on t he flu x o u t w a rd t hrou gh t he s id es o f a
u ni t c u b e Ta k e i t s e dge s p a ra ll e l t o i j k res p e ct i v ely Then
.
, , .

t h e re a r e t wo s id es wh os e ou t w a rd n or m a l s ar e — i a nd i a nd ,

t h e ir di s ta nc e a p a rt i s u ni t y The o u t w a rd fl u x e s du e t o t h e m
.

a r e t h e r e for e i q o r ql a nd 91 + V1 9 1 wh os e s u m i s V1 9 1
-
,
—
, : .

S i m il a rly t h e t wo s id es wh os e n o rm a l s a r e i j c o nt rib u t e
V 2 92 a nd t he r e m a i n i ng s id e s c ont rib u t e V3 9 3
, C o m p a ri ng .

wi t h we v e ri fy t he C ar t e s i a n form of t he di v e rg e n c e o f
a ve c t or .

B u t we m a y ha v e a ny nu m b e r of ot h e r s p e ci a l fo rms a cc ord
'

i ng t o t he co o rdi na t e s w e m a y ch oos e t o e m pl oy for c a lc u l a t i ng

-

p u rp os e s s u ch a s s ph e ric al c ol u m na r & c an d t he m os t r e a dy
, , ,
.
,

wa y to find t he c o rr e s p on di n g fo rm i s by t he i m m e di a t e a p p li
c a t i on of t h e id e a of di ve rge nc e to t h e v ol u m e e l e m e nt c onc e rn e d -
.

For p u rp o s es o f re as on i n g h o we v e r i t i s b e s t t o e n t ire ly , ,

e li m i n a t e t he id e a o f c o o rdi na t es D i v e rg e nc e i s i nd e p e nd e nt
-
.

o f c o o rdi na t e s
-
.

The s ou rc e s ne e d not be s o di s t ribu t e d a s t o gi v e ri s e t o a fi nit e

vol u m e d e nsi t y W e m ay ha ve within t he r egi on conc e rned
-
.
, ,

s u rfa c e line or p oi nt s ou rc e s a nd t he pri ncipl e c on c e rne d

,
-
,

i s m ea s u re d by t he r l fl u x e s on i t s t wo s id e s
su m of t he no m a
e r u n i t a r e a t h a t i s by E Nq a ppli e d t o th e t w o s id e s o f t h e
p , ,

u nit ar ea if t h e flu x wh olly pro c e e d s o u t w a rd s

,
Thi s i s .
,

h o we v e r n ot fu lly g ene ra l as t h e r e m a y be a flu x i n t he
, ,

s u rfa c e i t s el f s o t h a t t he fu ll m e as u r e o f t h e s u r fa c e d ens i t y -

ha s t o i n cl u d e t h e d i v e rg e nc e o f t h e s u rfa c e flu x t o be fo u n d by -

c a lc u l a t i ng t he fl u x l e a vi ng t he u ni t a r e a a cr os s i ts b ou ndi ng
li n e S i mil a r c on s id e ra t i on s a pply t o li n e a r s ou rc e s I n t he
. .

nea r
1 90 EL EC TROMAGNE TI C T H EOR Y . CH . I II .

su rfa c e encl os i ng t he p o i nt will do provid e d t h e re a r e no ot h e r

,

s o u rc es br ou gh t i n by t he ch a ng e Th e r e m ay a l so b e m u l t ipl e x
.

s ou rc es Thu s a p a ir o f e qu a l p oi nt s ou rc e s on e a s ou rc e t he ’
-
.
, , ,

o t h e r a s i nk w o u ld be e q u iv a l e nt t o n o s o u rc e a t a ll i f br o u gh t
,

i nfi ni t e ly n e a r one a n ot h e r 3 bu t if t he r e d u c t i on i n di s t a n c e be
a cc o m p a n i e d by a c orr e s p on di ng i n cr e a se i n s t r e n g t h o f t he

s o u rc e s
, t he fi na l r e s u l t i s n o t z e r o This i s t he c a s e of a.

m a gn e t i se d p a r t icl e on t he t h e o ry o f m a g ne t ic m a t t e r ; b u t i t
i s not n e c e s s a ry o r d e s ira bl e t o c o mplic a t e m a t t e rs by e nt e ri ng
u p on s p e ci al p e c u li a rit i e s o f di s c o n t i n u i t y i n c ons id e ri ng t h e

D i ve rge nc e Th eorem I ts g en e ra l form is

.

2 ND : 2 d i v D, ( 1 4 5 )
wh en t he v e c t or D t o which i t i s a ppli e d a d mit s of fi ni t e
, ,

di ffe re nt i at i on 3 a nd t he s p e ci a l m e a n i ng s t o be a t t a ch e d to t he
div ergenc e o f D in ord e r t o s a t i s fy t he pri ncipl e c onc erned
, ,

m ay be u n d e rs t ood .

A l t h ou gh a m a t e ri a l a na l ogy a s a b ov e i s v e ry u s e fu l i t i s
, , ,

n ot n e c ess a ry . A ny di s t rib u t e d v e c t o r m a g n i t u d e will h a v e

t he s a m e p e c u li a ri t i es of di v e rg e n c e as t h e fl u x o f a liq u id If .

i t be t he m ot i o n o f a r e a l e x p a ns ibl e fl u id t h a t i s i n q u e s t i on ,

t h e n t he div e rg e nc e o f i t s v e l o ci t y r e pr e s e nt s t h e r a t e o f e x

p a n s i o n. I t w o u ld h o w e v,e r b e v e ry i nc o n v e n i e nt t o h a v e t o
,

c a rry o u t t hi s a n a l ogy i n e l e c t ric or m a g ne t ic a pplic a t i ons 3

a n i nc om pr e s s ibl e liq u id wi t h s o u rc es a n d s i nk s t o t a k e t he
,

pl a c e of e xp a ns i ons a n d c ont ra c t i ons i s fa r m ore m a na gea bl e, .

Ext ens i on of t he Th eor em of Di v ergenc e .

1 28 The foll owi ng wa y of i e wi n g t he

. e v D i v rg c T h r en e e o e m,

a p a r t fr om m a t e ri a l a na l ogi es , i s i m p ort a nt . C o ns id e r t he
s u m m a t oni 2 ND of r l c o m p o n e nt o f a v e c t o r D o v e r
t he no m a
a ny cl ose d s u rfa c e D i vid e t he r e gi on e ncl os e d i nto t wo
.

re gions Th e ir b ou ndi ng s u rfa c es h a v e a p or t i on i n c om m on

, .

I f t h e n w e s u m u p t he q u a nt i t y ND fo r b ot h r e gi on s ( o v e r
, ,

t h e ir b ou nd a ri e s o f c ou r s e ) t h e r e s u l t will be t he o rigi na l
, ,

E ND for t he c om pl e t e r e gi on The n or m a l i s a lw a y s t o be
.

r e ck one d p os i t i ve o u t w a rd s fro m a r egi o n s o t h a t o n t he ,

s u rfa c e c o mm on t o t he t wo s m a ll e r r e gi o n s N i s for one

and for t he ot h e r re gi on a n d 2 ND for on e i s t h e ne g a t i v e of
,

t h a t for t he o t h e r so fa r a s t he c o m m on s u rfa c e g oe s
,
.
1 92 ELECTR OMAGNE TI C TH EORY . CH . 11 1 .

As b efore wi th re s p e c t t o t he div e rge nc e o f a ve ct or we c a n

, ,

b es t a ppre ci a t e t he s ignific a nc e of t hi s for m u l a by t he ge ne ra l

pro p e r ty i nvolve d e x pre ss e d by t he Th e ore m of Ve rs i on
, .

O n a ny s u r fa c e dra w a cl ose d c u rv e or circ u i t L e t for .

,

di s t i n c tnes s E be e l e c t ric fo rc e C a lc u l a t e t he v ol ta g e i n t he
,
.

circ u i t d u e t o B The e ff e c t iv e forc e p er u ni t l e ngt h of circ u i t

.

i s t he t a ng e nt i a l c o m p one nt o f E o r TE i f T i s t he u n i t , ,

t a ng e nt . The v ol t a g e i n t he circ u i t i s t h e r e fo r e 2 TE t h e , , ,

s u m m a t i o n b e i ng circ u i t a l or a li n e i nt e gr a t i on e x t e nd e d on c e
,
-

rou n d ( a l ong) t he cl ose d c u rve .

No w dra w o n t he s u rfa c e a li ne j o i n i ng a nv t wo p oi nt s o f
t h e circ u i t Two circ u i ts a r e t h u s ma d e h a vi ng a p o rt i on i n
.
,

c o mm on R e ckon u p t he v ol t a g e i n e a ch of t he s m a ll e r circ u i t s
.

a n d a dd t h e m t og e t h e r The r es u l t i s t h e v ol t a g e i n t he
.

firs t circ u i t i f w e r ot a t e t he s a m e wa y i n b ot h t he s m a ll e r
,

circu i t s as i n t he origina l b e c a u s e t he c om m on p o rt i on
,

c ont rib u t es v ol t a g e e qu a lly a nd opp os i t e ly to t he t wo s m a ll e r

circ u i t s .

Thi s pr oc e s s m ay b e c a rri e d o n t o a ny e x t en t by dra wi n g

fre s h lin e s o n t he s u r fa c e W e t h e r e fore h a ve t he r e s u l t t h a t
.

t he v ol t a g e i n t he circ u i t b oundi ng a s u rfa c e e q u al s t he s u m o f

t he v o l t a g e s i n t h e e l e m e nt a ry circ u i t s b ou n di ng t he e l e m e nt s
o f s u r fa c e Or
.

2 TE = 2

wh e re on t he l e ft s id e w e h a v e a ci rcu i t a l s u mm at i on a nd on ,

t he righ t s id e a n e q u iv a l e n t s u rfa c e s u m m a t i on i n which -

t h e qu a nt i t y s u mm e d i s t h e v a l u e of 2 TE t h a t i s t he v ol t a g e
, , , ,

in t he circ u i t b ou n di ng t he p a r t ic u l a r e l e m e nt of s u r fa c e con
c e r ne d.

To fin d t he fo r m o f 6 i n t e rm s o f i j k & c w e n ee d only , , , .
,

c alcu l a t e t he vol t a g e s i n u n i t s qu a r e e l e m e nt s o f s u rfa c e t a ke n

s u cc e s s iv e ly wi t h e dg es p a r a ll e l t o j k t o k i a nd t o i j , In
, , , , .

the fir s t c a s e wh e n t h e n or m a l t o t he s q u a r e circ u i t or t he a xi s
, ,

o f t h e circ u i t i s i t he v o l t a g e i s
, ,

V2 E3 V3E Z ’

t h a t i s by
,
t he 1 c o m p on ent o f VVE a nd t h e r e for e t he ,

n o r m a l c o m p on e n t s i n c e h e r e N = i
, S i m il a rly wh e n N = j a nd
.
,

t he a x i s of t he circ u i t i s j t he v ol t a g e i n i t i s e xpr e sse d bv t he

,
c oe ffici en t o f j i n A n d wh e n N = k , t h e v ol t a ge i s t he
c o e ffici e n t o f k i n Thu s ,
in an
y c a s e t h e v ol t a g e I n a n
,

e l e m e n t a ry c i rc u i t o f u n i t a re a is t he n o r m a l c o m p o ne nt o f

VVB t h a t i s N Vv B
, , . SO ( 1 5 0 ) be comes
x TE = x N VVE = 2 N c u rl E, ( 1 5 1 )
expre s s ing t he Th e or e m o f Ve rs i on som et i m e s t e rm e d S t ok e s ,
’

Th e ore m .

Whe n E i s no t e l e c t ri c forc e 2 TB i s not circu i t a l v ol t a g e

, ,

bu t circ u i ta l s om e t hi n g e l s e 3 b u t t hi s d o e s n o t a ffe c t t h e
ge ne ra l a pplic a t i on of t he t h e ore m .

Thi s t h eor e m i s p a r t ic u l a rly i m p ort a nt i n e l e c t rom a g ne t i s m

b e c a u s e i t i s i nv olv e d i n t he t wo fu nd a m e nt a l l a w s t h e r e o f ,

wha t w e re t e rm e d t he Firs t a nd S e c on d C i rc u i t a l La ws o r ,

La ws o f C irc u it a t i on c onne c t ing t oget he r t he e l e c tric a nd

,

ma gn e t ic fo rc e s a n d t h e ir t i m e v a ri a t i ons ( S ee
-
3 3 t o 36 .
,

C hap . a nd l a t e r
) .

I f t h e v e c t o r wh o s e c u rl i s t a k e n b e v e l o ci t y q i n a m o vi ng
flu id t h e n c u rl q r e pr e s e nt s t wic e t he s pi n or v e ct or a ng u l a r
,

v eloci t y of t he fl u id i m m e di a t ely s u rro u n ding t he p oi nt in

qu e st i on 3 i t s dir e c ti on b e i ng t h a t o f t he a x i s o f ro t a t i on a n d ,

m a g n i t u d e t wic e t he r a t e o f r o t a t i on B u t I h a v e n ot m a d e .

u s e o f t h e fl u id a n a l o gy i n d e s cribi ng a nd pr o vi ng t he V e rs i on

The ore m b e c a u s e i t i s n ot o f m a t e ri a l a s s i s t a n c e
,
.

S in c e t he v a lidit y of t h e pr oc e s s wh e r e by w e p as s fro m a
circu it al s u m m a t io n of t he t a nge nt ia l c om p on e nt of a v e c t or t o
a n e qu iv a l e n t s u r fa c e s u m m a t i o n d e p e n d s u p o n t he fa c t t h a t
-

TB ch a n g e s Sign wi t h T we ma y g e ne ra li s e t h e t h e ore m t hu s
,

2 F ( T) ( 1 5 2 )
wh e r e on t he l e ft we ha ve
circ u i t a l a n d on t he righ t a s u rfa c e
a

s u m m a t i on a n d F T) i s s u ch a fu n c t i on o f T a s t o ch a ng e
, (
Sign w i t h T 3 whil s t f ( T) t he e le m e nt of t he s u rfa c e s u m m a
,
-

t i on i s t h e v a l u e o f t he fo rm e r E F ( T) fo r t he p a r tic u l a r e l e m e nt
,

o f s u r fa c e i n q u e s t i o n O f t hi s g e ne ra l t he or e m a fe w e x a mpl e s
.

A fe w w ord s re ga rdi ng V div a nd c u rl , , r i l ogic a lly

t e m no co n ~
 ELE C TROMA GNE TI C T HEORY
‘

1 94 . OH . III .

t he qu ate rni onists ? The re a s ons which a re w e ight y s h o u ld be

, ,

Obvio u s .

I n t he firs t pl a c e we r eq u i r e a c o nv e ni e n t l a n g u a g e for d e
,

s cribi ng or r e fe rri ng t o pr o c e s s e s a n d r es u l t s e x pr e s s i n g a pp r o xi ,

m a t e ly t h e ir e s s e nt i a l m e a n i n g w i t h o u t be i ng t o o m a t h e m a t ic a l .

No w V a lo ne i s n o t c o nv en i e nt for t hi s p u rp o se The s ca l a r .

prod u c t of V a nd D c onv e y s n o s u ch di st i n c t id e a a s d o e s
div e rge nc e ; nor d oe s t he v e c t o r prod u ct o f V a n d E s p e a k s o
p l a i n ly a s t he c u rl o r r o t a t i o n o f E .

Be s id es t he t hree re s ul t s of V e x e mplifi e d i n VP a n d VD
, , , ,

a nd VVB a re s o r e m a rk a bly di ffe re nt i n t h e ir a lg e br a ic a l

,

d e ve l op m ent a nd i n t h e ir m ea ni ng t h a t i t i s d e s ira bl e e v e n in
, ,

t he a l ge bra t o v e ry di s t i n c t ly s e p a r a t e t h e m i n r e pr e s e nt a t i o n
, .

The re fore i n t he pre c e di ng p a r t of t he pr e s e nt w ork ( a s i n a ll

,

fo rm e r p a p e rs ) t he s y m b o l V i s o nly pr e fi x e d t o a s c a l a r a s i n
, ,

VP t he s p a c e va ri a t i on o f P whil st for t he s c a l a r a n d v e c t o r
, ,

pro d u c t a re e m pl oye d di v a nd c u rl i n t he form u l ae a s w ell a s ,

in d e s crip t i v e m a tt e r .

Th e re a re h o we ve r c a s e s wh e n i t m a y be d e s ira bl e t o u s e V
, ,

a nd VV a ppli e d t o v e c t o rs i n fo r m u l ae na m e ly w h e n t he , ,

c om bi n a t i o ns o f s ym b ol s a r e n o t s o s i m pl e t h a t t h e ir m e a n i n g

a nd e ffe c t c a n b e r e a dily s e e n a n d w h e n i t i s r e q u ir e d t o
,

p e rform t ra ns form a t i ons a l s o n ot r ea dily re c og ni s a bl e The .

u t ili t y o f V i n i t s v e c t o ri a l s ig n ific a n c e t h e n b e c o m e s a pp a r e n t ,

for o ne m a y u s e i t a l on e t e m p o ra rily i f d e s ir e d a n d w ork i t a s

, ,

a v e c t o r r e m e m b e ri n g h o we v e r i t s o t h e r f u n c t i o ns
, , , O f t hi s .
,

t o o so me e x a m pl e s s h ou ld be gi v e n
,
.

Fi v e Exa mp l e s of t h e Op era t i on of V i n Tr a ns formi ng fr om

S urfa c e t o Vo l um e S u mma t i ons .

§ 1 30 . R r i g
et u n n t o t he t heore m or

2 F( N ) 2 f, ( 1 5 3 )
le t us ta ke a i m pl e s t c a ses t h a t pres e nt t h e m s el v es
fe w of t he s .

G iv e n a ny od d fu n c t i on F o f N t he no rm a l o u t w a rd s fro m a
,

cl os e d s u rfa c e o v e r which t he s u m m a t i on on t he l e ft s id e e x
t e nds w e c o nv e r t i t t o a n e q u iv a l e n t s u m m a t i o n t hr o u g h o u t
,

t he e ncl os e d r e gi on by m a ki ng f t h e q u a n t i t y s u mm e d be t h e
, ,
 E LECT ROMAGN ETI C T HE O RY . OH . [11 .

so t hat t he pre v i ou s e qu a t ion m a y be wri t ten

2 ND P = d i v D + x D VP ( 1 6 1 )
which i s a for m of G re e n s The ore m rel a t i ng t o e l e c t r o s t a t ic
’

e ne rgy D m ay be t he dis pl a c e m e nt i n o ne sy s t e m of e le c t r i fi
.

c a t i on a nd P t he p o t e nt i a l in a not h e r The q u a nt i t y E D VP i s .

t h e ir m u t u a l e n e rgy 3 a nd t hi s i s by e q u iv a l e nt ly e x ,

pre s s e d by the s u m of pro d u ct s o f e v e ry ch a rge i n on e s y s t e m

i nt o t he p ot e nt i a l d u e to t he ot h e r .

T a k e F( N) VNH . T h e n by,

f VI Vi H V m H V3Vk H .

Bu t h e re we m a y shift t he v s t o t he ’
ot h e r s id e
be ca u s e t h ey ar e s c a la rs 3 this prod u c e s
f VVH,
so t h a t we h a ve
:2 VNH = 2 VVH = 2 cu rl H .
( 1 6 2 )
The i nt e rpret at i on may be m ore r e a dily p e rc e iv e d by r e v e rs ing
t he dir e c t i on of t he n orm a l Ta ke N n s o t h a t n i s t he
.
—
,

no r m a l dra w n i n w a rd fro m t he b ou n d a ry Th en .

2 c u rl H + E VnH = O .

( 1 6 3 )
If H be m a gn e t ic forc e , c u rl H
l c t ric c u rre nt d e ns i t y i n
i s t he ,
e e -

t he r e gi on N o w VnH is t he s u rfa c e e qu i va l e nt o f t he bo dily

.

c u rl H Ig nore a l t og e t h e r t he m a g ne t ic fo rc e o u t s id e t he
.

re gion if t h e re be a ny Th e n t he c i rc u i ta t i on o f H giv e s t he
,
.

c u rr e nt t hro u gh a circ u i t A ppli e d t o e l e m e nt a ry circ u i t s

.

wh olly wit hi n t he r e gi on t he r e s u l t i s c u rl H B u t a t t he
, .

b ou n d a ry wh e re H s u dd e nly c e a s e s t h e re i s a s u rfa c e c u rre nt

, ,
-

a s w e ll To find i t s e x pr e ss i o n a pply t he pro c e s s o f c i r c u i t a t i o n

.
,

t o a circ u i t c o n s i s t i ng o f t w o p a r a ll e l li n e s o f u ni t l e ng t h ,

i nfi ni t ely cl os e t og e t h e r b u t on Opp os i t e s id e s o f t he b o u nd a ry
, ,

j o i ne d by i nfi ni t e ly s h ort cros s pi e c e s O nly t he u ni t li n e -

.

i ns id e t he r e gi on c o nt rib u t es a ny t hi ng t o t he c i r c u i t a t i o n 3 a nd
by t a k in g i t t o c o i n cid e w i t h H s o a s t o m a k e t he c i r c u i t a t i on
,

a m a xi m u m w e fin d t h a t VnH r e pr e s e n t s t he s u rfa c e d e n s i t y
,
-

o f c u rr e n t S o i f J be c u rr e n t we h a v e by
.
,
E J = 0 fo r
, ,

a ny r e gio n by i t s el f The s u r fa c e di s t ri b u t i o n a nd t he v o l u m e
-

, .
di s t rib u t i on o f c u rre nt a re c om pl e m e n ta ry ; t h a t i s t h e y a r e ,

prop e rly j oi ne d t og e t he r t o m a k e u p a circ u i t a l di s t ribu t i on .

Th u g

( 1 64 )
wh e re on l e ft s id e w e h a v e t he div e rg e n c e ( a t t he s u rfa c e )
t he
o f t h e i nt e r n a l c u rre n t a nd o n t he righ t t he e q u a l c o n v e rg e n c e
,

o f t he s u r fa c e c u rr e nt -
.

Fi v e Exa mp l es ra t i on of V i n Tr a nsformi ng from

of t he Op e
C i rc u i t a l t o S u rf a c e S u mma t i ons .

1 3 1 N e x t t a k e a fe w e x a m pl e s of t he e xt e nd e d Th e or e m
.
,

of Ve rs i on v iz .

2 F ( T) xf , ( 1 6 5 )
wh e r e n ow ,
on t he l e ft s id e ,
we ha v e
circ u i t a l s u m m a t i on o f t he
a n od d f u n c t i on o f T a n d o n t he r i h t a n e q u iv a l e nt s u rfa c e
g ,
,

s u m m a t i on w h os e e l e m e n t a ry p a r t f i s t he v a l u e of F T fo r
, ( )
t h e circ u i t b o u ndi ng t h e e l e m e n t o f s u rfa c e .

Ta ki ng t hre e e l e m e nt s of s u rfa c e t o be u n it s qu a r e s wh ose ,

n o r m a l s a re i j k w e r ea dily s e e t h a t t he c or r e s p on di ng
’
, , , f s a r e

'

V2F ( k ) V3 F (j ) , V3 F i ) ( v1 F ( ),
k v
1
F (j ) v2 F ()
i .
( 1 6 6 )
By m e a ns of t he s e we can s ee t he s p e ci a l form as s u m e d by f in
a ny c a se .

( )
a ; Th us ,
ta e F T k ( ) T i t s el f, t h e un it ta n g e nt . Th e n we
ha ve
E T = O, ( 1 6 7 )
m e re ly e x pr i ng t h
es s e f u n d a m e nt a l
pr op e r t y of a ddi ng v e c t ors ,

h a t t he s u m o f
t a ny ve ct o rs form ing wh e n , p u t e nd to e nd , a

circ u i t i s z e ro
, .

Ta k e F ( T) TP, wh e r e P i s a s c a l a r f u n c t i o n of p os i t i on .

Th e n wi t h n o rm a l
, i, we h a v e by t he firs t o f
,

80, wri t i ng Nf or i , we o bt a n i
 1 98 L
E ECT O M R AGNE TI C THEORY . CH . 111 .

The qu ant i ty s u mm e d o v e r t he s u rfa c e i s t h e re fore t he , ,

s u rfa c e re pr e s e n t a t i ve o f t he c u rl o f VP Thi s has no vol u m e .

representa t i ve i t s va l u e b e i ng t h e n z e r o
,
.

() c T a k e F T)
.
( TH . H r wit h n rm l
e e, o a i t o t he l
e e m e nt

o f s u r fac e we h a v e
,

by The re fore p u t t ing , N for i ,

2 TH = 2 NVVH = 2 N c u rl H ( 1 7 0 )
t he Vri e s on Theore m a ga i n . Bu t o b se r ve t h a t by , t he t r a ns
fo rm a t i on we m a y a ls o wri t e it

x TE = x VNV H . .
( 1 7 1 )
si mila rly t o in which t he o p e ra n d i s a s c a l a r Thi s . is
mne m onica lly u s e fu l , bu t ( 1 7 0) i s m o re pr a c t ic a lly u s e fu l .

( )
d Ta k e
. H r wi t h
e e, no rm a l i , t he firs t of

( 1 6 6 ) gi v e s

f V2Vk H n jH V (k V 2 j V3 ) II
-
.

Bu t he re we ha ve l 2 j V3 Vi v,
so t hat f V ( Vi V) H 3
a nd t he re for e g ene ra lly p u t t i ng
, , N fo r i ,

E VTH = 2 V ( VN V) H .
( 1 7 2 )

( )
e . q
Le t t he
u a n t i t y i n t he circ u i t a l s u mm a t i o n be a v e c t o r

o f l e ng t h P ( a s c a l a r fu n c t i on of p os it i on) dr a w n p e rp e nd i

c u la rly t o t he pl a ne of T a n d N Tha t i s .
,

F ( T) ( VTN ) P .

W e t h en find , t a ki n g N = i , a nd u s n i g t he firs t of

= V Vk i V3Vj i P V k V3 ) P VP 1 (N ) P
f 2
P ( 2
j .

In g en e ra l t he re fore
, ,

E VTN P=2 ( VP — N ( 1 7 3 )
The l
e e m e nt of t he rfa c e s u mm a t i on i s V P me a ni ng t he
su -

, ,

l p
s o e of P on t he s u r fa ce i t se lf di s re g a rdi n g a n
, y v a ri a t i on i t
 2 00 E LEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . 1 11 .

whe re t he firs t form a l on e i s e nt ire ly u na m bigu ou s B u t we .

m ay u s e e i t h e r o f t he o t h e r s pr ov id e d t h e di ff e r e n ti a t i ng p o w e r
,

of
V i s m a d e t o a c t o n b o t h E a n d H B u t if w e k e e p t o t he .

pl a i n e r a n d m ore u s u a l c o n v e nt i o n t h a t t he o p e ra nd i s t o
fo ll o w t he o p e ra t o r t h e n t h e t hird fo r m i n which E a l one i s
, ,

di ffe re nt i a t e d giv e s o n e p a r t o f t he r e s u l t whil s t t he s e c on d

, ,

fo rm or r a t h e r i t s e q u iv a l e nt
, , E VVII wh e r e i n II a l o ne i s d if ,

fe re n t i a t e d giv e s t h e re s t
, S o w e h a v e c o m pl e t e a n d wi t h
.
, ,

o u t a m big u i t y ,

div VEH H c u rl E E c u rl H ( 1 7 8 ) ,

a v y i m p rt
er o ra ns fo rm a t i on I t i s c onc e rne d i n t h e de
a nt t .

d u c t ion of t he e q u a t i on of a c t ivi ty fro m t he t wo circ u i t a l l a w s

o f e l e c t r o m a g ne t i s m .

( )
c . In t h e s e
circ u i t a l l a w s w e h a v e a l s o t o c o n s id e r t he c u rl

o f a v e c t o r pr o d u c t v iz t h e c u rl o f t h e m o t i on a l e l e c t ric fo rc e
, .
,

i n o ne la w a nd t he c u rl o f t he m o t i ona l m a g n e t ic fo rc e i n t h e
,

ot h e r . Ta ki ng t he fo rm e r we ha v e ,

c u rl VqB = VVVqB ( 1 7 9 ) ,

whe r e B i s t he i nd u c t i on a nd q t he v e l o ci t y o f t he m e di u m
s u pp o r t i ng i t . Apply t he e l e m e nt a ry t ra n s fo r m a t i o n ( 5 2 ) t o
It g i v e s
VVVq B q
. VB B Vq,
.
( 1 8 0 )
w he n V i s a m e r e v e c t o r B u t on t he l e ft s id e b ot h q a nd B
.

h a v e t o be d iffe re nt i a t e d 3 t h e re fo re t he s a m e i s t r u e i n b o t h
t e rms o n t h e righ t s id e Thi s giv e s .

VVVqB q div B BV q .

B di v q qV B , ( 1 8 1 )
— —
.

ih
w t ou t am big u i t y or ne e d o f r e s e rva t io n Th a t i s t o s a y a s .
,

in t he q VB o f ( 1 8 0) b ot h q a nd B h a v e t o b e di ffe r e n t i a t e d w e
.
,

e t q d i v B wh e n B a l o ne a n d B V q wh e n q a l on e i s di ffe r
g , .

e nt ia t e d . S i m i la rly fo r th e o t h e r t e r m i n
O r w e m igh t wri t e V wh e n q a l o ne a nd V wh e n B a l o n e
q , B

s u ffe rs d i ffe r e n t i a t i o n Th e n fu lly .

, ,

VVVqB VVq Vq B VVBVqB,

VVqVqB BVq . B div q,

VVB VqB q div B qV B . .

 Hr e e t he su m of
( 1 8 3 ) and
( 1 8 4 )g i ve s Th e m e a n
iflg of R V a n d qV h a s be e n a lr e a dy e x pl a i n e d

d
( ) . E q u a t i o n ( 1 8 1 ) m a y be a ppli e d t o t h e circ u i t a l la ws .

Ta k e x
t h e s e c ond , fo r e a m pl e , i n t he fo rm § 6 6,
c u rl ( E e0 ) K B WO
'
cu e qB , ( 1 8 5 )
a nd s u pp o s e t hat W q, h a t s o u rc e s m o v e wi t h t he m e di u m
or t .

Th e n by , w e c a n c e l t he c o n v e c t i v e t e r m W Fu rt h e r O
'
.
,

we h a v e is qV B .SB / Bt by , § 1 2 2 s o t h at
( 1 8 5 ) ,

b e c om es
c u rl ( E B V q, .
( 1 8 6 )
a n d t he c orre s p ondi ng fo rm of t he firs t la w ( q u a t i on
e

is

c u rl ( H ho) G 8D/ 8t D div q B v g ( 7)

1 8 . .

The t i m e v a ri a t i o n s r e fe r t o t he s a m e ( m o vi n g ) p o rt i on o f t he
-

m e di u m no w B u t if we wi s h t o i n dic a t e t he m o v e m e nt o f
.

e l e c t rific a t i o n & c t hr o u gh t h e m e di u m t h a t i s
,
.
,
h a v e re l a t iv e
, ,

m ot i on 11 q of p ( a n d W q of w i t h r e s p e c t t o t he e t h e r
t h e n t o t he righ t s id e of ( 1 8 7 ) a d d t he t e r m ( 11 q) p a n d t o ,

t h e righ t rid e o f ( 1 8 6) a d d ( W q) o

I t I s d e s ira bl e t o pr e s e rv e t h e v e l o cit i e s u a n d W or e l se t h e ,

re l a t i ve v e l o cit i e s a s w e ll a s t he v e l oci t y q of t he m e di u m i n
, ,

o rd e r t o fa cili t a t e t he c ons t r u c t i on a n d c o m pr e h e ns i o n o f
pro bl e m s re l a t in g t o el e c t ro m a gn e t ic w a v es w hich a l t hou gh , ,

a b s tr a c t a n d fa r r e m o v e d fr o m pr a c t ic e a r e o f a s u ffici e nt ly ,

s i m pl e n a t u r e t o e n a bl e o n e t o fo ll o w t he c ou r s e of e v e nt s .

( )
e We. h a v e a lr e a dy ha d t he di ve rge nc e of t he pro d u ct o f a
N o w e x a m ine I t s c u rl
.

s c a l a r a n d v e c t o r u n d e r c on s id e ra t i o n . .

Th u a

VVD P . VD V P .

P c u rl D VD VP .
( 1 8 8 )
Hr e e V c a n on ly m a ke a v e c t o r prod u ct wi t h
”
D , be c a u s e P i s
20 2 ELE CTROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I II .

If V h e re we r e a r e a l v e c t o r ( 1 89 ) w ou ld m ea n t ha t t he
vl
o u me Of a p a ra ll el e pip e d va ni s h e s wh en t wo e dge s c o i n cide .

(g ) . A som e w a t s h i m ila r c a s e i s pre s e n te d by t he v ni hi g

a s n

of t he c u rl of a p ol a r fo rc e Th u s .
,

c u rl VP O, or VV VP '
O .
( 1 9 0 )
Of c o u rs e VVV i s z e ro . B u t t he c l r pr od u c t
s a a VV, or V , is 2

t he L a p la ce a n op e ra t o r ,

V 2
VI 2
V2 2
V3 2
,

which o ccu rs fr e qu e nt ly .

( It ) . L e t t he o p e ra t ion c u rl be d one t wic e on a v c t r Th

e o . u s,

( c u rl )
2
A VVVVA
V VA
°
V A, 2

by t he t ra n s fo rm i ng for m u l a Or

VA
Z
V div A . c u rl
2
A .
( 1 9 3 )
Th u s t h e re a re t wo pri ncip al for m s I f t he v e c t or A ha s n o .

c u rl t h e n V A i s t he s l op e of i t s div e rg e n c e If on t he o t h e r
,
Q
.
,

h a n d i t h as n o div e rg e nc e t he n V ha s t he s a m e effe c t e x a c t ly
,
2
,

a s t a ki n g t he c u rl t wic e .

I n t he ca s e of t he o e a n p r d b e i ng a s a a c l r t hen ,
we h ave
V P = d i v VP ,
2
( 1 94 )
t he div e rge nc e of t he Sl op e of t he c l r
s a a .

The P ot e nt al i of a S c a la r or Ve ct o r . Th e Cha r a cteri s t ic

Equa t i on of a P ot ent a i l , a nd i t s S o l u t i on .

1 33 l as t e qu a t i on bri n gs u s t o t he t he o ry of p ot e nt i al s
. The .

The re a re s e ve ra l s ens e s i n which t he w ord p ot ent i a l ha s b e en

e m pl oy e d t o e n u m e r a t e which w o u ld b e v a l u e l e
, ss h e r e Fo r .

o u r pr es e nt p u rp o se we m a y c o n v e n i e nt ly fix i t s m e a n i ng by

d e fin ing t he p ot ent i a l a t A of a qu a nt i t y p a t B t o be t he qu a nt i ty
p/ 4 9
7r wh '
e
,
r e r i s t he di s t a n c e fro m B t o A Thi s i s t h e r a t i o n a l .

p ot e nt i al o f c ou rs e
,
.

Wh e n p i s dis t rib u t e d t hro u gh ou t s p a c e wh e t h e r a t p oi nts , ,

or o v e r s u r fa c e s o r t hro u gh o u t v ol u m e s
, t he p ot e nt i a l a t a ny ,
204 ELEC T ROMAG N E TI C T HEORY . CH . I II .

we b t a i n a s p e ci a l
o l i
s o u t on of
( 1 9 7 ) w hich h a s a r em a rka bl e
prop e r t y viz ,
.
,

c u rl F 0,

so t h at l c t ric fo rc e t he v ol t a ge i n a ny circ u i t i s z e ro
i f F be e e , .

The m e a n i ng o f c u rl I m a y ob s e rv e h a s b e e n e x pl a i ne d m o re
, ,

t h a n o n c e 3 b o t h i t s i n t ri n s ic a n d i t s v e c t ori a l m e a n i n g Th o s e .

who s e e k c a n fin d I f t h e y will n o t t a k e t he t r o u bl e t o s e e k
.

o r t o r e m e m b e r i t i s o f n o c o ns e q u e n c e t o t h e m Th e re a re .

pl e n ty of o t h e r t hin gs t h e y m ay c on c e rn t h e m s e l ve s a b ou t 3
p e rh a p s m o re pro fi t a bly .

The prop e r ty ( 1 9 9 ) i s vi s ibl y t r u e i n t he c a s e of a s i n gl e .

s o u rc e . I t i s t h e r e fo re s e p a ra t e ly t r u e for t h e fi e ld s o f a ll t he
s o u rc e s a nd t h e r e fo r e
,
by s u mm a t i on i s t r u e for t he co m
, ,

p l e t e P .

B ut ( 1 d oes n o t giv e t he only v e c t or which ha s no c u rl

9 8 )
a n d a giv e n d iv e rg e nc e Fo r a c o n s t a n t v e c t o r ( t h a t i s c o n s t a n t
.
,

t hr o u gh o u t a ll s p a c e ) ha s n o c u rl a n d n o div e rg e nc e u n l e s s w e
, ,

g o t o t h e v e ry e n d o f s p a c e t o fin d t h e s o u rc e s O f co u rs e t hi s .

c ons ta nt s ol u t i on ha s no r el a t i on t o t he s ou rc es p a n d m a y be ,

wh olly ignore d I f a ll o w e d F w ou ld n ot v a n i s h a t a n i n fi ni t e
.
,

di s t a n c e fro m t he s ou rc e s R e m em b e ri ng t hi s a n d e x cl u ding .
,

t he c on s t a n t s ol u t i o n w e m a y s a y t h a t ( 1 9 8 ) i s the s ol u t i o n o f
,

( 1 9 7 ) a nd

Tha t t h e re i s no o t h e r s ol u t i o n m a y be pro v e d a na lyt ic a lly

by G re e n s Th e o re m ’
B u t w e d o n ot r e a lly n e e d a n y
.

a pp e a l t o a n a l s i s o f t h a t ki nd if t h e i n t ri n s ic m e a n i n g s o f
y ,

dive rg e n c e a nd c u rl a r e u n d e rs t ood For t he a d m i s s ion t ha t .

t h e re c ou ld be a s e c o nd s ol u t i o n s a y F + f wh e r e F i s t he s o l u , , ,

t i on wo u ld by ( 1 9 7 ) a n d ,
i m ply t h a t t he v e ct o r
f ha d n o div e rg e nc e a n d a l s o no c u rl a nywh e re
,
B u t t he fi rs t .

o f t h e se c o ndi t i o n s m e a n s t h a t f i s e nt ir e ly circ u i t al if e xi s t e nt ,

a t a ll . The s e c ond d e ni es t h a t i t i s circ u i t a l S o f i s n on .

e x i s t e nt .

N o w ob serve t ha t
V ( 1 / 4rrr ) '
r
1 /
2
4 1rr ,

or t he l p e of t he s ca l a r 1 / 4 r i s the v e c t or wi t h t ens or
s o 7r

a nd dire c t i on r] I t follo ws fr om t hi s t ha t
.

-
Vp ot p = F .
 EL EMEN TS or VECT ORI AL ALG EB RA AND ANALY S I S . 2 05

w he n a s n i gl e p oi nt s ou rc e i s i n q u e s t i on The re fore by s u m
-
.
,
.

m a t i on , t he s a m e i s t r u e fo r a n y di s t rib u t i o n o f s o u rc e s or ,

P : -
VP = —
V p ot p , ( 2 0 1 )
whe e r p o t e nt i a l o f p a s d e fi ne d by
P i s t he a nd F i s a s
,

in The s l op e of P i f by t hi s w e u nd e rs t a n d Sl o p e d o w n
,

w a rd s o r v e c t o r r a t e o f fa s t e s t d e cre a s e i s t h e r e for e t he s a m e
, ,

v e c t or a s was c ons t r u c t e d t o s olv e ( 1 9 7 ) s u bj e c t t o

T a ki ng t he div erg e n c e o f w e h a v e by ( 1 9 7 ) a n d ,

p = di v F = —
VP= 2 -
V p ot p
2
.
( 2 0 2 )
A l i
s o u t on o f t he ch a r a c te ri s t ic e qu a t i on of P , or

VP 2
p, ( 2 0 3 )
i s t h e r e fo r e a nd i t i s the s o l u t i on va n i s h ing a t an i nfi ni t e
di s t a n c e from t he s ou rc es .

I f we s t a r t fro m we s h ou ld firs t u s e a nd m ake it

di v VP ) p .
( 2 0 4 )
Th e n by ,
we s e e t h a t VP ha s n o c u rl s o t h a t w e h a v e ,

a g a i n t h e t w o e q u a t i on s ( 1 9 9 ) t o c o n s id e r a s a b o v e , .

The c ons id e r a t i on O f F ra t h e r t h a n o f P ha s m a ny a d v a n
t a g es for p u rp os e s of r e a s o ni n g a s di s t i n g u i s he d fr o m c a lc u l a ,

t i on . Thi s i s t ru e e v e n i n s t a t ic a l probl e m s ; for i ns t a n c e ,

wh en F i s e l e ct ros t at ic fo rc e a nd P th e c orr e s p on di n g p ot e nt i al
, .

Whe n we proc ee d fu rt h e r t o ki n e t ic probl e m s wh e n F c a n n o

, ,

l ong e r be wh olly e xpr ess e d a s t he s l op e o f a p ot e n t i a l t he ,

u t ili t y o f c o n s id e ri ng P a t a ll e v e n for c a lc u l a t i ng p u rp os e s , ,

b e co m e s s om e t i m e s ve ry q u e s t i on a bl e a nd t he c on s idera t i on i s ,

s o m e t i m e s c e r t a i nly u s e l e s s a n d m i s l e a di n g -
.

F ro m ( 2 0 2 ) w e s e e t h a t V a n d p ot a r e r e cipro c a l
2 .
-
In .

a n ot h e r fo r m q u iv a l e n t 3 o r
(p )
2
V a nd t t 1
d
‘

—
‘ ‘

p o a r e e o a n
‘

V 2 a r e e q u iv a l e nt The pr op e rt y h a s only b e e n pr ov e d for a

.

s c a l a r fu nc ti on h a vi n g a s c a l a r p ot e nt i a l B u t s i nc e a ny
, .

v e c t or 0 m a y b e wri t t e n i C l + j C 2 + k C 3 a n d t he prop er ty i s ,

t r u e for t h e t hr e e s c a l a r s C l & c i t i s a l so t r u e for t he v e c t or

~

, .
,

0 . Th u s e x plici tly, ,

V Po t C
2
V p ot ( 10 1 ” 0 2 +
2

i ( -
V Po t 0 1 ) + j
2
V p o t 0 2)
i
“I 7
‘ 2 C a”
2 06 I ELECTROMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . 111 .

be ca u se t he r e fe renc e v e ct o r s i & c a r e con st a nt v e ct o rs S o , .

, .
,

if A I i s t he p ot e n t i a l o f C l A 2 o f a n d A of 0
3 3
which , m a kes ,

A be t he p ote nt i a l o f 0 a cc o rdi n g t o w e s h a ll h a v e
,

A = p ot 0 ( 2 05 ) ,

VA )
2 = c, ( 2 0 6

V p ot C
2
C .
( 7)
2 0

In h o rt t he ch a r a c t e ri st ic e qu a t i on of t he v e ct o r A m e r e ly
s ,

u n i t e s fr o m t h e a b o v e p oi nt of v i e w t h e ch a r a c t e ri s t ic s o f t h e
, ,

c om p on e nt s s o t h a t p ot a nd V a re r e cipro ca l whe n t he
,
2

o p e ra n d i s a v e c t o r a s w e ll a s wh e n i t i s a s c a l a r
, .

C onne ct i ons of P ot e nt a i l , C ur l , Di v erg e n e , and c S l op e . S ep a ra

t i on of a Ve ct o r i nt o C i r c ui ta l a nd Di ergent
v Pa rt s . A
S e ri e s of C i rc ui t a l Ve ct ors .

1 34 . B u t t he a bo v giv
e es a v ry p rt i l
i m p e rfe c t v i e w
e a a a nd

o f t he g e ne r a l t h e o ry o f p o t e n t i a l s Th e re a r e nu m e rou s ot he r .

rel a t i ons b e t w e e n a v e ct o r a n d i ts a s s o ci a t e d fu n c t i ons For .

inst a c n e i f i
,
n A be circ i u t a l t he n t h e L a p la ce a n V 2
,

e r e pl a c e d by c u rl Th cir
( )
b 2
m a y by a t i s if A b e .
, I ,

c u i t a l a n d be t he p ot en t i a l of 0 1 t h e n
, , ,

cu rl 2
AI G ( 2 08 )
c u rl ?
p ot C1 01 .
( 2 09 )
Hr e e, h a v e r e pl a c e d t he s cal a r op e r a t i on V by t he
t he n, w e 2

v e ct or o p e r a t i on c u rl do n e t wic e O f c ou r s e 0 1 i s al so cir .
,

c u it a l a s i s pr o v e d by
,

A g a i n le t t he A of ( 2 06) be p ol a r o r wh olly di v e rg e nt a nd
, , ,

be no w c a ll e d A 2 t he p ot ent i a l of G ,
t h e n by w e s h a ll ,

ha ve

— V di v p o t ( 2 1 1 )
Hre e ga i n we h a ve re pl a c e d V by a dou bl e op erat i on firs t
a
2
,

di v a nd t h e n V Thi s i s s i m il a r t o t he p as sa ge from ( 2 03) t o

.

o nly d on e i n t he r e v e rs e m a nn e r In by .

C 2 i s p ol a r b e c a u s e A , i s
,
.

C on v e rse ly we s e e t h a t t h e p ote nt ia l o f a circ u i ta l v e c t or i s a l s o

,

circu i t al a nd t h at t he p ot ent ia l of a p ol a r ve c t or i s als o p ola r

, .
2 08 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . III .

a nd c on s t ru c t t he circ u i t a l l i
s o u t on o f t hi s e qu a t o n i 3 t ha t is to
s a y, re g ar di ng B l a s giv e n ,
fin d A 1
. It is giv e n by
AI c u rl p o t ( 2 1 9 )
For A I h u s d e fi ne d i s e vide nt ly circ u i t al
as t ,
i n t he firs t pl a c e 3
a nd n e x t by t a ki n g t h e c u rl we pr o d u c e
, ,

c u rl A I c u rl 2
p o t RI B ( 2 2 0)
which i s t he give n d a t u m . Hr e e we u se c u rl 2 p ot = 1 b e c a u se ,

t h e op e ra nd i s circ u i t a l a s , in
B u t i n s t e a d o f ( 2 1 9 ) we m a y w ri t e

A1 p o t c u rl B ( 2 2 1 )
s h o wi ng a n e nt irely di ffe r e nt wa y of g oi ng from RI t o A I For .

AI as t hu s c ons tru c te d i s circ u it a l ; a nd s inc e c u rl B 1 = G ,

( 2 2 1 ) i s t he s a m e as

which wa s ou r d e fin i ti on of A I i n t e rm s o f 0 1 .

Thu s p ot c u rl a nd c u rl p ot a re e q u iv a l e nt wh en t he op e ra n d
i s circ u i ta l a s a b o v e
, Th ey a re ho w e v e r a l s o e q u iv a l e nt wh e n
.
, ,

t h e o p e r a n d i s g e n e r a l o r b o t h circ u i t a l a n d div e rg e n t b e c a u s e
, ,

i f a ny div e rg e nt v e c t or b e a dd e d t o t he B 1 i n t he righ t m e m b e rs
of ( 2 1 9 ) o r t he o p e r a t i o n o f c u rl t o w hich i t i s s u bj e c t e d
re nd ers i t s i nt ro du c t i on i nop e ra t iv e W e t h e re for e h a v e .

p ot c u rl C c u rl pot C, ( 2 2 2 )
w he r e G is an
y v ct r
e o . We have al s o t he s i m il a r e x ch g an e

a bili t y ,

p t
o c u rl 2
C c u rl 2
p o t G, ( 2 2 3 )
wh e re G i s a ny v e c t or For e i t h e r wa y t h e re s u l t i s t he
.
, ,

circ u i t a l p a r t o f C o r 0 1 , .

T h e s e r e s u l t s t h o u gh p u zzli ng a t fi rs t fr om t h e ir v a ri e t y
, ,

a r e y e t c a p a bl e o f b e i n g bro u gh t u n d e r r a pid m e n t a l c on t rol

by bri ngi n g t h e m t og e t h e r i n a c om p a c t form Th u s s t a rt .

,

wi t h a ny c irc u i t a l v e c t or A 1 L et B 1 = c u rl A I Ol = c u rl B ] .
, ,

D, c u rl C & c W e h a v e a s e ri e s of v e c t ors
.

A C D E

whic h a r e a ll circ u i t a l ,
a nd a n
y o ne of which i s t he cu rl of t he
prece ding W e t hu s p ass d own t he s e ries on e s t e p a t a t i m e
.

by m e ans of t he op e rat i on of c u rli ng 3 for e x a m pl e ,

D1 c u rl Cl ( 2 2 4 ) .

I f h o w e v e r we wi s h t o go d o wn t wo s t e p s w e d o n ot nee d
, , ,

t o go fir s t one s t e p as a b ov e a nd t h e n a no t h e r a ls o as a b ov e 3
, , ,

bu t ca n m a k e a d ou bl e s t e p i n one op e ra t i on by m ea ns o f t he
L ap la ce a n V 2
Thu s .
,

V 3 1 D1
2
( 2 2 5 ) .

No w go t he o t h e r way If w e wi s h t o ri s e u p t wo s t e p s
.
,

we ca n do i t i n one op e ra t i on by p ot t i ng 3 t h u s ,

If we wi s h to go u p only one s t e p we m ay d o i t by ,

c om bi ne d 3 t h at i s e i t h er go d o w n one s t e p fi rs t
, ,

a nd t enh u
p t wo ,
as in

B1 p o t D1 p otc u rl
l
or e s e , fi rs t go u p t wo st e ps a nd do wn one 3 t h u s ,

B1 c u rl AI c u rl p ot 0 1 .
( 2 2 8 )
Th ere a re o t h er l es s i mp o rt a nt c ombi na t i ons Bu t if w e .

wi s h t o m a k e o ne s t e p u p d ire c tly wi t h ou t m a ki n g u s e o f t he ,

d ou bl e s t e p we m u s t d o i t by t he A m p er e a n fo rm u l a a lr e a dy
, ,

u sed wh ere by we p a s s dire c t from e l e c t ric c u rr e nt t o i t s

,

m a gn e t ic forc e which i n r a t i on a l u ni ts i s ( wh e n a ppli e d t o

, , ,

p r e i ghb o u rs G a nd D i n t he a b o v e se ri es
an
y a i o f n 1 1 ) ,

01 ( 22 9 )
wh e re r1 i s a u ni t v e ct or fro m t he e l e ment D 1 t o t h e p oint a t
di s t a nce r t h e r efrom wh e r e 0 1 i s r e ck on e d W e h a ve now a
,
.

c ompl e t e s ch e m e s o fa r a s t he circ u i t a l ve c t ors are conce rned

, .

A S eri es of Di v e gr ent Ve ct or s .

§ 1 35 . D e fe rri ng
p o r a rily a v e c
t emt o ri a l pr o of o f t h e l as t
form u l a which i s t he only u npr ov e d form u l a i n t he con
n e c t io ns o f t h e s e ri e s o f circ u i t a l v e c t or s i t will n o w be ,

c onv en i ent t o bring t oget h e r t he c onn e ct i ons of t he di ve rg en t

v e c t ors and a ssoci a t e d q u a nt i ti es W e sa w t he a d va nt a ge of .

t he s y s t e ma t ic a rra nge me nt of t he c onne c t e d circ u i t a l v e c t ors

2 10 E LECTR OMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . 1 11 .

t o be lik e prod u cing a h a rm oni ou s ch ord ou t of a pp a re ntly

dis c onn ec t e d t ones The a dv a nta ge i s m u ch gr e a te r i n t he
.

di ve rg e nt s e ri e s on a c co u nt o f t he l es s u ni fo rm rel a t i ons i n
,

vol ve d a nd t he gre a t e r ne e d o f a sy s t e m t o bri ng t hem u nd er

ra pid m e nta l c ont rol I n t h e c irc u i t a l s e ri e s fou r ki nd s o f
.
,

Op e ra t i on we re i n v olv e d 3 b u t i n t he div e rg en t s e ri es t h e re a r e
si x . The ch o rd will be fo u nd t o be p e r fe c t t h o u gh of gr e a t e r ,

c om pl e xi t y .

Th us le t ,

D 2, 3 2,

be ri e s o f v e c t ors a nd s ca l a rs c onne c te d a s foll o ws S t a rt

a se —

wi th A , which i s t o be a ny di ve rge nt v e c t or 3 t ha t i s ha v i nr
, ,

L e t B, be i t s di v e rg e n c e ; G, t he s l op e o f B , 3 D ,
‘

no c u rl .

t he di ve rg e nc e of C , 3 E, t he Sl op e of D , & c Then A , , .
,

D, a r e a ll di v e rg e nt v e c t o rs B u t t h e y a re s e p a ra t e d
’

.
,

from o ne a not h e r by t wo s te p s i ns t e a d o f o ne as wa s t he c a s e ,

i n t he circ u i ta l s e ri e s l a s t t r e a t e d The i nt e r m e di a t e qu a nt i t i e s
.

a re s c a l a rs I nst e a d a l s o o f t he s ingl e o p e ra t i on o f c u rl
.
, ,

which s u ffic es i n t he circ u i t a l s e ri e s t o c a rry u s from a ny

, ,

ve c to r t o t he foll owi ng o ne we no w h a ve t wo di s t i nc t Op e ra ,

t i ons 3 v iz t h a t of s l o p e wh e n we p a s s from a s c a l a r t o t he
.
, ,

ne x t v e c t o r as i n ,

C, -
VB, 3 ( 2 3 0 )
a nd ha t of di ve rgenc e wh en
t , we p as s fr om a v e ct r t o o t he n e t x
s ca l a r as i n
,

D, di v ( 2 3 1 )
B u t if we wi s h t o go d o wn t wo s t e p s a t onc e we can d o s o ,

by m ea n s of t he La p la c ea n Op e r a t o r wh e t h e r t he o p e r a n d b e a
,

s c a l a r as i n
,

V B, 2
D ( 2 3 2 )
l
or e s e a v ct r
e o , as in
— V 02 = B
2
c o
( 2 3 3 )
I n t hi s r es p e c t t h e n we h a v e the s am e prop e r ty as i n t he
, ,

circ u i t a l s eri e s .

W e h a v e a l so id e nt i ty o f Op e r a t i on i n g oi ng u p t w o s t ep s a t
onc e wh e t h e r fr o m a s c a l a r t o t he n e x t high e r s c a l a r a s i n
, ,

B, p ot D, ,
21 2 M

E LECTR OMA GNE TI C TH EO R Y . CH . I II .

st e p u p a nd bu t one kind d o wn i n t he circ u i t a l s e ri es wh e re as ,

t h e r e a r e t w o ki nd s u p a n d t wo ki nd s d o w n i n t he div e rg e n t
s e ri es .The d o w n s t e p i n t h e circ u i t a l s e ri e s i s a l wa y s d on e by
c u rl ; t he u p s t e p s h o wn i n , m a y b e d e n o t e d by ( c u rl ) 1 -

I n t he di v e rg e nt s e ri e s t he d o w n s t e p s a r e d o ne by V a n d by
div 3 t h e ir i nv e rs es m a y be d e not e d by V) 1
a nd div
( ) 1 -
' -

I t i s n o w t he na t u re o f t h e s e i nv e rs e Op e ra t i o ns
“

a nd

h a t r e ma i n s t o be e l u cid a t e d v e c t o ri a lly fir
( 2 4 1 ) t T h e s t i s .

t he A mp é re a n form u l a ra t i ona liz e d wh e r e by we ri s e fro m ,

e l e c t ric c u rr e nt t o i t s m a g ne t ic fo rc e 3 by t he s e c on d we ri s e

from ( for ins t a n c e) e l e c t ros t a t ic fo rc e t o t he e l e c t ro s t a t ic

p ote nt ial ; or wit h a s ligh t ch an ge ( of s ig n) from i nt ens i ty o f
, ,

m a g net i s a t i on t o m a g ne t ic p o te nt i a l 3 i n t he t hird we ri se
fr om ( for i ns t a n c e ) e l e c t ri fi c a t i on t o e l e c t ros ta t ic di s pl a c e ment
, .

The Op era t i on i nv ers e t o Di v ergenc e .

1 36 . Le t p a nd gc l r f u n c t i o ns
b e s a a , a nd c ons id e r t he
s p a c e v a ri at i o n
-
of t h e ir pr o d u c t W e ha v e .

Wm) =
PV€I + 9 VPs ( 2 42)
a formu l a pre v i ou s ly u s e d bu t which i s s e en t o be t r u e
not ,

by ob se rv ing t ha t it i s t r u e for e a ch of t he t hre e c omp one nt s

of V .Now int e gra t e t hrou gh a ny r e gi on W e kno w t h a t .

” m a ven , ( 2 4 3)
i f N i s t he un it no rm a l
wa rds from t he b ou nda ry o f t he
ou t

re gion s o t ha t t he l e ft m emb er i s a s u rfa c e s u mm a t i on whil s t

,
-

t he righ t m e m b e r i s a v ol u me s u m m a t i on t hrou gh ou t t he -

re gi o n b o u n d e d by t he s u r fa c e E q u a t i on ( 2 4 3) i s i n fa c t a
.
, ,

c as e o f wit h p g s u b st i t u t e d for 10 I f t h en t he s u rfa c e .

, ,

s u mm a t i on v a n i s h e s w e s h a ll h a v e a s i m u l t a n e o u s e v a ne s c e n c e
,

o f t he righ t m e mb e r o f a nd t h e r e fo r e by ,

Al l t he w ork d one by a v ec t o r a na lyst i s e xhibi t e d i n ( 2 4 4) -

i tsel f v iz t he t ra ns fe r of t he s y m b ol V from one op e ra nd

, .
,

t o the ot h e r wi t h ch a ng e o f s ig n c on v e r ts t he i nt e gra l o f ,

q i n t o t h a t o f —
n The pr e v i o u s r e
. ma rk s c onta i n t he

j us t i fi c at ion of t he p r oc es s .
 Now V9 i s a p ol a r or di ve rgent v ec t r o , so m ay be a ny on e

of o u r div e rg e nt s e ri es , sa
y wh e n 9 i t s el f b e co mes B, . Th en
2 p 0, x E, Vp .
( 2 4 5 )
L tly
as ,
le t p ha ve t he s p eci al vl
a ue t h en ( 24 5) i s t he
s a m e as

p ot 0, A, 2 E, Vp , ( 2 4 6)
which e xhibit s t he div e rg e nt v e c t o r A, In te msr of i ts div e r
g e nc e B, . I t i s t he sa me as i c
s n e Vp = r1 / 47rr , i f
2
r
1
is
the un it v c t r fr
e o om B, to A 2 .

Th e Op era t i on i nv ers e t o Slop e .

1 37 . N xt
b s t i t u t e for g I n p g a v e c t o r s a y g The
e , su , .

ne w q u a n t i t y p g ha s b e i n g a v e c t o r b o t h c u rl a n d div e rg e n c e
, ,
,

i n g e ne ra l C ons id e ri ng t he l a tt e r firs t w e h a v e
.
,

di v p g p di v g n (,2 4 7 )
which i s a n e x a m pl e of I nt e gra ti ng t h rou gh ou t a ny
v ol u m e w e h a v e
,

E N p g = E d i v p g, ( 2 48 )
as in wh e r e N i s as b e fore . S o, i f t he su rfa c e i nt e gra l
-

v ni h
a s e s, we ob t a i n by ,

2p div g En , ( 2 4 9 )
a nd , i n t hi s t ra ns fo r m a t i o n, a ll t he v e c t o ra n a ly s t h as t o d o i s
to s hi ft t he o p e ra t o r V f r om o ne Op e ra nd t o t he o th e r ,
a nd

ch a nge ign
t he s .

The v e ct o r g h e re ha s no r e s t ric t i on i m p os e d u p on it . It
ma y t h e r e fo r e be O f t he g e n e r a l t yp e 0 0 1 gi vi ng
Ep D, 2 0 Vp E 0 , Vp ( 2 5 0)
Hre e p or t i on 2 0 1 Vp va ni s h e s b e c au s e 0 1 i s circu it al a nd v p
t he
i s p ol a r w h ich i s o ne o f t he i m p o r t a nt t h e or e m s i n a na ly s i s
,

t h a t b e c o me vi s ib ly t ru e by foll o wi ng t he t u b es of t he circ u i t a l
flu x i n p e r fo r m i n g t he s u m m a t i on wh e n t he s u mm a t i on i s s ee n ,

t o v a n i s h s e p a r a t e ly for e ve ry t u b e ( S e e .

I f i n ( 2 5 0) w e giv e p t h e s p e ci a l v a l u e 1 / 4 r Vl Z t he p ot en 1r ,
.
,

t i a l d u e t o a u ni t s ou rc e a t d is t a nc e r we ob t a i n
.
,
214 E LE CTROMAG NETI C T HEOR Y . CH . I II .

sho wi ng how t o p as s u p on e s te p i n t he di ve rg ent se ri es from

a v e c t o r t o t he pr e c e di ng s c a l a r . I t i s t he same as

rem e mb eri ng t he va l u e of Vp .

The Op era t i on i nv ers e t o C url .

§ 1 38 . Thirdly , we ha ve t he c u rl of p g t o c o ns id e r . Hr e e,

by
cu rl p g p c u rl g Vn ,

I nt e gra t i ng t hrou gh ou t an
y regi on , we ob ta i n
2 VNp g E c u rl p g, ( 2 5 3 )
which is a cas e of wi t h p g p u t for H . S o, i f t he su rfa c e
s u mma t on i v ni h e
a s s, we ob t a i n by ,

2p cu rl g 2 Vn ,
5

( 2 5 4 )
whe re the symb ol VV i s m ove d fro m g to p wi t h a ch a nge ,
of

Sig n as b efo re I n t hi s t a k e p = 1 / 4 r 3 t h en s ince t h e re

, .
,
7r ,
is
no r e s t ric t i on u p on g w e ge t t a ki ng g = 0 , , ,

p c t D1 B1 2 VOVp E V0 1 Vp ,

which i s t he c om p a nion t o s h o wi ng h o w t o p a ss u p o n e

s t e p i n t he circ u i t a l s e ri e s fr o m 0 1 t o B, T hi s i s e q u i v a l e n t
, .

to The di v e rg e nt p a r t o f 0 c ont rib u t e s n ot hing Tha t .

i s t o s a y for e x a m pl e t h e m a gn e t ic fo rc e d u e t o a c o m pl e te ly
, ,

di ve rge nt di s t rib u t i on of e l e c t ric c u rre n t a ccordin g t o A m p ere s ,

’

fo r m u l a for t he m a g ne t ic fo rc e of a c u rr e nt ele ment i s z e ro ,

.

W e m igh t i nd e e d a rgu e from t hi s t h a t t h e re c ou ld no t be

, , ,

s u ch a ki n d o f e l e c t ric c u rr e n t 3 t h a t i s t o s a y t h a t t he c u rr e nt ,

m u s t be circ u i t a l s in c e t he m a t h e m a t ic a l m a chine ry i t s el f
, ,

c ons t r u c t e d on old ide as a u t o m at ic a lly rej e ct s t he wa nt o f

,

c i r c u i t a li t y a nd r e fu s es t o a dm i t t he p u r ely div e rg e nt
, p a rt
as c on t rib u t o ry t o m a gn e t ic fo rce Thi s i s a p e rfe c t ly va lid .

a rgu m e nt pr o v id e d t h e t e s t o f t he e xi s t e n c e of e l e c t ric c u rr e nt
,

be t he e x i s te nc e o f m a g ne t ic forc e which i s ta nt a m ou n t t o ,

wh a t Ma xwe ll i ns i s t e d u p on i n a not h e r form ,

.

Fo r i ns t a n c e if w e c a lc u l a t e by ( 2 5 5 ) t he m a gne t ic forc e
,

d u e t o a s u pp os i t i t i ou s c u rr e nt e l e m e nt a t a p o i nt s i m ply by r e ,

m ovi ng t he s ig n o f s u mm a t i on we Ob ta i n t he m a gn e t ic forc e o f ,

a r a t i o n a l c u rre nt e l e m e nt a s y s t e m o f circ u i t a l c u rre n t r e s e m

,

bli ng t he i nd u c t i on d u e t o a m a g ne t is e d p a rt icle ( S ee .
21 6 L
E EC T ROMAGNET C THEORY I . CH . I II .

Fi na lly, ( )
2 2 9 gi ves
0 1 = p ot ( 2 5 8 )
W e m ay i mes u t ili s e t h ese for mu l ae for p u rp oses of c al
s om e t

c u l a t i on s h ou ld t he i nt egra t i ons t o be p e r for m e d be a m e nabl e

,

t o pra c t ic a l t re a t m e n t B u t t h e r e i s a c a u t i on t o b e m e n
.

t i on e d . The q u a nt i t i e s wh os e p ot e nt i a l s a r e c a lc u l a t e d by t he
l a s t t hr ee form u l ae a re not fu nct i ons of p os i t i on which are de ,

fi ni t ely di s t rib u t e d i n s p a c e a nd a r e i nd ep e nd ent of t he p os i t i on

,

o f t he p o i nt wh e r e t he p ot e nt i a l i s r e ck o ne d bu t a r e d e fi n i t e o nl y ,

wh en t hi s p oi nt is fi x e d As y ou p as s t o a not h e r p oint t he
.
,

p ot ent i a l t h e re I s t h a t of a di ffe re nt di st ribu t i on from t h a t

b e l ongi ng t o t he firs t p oi nt Th es e qu a nt i t i es 0 ,/r & c a re
.
, ,
.
,

t h e r e for e not su bj e c t t o t he v ar i o u s pr op e r t i es of t he circ u i t a l

a n d di v e rg e nt v e c t or s a lr ea dy c ons id e r e d For e x a m pl e 0 , i s .
,

p u r ely dive rg e nt b u t D , /r ha s c u rl 3 or 0 1 i s circ u i t al whil s t

, , ,

VDl /r has di v e rg en c e a nd s o on ,
.

“
I nt egra t i on by p art s . Energy Equi va lences in t he
Ci r cui t a l S eri es .

1 4 0 The t ra ns form a t i o ns
. or t he m o re
g e ne ra l ones c ont a i ni ng t h e om i t t e d s u rfa c e s u mm at i ons ex -

pr es se d by p u t t i ng t he Sign of s u mm at i on b e fo re e ve ry t e rm i n
a n d c on v e r t i n g t he s u m ma t i o n on t he l e ft
( 2 4 7
t o a s u rfa c e s u mm a t i o n by t he i n t r o d u c t i on o f N a s i n
-

a nd a r e e x a m pl e s o f wh a t i s i n t he C a r te s i a n ,

m a t h e m a t ic s c a ll e d i nt e gra t i on “
by p a r t s I t i s u s u a lly a
”
.
,

ve ry t e diou s a nd u ni nform ing proc es s t h at i s i n C a r te s ians , , ,

wi t h i ts t riple a nd d ou bl e f s i t s dS a nd dx dy dz a nd i ts ’
, ,

l m n
, , . The v e c to ri a l m e t h od s go s t ra igh t t o t he m a rk a t
o n c e a v o id a l a rg e a m o u n t o f q u i t e u s e l ess w ork
, a nd e na bl e ,

o u t o k e e p y o u r a tt e nt i on fix e d u p on t he a c t u a l m a gni t u d e s
y
c onc e rne d a nd t h e ir es s e nt i a l re l a t i ons i nst e a d of b ei ng di s
, ,

t ra c t e d by a cro wd of c oordina t e s a nd c om p on e nt s .

The re a re of c ou rs e m a ny o t he r c a s es which a ri se of t hi s
, ,

by p a r t s i nt egra t i on O ne of t he m os t i m p or t a nt i n c on
”
.

n e c t i o n wi t h t h e circ u i t a l s e ri e s o f v e c t o r s i s t he foll o wi n g ,

S u b s t i t u t e for p i n t he pr e c e di ng a v e c t o r s ay t h e n w e s h a ll
, ,

ha ve
2 f c u rl g E g c u rl f ( 25 9 ) ,

t he s u mm a t i ons b e i ng t hr o u gho u t a ll s p a c e or a t a ny r a t e , ,
throu gh e nou gh O f i t t o i ncl u d e a ll t he q u a nt i t i es s u mm e d .

The pr oof i s t h a t s i nc e

di v n f c u rl g g c u rl
which is ( 1 7 8 ) a ga i n , we ha ve by sp a c e su mmat i on
,
-

2 f cu rl g = 2 g cu rl f + 2 di v n , ( )
2 6 1

a nd t he t hird r r di
t e m m ay be a t on e t u ne r ce su m
nt o the s u fa c -

m a t i on E N n hi v i h l h
I f t s a n s , as u su a , t en ( 2 5 9 ) fo
. ll ows .

A pplyi n g t hi s r es u l t t o t he s eri es o f circ u i ta l v e c t o rs A 1 A , , ,

A , & c e a ch o f which i s t he c u rl of t he pre c e di ng we o b t a i n

, .
, ,

v a ri ou s e qu i val enc es Th u s .
,

( 2 6 2 )
thro u gh a ll s p a c e . Op e ra t e on on e m e mb e r by c u rl a nd on t he
o t h e r by to p as s fr om o ne for m to t he n e x t A l so
.

2: D 3 ,
x 0 1 F, 2 E ,
C 2 A 1 H1 , ( 2 6 3 )
in a s i mil a r m a nne r 3 a n d s o on .

I n a ny o f t h e se s u mm a t i ons we may c on v e rt e i t h e r of t he
circ u i ta l v e c t ors i nv ol v e d t o a g enera l v e c t or by a ddi ng a ny
di ve rg e nt v e c t or For w e s e e by ( 2 5 9 ) t h a t if f i s p ol a r t he
.
, ,

righ t s u m ma t i on v a ni sh e s a n d t h er efor e so d oes t he l e ft S o

,
.

2 D , 2 i s t he s a m e a s E D JD for E D I D , = 0 S i m il a rly E 0 1 F]
, .
,

i s t he s a m e a s E C FI or t he s a m e a s E C I F s in c e Z O1 F, = 0
, , ,

a nd E 0 F = 0
, 1
I t will
. be u nd e r s to o d h e re t h a t t he s u ffix 1

r efe rs t o t he circ u i t a l ve c tors en t ire ly a nd t he s u ffix 2 to t he ,

div e rge nt v e c t ors a nd t h at 0 0 1 ,

&c .

B u t we c a nno t g e ne r a li s e both v e c to rs a t t he sa m e t i m e T a k e .

GP for e x a m pl e W e ha ve .
,

= xo r
( , ,) ( )
2 or : x (0, r + r , ,
x 0 ,F, , 2 6 4

so t h at t he s u mm a t on c l r pro d u ct of t he t wo di ve r
i Of t he s a a

gent v e ct ors n ow e nt e rs The s e rie s o f di ve rge nt v e cto rs a nd

.

t h e ir i nt e r m e di a t e s c a l a rs h a v e pr op e r t i e s s i m il a r t o

i n t he di ve rge nt se ri e s a re fo rm a lly o b ta ina bl e fr om t he co rr es

21 8 ELECTR OMAGNE TI C THEOR Y . CH . I II .

1 to 2 3 at t he sa m e t i me ch angi ng t he t yp e from cl a rend on t o

roma n sh ou ld t he q u a nt i ty t ypifi e d be a s c al a r Th u s a nal a .
,

g ou s t o we h a v e

( 2 6 5 )
—
2 B, F, ( 2 66)
s ta rt i ng from t he s qu a re of a v e ctor in t he fi rs t s et a nd from ,

t he s q u a r e o f a s c a l a r i n t he se c on d Thes e t ra ns fo rm a ti ons a ll
.

re st u p on ( 2 4 9) 3 t hat i s we p as s from a ny form t o d i e nex t

,

by t he e xch ange of V a nd di v bet ween t he fa c tors For .

e x a m pl e
,

2 D, 2 E D, di v by de fini ti on of D, ,

2 0 , VD by i nte gr a t i on ,
us n i g
2 by d e fini t i on of E, .

S i mil a rly i n a ll t he rest . The pre c e di ng e qu a t i ons c onveni ently

s u m ma ri s e t h e m .

B u t i t will be ob se r ve d t h a t t h er e i s a not h e r wa y of p a iri ng

t e rms in t he di v e rg e nt s e ri e s v iz a v e c t o r wi th a s c a l a r
,
.
,
The .

c orre sp ondi ng t ra ns fo rm at i ons d o not w ork s o s y mm et ric a lly a s

t he pr e vi ou s .For i ns t a nc e ,

2 C , D, E by d e fi ni t i on o f
E B, VD, , by
2 B, E, , by de fi ni t ion of E
by d e finit i on of B, ,

by i nt egra t i on .
( 2 6 7 )
Hr e e the y mm et ry bre a ks d own
s . The l as t t ra ns for ma t i on
d e p e nds u p on
2 ( Nf) g 2 ( Vf) g 2 (g di v f + fV g) .
( 2 68 )
which i s c ase of t he t h e ore m ( 1 4 7 ) or
a N ot e t h a t i n
t he s e c ond fo r m V has t o di ffe re n ti a t e b ot h f a nd g s o t h a t t he ,

fu ll e xpr ess i on i s i n t he t hird for m If t he s u rfa c e i nt e gr a l

.
-

vanis hes a t i nfi ni ty we ha ve ,

E g di v f =
= -
2 f V g, .
2 20 EL EC T ROMA G NE TI C THEORY . CH . II I .

I n t he circ u i ta l e qu a t ion 76 d oes not a ppe a r s o t h a t t he prom , .

a t i on o f circ u i t a l di s t u rb a nc es d e p e nd s o nly u p on t he rigidi t y

g
a nd d e n s ity ; s p e e d I n t h e div e rg e nt e q u a t i on b ot h n
,

a nd 16 a pp e a r a n d t he s p e e d of di s t u rb a n c e s o f t hi s cl as s i s
,

I n a not h e r fo r m if we t a k e t he c u rl o f h
{( n + , t e

div e rgenc e goes ou t s o t h at t he c u rl o f G which i s t wic e t he

, ,

rot a t i on ha s t he c u rl o f f for sou rc e a nd i s prop aga t e d i nd e

, ,

p end e nt ly o f c om press ibili t y .

A nd i f we t a ke t he div e rg e n c e o f ( 2 7 we s e e t h a t t he
d i v e rg e n c e o f G or t he e xp a ns i on has t he di v e rg e n c e o f f for
, ,

s ou rc e ,
a n d t he r a t e o f i t s pr o p a g a t i on d e p e nd s u p on b ot h

rigidi t y a nd c om press ibili t y B u t wh en m 0 t h e re i s bu t one

.
,

Sp e e d o f pr op a ga t i on a nd a c ompl e t e a ma lga m ation of t he t wo

,

ki nds of dis t u rb a nc es .

I n e q u ilibri u m wh e n e q u ilibri u m i s p os s ibl e t he righ t

, ,

m e m b e rs o f t he l as t thre e e qu a t i ons v a n i s h s i n c e t hey r e pro

s e nt
“
ra t e of a cc el e ra t i on of m oment u m ( a l ong wi nd e d -

e xpr e s s i on ) .W e t h e re fore h a v e

( 2 7 5 )
( f, n m)V G , 2
.
( 2 7 6 )
The s ol u t i ons a r e v i s ibl e by i ns p e c t i on W e s e e t h a t nG 1 i s .

t h e p ot e n t i a l o f f1 a n d ,
t h e p ot e nt i a l of Th a t i s ,

t h e di s pl a c e m ent pro d u c e d by circ u i t a l i m pr e s s e d fo rc e i s i t s

p ote n t i a l divide d by n 3 a n d t he di s pl a c e m e nt prod u c e d by
di ve rgent i mpre s s e d forc e i s i t s p ot e nt i a l divid e d by n + m 3
whil st i n t he g en e ra l c a s e w e m u st s pli t t he i mpr e s s e d forc e
, ,

i nto circu it a l a nd div e rgent p a rt s a nd t h e n r e u ni t e t h e m i n ,

-

di ffe re nt prop ort i ons t o ob t a i n t he r esu l t a nt di spl a c e m e nt .

S y mb olic a lly ,

( m n ) ,
G p ot f, ,

p o t f1 p ot f,
G
n m+ n

In t h e case i n cof
o m pr e ss ibili t y k a n d t h e r e fo r e m
,
i s i n fi n i t e , ,

h
s o t at G , i s z e r o a n d,
t h e di s pl a c e m e n t i s p o t f l / n wh a t e v e r ,

m ya b e . F o r f ,
i s b a l a n c e d by di ffe r e n c e o f pr e s s u r e which ,

i s se t p
u i n s t a n t ly T h e. c o rr e s p o n di n g Sp ee d i s i n fi n i t e b ut ,

t h e re i s n o di s pl a c e m e nt .
 If, ga i n m 0 a nd t h e re i s bu t one s pe e d t he di s pl a c em en t
a , , ,

i s t h e p ot e n t i a l ( divid e d by n ) o f t he i m pr e ss e d forc e wh a t e v e r ,

b e i t s t yp e .

O n t he o t h e r h a nd i f n + m = 0 w e s ee by ( 2 7 4 ) t h at t h e re
, ,

i s n o s t e a dy s t a t e p os s ibl e d u e t o di v e rg e nt fo rc e a s f, i s t h e n ,

e m pl oy e d s i m ply i n a cc e l e r a t i n g m om e nt u m on t he s p o t The .

c orre s p on ding s p e e d i s z ero The circ u i t a l di s t u rb a nc e s a re

.

prop a gat e d a s b efore Thi s i s t he c as e of S ir W Th oms on s

. .
’

c ont ra c t il e e t h er i n which t he w a v e of norma l d i st u rb anc e i s

,

a b oli s h e d by m a ki ng t he s p e e d z e r o .

Th e S t ore d Ene rgy a nd t he S t r ess i n t h e Ela s t i c S oli d . Th e

For c e l ess a nd Tor qu el es s S t res s .

§ 1 43 . We m ay lxpr
a so e s s i on s for t he s t o re d e n e rgy
find e

fr om t he e q u a t i o n of m ot i on The w ork d on e a nd s t ore d by

.

t he i m pr e s s e d fo rc e 1 i s 31G th ou g h i f f be p u t on s u dd e nly
’

, , ,

a n e qu a l a m o u nt i s di s s ip a t e d s i nc e G b e i ng t he fi na l di s pl a c e
, ,

m ent fG i s t he w ork t h e n d on e by f p er u ni t v ol u me
,
NC W , .

2 § fG 2 %1 1
f G E

by C alli ng t he fi r t p rt U
s a
1,
a nd t he s econd
‘

p ar t U,,
we h a ve by ,

UI G) 2
( 28 0)
U, ( di v G )
2
.
( 2 8 1 )
Th e t r ans form a t i ons h e re u se d a r e ( 25 9 ) for UI a nd ( 2 4 9 ) for
U, .W e s ee t h a t t he e n e rgy s tore d i s e xpre ss e d i n te rm s o f
t he qu a re s of t he rota t i on a n d of t he e xp a ns i on In t he
s .

co nt ra c til e et h e r U, i s z ero a n d the s t ored e nergy i s U1

, .

W e d o not c orre c tly l oc a li se t he e ne rgy by t he a b ove form u l ae ,

bu t only e xpr ess t he t ot a l a mou nt s For c orr e ct l oc a li s a t i on .

we n e ed t o k no w t he s t r es s a nd t he di s t ort i on No w t he .

di st or ti on i s a fu nc t i on of t h e v a ri a t i on of di s pl a c e ment so i s ,

k now n i n t e rms of G C an we h o w e v e r find t he s t res s i t s el f

.
, ,

fr om t he e q u at i on of m ot i on ? I f not we c a n c om e v e ry cl ose ,

to it Thu s i n a s t a t e of e qu ilibri u m F + f = 0 i f F i s t he
.
, , ,

forc e a ri s i ng fr om t he s tre ss S o by ( 2 7 ( 7
2.
,
2 22 E LECTROMAGNE T I C T HE ORY . CH . 111 .

No w let PN be th e r s t e ss on t he pl a n e wh os e norm al i s N .

We ha ve , by c ons id e ra t i on of t he e q u ilibri u m of a u n i t c u b e ,

FN div PN , ( 2 85 )
to e xpre s s t he re l a t i on b e t we en a n irrot a t i ona l s t r es s a nd t he
forc e a ri s i ng from i t Th e re for e a pplyi ng t hi s t o
.
,

d i v P N nV G N + mV G , N
= 2 2
.
( 2 86 )
Hre e t he d iv ergenc e of PN is giv en ; find PN i t sel f . The
i mm e di a te a ns w e r i s by ,
or

PN Vp Ot di v P N’

r, ( 2 8 7 )
provid e d P N i s di ve rg en t Th a t i s we h a v e c on s t ru c t e d a
.
,

s t r e s s v e c t o r gi v i ng t he pr op e r fo rc e r e q u i re d
-
B u t wi t h ou t .
,

i nt e rfe ri ng wi t h t hi s ess e nt i a l prop e rt y w e m igh t a dd o n t o ,

t he righ t s id e o f ( 2 8 7 a ny circ u i t a l v e c t o r Th a t w e m u s t d o .

s o no w ,
w e m a y s ee by r e m e m be ri n g t h a t t he s t r e s s m u s t b e
irrota t i ona l or pr odu c e no t orq u e a n d t h en by fi ndi n g t h a t
, ,

( 2 8 7 ) d oe s giv e a t o rq u e T o s h o w t hi s
. c on s id e r t he fir s t ,

p art only of t he s t res s ( 2 8 7 s a y wi t h m = 0 Th en .

NPM M PN ” ( N V MoG M VNG ) . .

H re t ke M = j
e a a nd N = k 3 t h en

k P, i nV G
( 3 , ni cu rl G ,

by T hi s gi ves t he 1 c omp one nt of th e t orqu e which i s ,

t h e re fore n c u rl G B u t G , has n o c u rl t h e r e for e t he s e c o nd

.
,

p ar t of ( 2 8 7 produ c es no t orqu e W e requ ire t h e re for e t o .

, ,

a d d t o P N i n ( 2 8 7 a s t r e ss gi v i ng n o fo rc e bu t a t o rq u e n c u rl G , .

S u ch a st re ss i s
XI, n c u rl VG N

as m a y be t e s t e d i n t he a b ov e m a nne r .

Thi s brings us fr om ( 2 8 7 ) t o

P, n ( VG N c u rl VG N) mVG , N, ( 2 8 9 )
which i s a s t ress ve c tor gi v ing t he c orre c t forc e a nd n o t orq u e
-
.

s h o u ld be not e d h e r e t h a t s i n c e ( 2 85 ) a ppli es t o a n i r r o
[ I t
t a t i ona l s t re ss t he pro c e s s e m pl oy e d i s onl y j u s t ifi e d wh e n w e
,

fina lly get rid of t he t orqu e as i n ,

I f t he s t r e s s i s
2 24 ELE CTR OMAGNE T I C THEORY . CH . I II .

wh e re p u t N = i j k in t u rns to ge t t he t hre e stresses on t he

, ,

pl anes h a v i ng t h es e norm a l s O ne t hird of the s u m of t he .

-

no rm a l t ra c t i o ns o n t h e s e pl a nes i s ( /
4 n 3 ) di v G ,
or which i s , ,

t he s a m e + k di v G ,
I t i s t he ne g a t i v e o f t he pres s u re
. Bu t .

i n t he r e a l s t res s 2 9 1 ) i t s e l f t he fo u r t h p a r t from i ts h a v i ng
, ,

t he n e g a t i v e s ign pr e fix e d c o rr e c t ly a ssoci a t es pre ss u re a nd

,

c om pr e s s i on B u t t hi s forc e l e s s a nd t orqu eles s s t re s s d oes not

.

c ont ribu t e a nyt hi ng t o t he t ot a l e ne rgy The amou nt o f .

s t o re d ene rgy i s

2 Me 2 ,TG , ( I ,
2 F G F,
q, F, G , )

, ( 1
2 G di v r , G, di v P, G , d i v P3 )

32 ( 2 9 4)
wh e re the fi r t lin
s e ne ed s no re m a rk
c d i s got by , t he s e on

a nd t he t hird by t he c om m on t r a n s fo r m a t i on P1 ,

e tc.
,b e i ng t he s t resses on t he i j k pl a ne s The fi na l form i n , , .

s h o w s t he c o rr e c t di s t rib u t i on o f t he e n e rgy i n t e r ms o f
( 2 9 4 )
t he s t res s a nd t he di s t o r t i on Now i f i n t he s t ress PN be i n
.
,

cl u de d a ny t e rms gi v i ng rise t o no forc e t he a b ove t ra ns form a ,

t i on s h o w s t h a t t h ey c ont rib u t e not hi ng on t he wh ol e t o t he

e n e rgy o f di s t o r t i o n Thi s i s t he c a s e wi t h t he fou r th t e rm i n
.

a nd w o u ld a l s o be t he c ase wi t h t he s e c on d t e r m o n ly ,

t h a t we h a ve n o righ t t o ig nor e i t o n a cc ou nt of t he t orqu e ,

t h e re by brou gh t i n I f t he s olid be n ot u nb ou nd e d i t i s
.
,

s u ffi ci ent for i t s b o u nd a ry t o be a t r es t for t he s a m e pri ncipl e s

t o a pply .

e pr a c t ic a l m e a n i ng i s t h a t i n t he c ont ra c til e e t h e r t he
[T h
e n e rgy o f di s t o r t i on d u e t o a ny irr o t a t i on a l di s pl a c e m e nt i s

z e r o on t he wh ol e t he s u m o f t he p os i t i v e a m ou nt s i n c e r t a i n
,

p a rt s b e ing equ al t o t he su m of t he ne gat i v e a mou nts i n t he

res t
] .

Ot her Forms for t he Di sp la c ement i n t erms of t he A p p li ed

Forc i v e .

§ 1 44 . The s i mpl e l i
s o u t on ( 2 7 9 ) m a , o f c ou r s e , r e c e i e
y v
m any h e r forms I f i t be
ot . d es ire d t o find t he di s pl a ce m e nt
d u e t o a n e xplici t ly gi ve n i m pr e s s e d forciv e i t i s a m a t t e r of ,

s o m e i m p o rt a n c e t o s el e c t a m e t h o d o f o b t a i ni ng i t which s h a ll

not be u nne c ess ar ily di ffic u l t i n e x e c u t i o n f o r di ffe re nt

3 p ro
c es ses l e a di ng t o t he s a m e r es u lt ma y va ry gre a t ly in re a di ne s s
o f a pplic a t i o n No w i f t he i mpre s s e d forci ve be e it he r circu i ta l
.
,

o r div e rg e nt w e d o n o t n e e d t o m odi fy
,
B u t if o f a m i x e d .

t yp e t h e n i t m a y be d e s ir a bl e
,
P u t f1 = f f, t h en a n a l t e r
.
,

n a t i v e fo r m i s

a n d n o w, wh en f is gi ven ,
it i s on ly t he part p ot f, t h a t ne e ds
d e v el op m e nt . W e ha ve

f, 2 r
1
div f/ 4 1rr 2 2 Vp di v f ,

as b e for e e xpl a i n e d . N o w, i f we n ot ic e t ha t
V 2 7'
( 2 9 7 )
which m a y be prov e d by di ffe re nt i at i ng , we ca n f u r the r c on

cl u de t h a t
1/
p ot r 8 7r,
( 2 9 8 )
a v e ry c u ri o u s r es u l t The p o t e nt i a l of a r a di a l v e ct or foll o wi n g
.

t h e i n v e rs e s q u a r e la w o f i nt e n s i t y i s a r a di al v e c t o r wi t h a
-

c ons t a n t t e nsor i n all s p a c e Us in g t hi s re s u lt we ha v e .

,

p o t f, 2 r
1
di v f/ 8 7r,

so t h a t ( 2 9 5 ) b e com es
m
23
r, di v f
n ( m + n
) 8 7:

wh e re in f a l one a pp ea rs on t he righ t s id e .

A no t h e r fo rm i s got by u s i n g

I, V2 p , p o t f, Vp o t 2 t wo .

Bu t a bett er o ne is

p o t f, ( 302)

wh e re s l eng t h m eas u r ed a l ong

is f, a nd f i s t he t e nsor of t he
lat t e r . This m a k e s
226 E
EL C TRO MAG NE T I C T HEORY .
‘

CH . III .

A cons ide ra bly m ore c om pl e x for m i s given i n Th om son a nd

T ai t . I t m ay be Ob ta ine d from ( 30 3) by m e a ns o f t he ide nt i t y
dr
V :
2
S
s
v
i 1
a a a a ?
wh e re 81 is un it 8 ,
a nd t h e re fore p a ra ll e l t o f, ma ki ng

m m d 1
G _
P0 t f Ef r V -
J 3O5 )
3n ( m + n) 2 4 7rw ( m + n) gg T

the sa m e Tho ms on and Ta i t s fo rm u l ae wh en e xp a nd e d i n

as
’

cart es i ans B u t t hi s i s a gra t u i t o u s c o m plic a t i o n a s ( 303) i s

.
,

s i mpl e r i n e xpr ess i o n a nd i n a pplic a t i o n O f c o u rs e ( 3 00) i s .

s i m pl e r s t ill i n e xpr e s s i on a nd t he pra ct ic a l ch o ic e m a l i e

, y
b e t w e e n i t a nd or

Not ice t h a t a n i m pre s s e d forci v e of the div e rg ent t yp e wit h

a s i ngl e p oi nt s ou rc e pr o d u c es n ot m e re ly u n i fo r m ra di a l d i s
-

plac e m ent as p e r ,
bu t a n i nfi n i t e di s c o nt i nu i t y i n fa c t a , ,

disru pt i on a t t he s our c e i t se lf I t i s a v e ry e xt r e m e c a se o f
, .
,

cou rs e .

Th e Ela s t i c S oli d generali s e d t o i nclu d e El as t i c , i ss ip at i v e , D

a nd I ne rt i a l R
e s i s t a nc e t o Tra ns la t i on, ot a t i on, Ex R
p a nsi on, a nd Di s t ort i on .

1 45 . The l
ic s olid wi t h t wo e l as t ic c ons t a nt s ( la a nd n)
e ast

ha s not b een fo u n d s u ffi ci e nt ly e l a s t ic t o s u pply a t h or ou g hly

s a t i s fa c to ry a na l o gy wi t h Ma xw e ll s e t h e r t h ou gh p a r t i a l ’
,

a n a l ogi es m ay r e a dily b e fou n d O th e r ki nd s of e l a s t ici t y

.

t h a n r e s i s t a n c e t o c o m pr e ss i on a nd di s t o r t i on a n d o t h e r ki nd s ,

o f r e s i s t a nc e t h a n e l a s t ic r e s i s t a nc e pr e s e nt t h e m s e l v e s t o t he
,

c ons id e ra t i on of s ea rch e rs for a na l og ies b e t we e n t he p rop a

a t i on of di s t u rb a n c es i n M a xw e ll s e t h e r a n d i n t h e br u t a lly
’

g
s i m pl e el as t ic s olid o f t h e o ry which i s h o we ve r kno wn t o
, , ,

fa irly r e pr es e n t r e a l s olid s wi t hi n a c e r t a i n ra ng e .

The r e a r e fo u r d is t i nc t id e a s i nv olve d i n t he di s pl a c e m ent

o f a s m a ll p o r ti o n o f m a t t e r v iz t he t r a n s l a t io n a s a wh ol e
,
.
, ,

t he r ot a t i o n a s a wh ol e t he ch a ng e o f s iz e a nd t he ch a n g e of
, ,

s ha pe . The s e s e p a r a t e t he m s e l v e s fro m one a no t h e r n a t u ra lly .

A s re g a rd s t h e m e r e t r a ns l a t io na l m o t i on if i t be o nly i ne r ,

t ia lly r e s i s t e d we h a v e t he e qu a t i on of m ot i o n
,
228 ELECTR OMAGNETI C THE ORY . CH . I II .

sh o ws the se p ar a t i on of t he st ra in i nt o a di st ort i on ( wi t h ou t
cha ng e of s iz e ) a n e xp a ns i on a nd a rota t i on which a r e
, , ,

n a t u ra lly i nd e p e n d e nt .

I f di s to r t i o n e x p a n s i on a nd rot a t i on a r e all e l a s t ic a lly

, ,

re s i s t e d t hree i nd e p e nd e nt el as t ic c ons t a nt s ( in a n i s ot r opic

,

me di u m ) i nt e r v e ne b e t w e e n t h e a b o v e s t ra i n a n d t he c o rre
s p ond i ng s t r e s s PN u p on t he pl a ne wh os e n or m a l i s N To .

Obta i n P N m u l t iply t he dis to rt i ona l p a r t by 2 n t he exp an s i on a l

, ,

pa rt by 316 and t he r o t a t i ona l p a rt by 2 a nd a dd t he re s u l t s

,
v, .

Thu s ,

P R 2 n(p N 3N di v G ) Nk di v G vVN c u rl G
( 3 1 0 ) .

C omp a re wi t h H ere n and 76 are a s b efore whil st v i s a ,

ne w e las t ic cons ta nt c onne c te d wi t h t he r ot a t i on a nd which ,

was pre vi ou s ly as s u m e d t o h a v e the v a l u e z e ro Tha t i s t h e r e .

,

was ass u me d t o be n o r es i s t an c e t o rota t i on The c orr es .

p onding t orqu e is
S = 2 v c u rl G .
( 31 1 )
Wit h rota t i ona l p a rt
t he of t he r
s t e ss is l
a s o a s so ci a t e d t ra ns
la t i onal forc e gi ven by ,

cu rl § S v cu rl 2
G .
( 3 1 2 )
A dding t hi s on t o t he fo rm e r
xpre ss ion for t he forc e ( or
e

d e ri vi ng t he forc e fro m ( 31 0) dire c tly) we find t h a t ,

di v G ) + hVdiv G v cu rl G ( 31 3)
2

repre sent s t he t ra ns la t i ona l forc e t o be u s e d i n t he equ a t i on of

m o t i on W e s h ou ld not ic e h e r e t h a t t he q u a n t i ty
k d i v G i n ( 3 1 0) re pre s ent s a u n iform t e ns i on I t e q u a l s one .

t hird o f t he s u m of t he n orm a l t r a c t i ons o n a ny t hre e m u t u a lly

p e rpe ndic u l a r pl a ne s Its ne ga t i ve r e pr es e nt s t he pr e s s u re or
.
,

p = k di v G N o w wh e n t h e r e i s i n c o m pr ess ibili t y
. k i s ,

i nfi nite a nd di v G i s z e ro B u t t he ir prod u c t u s u a lly re m a i ns

,
.
,

fi nit e S o in a ny c a s e we m ay re pl a c e t he [6 t e rm i n ( 3 1 0) by
.

Np a nd t he k t e rm in ( 3 1 3) by
,
Vp .

The e ne rgy Of t he s t ra i n i s

( )
3 1 4

or on e h al f the s u m of t he s ca l a r prod u c t s of t he s t re s s
-
v ct r
e o

and the s t ra i n v e cto r for t hre e p e rp e ndic u l a r pl a ne s P , , ,

P, P , ,
 L
E E M NT E S or VECTOR IAL AL GE B RA A ND ANALY S IS . 2 29

b e ing t he s t re ss e s on the i, j pl a n es re s p e c t iv ely O n

, k .

re ckoni ng u p by ,
we find t he e n e rgi e s o f e xp a n
s i on r ot a t i o n a n d di s t o r t i on
, ,
a r e a ll i nd e p e nd e n t a nd t h a t U ,

i s t h e ir s u m gi v e n by ,

U n
[p 1
2
p,
2
p,
2
§( div G )] % (
k di v G )
2 2
§ (
v cur l G) 2
, ( 3 1 5 )
wh er e t he v t e r m i s t he en e rgy of rot a t i on t o r qu e x
ro t a t i on ) t he k t e rm i s t he e n e rgy o f exp a ns i on a nd t he n
, ,

t e r m t he e n e rgy o f d i s t o r t i o n .

No w t he s t r e ss ( 3 1 0) i s d e ri v e d fro m t he s t ra i n ( 309) by
t h e i n t rod u c t i on of e l as t ic r e s i s t a n c e s o nly Th e r e i s h o w e v e r .
, ,

n o r eas on why w e s h o u ld li m i t t he n a t u r e o f t he r e s i s t a n c e i n

t hi s wa y . C on s id e r t he n t e r m o nly for e x a m pl e r e l a t i n g t o ,

di s t o rt ion Th e re m a y a l s o be di ss ip a t i ve o r fric t i ona l res i s t

.

a n c e t o di s t o rt i o n To e xhib i t i t ch a ng e n t o
.
, in
Th e n no will be t he rigidi t y a nd n1 t he v i s c os i t y ,

or c o e ffi ci e nt o f fric t i o na l re s i s ta n c e t o di s t o r t i o n For i ns ta n c e .

,

i f w e a b oli s h no a nd v a nd r e t a i n n 1 a nd k we h a v e t he s t r es s
, ,

i n a re a l vi s c ou s fl u id a cc o rdi ng t o S t o k e s s t h e ory
’
I t m a y be .

t h a t t h e re i s n o t a c om pl e t e di s a pp e a ra nc e o f t he rigidi t y i n
a fl u id 3 i f s o t h e n r e ta i n b ot h n a n d n Wh e n t he rigidi t y
o 1
.
,

i s m a rk e d as i n a s o lid no i s t he i m p o rt a n t p a rt o f n 3 whil s t
, ,

in a fl u id i t i s t he o t h e r p a r t I t i s h o w e v e r n o t a t a ll t o be
.
, ,

e x p e c t e d t h a t t he e x pr e s s i on o f t he v i s c os i t y o f s olid s by n i f
1 ,

t r u e a t a ll w o u ld e x t e n d b e y on d t he s m a ll ra ng e o f a p p rox i
,

m a t e ly p e r fe c t e l a s t ici t y Lord Ke lvin s e xp e ri m e nts o n t he

.
’

s u b s id e n c e o f t he os cill a t i on s o f wir e s t e nd e d t o Sh o w t ha t a

di ffe r ent la w wa s foll ow e d t ha n t h a t c o rr e s p on ding t o t he

v i s c os it y of fl u id s a nd t hat ela s tic fa t igu e was conce rne d i n
,

t he m a t t e r .

Th e re m a y a l s o be c onc e i va bly i ne rt i a l r es i s ta nce to dis

, ,

t or t i o n a nd n ot only e l as t ic bu t a ls o frict i on. a nd i ne rt i a l

, ,

r e s i s t a nc e t o rot a t i on a n d t he s a m e wi t h r e s p e c t t o e xpa ns i on
, .

Th e s e will be bro u gh t in by ge ne ralis m g t he three ela s t ic

c ons ta n t s k n a nd v of ( 3 1 0) t h u s
, ,

7. ko 761 ( d/dt)

1( / )
n no n d d t

l( / ) 2( /
2 2
V
0
v d d t E V d d 4 ) 2
230 ELE C TROMA GNET C THEOR Y I . CH . 1 11 .

wh e re of the ni ne c oeffici ent s on t he righ t s ide , t he fi rs t t hr ee

a re e l a s t ic c o n s t a nt s t he s e c o n d t hre e di s s ip a t i v e c ons t a n t s t he
, ,

l a s t t hree i ne r ti a l c ons t a nt s 3 t he e l as t ic c ons t a nts in v olving

p ot e nt i a l e ne rgy t he dis s ip a t i v e c on sta nt s w a s t e of e n e rgy a n d
, ,

t he i ne r t i a l c on s t a nt s ki n e t ic e n e rgy s i m il a rly t o ( 30 7 ) as,

re g ard s t ra ns la t i on O u t of t h e s e t w el ve c ons t a nt s only fou r

.

a r e i n u se o r s e v e n
,
if vo a nd V] a nd p 1 b e i n cl u d e d which
, , ,

a dd i t i on a ls h a v e b ee n s p e c u l a t iv e ly e m pl oy e d Thi s d oe s not .

r e pr esent fi na li t y by a ny m e a ns 3 bu t s u ffi ci ent has b e en s a id

o n t he s u bj e c t o f g e ne ra li s i ng t he e l as t ic c on s t a n t s t o e m ph a s iz e

t h e fa c t t ha t t h e r e i s pl e nt y of s c op e for i nv e s t ig a t i on i n t he
t h e o ry of t he m ot i o n of m e di a o f u nk no wn i nt e rn a l c ons t i t u t i on ,

which e x t e rna lly v i e we d i nvol ve t he fou r e l em ents t ra ns l at ion

, , ,

rot a ti on e x p a ns i on a nd di st ort i on
, .

The a c t i vi t y o f t he s t ress v e ct or PN i s P q a nd t he fl u x o f N ,

e ne rgy i s l p d r t e ns or o f t he
( s ee 68 7 2 a, so ) g
if b e t h e s , e e o ,

v e locity ,

q( U T q ,

whe re U a nd T a re t he c ompl e t e p ot ent i a l a nd ki net ic e ne rgi es ,

e r u n i t v ol u m e a nd O i s t he s t re s s c o nj u g a te t o P N t o
p , N ,

o b t a i n which ch a ng e t he Sign o f t he l a s t r o ta t i o na l t e rm i n
( )
The c onv e rg e n c e o f t h e e ne rgy flu x r e pr e s e nt s t he
w ork d one a nd s t ore d or w a s t e d i n t he u ni t v olu m e C ons id e r .

i ng t he t e rm o nly t he r es t b e i ng t he c onv ec t i v e flu x
q (
o f e ne rgy s c onv e rg en c e i s
) i t ,

di v Q2 9 2 ( 3393) V1 ( 1
)
V2 ( P 2q ) V3 ( P

91 di v Q1 92 di v Q2 93 di v Q3 Q I VQI Q2V‘1 2 QSVQE

( 3 1 8 )
wh ere F i s the forc e a s i n Fq i s t he t ra n sl a t i ona l ,

a c ti v i t y which m a y by ( 3 07
, , b e e m pl oy e d i n i ncr e a s i n g ki ne t ic
a n d p ot e n t i a l e n e rgy o r b e w a s t e d The r e s t r e pr es e n t s t he
.

ra t e of i ncre a se of t he s u m o f t he t hre e p ote nt i a l e ne rgi e s wh e n

t h e re i s m e r e ly e l a s t ic r e s i s t a n c e 3 b u t i f we u s e ( 3 1 6) w e
Ob ta in a l s o t he s u m o f t he ra t e s o f w a s t e of en e rgy t hrou gh ,

71
6 v a n d a l s o t h e r a t e o f i n cr e a s e of t he su m o f t he ki ne t ic
, 1 ,

e n e rgi e s t hro u gh n
, , ,
2 32 ELE CTROMAGNET I C T HEORY . CH . 1 1 1.

l
e ast ic c ons t a nt s ,
a nd so fa r as s m a ll m ot i ons a re co n e n e c r d ,

t he e q u a t i on s ar e m a n a g e a b le .

El e ct r oma gne t ic a nd Ela s t i c S oli d C omp a ri s ons . Fi rs t

Exa mp l e : M a gnet ic Fo rc e c omp a r e d w i t h Ve l o c i t y i n
an i nc omp r e s s ibl e S oli d w i t h Di s t ort i ona l Ela s t i c i t y .

§ 1 46 . C o m p a ri s ons
b e t w e e n t h e pr o p a g a t i o n o f e le c t r o
mg a

n e t ic di s t u rb a n c es i n M a x we ll s e t h e r or i n a h om og e n e o u s
’
,

Is o t r opic di e l e c t ric wh e t h e r c o nd u c t i ng or no t a n d t he p r o p a
, ,

g a t i o n o f m o t i o n i n a n e l a s t ic s olid e i t h e r s i m pl e o r g e ne r a li se d
, ,

m a y be m a d e i n a v a ri e t y o f w a y s Th ey a ll bre a k d o wn .

s oo ne r o r l a t e r bu t a r e n e v e rt h e l e s s u s e fu l a s fa r as t h e y g o
, .

A fe w c a s e s will be n o w c ons id e re d b a s e d o n t h e pr e c e di n g , .

F irs t t a k e t he c a s e of a n on c on d u c t i ng di e l e c t ric a t res t a nd

-
,

com p a re i t wi t h t h e r e g u l a r e l a s t ic solid m a d e i nc o mpre s s ibl e

by i nfi ni te res i s t a nc e to c o mpre s s i on The i nc o mpre s s ibili t y .

i ncl u des in exp a ns i bi li t y .

In t he di e l e c t ric we h a v e if p s t a nd s for d/d t for c onv e ni e nc e

, , ,

c u rl ( H h) c203 cu rl ( e E) mi n
. ( 3 2 3 ) ,

t h e circ u i t a l e q u a t i o n s c onn e c t i n g E a nd H
’

38 2 4 , ,

wh e r e e a nd h a r e i m pre ss e d a nd p 6 a r e t he i nd u c t ivi ty a nd
,
t
,

p e r m i t t ivi t y N ow t he e q u a t i o n o f m o t i on i n a n i nc o m pr e s s ibl e
.
,

s o lid i s by
,

f1 ( P172
M7 2
) G

wh e r e p a nd n a r e d e n s i t y a n d
t herigidi t y G t he di s pl a c e m e n t , ,

q t he v e l o ci t y a nd f 1 t he circ u i t a l p a r t o f t h e i m pr e s s e d fo rciv e
, ,

t he di ve rg e nt p a r t b e i ng i n o p e r a t i v e O r we m a y ta k e t h e .

i m pre s s e d forciv e t o be circ u i t a l t o b e gi n wi t h .

No w le t h = 0 a nd e be fi n i t e
, ,
I f i t ha s no c u rl i t d o e s.
,

n o t hi ng as b e fo r e s ho wn
,
The s o u rc e o f di s t u rb an c e i s
c u rl e This b e ing th e cas e i n t he di e l e c t ric a nd f1 b e i ng t he
.
,

s o u rc e o f m o t i o n i n t he s olid i t will b e c o n v e n i e nt t o t a k e f
, 1
a n d c u rl e a s c o rr e s p on di n g L e t t h e l a t t e r be ( t e m p or a rily ) f
. .

Th e n ( 3 2 3) gi ve s ( re m e m b e ring t h a t d iv H
f pp H c u rl E p H c u rl H/019 2 u
, .
 ELE MEN T S or VEC T OR I AL ALGEB RA A ND A NALYS I S . 2 33

C om p a ri ng t hi s wi t h t he c d of
se on and a s s u m n i g t he
e qu a li t y o f f a nd f, ,
we s ee t ha t H i s v l ci ty
e o , ) 2 d e ns ity ,

rigidi ty ; a nd s o o n . H/p m e a ns t h e t i m e -
i nt e gra l H
of . O r,
m o re e x plici t ly le t Z , be t he t i m e -
i nt e gra l of H , so th t H
a :
pZ 3
t he n
f I
V )ZZ
‘

C .

which c omp a res wit h t he firs t of Th u s

Z II /p
-
c orr e s p ond s to G , ( sp a ci a l d i s l
p ) .

( g
m a fo rc e) . H p Z q, ( v e l o ci t y ) ,

(el . c u rr e nt ) c u rl H c u rl q , ( 2 x s pi n
) ,

( el d iS p l
.
) . D cE c u rl G , ( 2 x r o t a t i o n ) ,

( i n d u c t ivi t y
) p t
p, ( d en s ity
) ,

( p e r m i t t ivi t y ) c l /n , ( c o m pli a n cy
) ,

( m ag . s ou rc e ) f c u rl e f1 , ( i m p d f o rc e .
) ,

( m ag . e n e rgy ) $ 7 11
21
( k i n e n e rgy
.
) .

Thi s i s as far as i t goe s a n e xc ell ent a na l o gy p a r tic u l a rly on

, , ,

a cc o u nt o f i t s dir e c t n e s s a n d e a se o f a pplic a t i o n a n d o n a cc o u n t ,

o f t he s i m il a ri t y o f s o u rc e s The di s t u rb a n c es o f H g e n e r a t e d
.

by f i n t he diel e c t ric a nd prop a g a t e d a wa y a t s p e e d are

pre ci s ely r e pr e s e nt e d by t he v e lo ci t y g e ne ra t e d by s i mi l a rly

di s t rib u t e d i m pr e s s e d N e w t on i a n forc e which i s pr op a g a t e d i n ,

t he s a m e m a nn e r t hr o u gh th e s o lid a t t h e e q u iv a l e nt s p e e d

O f c o u rs e t he c o rr es p o n d e nc e a t s i m il a r m om e nt s a l so
a ppli e s t o t h e o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s c o m p a r e d .

B u t i t i s i m p e ra t iv e ( i n g e ne ra l ) t h a t t he m ot i ons i n t he
s olid s h o u ld be s m a ll The di s t u rb a n c es s h o u ld t h e r e fore be
.

o f t he fl u c t u a t i n g or a l t e rna t i n g ch a ra c t e r s o t ha t Z t he , ,

t i m e i nt e gra l o f B d oe s n o t m o u nt u p
-
,
Fo r c o rr e s p on di ngly .
, ,

i f t hi s w e r e a ll o we d t h e n G w o u ld m ou nt u p a nd t he e l a s t ic
, ,

s ol i d ge t t oo m u ch o u t o f s h a p e t o a ll o w u s t o t r e a t d /d t a t a

fix e d p o i nt a n d 3/ dt for a m ovi ng p a r t icl e as id e nt ic a l .

O b s e r v e a l s o t h a t t he e l e c t ric e ne rgy oE i s n o t m a t ch e d
2 '
—
,

by t he p ot e nt i a l e ne rgy o f di s to r t i on 3 a l t h ou gh t h e ir t o t a l
a m ou n t s a r e e q u a l t h e ir di s t rib u t i on s a r e e nt ir e ly d i fle r e n t
’

, .

This i s a fa t a l fa il u r e i n d e t a il Nor ha v e we a ny right t o .

e xp e c t t h a t a s ch e m e lik e M a x w e ll s d e p e ndi ng u p o n r o t a t i ons

’
, ,
234 EL EC TROMAG NE TIC THE ORY . CH . I II .

S e c ond Exa mp l e : S a me as la s t , bu t El e ct ri c Forc e

c omp a r e d w i t h Ve l o ci t y .

1 4 7 A no th e r a na l ogy o f t h e s a m e cl a s s i s got by m a ki ng
.

t h e di s pl a c e m e nt i n t he s olid r e pre s e nt t he t i m e i nt e gra l of E -

i n t he di el e c t ric Thu s le t c = 0 in
. a nd c u rl h = + g
i .

I t i s n o w g t h a t i s t he s ou rc e E li m i na t e H b e t w ee n t he t wo
.

e qu a t i on s W e ge t
c E
p g c u rl c u rl

Or s i n c e di v E = 0 ( wh e n t he re i s no el e c t ri fi c a t i on)
,

if A = E/p , m a ki ng E = p A .

C o m p a ri ng ( 3 2 7 ) wi t h ( 32 4) for t he lid we s e e t h a t we so ,

h a v e E r e pre s ent i ng v el oci t y [ c o m pli a ncy 6 d en s i t y a nd s o

,
15
, ,

on b e i ng a g e n e r a l t u rn i ng o v e r o f a ll t h e qu a nt i t i e s
,
Thu s .

A = E/p c orre s p ond s to G ( di s p l a c e m e nt ) ,

‘
I
c 9,

( e 1. forc e ) E q ( v e l o ci t y ) ,

2 2
563
69 9 .

H n cu rl G ,

c u rl h f1 ( circ u i t a l i mp d forc e) . .

The c on cl u s i ons a re s i m il a r a s re g a rd s t he g e ne ra t i on a nd
prop a ga t i on of di s t u rb a nc e s of the t wo ki nds c om p a r e d Th e re .

i s a s i m il a r fa il u r e t o b e fore a s r e g a rd s t he e ne rgy o f d is
t ort i on I t ou gh t t o be t he m a g ne t ic e ne rgy
.
1
1 2
1 no w bu t ,
-
,

i t i s n ot Thi s w ant of c orr e s p on d en ce a s re ga rd s one of t he

.

e ne rg i es W i ll be r e mo v e d ( a n d c a n onl y b e r e m o v e d ) by d o i n g

a w a y wi t h t he rigidi t y a n d s u b s t i t u t i ng s o m e t hi ng e l se which ,

m u s t h o w e v e r be eq u i va l e nt i n i ts r e s ul ts as r e g a rds t he
, ,

prop a ga t i on of dis t u rb a nc es from pl a c e t o place .

Thi r d Examp l e : A C ondu c t i ng D i l c t ric

e e c omp ar e d wi t h a

Vi s c ou s S oli d . Fa i l ur e .

§ 1 48 . As we s ee fro m t he pre c e di ng t ha t t he prop a ga t i on

of l c t rom a g ne t ic
e e di s tq a nc e s t hro u gh a non c ond u c t o r c a n -
2 36 E LECTROMAGNE TIC THE OR Y . CH . 111 .

t i v i t y a nd n o vi s c os i t y a s i n 1 4 6 The o th e r i s wh e n t h e re i s
,
.

n o p e r m i tt i v i ty a n d n o rigidi t y which i s s u ffici e nt ly i m p or t a nt

,

t o b e s e p a ra t e ly c ons id e r e d .

Fourt h Examp l e : A P ur e C ond u c t or c omp ar e d wi t h a.

Vi s c ou s L i qu i d . U s e fu l A na l ogy .

Thi i h e e x t r e m e c as e o f a p u r e c o n d u c t or o r a
§ 1 49 . s s t ,

c on d u c t or which c a nnot s u pp or t e l as t ic di s pl a c e ment I t di s s i .

p a t e s e nergy bu t d oes n o t s t or e i t e l e c t ric a lly ; t ho u gh o n t he

, ,

ot h e r h a nd i t s m a g ne t ic s t ora g e c a p a ci t y i s re t a i n e d
, It .

i s c om p a r e d wi t h a n i nc o m pre s s ibl e v i s c ou s s olid wi t h t he

rigidi t y a b oli s h e d ; t h a t i s t o s ay wi t h a n i n c o m pr e ss ibl e ,

v is c ou s liqu id P u t c = 0 i n
. a nd we h a v e t h e e q u a t i o n

V9 3
"
f 10 11 ( 3 3 2 )
a nd p u t t i n g no 0 i n wi t h q t he v l ci t y b t i t
e o su s u te d for
p G, gi ve s u s t he e q u a t i o n
( P10
( 3 3 3 )
i n t he liq u id T hese a dm i t of i m m e dia t e c om p a ri son O b s e r ve
. .
,

h o we v e r t he c u ri o u s fa c t t h a t wh e re a s i n 1 4 6 t he p e rm i t
,

t i v i ty was t he r e cipro c a l o f t he rigidi t y s o t h a t t he v a n i s hi n g ,

o f on e m e a ns t h e i n fin i t u d e o f t he o th e r y e t n o w b o t h t h e ,

p er mi tt i v i t y a nd t he rig idit y v a nish t oge t he r as i f t h e y w e re '

e q u iv a l e nt . Thi s e m ph a s i s e s the i nc om p a t ibili t y o f

O u r pre s e nt a n a l o gy m u s t s t a n d by i t s e l f a ll id e a o f p e rm it ,

t i v i t y a nd rigidi t y b e i ng t hro w n a w a y .

W e c om p a re m a g ne t ic fo rc e 11 i n a p u re c ond u c t or wi t h t he
v e l oci ty q i n a vi s c ou s liqu id 3 t he i nd u c t ivit y wi t h t he u
,

d e n s i t y o f t he liq u id s o t h a t t he ma g ne t ic e ne rgy a nd t he
,

ki n e t ic e ne rgy a r e c om p a re d a nd t h e c u rr ent i s t wic e t he

,

s pi n . A l s o t he s o u rc e f c u rl e i n t he c a s e of t he c ond u c t o r i s
c o mp a re d wi t h circ u i t a l i m pre s s e d forc e i n the liqu id S o fa r i s .

t he s a m e a s i n 1 46 B u t n o w i n a ddi t i o n we h a v e t he e l e c t ric
.
, ,

re s i s t ivi t y r e pre s e nt e d by t he liq u id vi s c os i t y W e c on cl u d e .

t h a t t h e di s t u rb a nc es q g e ne ra te d by f1 i n t he li q u id a r e s i m il a r
t o t he di s t u rb a n c e s E i n t he c ond u c t o r g e n e ra t e d by f a nd ,

t h a t t he pr op a g a t i on o f e l e c t ric a l di s t u rb a n c es i n a c o n d u c t o r
i s lik e t h a t o f m o t i o n i n a v i s c o u s inc om pre s s i bl e liq u id It .
 E LEMENTS OF vECTO R I A L ALGE B RA AND ANALYS IS . 2 37

ta k e s pl a c e by t he proc ess c alle d di ff u s i on I t i s the li m i t i ng

.

cas e of e l as t ic wa ve prop a ga t i on wi t h di s t or t i on a nd di s s ipa t i on

-
,

o f e n e rgy by fric t i on .

W e a r e u s u a lly li m i t e d t o s m a ll m ot i ons i n t hi s a n a l ogy s o ,

t h a t t h e i mpr e ss e d fo rc e s s ho u ld no t a c t i n one s e n s e c ont i n u

o u s ly, bu t s h o u ld fl u c t u a t e a b o u t t he m ea n v a l u e z e ro for t he ,

r e a s on m e nt i one d be fo re B u t we a re n o t a l wa y s li m i t e d t o
.

s m a ll m o t i ons . I n c e rt a i n s y m m e t ric a l di s t rib u t i o ns o f m a g

ne t ic fo rc e a nd c u rr e nt w e m a y r e m o v e t hi s r e s t ric t i on
a l t og e t h e r I n t he liq u id c as e ( 333) p s t ric tly m e a ns 8/ 8t
.
,

whil s t i n ( 332 ) i t m e a ns d/dt I n t he for m e r a m o vi ng p a rt icl e

.

i s foll o w e d ; i n t he l a t te r we k e e p t o on e pl a c e ,
B u t i n t he
.

c as es of l a m ina r flo w re ferr e d t o 8/8t re d u c e s t o d /d t r e a di ly

,

e no u gh s o t h a t t he a n a l o gy i s c a rri e d o n t o c a s es o f s t e a dily
,

a c t in g i m pr ess e d fo r ce s .

The a na l o gy i s a n i m p ort a nt one o wi ng t o t he r e a din e s s wi t h

,

which t he s e t t i ng i n m ot i on of wa t e r by s lidi ng fric t i on c a n be

fo ll o w e d as wh e n a wi n d bl o ws ov e r i ts s u r fa c e
, Two i n t e r e s t
.

i ng cas es a r e t h e p e n e t ra t i on o f m a g ne t ic i n d u c t i on a n d ( w i t h
i t ) e l e c t ric c u rr e nt i nto a c o re e n v e l o p e d by a s ol e n o id a l c o i l ,

i n wh os e circ u i t a n i m pre ss e d forc e v a ri a bl e or s t e a dy a c t s 3 a nd

, ,

t he p e n e t ra t i on o f m a g ne t ic i nd u c t i on a nd e l e c t ric c u rre nt i nt o a
s t r a igh t wir e wh e n a n i m p r es s e d fo rc e a c t s i n i t s circ u i t C o n s id e r .

i ng t he la t t e r we m a y s t a t e t he a n a l o gy t h u s U nd e rs t a n di ng
.
,

i n t he firs t pl a c e t h a t t he circ u m s t a n c e s s h o u ld b e s u ch t h a t
,

t he i nfl u e n c e o f e l e c t ric di s pl a c e m e nt o u t s id e t he wir e i s n e gli

g i b l
,e w e m a
y r e pl a c e t h e wir e by a s i m il a r t u b e of w a t e r a nd ,

t h e n r e pl a c e t he i m pr es se d v ol t a g e i n t h e e l e c t ric circ u i t by a
u ni for m t a ng e n t i a l dra g u p on t h e s u r fa c e o f t he w a t e r i n t he

dire c t i on o f t he l e ng t h of t he pip e The c u rre nt of w a t e r.

i n t h e pip e a nd t he e l e c t ric c u rr e nt i n t he wir e will ,

va ry s i m il a rly u nde r t he a c ti on o f s i mil a rly v a ryi ng i mpre s s e d

forc e s . Th u s a s t ea dily a ppli ed force on t he l a t e r will fir s t
,

p u ll t he o u t e r m os t l aye r i nt o m ot io n ; t hi s by the vi s c o s i t y , ,

will p u ll t he n e x t l a y e r a nd s o o n u p t o t he a xi s The i ni t i a l
,
.

c u rr ent i s p u re ly s u p e rficia l ; a li t tl e l a t e r we h a v e a c entra l

c ore In which t he w a t e r i s pra c t ic a lly m ot i onl e ss s u rro u nd ed ,
2 38 E LECTROMAG N ET I C T HEORY . CH . 111 .

fin lly
a ,
wh ole m ass of wa t e r ac qui res a sta te of u ni form
t he
m ot i o n S u b s t i t u t i ng e l e c t ric c u rre nt for c u rr ent of wa t e r w e
.
,

o b ta i n a r e pr e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e wa y t he e l e ct ric c u rr e nt i s s e t

u p i n a wire p a s s i ng t hr o u gh t he v a ri o u s s t a g e s fr om t h e i n i t i a l
,

s u r fa c e c u rr e nt t o t he fi na l u n i fo r mly di s t rib u t e d c u rr e nt If .

t he i m pre sse d for ce be r a p i dly os cill a t o ry we s t o p t he p e n e t r a ,

t i on a s a b o v e d es crib ed i n i t s e a rly s t a g e s o t h a t i f t he fr e q u e n cy
,

b e gr ea t e no u gh t h e re i s a pra c t ic a l c onfi n e m e nt of t he c u rr e nt
,

( i n s e n s ibl e a m o u n t ) t o t h e s ki n o f t h e wir e
( o r o f t h e w ate r

r e s p ec t ive ly ) B u t if t he m ean va l u e of t he o s cilla to ry forc e

.

be n o t z e r o it i s t he s a m e as h a vi ng t wo i m pre s s e d fo rc e s o ne
, ,

s t e a dy t he o t h e r p e ri odic
,
wi t h o u t a ny bi a s one way or t he
,

ot h e r . Then we h a v e fi na lly a s t ea dy c u rre nt t hrou gh ou t t he

wir e p lu s t he os cill a t ory c u rre nt wit h s u p e rficia l c onc ent ra t i on
, .

When a s t ra i gh t c or e i s m a g ne t i s e d i n a s ol eno id i t i s t he ,

m a g ne t ic i nd u c t i on which i s l on git u di n a l or p a ra ll e l t o t he a xi s , .

C o m p a ring t hi s wi t h t he c u rr e nt of w a t e r i n t he pip e w e h a v e ,

t he s a m e s t a t e o f t hi ng s a s b e fo re d e s crib e d a s r e g a rd s t he
‘

p ene t ra t i on of m a g ne t ic i nd u c t i on i nt o t h e c ore .

O ne e ffe c t i s t o i n cr e a s e t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f a wir e wh e n t h e
fre q u ency i s gr e a t e nou gh I t will be r e m e mb e re d t h a t P ro f
. .

H u gh es ( in 1 8 8 6) brou ght for ward e v ide nc e of t hi s i ncre a s e ,

a nd t h e r e fo r e i n t he o pi n i o n o f o t h e r s
, ,
o f t h e t r u t h o f t he,

t h eo ry o f s u rfa c e c ond u c t i on a l ong wir es u nd e r c e r t a i n circ u m

s t a n c es which w a s a d v a n c e d by m e a y e a r pr e vi ou s The re ha s .

s i nc e b ee n pl e n t y of c o nfi r m a t o ry e v id e n c e o f a m o re c o m pl e t e

n a t u r e ; t h a t i s n o t m e re ly o f a n a ppr oxi m a t i o n t o w a rd s bu t
, ,

of a n al mos t c o mpl e t e a t t a i nm e n t of s u r fa c e c on d u c t i on -
.

Thi s a c t i on of c ond u c t ors i s s om e t i m e s r e fe rre d t o a s m a gnet ic

s cr e e ni ng I t s h o u ld h ow e v e r be not e d t h a t t he s cre e ni ng i s
.
, ,

d one by t he c ond u c t or i t s el f n ot by t he c u rr e nt s i nd u c e d i n
,
“ ”

t he o u t e r p a rt of t he wire o r c or e which ar e a s i t w e r e m e r e ly
, , ,

a s ig n t h a t t he s cr e en i n g i s t a ki ng pl a c e The s cre e n i n g a c t i o n.

oft e n s e e m s t o be m e r e ly s u p e rfici a l 3 bu t t hi s i s a cc i d e nt a l ,

fro m t he di s t u rb a n c e s b e i ng c o m m u n ic a t e d t o t he c ond u c t o r
fro m wi t h o u t I n re a li t y a ny a nd e v e ry p a r t of a c ond u c t o r i s
.
,

s cr ee n e d fr om t he r e s t by t h e p o r t i o n i m m e di a t e ly s u rr o u ndi ng i t ,

t h a t i s by i t s s ki n a nd by t h a t o nly
, , I t i s pri m a rily t he c o n
.

d u c ti v i ty t h a t c a u s e s t he s cre e ni ng s o t h a t i t i s ra t h e r c o nd u c
,

t iv e s c ree ni ng t h a n m a g ne tic s cre e ni ng Th e r e s u l t i s t h a t d i s

.
2 40 EL EC TROMA GNE TI C THEORY . CH . I II .

S i xt h Exa mfl e : A C ondu c t i ng i e l e ct ri c comp are d wi th D an

Ela st i c S oli d w i t h Tra ns la t i ona l Fr i c t i on .

§ 1 51 . B u t we w orki n g a n a l ogy t o s u i t t he con

ca n ge t a

d u ct i ng di el e ct ric i n a not h e r wa y Th u s s t ill k e e pi ng t h e .

,

di s t or t i o na l e l as t ici t y or rigidi t y giv e u p t he vi s c o s i t y or d i s

,

t o rt i ona l fric t i o n a nd S u b s t i t u t e t r a ns l a t i o na l fric t i on

, For .

t he e q u a t i on of m ot i on o f a n i n c om pr e s s ibl e s olid wi t h t he u s u a l
c ons t a nt s rigidi ty n a n d d ens i ty p , a nd wi t h t ra ns l a t i ona l
, ,

fri c t i on a li ty p 1 i s
) v (
’- ’
f1 :
( 1
9 29+9 P
2
nV G 3 3 6 )
'
wh er e i 1 i s circ u i t a l i mpr e s s e d fo rc e . No w Op e ra t e on
( 3 3 1 )
by 1 + k/cp prod u ci ng t he e qu a t i on
,

C om p a rin g t hi s wi t h ( 33 6) w e s e e t h a t t h e re i s a prop e r c or
re s p ond e nc e of fo rm on t he r igh t s id e s t h ou gh n ot o n t he l e ft , .

The circ u i t a l i m pr es s e d fo rc e f1 i s r e pl a c e d n o t by f bu t by , ,

f kf/cp . Thi s i s a wkwa rd for t he a n a l ogy a s r e ga rd s t he g e ne l

ra t i on of di st u rb a n c es B u t a w a y fro m t he s o u rc es t h e re i s a
.
,

u s e fu l c orr es p on d e n c e A S i n § 1 4 6 Z c orr e s p o nd s t o s p a ci a l
.
,

dis pl a c e ment i n t he s olid H t o v e l oci ty t o d e n s i t y c t o c om

, ,
u.
, ,

pli a n cy ( di s t ort i onal ) 3 whil s t n ow i n a ddi t io n t he t ra ns l a t i on a l

, ,

fri c t i ona li t y i n t he s olid ha s t h e c o m pl e x r e pr e s e n t a t i v e c /c i n

t he di e l e c t ric 3 o r M at i f v i s th e s p e e d of pr op a ga t i on o f
dis t u rb a nc es S o di s t u rb an c e s of H a re prop a ga t e d i n t he s a m e
.

w ay t hrou gh a c ond u c t i ng di e l e c t ric a s a r e di s t u rb a nc e s i n a n

,

i nc om pre s s ibl e s olid wi t h the u s u a l rigidi ty wit h fric t i onal ,

r e s i s ta nc e t o di s pl a c e m ent s u p e ra dd e d B u t we do not cor .

r e ct l
y l o c a li s e t h e e ne rgy di s s ip a t e d T h e ra t e of w a s t e
.
p e r

u n i t v o l u m e i s 16E i n t he di el e c t ric whil s t i t i s p l q i n t he s oli d

2 2
, ,

which c orre s p ond s t o i n t he di e l e c t ric This b e i ng .

e n t ir e ly a g a i ns t Jo u l e s la w r e nd e r s t hi s fo r m o f a na l o gy
’

u n s a t i s fa c t o ry B u t w e m a y e a s ily m a k e a s u b s t a nt i a l i m pro v e
.

m e nt by t a ki ng E t o be v e l o ci t y i n t he s olid .

S ev ent h Exa mp l e Imp r ov e ment of t he S ixt h

: .

§ 1 52 Th . u s le t g ,
c u rl h b e t he s o u rc e o f di s t u rba n c e in
t he die l e c t ric so t h a t , w e h a v e t h e e q u a t i o ns ( 3 3 4) t o c ons id e r .
Ta k e t he s e c on d fo rm a n d c o m p a r e it w i th a n d we s e e a t

onc e t h a t t h e re i s a c o ns i d e ra bly m or e s im pl e c o rr es p o n d e n ce
’

t h a n i n t h e c a s e l a s t t re a t e d Thus t he s ou rc e fl o f circ u it a l
.
,

di s pla c e m ent G c orre s p ond s t o t he s ou rc e g of circ u i t al A ( the

t i m e i nt e gra l o f E) 3 t he e l e c t ric forc e no w m e a n s v e l o ci t y ; ,
-
2

i s c o m pli a n cy ; c i s d e ns i t y ; 76 i t s e l f i s t he fr i c t ionali t y 3 t h e
e l e c t ric e ne rgy $ 0 3
2
i s ki n e t ic e n e rgy 3 a nd t he wa s t e ( J o u lea n)
i s prop e rly l o c ali s e d i n t he s olid by t he fric t i ona l w a s t e o f e n e rgy

P1 9
2
p e r s e c o nd T h e i n d.u c t i o n 7 3 i s t wic e t h e r o t a t i on 2 I n .

fa c t t hi s c as e i s t he s a m e as i n § 1 4 7 wi t h t ra n s l a t i ona l fric
, ,

t i on a dd e d w i t h o u t d es t royi n g t he a na l ogy I t i s cl e a r t h a t t he .

c o rre c t l oca lis a t i on o f t he w a s t e a nd t he c orr esp ond e n c e of ,

s ou rc es m a k e s t h e a n a l o gy be m o re r e a dily foll o w e d
, O f c ou rs e .
,

t h e r e i s t he s a m e fa il u re a s r e g a rd s t he di s t or t i onal e ne rgy a s
in § 1 47 .

Ei ght h Ex amp l e : A Di l ct ri c
e e wi th Du p l e x C ondu ct i v i t y
c omp a re d wi th an El as t ic S o li d w i th Tr a ns la t i ona l
Ela s t i ci t y a nd F ri c t i on . The i
s ngu l ar Dis t ort i onl e s s
Case .

1 53 . l a s t e x a m pl e i n which u se i s m a d e of di s t or t i ona l
As a

e l a s t ic i t y le t u s g e n e ra li s e t h e n o n c o n d u c t i n g di e l e c t ric by t he
,
-

i nt rod u c t i on of m a gne t ic c o nd u c t ivi ty W e h a ve .

cu rl ( II h) ( k op ) E -

( 38 )
3 ,

c u rl ( e E) (g ) p ) H ( 3 3 9 ) u
,

w h e r e g i s t he m a gne t ic c ond u c t i v i t y S o i f c u rl h = 0 a nd .
, ,

we e li m i na t e E we ha v e ,

2
c u rl e = V

O r, if c u rl e =0 a nd we e li m i na t e H , we ha v e
c u rl h ( k cp
) ( 3 4 1 )
We s ee h a t we c a nnot wh e n k a nd g a r e b ot h fi ni t e ge t a
t , ,

s a t i s fa c to ry a na lo gy as r e g a rd s t he e n r t i n f di t rb c
g e a o o s u a n es
by f, circ u i t a l i mpre s s e d fo rc e i n a s olid
, C o ns id e r t h e r e fo re .
, ,

o nly t h e fr e e pr op a g a t i on s u bj e c t t o t he e q u a t i o n
,
 24 2 ELECTR OMAGNE T I C T H ORY
E . CH . I II .

wh e r e for Z we m a y b s t i t u te H or E or ot her e l e c t rica l qu an

su

t it i es. S inc e, in w e h a v e a t e r m pro po rt i ona l t o Z i t s elf

or i ts s u b s t i t u t e e m u s t i nt r o du c e e l as t ic r e s i s t a nc e t o d i s
( ),
w
pl a c e ment i n t he e l as t ic s olid to m ake a n ana l ogy Th u s .
,

) 2
2
f1 p lp p ,p G nV G
( 34 3)
i s t he qu at i on of m o t i on i n t he i nc om pre ss ible s olid if t h e re be
e

e l a s t ic a nd fric t i on a l a s w e ll a s i ne r t i a l r e s i s t a nc e t o t ra ns l a t i o n ,

by § 1 45 .

Now expand ( 3 4 2) a nd divide by c W e get .

2
VZ
P
7
9 ( 3 4 4 )

which i s su i t abl e for c omp a ri s on w it h Wh e n Z i s t he

s p a ci a l d i s pl a c e m e nt H i s v e l o ci t y c c om pli an cy p d e n s i t y
, , as , t
,

i n 1 4 6 3 bu t i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s t h e c o rr e s p ond e n c e i s c om pl e x ,

for t he e l as t ic r e s i s t a nc e t o t ransl at ion p o i s leg/c whils t t he ,

fr i ct i ona lit y p 1 i s
I f w e t a k e E t o be v l cit y t h r will b
e o e e e a n ot he r s et of c orre
s p on d e n ce s , 6 b e ing d ens i t y and p c om pli a ncy . .

Ho we ve r u nsa t is fa c tory t he a nalogy m ay b e in d et a il s we ha ve ,

s t ill t he r e s u l t t h a t di s t u rb a n c es i n a di e l e c t ric wi t h d u pl e x

c ond u c t i v i t y ( el e c t ric a nd m a gn e t ic ) a r e pro p a g a t e d s i m il a rly t o

mot i ons in an e l a s t i c solid c ons t ra in e d i n t he m a nn er a b o v e de

c ri be d . The e ffe ct of t he t wo ki nd s of di s t o r t i on a nd w a s t e of
e n ergy i nv ol v e d i n t he e xi s t e n c e of t he t wo c on d u c t i v i t i e s a re

t h e re fore i m i ta te d by on e ki nd o f fri c t i ona li ty in t he el as t i c s olid ,

as s i s t e d by e l a s t ic r e s i s t a nc e t o t r a n s l a t i o n .

The s i ng u l a r di s t ort i onl ess c ase c c m e s a b ou t wh en

4p op , =
p,
2 in t he li d
so ,

k/c = g/p i n t h e di e l e ct ric .

( )
34 5

In e ithe r c a s e t he e ffe c t o f t he fric t i ona l re s is ta nc e on t he di s

t u rba nce s i s m a d e m e r e ly a t t e nu a t iv e D i s re g a rdi ng t he a t t e n
.

u a t i on wi t h t he t i m e t h e pr o p a g a t i on t a k e s pl a c e i n t he di
,

e l e c t ric i n t he s a m e w a y a s i f i t w e r e n o n c o n d u c t i n g a n d i n t h e
-

s o lid i n t he s a m e wa y a s i f i t w e r e d e v o id of fric t i o na l a nd

e l as t ic r es i s t a n c e t o t r a n s l a t i on I n t he e l e c t ro ma g ne t ic c as e
.

we m a y foll o w t h is i nt o d e t a il wi t h e a s e i n a s y mm e t ric a l
m a nn e r I t i s h o w e v e r ra t h e r t rou bl es ome i n t he el as t ic
.
, ,
 24 4 E LECTROMAGN ET I C T HEORY . CH . 111 .

es p e c ially in re l a t i on t o t he pre v i o u sly giv e n a nal ogi es a n d ,

t o Sh o w wh e re t he ch a ng e s c om e i n .

G O b a ck t o e q u a t i on givi ng t he t ra nsl a t iona l forc e F

d u e t o t he s t r e ss i n a n e l a s t ic s olid w h e n t h e re i s ro ta t i o na l
e l as t ici t y as w e ll as rigidi t y W e ha ve .

F n
( V 2
G §~

V div G ) kV div G v c u rl 2
G, ( 3 4 6 )
wh e re G i s t he di s pla c em ent n t he ri gidi ty k t he c om pre s s iv e
, ,

re s i s t ivi ty a nd t he ne w el a s t ic c o ns t a nt c onne c t e d wi th t he
,
v

ro t a t i on No w we ha ve c u rl V di v V so we m a y re arra nge
.
2
,
2
,

( 3 4 6 ) t h us ,

v) V div G
F ( n v) V G 2
( k § n ( 34 7 ) ,

a nd t hi s m a y b e s pli t u p i nt o circ u i t a l a n d di v e rg e nt p a r ts Vl Z ,
.
,

F, ( n )
v V G 1,
2
( circ u i ta l
) , ( )
3 4 8

F, ( k ( di v e rg e nt ) .
( 3 4 9 )
N ow ob s e r v e t h a t circ u i t a l e qu a t i on n and v occ u r
i n t he ,

a ddi t i v e l y s o t h a t e qu a l p a rt s o f ea ch h a v e t he s a m e e ffe c t
, ,

a nd e i t h e r m a y b e r e pl a c e d by a n e q u a l a m o u nt of t he o t h e r .

Thi s i s irres p e c t i ve o f t he c om pre s s ibili ty which i s not c on ,

c e r ne d i n circ u i t a l di s tu rb a n c e s W e s ee t h e n t h a t t he.
, ,

rigidi t y m ay be d o ne a wa y wi t h a l t og e t h e r a nd e q u a l v s u bs t i
t u t e d wi t h ou t a ffe c t i ng t he pro p a g a t i on o f circ u i t a l di s t u rb
,

a nces . T hi s i s a v e ry r e m a rk a bl e prop e r ty .

O bs e r v e a l s o t h a t i n t he div e rg e nt e q u a t i on v d oes not

, ,

e nt e r a t a ll a l t h o u gh n d o e s a nd i n t he s a m e w a y as i n t he
, ,

o rdi na ry c om pre s s ibl e rigid s o lid I n fa ct t he c o e ffi ci e nt h + § n

.
,

i s t he s a m e as t he fo rm e r m + n o f § 1 4 2 a nd l a t e r S O t he
, .

p ro p a ga t i on of di ve rge nt dis t u rb a nc e s i s t he s a m e a s i f t he
rot a t i ona l el a st ici t y w e re do ne a wa y wi t h .

N o w we ha ve a lrea dy no t ice d t he c a se in whic h the s p e e d

,

o f t he di v e rg e nt w a v e i s br o u gh t d o w n t o z e ro— t he c o nt r a c t il e

e t h e r of 1 43 I n a n o rdi n a ry rigid s ol id which wa s

.
,

t h e n r e fe rr e d t o t hi s r e q u ir e s n e g a t iv e c o m pr e s s i bili t y
, Bu t .

no w if n b e a b oli s h e d a n d v s u b s t i t u t e d s o t h a t t he circ u i t a l
, ,

propa ga t io n i s u na ffe c t e d t he div e rg e nt e q u a t i on will c on t a i n

,

o nly It s o t h a t t o m a k e t he Sp e e d o f t he div e rg e n t w a v e z e ro
,

w e n ee d o nly a b o li s h t he r e s i s t a n c e t o c o mpr es s i o n o r m a k e ,

The m e di u m d oes n o t no w r e s i s t e i t he r c ha nge of

 E LE ME NTS or VECTORIA L ALGEB RA A ND ANAL YS I S . 2 45

s ha p e or of s iz e bu t r e s i s t s rot a t i on o nly a nd t he po t e nt ia l
, ,

Thi s i s o n e e x t re m e for m O f
/

e ne rgy i s t he e n e rgy o f r o t a t i o n .

t he r o t a t i on a l e t h e r m a d e by c o m bi n i ng i t wi t h t he c o nt r a c t il e
, ,

by t he e va n e s c e nc e o f t he rigidi ty a nd o f t he r es is ta nc e t o c om
pre ss i on The m e di u m i s q u i t e ne u t ra l as reg a rds e xp a ns ion
.

a nd c o m pr e ss i on .

N ow i t is cl e a r from eq u a t i on ( 3 48) and m a t t e r in pre v i ou s

, ,

p a ra gra ph s t h a t we m ay c ons t ru c t a na l ogi es t o s u i t t he non

,

c ond u ct ing di el e c t ric by a b oli shi ng n a nd u s i ng v i ns t ea d ,

w i thou t c once rn i ng ou rs elv e s w i t h k a t a ll w hich m a y h a v e a ny ,

va l u e from z e ro t o i nfi ni ty B u t Lord Ke lvi n s e the r is got by .

’

go i ng t o t he o th e r e x t re m e fr o m t he ne u t ral c a s e j u s t m en
t i one d .

Fi r s t R i
ot a t ona l A na l ogy : M a gnet i c Forc e c omp ar ed wi t h
Ve l oc i t y .

Ta k e i h = 0 m a ki ng t he m e di u m i nco m
'

1 54 .
( nk )
: 00 w t
pre ss ibl e a nd t her e fore m a ki ng di st u rb a nc e s i n a n u nb o u nde d
i

m e di u m be n e c e s s a rily circ u i ta l wh e t h e r t he i m pre s s e d forci v e ,

be circ u i ta l or no t W e no w ha ve .

P, v V G,2
( 3 5 0)
by whils t t he ot he r e q u a t i on ( 34 9 ) will m e re ly a s s e r t
t ha t F, i s b a l a n c e d bv di ffe r e nc e o f pr e s s u r e Thi s w e a re no t .

c onc e rn e d wi t h s i nc e o u r i m pre s s e d fo rciv e s h o u ld be circ u i t a l

,

i n t he e l e c t r o ma gne t ic c om p a ri s ons The s t r e s s ( 3 1 0) i s n o w .

'

PN VN c u rl G ,
v
( )
35 1

w h e re we ig nore t he u ni form pre ss u re for t he re a s o n m e nt i one d .

The t o rq u e ac c om p a ny i ng t his s t r e s s i s by ,

S = 2 v c u rl G ,

a nd t he t ra nsl a t i ona l fo rc e i s

F c u rl V
V G 2
,( 3 5 3 )
a gr e e i ng wi t h So t he e q u a t i on o f m o t i on i s by ,

V
V ) ei
2

i5
wh e r e fl i s t he circ u i ta l i mpres se d forc e , a nd q i s the v l city
e o .
24 6 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C THE OR Y . CH . II I .

Eq u a t i on ( 3 5 4 ) m a y be a t on e c c omp a red wi t h t he l c t ro
e e

ma gne t ic

as in ou r fi r t x m pl
s e a e, a nd we t h e re for e ded u c e
the fo ll o wing c orres p onde nc es
Z H/p s t an ds for G , (s p a ci a l d i s p l ) .

( g
m a fo rc e ) . H q, ( v e l o ci t y
) .

( el . c u rr e n t ) c u rl H c u rl q , ( 2 x s pin) .

( e1 . d iSp l ) . D cu rl G , ( 2 x r o t a t i on
) .

( i nd u ct ivi ty ) u
, p , ( d e n s i t y) .

( p e r m i t t ivi t y ) c l / v , ( r o t l c. o m pli a n cy
) .

( i nd u c t i o n
) B pq , ( m om e n t u m
) .

c l fo rc e (3 rq
( .
) E 35 8 , x t o ue
) .

n e rgy rgy
) § pq (
2
m
( g a e .
,
k i n e
. n e
) .

( c l e.n e rgy ) 3 0 E2
e n e rgy ) .

u rc e o f E c u rl e m rc
( s o
) f f 1 , ( pi d fo . e ) .

e ne rgy flu x V V e ne rgy flu x
( ) E H § q
S , ( )
R e fe rring t o t he s i m il a r li s t i n § 1 46 i t will b e s e en t h a t t he ,

c o rre s p ond e nc es t h e re gi v e n a re re p e a t e d h e re e xc e p t t h a t t he ,

e l a s t ic c o ns t a nt ch a ng e s i t s m e a n i ng a n d t h a t t h e r e a r e n o w
,

a ddi t i ona l c o rr e s p on d e n c e s The e l e c t ric e ne rgy i s c o rr e c t ly

.

l o c a li s e d by t he p ot e nt i a l e ne rgy o f t he rot a t i on S inc e t he '

kin e t ic e ne rgy i s a l s o c orre c tly l oc a li s ed We n e e d not b e ,

s u rpri s e d t o find t h a t t he e ne rgy flu x ha s t he s a me di s t rib u t io n

-
.

The a c t i v i t y of t he s t ress P N i s PNq p e r u n it a re a which i s ,

t h e s a m e a s gNP i f P b e t he s t res s on t he pl a ne wh os e
q, q

no rm a l i s q prov ide d t he s t re ss 1 8 I rr o t a t i on a l B u t if rc
, .

t a t i on a l a s a t pr es e nt i t i s gNQ
, ,
whe re Q i s c onj u ga t e t o P
q,
.

Thi s a c ti vi t y m e a ns ene rgy t ra ns fe rre d fro m t he s id e o f t he

pl an e when t he s t re s s v e ct o r is r e ck one d to t he o t h e r s id e or , ,

a g a i ns t t he m ot i o n The v e c t o r e xpr e s s i ng t he e ne rgy flu x i s

.

t h e re for e not c o u nt i ng t he c on v e c t i v e flu x I n ou r .

pres e nt c a s e by , Q i s t h e n ega t i v e of P b e c a u s e i t i s ,

p u re ly a rot a t i ona l s t re s s s o W = q i s t he v ec t or flu x o f
,

e ne rgy ; or by ,

W I/ q l rl G
c u q c u rl G ,
2 48 E LEC T ROMAGNE TI C THEOR Y .
CH . 111

c e p t e d, t he rgu m e nt of circ u i ta l i nde te r mi na te nes s r em a ins i n

a

a c t i o n wh e n i t i s d e s ire d t o find w h a t i s t he fl u x i n a giv e n c as e

,
.

I n a r e c e nt n u m b e r o f t h e P hi l M a g M r M a c a u l a y by t he
.
, .
,

a ddi t i o n o f a c e r t a i n circ u i t a l fl u x t o VEH bri ngs o u t t he ,

r e s u l t t ha t in s t a t i ona ry s t a t e s t he m odifi e d flu x re d u c e s t o
p 0
,
wh e r e p i s p o t e nt i a l a n d 0 c u rr e n t d e n s i ty I a m ho w-
.
,

e v e r ( u n l e ss I fo rg e t m u ch o f wh a t I h a v e l e a r nt i n t h e l a s t

1 5 y e a r s ) u na bl e t o s e e t h a t t he a u xili a ry fl u x pr op os e d s e rv e s
,

a ny u s e fu l p u rp os e I n t h e fi r s t pl a c e i t gr e a t ly c om plic a t e s
.
,

t he flu x o f e n e rgy i n g e ne ra l a nd i s e n t ir e ly a g a i ns t t he m o r e
,

s i m pl e id eas t o which we a re n a t u r a lly le d i n t he s t u dy o f

e l e c t ro m a g n e t ic w a v es wh e t h e r i n di e l e ct ric s or Cond u c t ors

,
.

B e s id e s t h a t i t i s i mpli e d t h a t t he fu nc t i on p or e l e c t ric
, ,

p ot e nti al i s a d e t e rm i na t e qu a n t i ty s p e ci fyi ng s om e d e fi ni t e
,

s t a t e o f t h e m e di u m Thi s s ee m s t o m e t o be a n id e a w hich
.

ha s n o pl a c e a t a ll i n M a xw e ll s t h e ory I t m a y h a v e pl a c e i n
’
.

o t h e r t h e o r i e s b u t t h a t i s n o t t o t he p o i nt
,
To e x e m pli fy .
,

t a cl os e d c i rc u i t ( wi t h b a t t e ry ) s u pp or t i ng a s t ea dy c u rr e n t
p u

i n s id e a m e t a l box a nd e l e c t ri fy t he l a t t e r fro m o u t s id e
, .

A cc o rdi n g t o t he p 0 fo r m u l a t he fl u x o f e n e rgy i n t he wir e

,

s u ffe r s a v e ry r e m a rk a bl e ch a ng e by r e a s o n o f t he ra i s i n g o f
,

t he p ot e nt i a l o f t h e b ox a nd i t s i n t e ri o r B u t a cc o rdi ng t o t he
.
,

i nt e rpre t a t i on of M a xw e ll s s ch e m e whic h I e x p ou nd t h e re i s
’
,

n o ch a n g e wh a t e v e r i n t h e e l e c t ric a l s t a t e of t he i nt e ri o r o f t h e

box i n t he s t e a dy s t a t e ( t h o u gh t he re m a y a nd m u s t be a
t ra n s i e n t di s t u rb a n c e i n t h e a c t o f ch a rgi n g i t which i s a ,

s e p a r a t e q u e s t i o n ) a n d t h e e n e rgy d is t rib u t i o n a n d i t s fl u x a r e
,

t h e s a m e as b e fo re b e c a u s e E a n d H which s e t t l e t h e s t a t e o f
, ,

a ffa ir s ,
e l e c t ric a nd m a g ne t ic a r e u n ch a n g e d
, Th e r e a r e .
,

h o we v e r I b e li e ve so m e e l e c t rici a ns who will be m u ch gra tifi e d

, ,

w i t h t he p C flu x i n s t e a dy s t a t e s .

The t ot a l fl u x o f e ne rgy t hr ou gh a wire will be p C wh e r e by ,

C we m e a n t h e t o t a l c u rre nt o b t a i ne d fro m p 0 by i nt e gra t i on

,
'

o v e r t he cr o s s s e c t i o n -
N o w t hi s i s s o m e wh a t s u gge s t i v e o f
.

m y e xpr e s s i o n VC fo r t he t o ta l fl u x o f e ne rgy a l on g a circ u i t o f

t wo c on d u c t o r s B u t t h e r e a r e r a dic a l di ffe re n c e s
. Fo r VC .

i s t he i n t e gr a l fo r m o f VEH i n t he di e l e c t ric A l t h o u gh C i n .

VC m e a n s t he sa m e as i n p C b e i ng t he c ir c u i t a t i o n of H or
, ,

t he g a u ss a g e V h a s n o c on n e c t i on wi t h p t he p o t e n t i a l for i t
, ,

V
( ) i s t h e li n e i n t e gr a l o f E a cr os s t he circ u i t from o ne wir e
to t he her ot t he t ra ns ve rs e v ol t a g e A g a i n t h e VC .
,

fo r m u l a h old s g o o d i n va ri a bl e a s w e ll a s i n s t e a dy s t a t e s ,

whil s t t he prop os e d p C h old s for s t e a dy s t a t e s only E v e n i n .

s t e a dy s t a t e s wh e n V s p e ci a liz e s i t s e l f a n d b e c o m e s di ffe r e n c e
,

o f p ot e n t i a l i t r e m a i n s d iffe r e n t fr o m
, p .

B u t a l th o u g h I c a nn o t s e e t h e u t il it y of t h e pr o p o s e d ch an g e ,

which s ee m s t o be a r e t ro gra d e s t e p I t hi nk t h a t M r ,
'

M a c a u l ay s m a t h e m a t ic s which i s o f a s t r ong ki nd m a y b e o f
’

, ,

v a l u e i n t he e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic fi eld i n o th e r wa y s e s p e ci a lly ,

wh e n cl e a r e d o f u s e l e s s a nd t re a ch e ro u s p o t e n t i a l s .

S e c ond R ot a t i ona l A na l ogy : I ndu c t i on C omp a r e d w i t h

Ve l oci t y .

1 56 . R
rni ng t o t he s u pp os i t i ona l E t h e r t he c onc e p t i o n
et u ,

is o f a n i n c o m pre s s ibl e m e di u m p os s e s s i ng m a s s which i n v o lv e s ,

t ra n s l a t i o na l i ne r t i a a n d t h e r e fo r e ki ne t ic e ne rgy a nd which
, ,

e l a s t ic a lly r e s i s t s r o t a t i o n a nd s o s t o r e s p o t e n t i a l e n e rgy 3 a n d
,

w e h a v e s u pp o s e d t h a t t he v e l o ci t y o f t he m e di u m m e a n s
m a gn e t ic fo rc e a n d t h a t i t s d e n s i t y m e a ns p s o t h a t t h e
,
i
,

kin e t ic e ne rgy a n d t h e m a gn e t ic e n e rgy a re c om p a re d B u t .

we m a y e qu a lly w e ll h a v e t hi s c o m p a ri s on o f t he e ne rgi e s c o m
bi ne d w i t h a d iffe r e n t i nt e rpr e ta t i o n o f [ T a k e fo r i ns t a n c e 2. , ,

t he i nd u c t i o n t o m e a n v e l oci t y Th e n s i nc e t he m a g ne t ic e ne rgy
.
,

B we s e e t h a t i t i s no w not p b u t ) t h a t i s t he d e ns i t y
—
i s 31 1 2 1
-

2 , , ,
u ,

w hil s t H i s m o m e n t u m A l s o s inc e M v 2 =
l = 1 2
w
‘

.
, p v v e s e e ,

t h a t t h e n e w i nt e rpr e t a t i o n o f c i s W 4
Th a t i s t he ch a ng e o f
'

.
,

p. f r o m d e n s i t y t o i t s r e cipr o c a l i n v o lv es t he ch a n g e o f c fr o m

c o m pli a ncy t o i ts r e ciproc a l m u l t ipli e d by m a k ing p / o r p /v

2 "
v .

Bu t i t i s b e t te r t o wri t e t h e m o u t s i d e by s id e t h u s ,

( m ag . e ne rgy ) ,p -
I
s z
s ta n ds for § pq
2
, ( k i n . e ne rgy ) .

( i n d u c t i o n) B ( 1,

( r e l u c t ivi t y
) p, ( d e ns i t y
)
a g fo rc e ) H ( m om e nt u m )
( m .
pg , .

e l c u rr e nt ) c u rl H c rl q
( .
p u ,

(el . d is p l
) . D
( p e r m i t t ivi ty ) 6

8 1 fo rc e ) 3
( . n

c l e ne r gy )
2
( .
% CE
250 E LEC TROMAG NE TI C THEOR Y . C H I II
. .

The p o te nt i a l e n e rgy s t ill c orr e c tly lo c a li s i ng t he e l e c t ric

e n e rgy i n Spi t e o f t he o t h e r ch a n g es we m a y e xp e c t t he fl u x
, ,

o f e n e rgy t o b e c o rr e c t W e h a ve .

VEH Vc u rl G p q c u rl G
—
Vp
I
.
q ,

as b e fo re e q u a t i o n
,

S i m il a rly w e may a s s u m e t h a t p i s not t h e d e ns i t y n or i t s

,
.
,

r e cipro c a l bu t a n u n s t a t e d fu nc t i on of t he d ens it y s a y
, ,

a n d w o rk o u t t he v a ri o u s c orr e s p ond e n c e s t h a t t hi s n e c e ss i t a t es .

W e s h a ll for e x a m pl e by t he form u l ae for m a gne t ic a nd ki ne t ic

, ,

e ne rgy r e q u ir e
,

H lP WPh
‘

Of c ou rs e i n t h u s c om p a ri ng m a gn e t ic wit h ki n et ic e ne rgy we
, ,

s h a ll a l wa y s h a v e II c o m p a r e d wi t h q or wi t h s o m e m u l t ipl e
-

of q which m a y ch a ng e i t s di m e n s i on s a s for ex a m pl e in
“ ”
, , , ,

t he a b o v e d e t a il e d c a s es wh e r e H i s ch a ng e d fr om v e l o ci t y t o
,

m om e n t u m .

Proba bili t y of t he K ne t i ic Na t r u e of M a gne t i c Ene rgy .

§ 1 57 . k
I f i t be e d w h as
y i n t h e pr e v i o u s a na logi e s a p re
, ,

fe re n c e has u s u a lly b e e n s h o w n fo r t h e re pre s e nt a t i on of m a g ne t ic

fo rc e ( or a c on s t a n t m u lt ipl e t h e r e o f ) by v e l o ci t y t he a ns w e r ,

w o u ld be s u b s t a nt i a lly t h a t i t has b e e n d one i n o rd e r t o m a k e

, ,

t he m a g ne t ic e n e rgy be ki ne t ic N o w i t i s t r u e t h a t i n a p er
. ,

fec t ly a b s t ra c t e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic s ch e m e a rr a n g e d i n d u pl e x ,

form i n which e v e ry e l e c t ric m a g n i t u d e ha s i t s m a gne tic r e

—

pr es e nt a ti ve a nd t h e re for e i ncl u ding a m a g ne t ic c ond u c t i on

—
, ,

cu rr e nt wi t h w as t e o f e ne rgy t h e re w ou ld be a p e rfe c t ,

b a l a nc e of e vid en c e a s re ga rds t he ki ne t ic n a t u re of e i t h e r
t he e l e c t ric o r t he m a g ne t ic e ne rgy wh e n t he o t h e r i s t o be ,

p ot e nt i a l e nergy a s o f a s ta t e of s t ra i n I n a n e l a s t ic m e di u m
,
.

Fo r if i t w e r e a rg u e d fro m a c e r t a i n s et of r e l a t i o n s t h a t
,

t h e m a g ne t ic e n e rgy wa s ki n e t ic t he forc e o f t he a rg u m e n t ,

c ou ld be a t on c e d e s t roy e d by picki ng ou t a n a na l og o u s s e t of
rel a t i ons t e n di ng t o s h o w ( i n t he s a m e wa y as b efo re ) t h a t
t h e e l e c t ric e ne rgy w a s ki n e t ic .

B u t a s m a t t e r s a c t u a lly s t a nd wi t h an i m p e rfe c t c o rr e
, ,
.

s p on d e n c e b e t w e e n t he e l e c t ric a nd m a g n e t ic s id es o f t he e l e c

t r o m a gne t i c s ch e m e t h e r e s e e ms t o b e a c on s id e r a bl e p r e
,

po nd e ra nc e O f e v id e nc e i n fa v o u r of t he ki ne t i c na t u re of t he
25 2 EL ECTROMAG NETI C THEOR Y . CH . I II .

li t tl e t ha t i s no v e l it will c orr ob ora t e for m e r c oncl u s i ons a nd

, ,

c o o rdi n a t e t h e fa c t s i n a c o m p a c t a nd s y s t e m a t ic m a nn e r s u i t
-

a bl e t o a dy na m ic a l s c i e nc e .

O n t he o t he r h a n d t h e r e i s li t tl e t h a t i s s u gg es t i v e o f
,

ki ne t ic id e a s i n e l e c t ros t a t ic s w hil s t t h e re i s m u ch t h a t is
,

s u gg e s t iv e o f t he p o t e nt i a l e n e rgy o f a s t r a i ne d s t a t e Thi s .

fa c t c o m bi ne d wi t h t he ki ne t ic s u gg e s t iv e ness o f t he fa c t s ( a n d
,

t he e q u a t i o n s e m b o dy i n g t h e m ) i n w hich m a g ne t ic i n d u c t i o n
a n d e l e c t ric c u rr e n t s a r e c o n c e rn e d e x pl a i ns why t he a s o ci a
s ,

t i o n o f m a gne t ic wi t h ki ne t ic a n d e l e c t ric wi t h p ot e n t i a l
,

e n e rgy b e c o me s n a t u ra l I t i s t h e re fo r e s o m e wh a t a m a tt e r
.
, ,

o f s u rpri s e as w e ll as ra t h e r v e xi n g
, t o find t h a t i n o rd e r t o ,

e x t e n d t he l a s t c o n s id e r e d r o t a t i o na l a n a l o gy t o a c on d u c t i n g
-

d ie l e c t ric we m u s t i f we wi s h t o d o i t s i m ply give u p t he com

, , ,

p a ri s on of m a g ne tic forc e wi t h v e l o ci t y a nd e l e c t ric forc e wi t h

t o rq u e a nd a d o p t t h e c on v e rs e s y s t e m m a ki ng t he e l e c t ric
, ,

e n e rgy b e ki n e t i c a n d t h e m a g n e t ic e n e rgy t he p ot e nt i a l
,

e ne rgy o f t he r o t a t i on .

Uni nt e lli g i bi li t y of t he R ot a t i onal A na l ogu e for a C ondu e

t i ng D i l c t ri c
e e w he n M a gne t i c Ene rgy i s K i ne t ic .

1 58 . W e can
p e rh a p s m os t e a s ily s e e t ha t t hi s pl a n s h ou ld be
, ,

a d o p t e d by wri t i ng d o w n t he t w o circ u i t a l e q u a t i o n s o f e l e c t r o

m a g ne t i s m a n d t h e n i m m e di a t ely u nd e r t h e m t he c o rr e s p on d
, , ,

i ng pro p o s e d circ u i t a l e q u a t i o ns o f t he ro t a t i o na l e t h e r Thu s .

,

t k i ng H t o be v e l o ci t y a s b e fo r e w e h a v e t o e x pr e s s t he firs t
a
, , ,

c irc u i ta l la w i n t he di e l e c tric a n d i t s m e ch a nic a l c o m p a n i on ,

g c u rl H op E, ( 3 5 7 )
g, c u rl q ( 3 5 8 )

Hr e e r v e rt ica l a re t o be c omp a re d M a gne t ic

t he t e m s i n -
.

fo rc e H b e c o m i ng v e l o ci t y q t he e l e c t ric fo rc e E b e c om es 58
, ,

o r h a l f t h e t o rq u e ; c t he p e r m i t t ivi t y i s t h e c o m pli a n cy v
l ‘

a n d g ] i s a n e wly i n t ro d uc e d c o m p a n i o n t o g which i s t he so u rc e
-

c u rl h I t w ill be i nt erpre t e d l at e r .

The o t h e r circ u i ta l e qu a t i ons a re

f c u rl E p p H ,

f1 c u rl (38 ) pp q .
 ELEMEN T S or VE C T OR IAL ALGEB RA A ND ANALYS I S . 253

We h a v e t he a ddi t i on a l a na l ogu e s of i nd u c t ivi ty a nd

now

d e n s i t y a nd f which i s t he s ou rc e c u rl e i s c o m p a re d wi t h f ,
, , , ,

which i s i m pres s e d t ra ns l a t i ona l forc e p e r u ni t v ol u m e .

S o fa r r e l a t i ng t o a no n c on d u c t i n g di e l e c t ric a n d givi ng a n
-

i n t elligibl e dy n a mic a l a na l ogy i f w e wi s h t o ex t e n d i t t o a c o n

,

d u c t i ng di el e c t ric a cc o rdi ng t o Ma xw ell s s ch e m e ( i ncl u di ng o f

,
’
,

c ou rs e a p u re c on d u c t or which ha s or i s as s u m ed t o ha ve no
, , ,

p e r m i tt ivi ty ) w e re q u ire t o ch a nge cp i n t he firs t circ u i ta l la w

,

( 8 5 7 ) t o k + op whil s t t h
,
e s e c o n d circ u i t a l la w n e e d s n o ch a ng e .

B u t t h e r i g ht m e mb e r o f ( 35 8 ) n e e d s t o be ch a ng e d t o m a t ch
t he m od i fi e d Th u s ,

ou rl
g+ ( 3 6 1 )
c u rl q ( k1 V I?) 6 S )
g1 ( 3I
6 2 ) ,

w h e r e k i s t he n e w c oe ffici e nt t o m a t ch It B u t w ha t 1 8 I t s
, , .

i n te rpre t a t i on i n t he ro ta t i o na l e th e r a nd ho w i s t he l a tt e r t o
,

be m o difi e d t o m a k e It , a s i nt e ll i gibl e a s t he o t h e r c ons t a nt s ?

N o w s i nc e w e u s e r o t a t i ona l e l as tici ty t o ob t a i n t he p o
,

t e n t i a l e ne rgy a nd w e as s o ci a te t h e r o t a t i on wi t h t he e l e c t ri c
,

d is pl a c e m e nt i t i s s u gg e s t e d t h a t r o t a t i o na l fric t i on s h ou ld b e
,

i nt rod u c e d t o c a u s e t he w a s t e o f e n e rgy a na l og ou s t o t h a t o f
J ou l e B u t i f t h e re w e re fric t i ona l r e s is ta nc e prop or ti ona l t o
‘

'
.

t he s pi n w e s h ou ld h a v e
,

c u rl G ( 3 6 3 ) ,

inst e a d of c onne c t i ng the t orqu e w i t h t he r ot a t i on .

B u t t hi s will n o t h a r moni s e a t a ll wi t h W e c a nnot d o

wh a t w e w a nt by rot a t i ona l fric t i on bu t r e qu ire s om e s p e cia l ,

a rr a n g e m en t wh os e n a t u r e d oes n ot a pp e a r i n o rd e r t o i nt e rpr e t
, ,

( 36 2 ) i nt e lligibly .

The R ot a t i onal A na l ogy , w ith El e c tri c Ene r gy Ki net ic ,

e xt e nd e d to a C ond u c t i ng Di l ct i c by me
e e r a ns of Trans
la t i ona l Fri c t i on .

§1 59 . by
But,ch a ngi n g t he for m o f t he a na l ogy ch oos i ng ,

t he e l e c t ric e ne rgy t o be ki n e t ic t he e x t e ns i on t o a c on d u c t i n g
,

d i e l e c t ric c a n b e m a d e i n a s u ffici e nt ly ob v i o u s m a nne r Put .

u nde r h
( 3 6 0 ) t us
254 L
E EC TR MAG E T C T HEORY
O N I . CH . I II .

wh ere we i nt rodu c e , 1 t o m a t ch 0 k. Als o p u t ( 3 5 8 ) un d e r ( 35 9)

to ge t t he ot h e r p a ir t h u s ,

f c u rl E M 9E ,
( 3 6 6)

g1 c u rl q
% p ( ( 3 6 7 )
W e h av e n ow a int elli gibl e m e a ni ng to be gi ven t o
fit , wi t h an

t he n e w c o e ffici e nt t h a t bri ng s i n w a s t e of e ne rgy For .

which i s c om p a re d wi t h t he fi rs t circu i t a l la w i s t he t ra ns ,

la t iona l e q u a t i on of m ot i on i n t he rot a t i ona l e t h e r wh en t h e re

i s fric t i o na l r e s i s t a nc e t o t r a ns l a t i on e xpresse d by p l q so t h a t
, ,

p1 i s t h e fr i c t i o n a li t y a nd ,
, , q
2
t h e
o r a t e o f w a s t e .

The c orr es p ond enc es in d e t a il ar e as follo w s

A E/p s ta nds for G , ( p sa ci a l

(e1. forc e) E q, ( v e l o ci t y ) .

p e rm i t t i v i t y d e ns i t y
( ) c p, ( ) .

( 9 1 . dis pl
) . D pq, ( m om e nt u m
) .

( e 1
. e n e rgy ) % CE
2
§ pq
2
, ( ki n rgy). e ne .

m a g fo rc e ) H g, t orqu e )
( . s .

i n d u c ti v i t y ) ( c om pli a ncy
)
( p . .

( i n d u c t i on) B g ir ls ,

a g e n e rgy ) % ( ) ( r l rgy
v cu rl G
2
( m . o t e ne ) . .

c d u ct i v ity) k p, ( f i i li y)
( o n , r c t on a t .

( c o nd c u rr e nt ) 0
. k E p l q,

( J ou l e h e a t )
-
k E 2
plq
i’
, ( r ate of w a st e ) .

( t r u e c u rr ent ) 0 + p D (p 1 pp ) q .

The s e s h ou ld be s t u di e d i n c onnec t i o n wi t h t he circ u i t a l

e q u a t i on s a nd t h e ir m a t ch es u n d e rn e a t h t h e m i f
,

it b e d es ire d t o ob t a i n a n i nt e llig e nt c om pr e h e ns i o n
“
o f t he

t r u e n a t u r e of t h e a na l ogy a nd t o c orre c t a ny e rr or s t h a t m a y
,

h a v e cre p t in .

I f we k e e p a w a y from t he s ou rc e s of e ne rgy t h e r e i s li t t l e ,

di ffic u l t y i n u n d e rs t a ndi ng t he a nal ogy in a b roa d m a nn e r .

B u t t he sou rc e s r e qu ire s p e ci a l a t t e nt i o n b e fo r e t he e l e c t r o
m a g ne t ic a nd r ot a t i ona l a na l og u e s a r e i nt e lligi bl e W e k no w .

t h a t ac t i v i t y i s t he pr od u c t o f t wo fa c t ors a fo rc e
“
a nd a ,

vel ocity N ew t on kne w t hat In mod e rn dynam ics t oo

.
”
.
, ,
25 6 ELE CTROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I II

which is , of c ou rs e pl a in , e no u gh . B u t t he ot h e r a ct i v it y i s
‘
10 (PI PP ) qa ( 3 7 2 )
wh e re q0 is t he a na logu e o f e H e re t he s u pp ose d fo rc e has .
“

be c o m e a v e l o ci ty a n d t he v e l o ci ty a forc e
,
F o r t he fa c t o r
“
.

o f ( 1 i n ( 3 7 2 i s th e a na l og u e o f e l e c t ric c u rr e nt d e ns i t
0 ) y a n d ,

m e a ns t he ( pri m i t iv e ) fo rc e p e r u n i t v o l u m e i n t he r ot a t i on a l
e t h e r p a r t ly e m pl oy e d i n i n cr e as i n g m o m e n t u m
,
p a r tly work ,

i ng a g a i n s t fric t i o n O f c o u rs e t hi s p e r v e rs i o n i s ra t h e r
.

e x t re m e .

The r ot a t i ona l a na l ogu e s o f ( 3 69 ) m a

y b e r e a dily
wri tt en d o w n by pro pe r t ra ns l a t i ons i n a cc orda nc e wi t h t he a b o v e ,

re m e mb ering
M r W Willi a m s who ha s re c e nt ly ( Phy s ic a l S oci e t y 1 8 9 2 )
. .
, ,

p u bli s h e d a v e ry cl os e s t u dy of t he t h e o ry of t he di me ns i ons
“ ”

o f phy s ic a l m a g ni t u d es o n a pplyi ng hi s v i e w s t o t he e l e c t r o
,

m a g n e t ic e q u a t i o ns a nd t he r ot a t i o na l e t h e r ha s a rrive d a t t he ,

c o ncl u s i on t h a t t he re pre s e n t a t i on o f e it h e r E or H by v e l oci t y

l e a d s t o t he o nly t wo s y s t e m s t h a t a r e dyn a m ic a lly i nt e lligibl e .

I t s h o u ld be r e m e m b e r e d h o we v e r t h a t hi s c on cl u s i o n i s , ,

s u bj e c t t o c e r ta i n li m i t a t i o ns m e nt i on e d i n hi s p a p e r ) r e g a rdi ng
(
di m e ns i ons for ot he rwi s e t he c oncl u s i on m igh t s e em t o be o f
,

t oo a b s ol u t e a n a t u r e a s i f o ne o f E or H m u s t be v e l o ci ty
, In .

a ny c as e I c a n n o t g o fu r th e r m y s e l f a t pr e s en t t h a n r e g a rd t he
,

r ot a t i ona l e th e r a s fu rn i s hi ng a g oo d a nal ogy which m a y l e ad ,

la t e r t o s o me thing b e t t e r a nd m or e c om pr e h e ns i v e The p r e .

s e n t li m i t a t i on t o s m a ll m ot i o ns i n g e ne r a l a se ri ou s o ne
( ) i s ,

a n d t h e r e a r e o t h e r di ffi c u l t i e s .

S y mmet ri ca l L i near Op e ra t ors , d i re ct a nd i nv ers e, re fe rr e d

t o t h e p ri ncip a l A xe s .

1 60 L i n r v c t r f nc t i
. ea e o u o ns of a v c t r pl y
e o a a v rye

i m p rt nt p rt i n v c t r lg br
o a a e o j -
a iem pl e a a nd a n al
y s i s , _
u st as s

e q u a t i o ns d o i n c o m m on a lg e bra Th u s i n t he t h e ory of .
,

e l as t ici t y t h e s t r a i n v e c t o r i s a li ne a r f u nc t i o n o f t he d ir e c t i o n

ve cto r a nd the s t re s s v e c t or i s a not h e r line a r fu nct i on of t he

,

dire c t i on v e c t o r I n e l e c tr o m a gn e ti s m t he e l e c t ric di s pl a c e
.

m e n t i s a li ne a r fu nc t i o n o f t he e l e c t ric fo rc e a nd s o i s t h e ,

c o nd u c t i on c u rr e nt d e ns i t y 3 whil s t t he m a gnet ic i n d u c t i o n i s a
-

l inea r fu nc t i on of t he m a gne tic fo rc e wh e n i ts r a nge i s s m al l ,

v ct r
e o fu n c t i ons t o be c ons id e re d in e l e c t rom a gne t i s m I n .

o t h e r s ci e n c e s t oo t he li ne a r fu n c t i on o ft e n t u rns u p a n d
, ,

fr eq u e nt ly i n p u re g e o m e t ry wh en t r e a t e d a lg e bra ic a lly , .

Fi n i t e r ot a t i ons m a y b e t re a t e d by t he m e t h od a nd i n t he ,

a lg e br a o f s u rfa c e s o f t he s e c o n d ord e r t he li n e a r c onn e c t i o n

b e t w e e n t wo ve c t ors is prom i ne nt I t w o u ld be i ne xc u s a bl e .

no t t o giv e so m e a cc o u nt o f li ne ar o p e r a t o rs i n t hi s ch a p t e r

on v e c t o r a n a ly s i s a nd i t s a pplic a t i o n t o e l e c t r om a gne t i s m
-
.

The s u bj e ct h o we v e r i s s u ch a l a rg e o ne t h a t i t i s o nly
, ,

p o ss ibl e t o d e a l wi t h i t s m o re e l e me n t a ry p a r t s I n a s om e wh a t

bri e f m a nne r— not h o w e ve r s o bri e f a s t o be u sel e s s

, , .

The s i m pl e s t ki n d of li ne a r c onne c t i o n i s t h a t o f O h m s la w
’

i n i s o t r o pic c ond u c t or s W e h a v e O = kE wh e r e E i s t he
.
,

int e ns i ty of el c t ric forc e a nd C t he cu rrent d ens i t y whil s t 79

e -
,

i s a c ons t a nt t he c ond u c t i v i t y
, No s p e cific a t i on o f dir e c t i on
.

i s h e re m a d e B u t wh e n v e c t ori s e d we h a v e t he e q u a t i on
.
,

C = 7cE i ns t e a d 7c b e i ng a s b e fo r e
, We n o w a s s e rt t h a t E .

a n d O a r e p a ra ll el whil s t t h e ir t e ns or s ar e i n a c ons t a n t r a t i o
, ,

for a ll dire c t i ons i n s p a c e .

S u pp os e h o w e v e r w e a l t e r t he cond u c t i v i t y of t he b ody i n
, ,

a c e r ta i n dir e c t i on s a y t h a t o f i
, by m ea n s o f c om pr e ss i on
p a ra ll e l t o i ) m a ki ng i t k1 whil st i t s c ond u ct ivi t y i s k2 i n a ll
, ,

dir ec t i ons t ra ns v e rs e t o i W e n o w h a v e C l = kl E1 a nd a l s o
.
,

G l = kl Ev wh e n t h e e l e c t ric forc e i s p a r all e l t o i B u t if i t be .

«

t ra ns v e rs e t o i t h e n w e h a v e C = k2E
,
T h e r e i s i n b ot h c a s e s .
, ,

p a ra ll elis m o f E a nd C b u t t he r at i o of t he t e ns ors c ha ng e s
,

fr om 761 t o 762 .Wh a t t h en i s t he c u rre nt wh e n E i s n e i t h e r

, ,

pa r all el nor t r a ns v e rs e t o i ? The a ns we r i s t o be ob t a i n e d by

de c om p os ing E i nt o t wo c om p onent s one p a ra ll e l t o i t he ot he r , ,

t ra n s v e rs e 3 t h e n r e ck oni n g the c u rr e nt s t o m a t ch by t he a b o v e ,

a nd fina lly c om bin i n g t h e m by a ddi t i on Th u s .

2 58 ELECTR OMAGNETI C THEORY . OH . 111 .

Mor e genera lly let t he c ond u c t ivi t y , be di ffe rent I n t he

t hr e e c o p e rpe n dic u l a r dir e c t i o ns of i j
-
, , b e i ng k2 , re

s ec t i v e l
p y Th e n w
. e h a ve

C ( )
2

The c u rre nt i s now c oi ncid e nt w i t h t he e l e c t ric forc e i n t h re e

dire c t i on s o nly n a m e ly a l o ng t he princip a l a x e s of c o nd u c t i vi t y
, , .

Wh e n E ha s a ny ot h e r dire ct i o n t h a n t h a t of a pri ncipa l a xi s ,

we h a v e n o l on g e r p a r a ll e li s m o f C a nd E a nd t h e ir r e l a t i o n ,

i s e x pr e s s e d by e q u a t i o n I t i s t he g e ne ra l t yp e o f a ll
li nea r rel a t i ons of t he s y m m e t ric a l ki nd wh e n r e fe rre d t o t he
pri ncip a l a x e s i f we r e m ov e t he r e s t ric t i on which ob t a i ns i n
,

t he e l e c t ric a l e x a m pl e t h a t t he It s m u s t b e a ll p os i t i v e G i v e n
’
.
,

t h e n t h a t G = kE wi t h t h e u n d e r s t a ndi ng t h a t C i s a s y m m e
, ,

t r i c a l li ne a r f u n c t i on o f E s o t h at It m u s t r e pr e s ent t he li ne a r
,

o p e r a t o r c onne c t i ng t h e m ( t he c on d u c t i v i t y op e ra t o r i n t h e

a b o v e e x a m pl e ) t he fu ll a n s w e r t o t he q u e s t i o n Wha t i s t he ,

0 c o rr e s p on di ng t o a giv e n E l i s ob t a i na bl e i n t he a b o v e —

m a nne r v iz by fi rs t fi ndi ng t he a x es o f p a ra ll eli s m o f E a nd C

,
.
,

a n d t he v a l u es o f t he pri ncip a l k s a nd n e x t by a ddi ng t o g e t h e r

’
, ,

t he t hr e e C s b e l ongi ng t o t he t hr ee c om p one nt E s p a r a ll e l t o
’ ’

t he a x es .

The i n v e rs e q u es t i on G i v en E find 0 i s s i m il a rly a ns w e ra bl e

, , , .

For i f 0 p H wh e r e p i s t he Op e ra t o r i nv e rse t o k ( or t he
:
,

r e s i s t i v it y op e ra t o r in t he c a s e o f c ond u c t i on c u rr e nt ) we k no w -
,

t h a t kl p l 1 i f p 1 i s t he c o ns t a nt r es i s t i v i t y p a r a ll el t o i a nd
, ,

s i m il a rly 1 a nd k3p 3 = l for t he j a nd k a x es s o t h a t i n ,

fu ll ,

wh e re on C 2 0 3 a re the s c al a r c o mp one nts of c u rrent

, .

P re ci s e ly s i m il a r r e m ark s a pply t o t he p e r m i t t ivi t y op e ra t or

c i n D = cE c o nn e c t i ng t he di s pl a c e m e nt D wi t h t he e l e c t ric
,

fo rc e E a nd t o t he i n d u c t i v i t y o p e r a t or
,
in B II c onne c t u
,
u
,
-
,

i ng t he i n d u c t i o n B wi t h t h e m a g ne t ic fo rc e H wh e n t he c on ,

n e c t i on i s a li n ea r o n e I t i s n ot wi t h o u t i m p o r t a nc e t o c o n
.

s t a nt ly b e a r i n m i nd t he a b o v e pr o c e ss o f p a s s i ng fr o m E t o 0

t hr o u gh lo a nd t he pr oc e s s o f i n v e r ti ng It t o
,
b e c a u s e wh e n 0,
,

t r e a t e d i n a g e ne r a l m a nne r wi t h r e fe r e n c e t o a ny a x e s t he
, ,

rel a t i ons b e c om e m u ch m ore c om plic a t ed whils t t h e ir i nt ri ns ic ,

a nd r e s u l t a n t m e a n i ng i s i d e n t ic a lly t he s a m e .
2 60 L
E ECTR OMAGNETI C T HEORY . CH . 111 .

t he princip al cu rrents in the dir e c t ions of p a rallel is m of el e ct ric

fo rc e a nd c u rr e n t .

S i m il a rly t o we h a v e by s qu a ri ng ,

3 2 2
E1 E2 E3
+ 7
( )
( 1 )
2
P 0

fr om which w e s ee t h a t wh en 0 I s c ons t a nt s o t h a t t he v e c tor ,

0 ra ng e s o v e r a s ph e ric a l s u r fa c e t he c orr es p ondi ng E s i m u lt a ,

n e o u s ly r a ng e s o v e r t he s u r fa c e o f a n e llip s o id wh os e pri n cip a l

s e m i a x e s a r e t he pri n cip a l E s
’
-
.

T h e re a re o t h e r w a y s o f ill u s t ra t i on t h a n t he a b o v e T h u s .

we m a y s e e fro m t he fo r m of t he righ t m e m b e r o f ( 4 ) t h a t i t i s
t he s c a l a r prod u c t of r a nd a n ot her v e c t o r 8 t h u s ,

= 1,
rs
( )
8
wh e re r a nd s a r e gi ven by
( )
9

7
./
s = i ( )
1 0

Hr e e we see t h at s i s a li nea r fu nc t i on o f r , a nd su ch t h at if
N tr,
c t hen See e q u a t i on The ln
t e rp r e t a t i on of t he ne w v ct r s i
ily t o be fou nd It is t he
e o s e as .

re cipro c a l of t he v e c t or p e rp endic u l a r fro m t he c ent re u p on t he

t a ng e nt pl a ne t o t he e llip so id a t t he e x t r e m i t y of F or i f p
be t hi s p e rp e ndicu l a r t he proj e c t i o n of 1 u p o n p i s e v id e nt ly
,
'

p i t s e l
,
f b e c a us e t he t hr e e v e c t o r s r p a n d t h e li n e i n t he , ,

t a ng e nt pl a ne j o in i ng t he ir e x t r e m i t i e s fo rm a righ t a ngl e d -

tr ia ngl e wh ose l ong es t s id e i s r Th e r efor e .

=
( )
2
rp p , 1 1
o r, di v iding by p
2
,

= 1,
( )
1 2
‘

rp

com p a ri ng which wi t h which i s t ru e for a ll

’
rs of t he
e llip s o id w e s e e t h a t s = p d
"
1 a s s ta t e
, ,

No w we h a v e
2 2
EC E, 2
E2 E3
’ ( )
1 3
EC p1 0
3 p23 0 p3 1 : 0

fr om which we s ee t ha t i f we c ons t r u c t t he ellip so id wh ose

pri ncip a l s e m i a x e s a re ( p l E CY a nd s o o n t he ra di u s v e c t or
-
, ,

will be E a nd t he c orr e s p ondi ng re ciproc a l p e rp endic u la r will

be C /E O H e re E C i s u nd e rs t ood t o be c ons t a nt
. .
 S i m il a rly , we ha ve
2 2 2
C1 C2 (33
1 14
kl E C k2 E C k3E C

so t h a t in t he ellip s oid wi t h p rInC Ip a l s e m i a x es ( kl EC fi & c t he -

, .
,

ra di u s v e c tor i s C a nd t he re ciproc a l p e rp endic u l a r i s E/EC I n .

b ot h t h e s e m e t h od s of r e pr ese nt a t i on n e i th e r E n or 0 ha s con
s t a n t t e ns o r b u t t h e ir pro d u c t t he a c t ivi t y i s c on s t a nt
, , , .

I n t he c a s e wh e re i t i s E t h a t i s c ons id e re d c ons t a nt t he ,

re ciproc al o f t he p e rp endic u l a r o n t he t a ng ent pl a ne t o t he

e llip s oid o f G i s

i CI
( )
1 5
( 1 )
2 2 2
1
6 E E E

Thi s i s a l s o a n e llip s oid For kE i s a n ellip s oid a nd p E only

.
,

di ffe rs i n t he pri ncip a l c ons t a nts b e i ng t he re cipr oc a l s o f t hos e

i n t h e for m e r c a s e .

S i m il a rly i n t he c a s e ( 7 wh e re C i s c onst a nt t he r e ciproc a l

, ,

p e rp endic u l a r i s
iE1 0
1 1

0 2 ( )
1 6

a nd a ga i n t he e x t r e mi t y of k0 ra ng es o e vr an e llip soida l
su rfa c e .

Th u s t he s ph e re of E wi t h c ons t a nt t enso r is a s s oc ia t e d wi th a n
e llip s o id kE w h os e r e cipr o c a l p e rp e ndic u l a r i s , E/E or k
2 I
E/E 2 -

,
o
,

a n o t h e r e llip s o id I t foll o w s t h a t t h e re cipr oc a l p e rp e ndic u l a r

.

o f t h e l a t t e r gi v e s u s t h e fo r m e r e llip s o id a g a i n .

Thi s re cipr o c a l re l a t i on o f t wo e llip s oids t hrou gh t h e ir in

v erse p e rp e ndic u l a rs i s a n e x a m pl e of Ma cc u lla gh s extra or ’

d i n a ry t h eo r e m of r e cipr o c a l s u rfa c e s I t m a y be s t a t e d t h u s
.

L et
= 1, a nd = 1,
rl s l r s
2 2 ( 7)
1

be the i q o f t wo s u r fa c e s r e fe rr e d t o tI e s a m e o rigi n
e u a t ons ,

r 1 a n d r 2 b e i n g t he r a di u s v e c t o rs a n d t he r e cipro c a l s o f
,

t he v e c t o r p e rp e ndic u l a r s from t he o ri gi n on t h e ir t a ng e nt
.

pl a nes I f t h e n we ch oos e r2 t o be 3 1 we s ha ll s i m u l t a neo u sly

.
, , ,

m a k e 3 2 b e r1 Th a t i s s t a rt i ng wi t h the s u rfa c e r1 c ons tru c t

.
, ,

t h e s u rfa c e wh ose r a di u s v e c t o r r 2 i s 3 1 t he r e cipr o c a l p e rp e n :

2 62 ELE CTROMAGNETI C T HEORY . CH . 1 11 .

Thi s a d m i t s of s im pl e v e ct ori a l proof . For i f rl s 1 1 b e t he

e qu a t i o n o f a s u r fa c e a cc o rdi ng t o t he a b ov e n o t a t o n, i we
o b t a i n by di ffe re n t i a t i on
, ,

if alr1 a nd i m u l t a n e o u s va ri a t i ons o f r l a nd 3 1 B u t dr1

ds l a re s

i s i n t he t a ng e nt pl a n e t o I I a n d t h e r e fo r e a t righ t a ngl e s t o ,

s o t h a t s dr = 0 Thi s l e a v e s r l ds = 0 a l s o B u t ds
‘

81 , l 1
.
1 l
or .

d r2 e q u i va l e nt ly i s i n t he t a ng e nt pl a n e of t he s u r fa c e wh os e
v e c tor ra di u s i s 8 1 or r2 t he re fore I 1 i s p a ra ll e l t o the p e rp e n
,

d ic u lar o n t he s a m e o r p a ra ll e l t o 8 sa
y lr = xs fr o m wh i ch
2 , 2 , , ,

rl s = acs s or xr s 2 Bu t r s =l a nd r 3 = 1, so c = 1, a nd
l l 2 2 i i 2 2
.

r1 which c om pl e t e s t he c onne c t i on s
S 2, .

I n t e rm s o f t h e p e rp e ndic u l a rs le t p , a n d p 2 be t h e ir l e ng t hs ,

a nd T t he c orr e s p ondi ng r a di u s v e c t o r s t h e n
2 ,

T 2 T2 =
1 p1 1 p 2,
.

a nd r
1
is p arall e l t o p 2, a nd r
2
to p 1 .

Int erna l S t ru c t u r e Li ne a r Op e ra t or s
of . M a nip u la t i o n of

s ev e ra l w h en P r i ncip a l A xes ar e Par ll l

a e .

1 62 . L v ing n
g eom e t ric a l ill u s t ra t i ons c onn e c t e d
ea ow t he
wi t h t he e llip s oid c ons id e r t he s y mm e t ric a l li n ea r op e ra t o r by
,

i t s el f I f D = cE wh e re c i s t he li n ea r op e ra t or we k no w by
.
, ,

t he a b ov e e x a c t ly ho w i t o p e ra t e s t hro u gh t he pri n cip a l o s

’
.

W e c a n h o w e ve r wri te c i n s u ch a m a nne r t h a t i t s h a ll s t a t e
, ,

e xplici t ly i t s m e a ni ng Thu s if cl c2 03 be t he pri ncip a l c s ’

.
, , ,

b el onging t o t he a x es of i j k we h a ve , , ,

cE i 0 E j c E k c E ,
.
1 1 .
2 2 .
3 3

by 1 60 . N ow p ut t he E
’
s i n t e rms of E, pr od u ci ng
cE =i . c iE
l ( )
2 1

I n t hi s form, t he o p e ra nd ma y be se p ar a t e d fro m t h e op e ra t or ,

t hu s
CE (i . c i
l
j . c
z j k . 6
3 ) ,
k E

so t h a t t he e xpres s i on for c i t s el f i s
+k . c k
3
.
( )
2 3

I n t h i s fo rm, wi t h a ve c to r to o p e ra t e u p on i m pli e d ,
t he
na t u e r of c is fu lly e x hibi t e d . But t he o p e ra n d n e e d no t
2 64 ELECTR OMA G NETI C THEORY . CH . III
.

dire c t e d princip a l a x e s only al te ring t h e ir l eng t hs s t a rt i n g

, ,

from i ni t i a l E wi t h c o ns t a nt t e n s o r Th pr o v id e d t h e
( at is .
,

pri ncip a l o s a re a ll p os i t iv e I f s om e be n e ga t i ve we h a ve
’
.
,

o t h e r s u r fa c es o f t h e s e c o n d o rd e r t o c o n s id e r
) .

W e m a y a l s o m a nip u l a t e in t he s a m e s i m pl e m anne r a ny
n u m b e r o f Op e ra t o rs a b c & c , which h a v e t he s a m e pri ncip a l
, , , .
,

a xes ,t h ou gh t h e y m a y d i ffe r i n ot h e r r e sp e c t s Thu s u s i ng .

,

t he s a m e ki nd o f not a t i on ,

[ ME a bE i a b
l l
E 1 +j
a 6 E
2 2 2
k a b E
3 3 3,

oba E a boE =i a b c E +j ar b c E k a 6 c E ,
l l l 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
.

a nd s o on That i s t he s u cc ess i ve a c ti on of a ny nu m b e r of
.
,

s y m m e t ric a l o p e r a t ors wi t h c om m o n pri n cip a l a x es i s e u i v a

q
l e nt t o t he a c t i on of a s i ngl e op e ra t or of th e s a m e ki nd wh os e ,

pri ncip a l s a re t he prod u c t s of t he s i mil a r pri ncip a l s o f t he s et

o f o p e ra t o rs The r e s u l t i ng e llip s oid s h a v e t h e ir a x es p a ra ll e l
.

t hr o u ghou t .

Ne xt m u l tiply t he e qu at ion ( 2 0) by a ny ot he r ve ct or P
, ,

prod u ci ng
P cE = cl E1 F1 + c2E 2F2 + cgE3 F3 ( )
3 1 .

By sy mm etry we s ee t h a t t hi s i s ide nt ic ally the sa me as

EcI
‘
. W e m igh t a l so c on cl u d e t hi s from t he fa c t t h a t cE a nd
EC a r e t he s a m e v e c t or ; or t hirdly by for m i n g C F a nd t h e n , , ,

m u l t iplyi ng i t by E W e m a y t h e re for e r e g a rd EcI a s t he

.
‘

s c a l a r pr o d u c t o f E a n d GP o r T0 ) or a s t he e q u a l s c a l a r p ro
( , ,

d u ct of E0 ( or cE) a nd F T hi s r e ciproci ty i s t he ge ne ra l c ha
.

r a c t e ri s t i c o f s y m m e t ric a l Op e r a t o rs by which t h e y c a n b e ,

di s t i ng u i sh e d fro m t he s k e w op e ra t or s The e l e c t ric a l m e a n .

i ng i n t e rm s o f di s pl a c e m e nt a nd e l e c t ric forc e i s t h a t t he c om
p onent di s pl a c e m e nt i n a ny dire c t i on N d u e to a n e l e c t ric fo rc e ,

a c t i ng i n a n o t h e r dir e c t i o n M e q u a l s t h e c o m p on e n t d i s
y ,

pl a c e me nt a l ong M d u e t o a n e l e ct ric forc e wi t h t he s a m e

,

t en s o r a c t i ng a l ong N
’

The ory of Di s p lac e me nt in an Eol ot rop ic Di e l e c t ri c . The

S olu t i on f or a P oi nt S our c e
-
.

1 63 . We s ee fr o m t h e
pre c e di ng t h a t wh e n i t i s t he el e c tric
forc e t h a t I S g i v e n i n a di e l e c t ric t h e r e i s n o di ffi c u l ty i n find
i ng t he di s pl a c e m e n t ; a nd c onv e rs e ly wh e n t he dis pl a c e m e nt ,
 EL M E EN T S 0F V EC T OR IAL A LGE BRA AND A NAL Y S I S . 265

is g i v e n t he e l e c t ric forc e s i m ila rly b e c om e s k nown t hrou gh

,

t he v a l u e s of t he pri ncip a l p e rm i t t ivi t i es S u pp os e h o w e v e r .

, ,

t h a t t he d a t a d o no t i n cl u d e a k no wl e dg e of e i t h e r t he e l e c t ric
forc e o r t he di s pl a c e m e n t b o t h o f which h a v e t o be fo u nd t o
,

s u i t o th er da t a . I t i s t h e n s u ffici e nt t o find e i t h e r t he li ne a r ,

c o nne c ti on s e t t li ng t he o th e r Th u s t o t a k e a n e x plici t c a s e
.
,
’

which ha s fo r a re a s on which will a pp e a r a s p e cia l i nt e re s t

, , ,

s u pp o s e t h e di e l e c t ric m e di u m t o h a v e u n i for m p e r m i t t ivi t y

t ra n s v e r s e t o t he a x i s o f k b u t t o be di ff e r e nt ly p e rm it t i v e t o
,

di s pl a c e m ent p a ra ll el t o t hi s a x i s Fu r t h e r p u t a p oi nt ch a rge
.
,
-

a t t h e o rigi n a n d e n q u ire wh a t i s t he e q u ilibri u m d i s t r i bu

g ,

t i o n of di s pl a c e m ent .

The s ta t e m e nt t h a t t h e re i s a ch a rg e 9 a t t he o ri g i n m e a ns
no t hi n g m or e th a n t h a t di s pl a c e m e n t div e rg es o r e m a n a t e s fro m

t h a t pla c e t o t he i nt e gr a l a m o u nt q
, W e a l so u nd e r s t a n d of
.
,

c o u rs e, t h a t t he di s pl a c e m e n t has n o div e rg e nc e a nywh e r e e l s e .

B u t t he m a nne r of e m a na t i on i s so fa r l e ft q u i t e ar bi t ra ry
, , .

C e r t a i n g e ne ra l r e s u l t s m ay h o we v e r be r ea dily a rri v e d a t
, , To .

b egi n wit h i f t he m e diu m i s i s ot ropic t he e m a na t i on of the

, ,

dis pl a c e m ent m u s t not fa vo u r on e dire c t i on m ore t h a n a noth e r ,

from which i t foll o w s t h a t t he di s pl a c e m e nt a t di s t a n c e r fro m

t he s ou rc e i s s pr ea d u ni o r ly o v e r t h e a r e a 4 M
f m 2
s o th a t q
/ ,

e x p r e ss es i t s d e ns i t y .No w if we a l te r t he p e rm i t t ivi ty t o dis

pl a c e m ent p a ra ll e l t o k only we fa vou r di s pl a c e m ent i n t ha t
,

dire ct i o n if t he p e r m i t t i v i ty i s i ncre a s e d a t t he e x p ens e of t he,

t ra n s v e rs e di s pl a c e m e nt b e c a u s e t he t ot a l a mo u nt which
, ,

m e a s u r e s t he s t r e ng t h of t he s ou rc e i s t h e s a m e , C o nv e rs e ly .
,

i f we r e d u c e t he p e rm i t t ivi t y p a ra ll e l t o k we fa v ou r t he ,

t ra n s v e r s e di s pl a c e m e n t The li nes o f di s pl a c e m ent o rigi na lly

.
,

s pr e a d e q u a bly t h e r e for e se p a r a t e t h e m s e l v es a b ou t t he k a x i s
,

h w ay s a nd c o n c e nt r a t e t h e m s e lv e s t r a ns v e rs e ly o r a b o u t
( b o t ), ,

t he e q u a t ori a l pl a n e t he pl a n e p a s s i n g t hr ou gh t he ch a rg e
,

which i s c u t by t he k a xi s p erp e ndicu la rly .

I f we c a rry t hi s pro c ess s o fa r a s t o r e d u c e t he p er m i tt i v i t y

a l o ng k t o z e r o t h e r e ca n be n o di s pl a c e m e n t a t a ll p a ra ll e l
,

t o k s o t h a t t he di s pl a c e ment m u s t be e nt ir e ly c onfi ne d t o
,

t he e q u a t o ri a l pl a ne i t s e l f I n t hi s pl a n e i t s pre a ds e q ua bly
.

fr om t he s ou rc e b e c a u s e of t he t ra n s v e rs e i so t ropy a s s u m e d a t
,
26 6 EL EC TROMAGNE TI C T HEOR Y . CH . I II .

t h a t t he d e ns i ty ( li ne a r) i s no w g/ 2 r The la w of the i nve rs e 1r .

s q u a r e o f t he di s t a nc e ha s b e e n r e p la c e d by t he la w o f t he

in v e rs e di s t a n c e wi t h c onfi ne m e n t t o a s i ngl e pl a ne h o w e v e r
, , .

N e x t i f we i nt rod u c e pl a na r e olot rop y s ay by re du cing t he

, ,

p erm i t t i v i ty i n dire ct i on j we c a u s e t he di s pl a c e m e nt i n t he
,

sh e e t t o c o nc e n t ra t e i t se l f a b ou t t he i a xi s a t t he e x p e n se o f ,

t he di s pl a c e m e nt p a ra ll e l to j Fi na lly if we a b oli s h
.
,

a l t o g e t h e r t he p e r m i t t ivi t y p a r a ll e l t o j t he wh ol e o f t he ,

di s pl a c e m ent will be c onfi ne d t o t he i a x i s ha l f go i ng one ,

wa y a nd h a l f t he o t h e r .

W e m ay go fu rt h e r by i nt ro d u c i ng h et e rog e ne i t y Thu s .
,

re d u c e t he p e rm it t i v i t y on one Sid e o f t he e q u a t ori a l pl a ne .

The e ffe c t will be t o fa v o u r di s pl a c e m e nt on t he o t h e r s id e 3

a n d i n t he li m i t wh e n t he p e r m i t t ivi t y i s a l t og e t h e r a b oli s h e d
, ,

on t he fir s t s id e t he wh ol e o f t he di s pl a c e m e nt g o es u n il a t e r a lly
,

a l o ng t he k a xi s o n t he o t h e r s id e .

I n t he c a s e of t he pl a na r dis t rib u t i on of di s pl a c e m e nt t he ,

s u r fa ce d e ns i ty i s i n fi ni t e b u t t he li n ea r d e ns i t y i s fi ni t e e xc e p t
,
-

a t t he s o u rc e . W e m ay h o we v e r s pr e a d ou t t he s ou rc e a l ong
, ,

a fi ni t e s t ra igh t li n e ( p a r t o f the 1: a xi s ) wh e n t he di s pl a c e m e nt

will s i m u l t a neou s ly s pre a d ou t i n p a ra ll e l s h e e t s gi v i ng a fi ni te ,

s u r fa c e d e ns i t y
-
. S im il a rly i n the c as e o f t he li ne a r d i s t r ibu
,

t i on o f di s pl a c e m e nt a l o ng t h e i a xi s w e m a y s pre a d o u t t he ,

s o u rc e u p on a p o r t i o n o f t he j k pl a n e wh e n t he fo r m e r li ne
, ,

o f di s pl a c e m e nt will b e c om e a t u b e wi t h fi ni t e s u rfa c e d e ns i t y,
-

o f di s pl a c e m e nt i ns id e i t .

I n t he a b ov e m a nne r t h e re for e we ob ta i n a g ene ra l k no w

, ,

le dg e o f re s u l ts wi t h o u t m a t h e m a t ic s Exc e p t h o w e v e r i n t he
.
, ,

e x t r e m e c as e s o f s ph e ric a l i so t r o py o f pl a na r i s ot r opy wit h z e ro

,

p e r m it t i v it y p e rp en dic u l a r to t he pl a ne a n d o f p u rely li ne a r ,

di spla c e m ent d u e t o t he va ni shi ng of t he t ra ns ve rse p e rm it

t i v i t y a nd ot h e r e x t re m e c as es t h a t m a y be na m e d we d o n ot
, ,

ob t a i n a n e x a c t k no wl e dg e o f t he r es u l t s e xc e p t i n on e r e s p e c t , ,

th a t t he t ot a l di s pl a c em e nt m u s t a lw a y s be t he s a m e Re t u rn .
,

t h e r e fo re t o t he c a s e o f i n i t i a l i s ot r o py u p s e t by Ch a ng e d p e r
,

mi tt i vi ty p a r a ll e l t o t he k a x i s or i f n e e d be wi t h t hr e e di ffe r
, , ,

e nt pri n cip a l p e r m i t t ivi t i e s s o t h a t t he di s pl a c e m e nt i s

,

D i .
c 1 +j . 6 F
2 2
k o F
3 3
o r, ( )
32

if F be t he l ct r ic
e e forc e . W e kno w t h a t in t he s tate of e qu i
26 8 LE CTRO MAGNETI C THEOR Y
‘

E . oH. III .

( g/ )
4 7r r

)( ) ( )
3 9
( t rc l ?
0 0 0 r
1 2 3

The di s pl a c e m ent i s t h e re for e r a di al or p a ra ll el t o r i t s el f , .

Th a t i s t he li nes of di s pl a ce m e nt re m a i n s t ra igh t only a lt e ri ng

, ,

th e ir di s t rib u t i o n a s t he m e di u m i s m a d e e ol o t r opic .

Ob s e r ve in p a ss i n g t h a t t he s c a l a r pr o d u c t I D v a ri e s a s
‘
, ,

P 3 t h a t i s t he d e ns i t y o f t he e n e rgy v a ri e s as t he fo u rt h
4
,

po w e r of t h e p ot ent i a l A l s o n ot e t h a t Pr i s pr op o rt i on a l t o P 3
.

t h a t i s t he r a di a l c o m p on e n t o f F or t he c o mp one nt p a r a ll e l
, ,

t o t h e di s pl a c e m e nt v a ri e s a s P/r , .

I f we s e l e c t a ny p a ir of e q u ip ot e nt i a l s u rfa c es b e t w ee n which
t he e l e c t ric forc e a n d di s pl a c e m e nt a r e gi v e n by we
m a y i f we pl e a se d o a w a y wi t h t he re s t o f t h e e l e c t ric fi e ld
, , .

Tha t i s w e m ay let t he di s pl a c e m e nt a nd e l e c t ric fo rc e

,

t e r m i na t e a br u p t ly u p on t he t wo e llip s oid a l s u r fa c es Wh a t .

i s l e ft will s t ill be i n e qu ilibri u m Fo r t he v ol t a g e r e m a i ns

.

z e ro i n e ve ry circ u i t p os s ibl e Thi s i s obvi ou s ly t r u e b et we e n

.

t h e s u rfa c e s b e c a u s e no ch a ng e ha s b e e n m a d e t h e re
, It is a l s o .

t r u e i n a ny circ u i t b ey on d t he s u rfa c e s b e c a u s e o f t he a b s e n c e ,

o f e l e c t ric fo rc e A nd l a s t ly i t i s t r u e for a ny Circ u i t p a r tly

.
,

w i t hi n a nd p a r t ly b e y on d t he r e g io n o f e l e c t ric fo rc e b e c a u s e ,

t h e e l e c t ric fo rc e i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he s u r fa c e S o t he e l e c t ric .

fie ld i s s el f c onta ine d The el e ct rific a t i on is on t he s u rfa c e s

-
.
,

wh e re t he norm a l c omp one nt o f t he di s pl a c e m ent m e a s u r es t he

s u r fa c e d e n s i t y
-
Th a t i s t h e re i s a t ot a l e l e c t rific a t i on g o n
.
,

the i nn e r a n d g o n t he o u t e r s u rfa c e T he e l a s t a n c e of t he .

c ond e ns e r or l eyd en t o u s e L ord R ayle igh s w ord form e d

,
“
,
” ’
,

by t he t wo s u rfa c es i s t h e ra t i o of t he v ol ta g e b e t we e n t h e m
,

to q . Th a t i s t he c oeffici e nt of q i n ( 3 6) i s t he e l a s t a nc e be
,

t w e e n a ny e qu i p o t ent i a l s u r fa c e a nd t he one a t i nfi ni ty .

I n thu s a b oli s hi ng t he e l e c t ric fi e ld b ey on d t he li m i t e d

re gi on s el e ct e d we m ay a t the s a m e t i m e ch a ng e t he na t u re of
,

the m e di u m m a ki ng i t i s ot ro pic for e x a m pl e or c o n d u c t i ng

, , , ,

&c . A ny ch a n g e i s p e r m i s s ibl e t h a t d oe s n o t i nt ro d u c e
s o u rc es t h a t will di s t u rb t he e qu ilibri u m o f t he e l e c t ric fi e ld

b et we en t he e qu ip ot e nt i a l s u rfa c es .

S ta rt i ng from i so t ropy wh e n t he e q u ip ote nt i a l s u rfa ce i s a

,

s ph e r e i f we k ee p c 1 = c2 c on s t a nt a n d r e d u c e c t h e s ph e r e
,
, 3 ,

will b e c ome a n obla t e Sph e roid like t he ea rt h ( a nd ot h e r ,

b odi e s) fla t te n e d a t the p oles Le t t he co m mon va lu e of C,

-
.
 '

a nd C
2
be d e note d by C ,
D
t he n t he p ot e nt ia l du e t o t he c e nt ra l
cha rge i
q s
P
*
( /
1
0 0 x c
0 3 0

a nd t he di s pl ac e ment a nd e e l c t ric fo rc e a re giv en by

or = D
M 4 7
V
( )
41

As c
3
co nt i nu o u s ly r e d u c e d t he obl a t e s ph er o id o f e qu ili
is
bri u m b e c o m es fl a t t e ne d m ore a n d m or e a n d i s fi na lly w h e n , ,

c = 0
3 ,
r e d u c e d t o a circ u l a r di s c T h e di s pla c e m e n t i s n o w
.

e nt ir e ly i n t h e e q u a t o ri a l pl a ne s o t h a t if w e t e r m i na te t h e
,

di s pl a c e m ent a t di s ta nc e r from t he c ent r e we ob t a i n a ,

circ u l a r li ne o f el e c t rific a t i on ( t h a t i s o n t he e dg e of t he di s c)
, .

W e m a y h a v e t he di s pl a c e m e n t go i ng fr o m t he c e nt ra l ch a rg e
t o a n e q u a l nega t i v e c h a rg e s pre a d o v e r t he circl e or fro m one ,

circl e t o a not h e r i n t he s a m e pl a ne 3 a nd s o on .

S i m il a rly wh e n 0 1 a nd C 2 a r e u n e q u a l b u t 0 3
, O t he circ u l a r
, ,

di s c i s r e pl a c e d by a n ellip t ic a l di s c B u t wi t h ou t i nt rod u c i ng
.
,

t ra ns v e rs e e olo tr op y w e s e e t h a t t h e a b oli t i on o f t h e p e r mi t t i v
,

i t y i n a c e r t a i n dir e c t i o n ha s t he e ffe c t o f c o nv e r t i n g t he u s u al
t ridi m ens i on a l s ol u t i on s r e l a t i ng t o a n i s o t r opic m e di u m t o
bidi m ens iona l s ol u t ions i n which t h e dis pl a c e m e nt d u e t o
,

s o u rc e s s i t u a t e d i n a ny pl a n e p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he a x i s o f
s y m m e t ry i s a l s o i n t h a t pl a ne W e m ay h a v e a ny n u m b e r o f
.

s u ch pl a n a r di s t rib u t i o ns s id e by s id e wi t h t he a xi s o f s y m m e t ry
,

ru nning t hro u gh t h e m B u t t h e y a re q u i t e i n d e p e n d e nt o f
.

on e a not h e r I f we r e s t ore t he p e rm i t t ivi t y p a ra ll e l t o t he

.

a xi s o f s y m m e t ry t h e di s pl a c e m e nt will u s u a lly s pr e a d o u t t o
, .

s u i t t ridi m e ns i o na l i s o t r opy The e xc e p t i o n i s wh e n e v e ry

.

pl a ne p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he a xi s has id e nt ica lly s imil a r sou rc e s ,

s i m il a rly s i t u a t e d Th e n the r e s t ora t ion of t he p erm it t i v i ty

.

will prod u c e no cha ng e .

The ory of t he r e la t i v e M ot i on of El e c t rifica t i on a nd t he

§ 1 64 . Le t u s no w p as s to w ha t is , at firs t s igh t , a n e nt irely

 7O ELECTR OMAGNETI C T HEORY . CH . III .

m e nt at rigi n bu t let t he di el e c tri c m e diu m be h om o

t he o ,

e n e o us a n d fu lly i so t r opic T h e di s pl a c e m e nt will b e ra di a lly

g .

di st ribu t ed wi t hou t bi as one way o r a not h e r Now k ee ping

,
.
,

t he ch a rg e fi x ed i n s p a c e i m a gi ne t he m e di u m t o m ov e s t e a dily
,

fro m righ t t o l e ft p as t t he ch a rg e H o w wi ll t his a ffe c t t he .

di s pl a c e ment
I f we d es ire t he s ol u t i on e xpress i ng ho w t he di s pl a c em ent
ch a ng es from i ts i ni t i al di st ribu t i on a s t he m ed i u m i s brou ght ,

from r es t i nt o s t e a dy m ot i on we c a n ob t a i n i t by g o i ng t he ,

ri ght wa y t o w ork B u t i t is c ompl e x a nd will t h e r e fore not

.
, , ,

be g i v en h e re e s p e ci a lly a s i t i s not i nt e lligibl e wi t h ou t cl ose

,

s t u dy . B u t if we only wi s h to kno w t he fina lly as s u m e d dis -

t ribu t i on o f di s pl a c e m ent wh e n t he i ni t i a l irr e g u l a ri t i es h a v e

s u b s id e d w e m ay ob ta i n a n d e xpre ss t he r e s u l t i n a c o m p a r a
,

t i v e ly s i mpl e ma nne r T h u s t o b egi n from t he fou nda t i on we

.
, ,

ha v e t he t wo fu nd a m e n ta l circu i ta l l a ws ,

c u rl ( H h) ep E p u ( )
4 2 ,

c u rl ( e E) p H ( )
4
u
,
3 ,

whe re E a nd H a re t he e l e ct ric a nd m a gn et ic forc es p and c ,

t he i nd u c t i v i t y a n d p e rm i tt i v i ty p t he d e ns i t y o f el e c t ri fi c a t i o n
, ,

s u pp os e d t o h a v e v e l oci t y u ; a nd e h a re t he m o t i ona l el e c t ric ,

a nd m a gne t i c fo rc e s gi v e n by

e Vw B , h VDw , ( )
4 4
B a nd D b e ing i nd u ct i on and di spl a c e m e nt and w the
t he ,

v elocit y of t he m edi u m ( S ee e qu at i ons . or

6 6 a n d e q u a t i o ns
, § 44 fo r t he m ot i ona l forc es A lso
, .

3 3 t o 7 0 g e ne ra lly ) .

N o w in ou r pres e nt c as e E and H a re s t ea dy a nd t he e l e c
, ,

t r i fica t ion i s a t r e s t The righ t s id e s of

.
( 43) a r e
t h e r e for e z e o which i s a gr ea t s i mpli fi c a t i on By ( 4 2 ) a n d
‘

, .

t h e s e c o n d 0 ( 4 4 ) w e ob t a i n
.

c u rl H c u rl h c u rl VDW ( )
4 5 .

B u t B i s circ u i t al a nd t h e re fo re s o i s E
, I t foll o w s t h a t .

( )
4 6

if w e b st it u t e u for w for fu t u r e c onv en i e nc e Thi s gi ve s

su , .

H e xplici t ly i n t e rm s o f t he di s pl a c e me nt wh en t h a t i s k no wn , ,

so w e h a ve no fu r t h e r t ro u bl e wi t h t he m a g n e t ic fo rc e .
27 2 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY
I

. Il l .

i of m ot i on re d u c e d from c t o c( l
t on The s ol u t i on i s
t h e re for e gi v en by ( ) i 1 6 3 by a ki ng c = c a nd c
'

4 1 n t o 3 , ,

as i n The di s pl a c e m e nt c on c e n t ra t e s i t s e l f a b ou t t he
e qu a t o ri a l pl a ne o r pl a n e t hr o u gh t he ch a rg e p e rp e n dic u la r t o
,

t he a xi s o f m ot i on in t he o ne pr obl e m o r a x i s o f r e d u c e d p e r
,

m i t t i v i t y i n t he o t h e r I n t h e li m i t wh en t he s p e e d o f m ot i o n
.
,

r e a ch es the s p ee d of ligh t t he dis pl a c e m e nt i s wholly pl a na r , ,

as i n t he e ol o t ro pic c as e wh e n t he p e rm i t t ivi t y 0 3 v a n i s h e s .

O bs e r ve i n
, t h a t t h e s qu a re o f u o cc u r s I t d oe s n ot . .

m a t t e r t h e r e for e which wa y t he m ot i o n t a k es pl a c e s o fa r as
, , ,

t he di s pl a c e m e n t i s c on c e rn e d B u t i t m a k e s a gr e a t di ffe r en c e
.

i n t he m a gn e t i c fo rc e which a cc om p a ni es t h e l a t e ra l c onc en
t ra t i on o f t he di s pl a c e m e nt B e i n g giv en by . we s e e t h a t
H re v e r s e s i t s e l f wh e n t he dire c t i on o f m ot i on i s r e v e rse d .

I t s h o u ld be c a r e fu lly n ot e d t h a t P which i s t he e l e c t r os t a t ic ,
‘

p ot en t i al i n t he e olot ropic s t a t i on a ry m e di u m i s not the e l e c t ro ,

s t a t ic p o t e nt i a l i n t he m o v i n g m e di u m a l t h o u gh i t i s t he s a m e ,

fu n c t i on pr e ci s ely In t he e ol ot r opic m e di u m i t s s l op e i s t he
.

'
e l e c t ric fo rc e I In t he m o vi n g m e diu m i t s s l op e i s t he s a m e
.

fo rc e F bu t t h i s I s no l ong e r t he e l e c t ric forc e which i s E

, ,

i ns t ea d ob t a i ne d from P by ( 5 1 ) or
,
A g a i n whil s t t h e ,

di s pl a c e m ent a nd e l e c t ric fo rc e a re n ot p a ra ll el i n t he s ta t i ona ry

e ol o t ro pic m e di u m ; on t he o t h e r h a n d i n t he m o v i n g m e di u m ,

t h e y a re p a r a ll el b e c a u s e t h e m e di u m i s i s ot r o pic
, To com .

p l e t e t h e di ffe r e n c e s t h e r e i s n o m
,
a g ne t ic forc e i n t he e ol ot r o pic

ca s e bu t t h e re i s i n t he m ov i ng m e di u m a n d i t i s i t s e xi s t e nc e
, ,

which a ll ow s t he p a ra ll e l t o e x i s t a s re ga rd s t he ident ica l

di s t rib u t i on s of di s pla c e m e nt .

I ns t e a d o f m ov i ng t he m e di u m p a st a fix e d ch a rg e we m a y ,

fix t he m e di u m a nd m ove t he Ch a rge t hro u gh t t he re ve rs e

,

w ya a t t he s a m e s eep d Thi s i s why . w e p u t w — u The .

a b o v e r e s u l t s a pply wh e n t he c h a rg e 9 m o v es wi t h v e l o ci t y 11

t hrou gh t he s t a t i ona ry m e di u m B u t i t i s ne c e s s a ry n o w t o
.

t ra v e l wi t h t he ch a rg e i n ord e r t o s e e t he s a m e re s u l t s b e c a u s e ,

t he o rigi n i s t a k e n a t t h e Ch a rg e a n d it i s no w i n m ot i on Th e
, .

pre li mi na ry m a t h e m a t ic s i s t h e r e fore l es s e as y .

The a b o v e t h e ory O f c on v e c t i o n c u r r e nt s a nd t he eol ot ro pic

c p a ri s on I h a ve giv e n b e fo re
o m *
I ha v e n o w t o a dd a s om e
.

wh a t i m p or t a nt c o rr e c t i on For t he Opp o r t u ni t y o f m a ki ng
.

“
E l e c tri ca lP a p ers, Vo l I I , p p 49 2 49 9, 5 04 5 1 6
. . .
- -
.
t hi s c orre ct i on I a m i nde b t e d to Mr G F C S e a rl e of C a in . . . .
,

bri dg e who has b e e n a t t he t r ou bl e o f Worki ng hi s w a y t hrou gh

,

m y fo r m e r c alc u l a t i o ns Whil s t fu lly c on firm i ng m y r e s u l t s

.

for a p o i n t c ha r ge a nd t h e r e fo re a ll re s u l t s o b t a i n e d t h e r e
,

fro m by i n t e gra t i o n he ha s r e c e nt ly ( i n a priv a t e c om m u ni c a

,

t i on ) c a s t d o u b t u p on t he v a lidi t y of t he e x t e ns i on o f t h e
s ol u t i on t o t he c as e o f a m o vi ng ch a rg e d c o nd u c t i ng s ph e r e ,

a n d has a s k e d t he pl a i n q u e s t i o n i n e ff e c t z Wh a t j u s t ific a t i o n
( ) —

i s t h e re for ta ki ng di s t r ib u t i ons o f di s pl a c e m ent c a lc u l a t e d i n

t he a b ov e m a nne r a nd c u tt i ng t h e m s h o rt by s u rfa c e s t o which
,

t he di s pl a c e m e nt is p e rp e n dic u l a r which s u rfa ce s a re t h en

,

m a d e e 1 u i libr i u m s u rfa c es ? Fo r e x a m pl e i n t he s ol u t i on for a ,

p o int cha rge I as s u m e d t h a t t he s ol u t i on wa s t he sa m e for a

-
,

ch a rg e d s ph e re b e ca u s e the lines o f el e c t ric forc e m et i t p e r

,

p e n d i c u la r ly O.n e x a m i n a t i on h o w e v e r I fi
, nd t h a t t h e re i s no,

j u s t ific a t i o n for t hi s pro c es s The el e c t ric forc e s h o u ld n ot be

.

n o r m a l t o a s u rfa c e o f e q u ilibri u m e xc ep t i o ns e x c e p t e d
, .

The t ru e b o u nd a ry c o n di t i o n for e q u ilibri u m h o w e v e r n ee d s , ,

n o fr e s h i n v e s t ig a t i o n b e i ng i m plici t ly c o nt a i n e d i n t he a b o v e
, .

I n t h e s t a t i o n a ry c as e o f e olo t rop y t h e v e c to r 1 m u s t h a v e n o
‘
,

c u rl a nd s i nc e i t i s t he e l e c t ric forc e i t i s t he s am e a s s a yi ng
, ,

t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e n o v o l t a g e i n a n y circ u i t s o t h a t IE m u s t
‘
,

be no rma l t o a n e q u ilibri u m s u rfa c e N o w in t he proble m .

,

o f a m o v ing m e di u m wi t h ch a rg e fi x e d t he s a m e c o n di t i o n fo r

m a lly o b ta i ns v iz t h a t F s h a ll h a v e n o c u rl
,
.
,
B u t a s i t i s no t .

t he e l e c t ric fo rc e E i t i s cl e a r t h a t t he dis pl a c e m e nt ( which is

,

p a ra lle l t o E) c a nnot be p e rp e ndicu l a r t o a n e qu ilibri u m s u r

fa c e . The v ol t a g e c a lc u l a t e d by t he fic t i t i ou s e l e c t ric forc e F
m us t c om e t o z e ro i n e v e ry circ u i t The bou nda ry c o ndi t ion
'
.

i s t h e re fo r e t h a t P i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o a n e q u ili bri u m s u rfa c e

, , .

Tha t is P c ons t a nt i s t he e qu a t i on t o a su rfa c e of e qu ilibri u m

,

n o l ong e r e qu ip o te nt i a l i n t he e l e c t ro s t a t ic se n s e ) wh e r e P i s
( II ,

h ow e ve r t he s a me fu nc t ion as i n t he eol ot r opic s ta t iona ry

,

The re fore by § 1 63 we s ee t h at t he s ph ere of e q u ilibri u m

, ,

wh e n t he m e di u m ( i s ot ropic) i s s ta t i ona ry be com es a n obla t e ,

27 4 ‘ELEC TR O M A G NETI O T HEORY . CH . I II .

« Thi s a pplie s wh en t he who le di e l e ct ric m e di u m i s mov ing

p as t a fix e d s ph e r o id a l s u rfa c e o f e l e c trific a t i on I t e qu al ly .

a ppli es wh e n t he e l e c t rific a t i o n m o v e s t he ot h e r w a y t hro u gh a

fixe d m ed iu m Th e re will be no e l e c t ric forc e i n i t s int e ri or

. .

W e m a y t h e re fore fill i t u p wi t h c ond u c t i ng m a t t e r pro vid e d ,

we d o not i nt e rfe re wi t h t he fr e e m ot i o n of t he e x t e rna l

m e di u m t hro u gh i t i n t he on e c a se or wi t h t he r es t o f t he ,

e x t e rn a l m e di u m wh e n t he c o nd u c t o r m o v e s t hr o u gh i t Bu t .

i n t he li mi t i ng c as e o f m ot i on a t t he s p ee d of ligh t wh e n only ,

a s i ngl e circ u l a r li ne o f e l e c t rific a t i o n i s c o n c e r ne d i t w o u ld ,

s e e m t o be i m m a t e ri a l wh e t h e r t he c o nd u c t o r b e a fla t di s c or

a s ph e re s u bj e c t t o t he r e s e r v a t i on o f t he l a s t s e nt e nc e
,
.

Wh e t h e r i t i s p os s ibl e t o m ove m a t t e r t hrou gh t he e t h e r

wi t hou t di s t u rbing i t for ms a n e n tirely di ffe rent qu e st i on t o ,

which no d e fi n i t e a n s we r ca n be gi ven a t pres ent W e c a n i n .

,

a ny c as e fa ll b a ck u p on t he m or e a b s t r a c t t h eo ry o f e lec t r i fi
,

ca t i on m ov ing t hr o u gh the e t he r wi t hou t ha v i ng c ond u c tors

,

to i nt e rfe re .

Theory of t he re la t i v e M ot i on of M agnet i ficati on and t he

M e di u m .

1 65 . From pr e c e di ng rel a t i ng t o t he m a gnet ic e ffec t s

t he ,

prod u c e d by mo vi ng t he m e di u m b odily p as t s t a t i ona ry e l e c

t rifica t ion ; or e q u i v a l e nt ly by m o v i ng t he e l e c t rific a t i on t he
,

o t h e r wa y t hr o u gh t he m e di u m ; Or m or e g e n e ra lly by r el a , ,

t i v e m ot i on of t he sou rc es of di s pl a c e m e nt a nd t he m e di u m
s u p p o rt i ng it we m ay r e a dily d e d u c e t he c o rr e s p on di ng r e s u l t s
,

wh e n t he s ou rc es a re o f t he fl u x i nd u c t i on i ns t e a d of di s pl a c e
,

m ent . Thu s in ,
do a w a y wi t h t h e c on v e c t i v e e l e c t ric
c u rr e nt p 11 a nd s u b s t i t u te c onve c t i ve m a g ne t ic c u rre nt 0 1 1
, ,

wh e re i s v ol u m e d e ns i t y o f m agne t i fic a t ion ( s u pp os i t i ona l )

O -
.

O u r circ u i ta l e q u a t i ons a r e t h e n

c u rl ( H h) p E,
o
( )
5 5

c u rl ( e E) pp H ( )
5 6

wit h t he au xili a ry e qu a t i ons of m ot i ona l l c t ric

e e a nd m a g ne t ic
forc e
e Vw B, h VDw , ( )
5 7

as b e for e wh e re
,
w i s t he v l ci ty
e o of t he m e di u m ,
a nd wi t h t he
27 6 ELECT ROM A G NETIC THE ORY . CH . I II .

or, if u is p a rall el to k,

2 2
“
—
( 3
k H -
H)
2

( l ( l u
2
/ ) 2
v j2
H kH ( )
6 2

from which we h a t t he v e c to r P d e ri v e d fro m f by

s ee t
12 ) I ha s n o c u rl o r i s d e riv e d fro m a s c a l a r p o t e n
2
f (l 2
/
‘
u ,

t ia l ( 2 t h u s P ,
V52 a nd t h a t t he i nd u c t i on i s g i v e n by
,

t o a n »
.
( ,
6 3

Th a t i s , t he i nd u c t i on di s t rib u t e s i t s el f in t he s a m e wa y as if
t he m e di u m w e r e a t r e s t b u t h a d i t s i n d u c t i v i t y r e d u c e d fr o m
,

p. t o p( 1 i n t he li n e o f m o t i o n I n fa c t t he t h e o.ry o f ,

t he e ffe c t s pr o d u c e d by r e l a t iv e m o t i on o f m a g n e t ic so u rc e s
a n d t he m e di u m i s e s sen t i a lly t he s a m e a s t h a t o f m o v i n g
'

e l e c t r i c s o u rc e s 3 t ra ns l a t i ng di s pl a c e m e nt i n t he l a tt e r c a s e t o

i nd u ct i on i n t he form e r p e rm i t t ivi t y t o i nd u c t i v i t y e l e c t ric

, ,

p o t e nt i a l ( re a l or fic t i ti o u s as t he c as e m a y be ) t o m a g ne t ic
,

p ot ent i al a nd t he m a gne t ic indu c t io n w hich a cc om p a ni es

,

m o v i ng e l e c t r i fic a t i o n t o e l e c t ric di s pl a c e m e nt s e t u p by
m o vi ng m a gn e t ific a t i o n r e m e m b e ri ng h o w e ve r t he ch a ng e
, , ,

o f s ig n .

W e kno w th e re fo r e t he r e s u l t of t he s t e a dy re c t ili ne a r
, ,

m ot i on of a ny di s t rib u t i on o f m a g ne t ic s ou rc e s If t he s a m e .

m ot i o n i s c o mm o n t o a ll t he e l e m e nt a ry s o u rc es w e r e d u ce t he ,

probl e m t o t ha t of m a g ne t ic e olo trop y w i t h ou t r e l a t i ve m o t i on

o f t he m e di u m a nd s o u rc e s a nd t h e r e i s a d e fi n i t e s y s t e m o f s u r
,

fa c e s o f e q u ilibri u m ( 9 = c ons t a nt ) wh e r e we m a y i f we pl e a se , ,

t e r m i na t e t he e l e c t ric a nd m a gn e t ic fi e ld s t h e r e by s u b s t i t u t i n g ,

n e w a rra ng e m e nt s o f m a g ne t ic s o u rc e s for t he o ld I n t hi s .

c a s e i t i s m os t c on v e n i ent t o k e e p t he s o ur c es a t re s t a nd ,

m o v e t he m e di u m a l on e .

B u t s h ou ld t he re l a t iv e m o t i o n of s ou rc e a nd m e di u m not be
t he s a m e fo r e v e ry s o u rc e t h e n s i nc e we c a n not m o v e t he
, ,

m e d i u m b odily m o re t h a n o ne wa y a t a t i me we m a y i m a gi n e ,

i t t o b e s t a t i o na ry a nd o b t a i n t h e e ffe c t d u e t o t he m o t i o n o f
,

t he m a gn e t ific a t i on by s u p e ri m p o s i ng t he s e p a ra t e e ffe c t s o f
t he e le m e n t a ry s ou rc e s which a r e k n o w n b t h e a bove
, y .
 E E L MEN TS 0F VE C TOR IA L AL GE BRA A ND A N L A YS IS . 27 7

Theory of t he r e la t v e i M o t i on of M a gnet i s a t i on a nd t he
M e d ium . I ncr ea s e d I nd u c t i on as w e ll as Eol ot rop i c
Di s t urba n e c .

§1 66 Th
. e r e i s h o w e v e r no s
,
u ch t h in g a s m a g n
,
e t i fic a t i o n ,

t he m a g ne t ic a n a l o g u e o f e l e c t ri fic a t i on The i nd u c t i o n i s .

a lw a y s circ u i t a l I f i t w e re not circ u i t al we s h ou ld h a v e

.
,

u nip ol a r m a g ne t s W e m u s t t h e re fore s om e wh a t m o di fy t he
.
, ,

c o ndi t i ons a s s u m e d t o pre va il i n t he a b ov e i n o rd e r t o c o m e ,

cl os e r t o r e a li ty C ons id e r t h e re fo re i ns t e a d of m a gne t ific a

.
, ,
'

t i on a di s t rib u t i on of i nt ri ns ic m a g n e t i s a t i on
, Thi s qu a nt i t y .

i s I p ho wh e re hO i s t h e e q u i v a l e nt i nt ri ns ic m a g ne t ic forc e
:
,
.

A b o li s h o i n a n d i nt ro d u c e h
O
i n T h e circ u i ta l

e q u a t io ns a r e n o w

c u rl ( H VDw ho) op E ( )
6 4

c u rl ( Vw B E) p H ( 6 5 ) u
, ,

wh e re we h a ve i nt rod u c e d t he m o t i ona l forc es ( 5 7 I n t he

s t e a dy s t a t e t he righ t m e m b e rs v a n i s h a s b e fo re
, Now as s u m e .

t ha t
E Vw B ( )
6 6 ,

s o t h a t t he t h e o ry i s u n ch a ng e d s o fa r t he d i s pl a c e m e nt ,

d e p ending o n t he i nd u c t i on a nd v e lo ci t y o f t he m e di u m i n t he
s a me wa a s w h e n t h rc w a s m a n e t ific a t i o n W e s h a ll
y e s o u e g .

s e e t he li m i t a t i on o f a pplic a t i o n l a t e r N e x t p u t ( 66) i n ( 64 ) .

a nd we find i f t he fr a c t i o n 1
, be d e no t e d by s ,

c u rl f c u rl ho ( 67 ) ,

'
c u rl I c u rl ho/s ( )
6 8 ,

wh e re f a nd I a re t he s a m e ve c t ors ( i n t e r m s of H) as In t he
‘

las t c as e s u ch t h a t s? f W e s e e t h a t t he v e c t or P ha s no w
, .

de fi ni te c u rl a nd t ha t t he i ndu c t i o n i s d e ri ve d from F by
,

B1 u
,
‘
Fl , B2 1
[ 3 2,
B3 ( )
69

t h a t i s t o s ay B = AF w he re A i s t he i nd u ct ivi t y Op e ra t o r whos e
,

s c a l a r pri ncip a l s a r e { , a n d p 8 W e t h e1r e,

fo r
u,e h a v e t o find .

t he s t e a dy s t a t e fr om t h es e c o m pl e t e c onne c t i ons ,

di v B O, B AP , c u rl F = c u rl ho/s 7
( )0

Tha t i nd u c t i o n i s t he s a m e
i s , t he as in i ry e olot ro p l c
a s t a t o na

m e di u m ( a cc o rdi ng t o A) pro vid e d , t he i nt e ns i t y of t he i nt ri ns ic

27 8 E LEC T ROMAG NE TI C T HEORY . CH . 1 11 .

m a gn e t ic fo rc e be i ncre as e d fro m h0 t o hO/ s . Thi s is an

i m po r ta nt po i nt .

W e k no w t h a t t h e re ar e c e r ta i n r e s p e c t s i n which t he t h e o ry
o f i n d u c t i on d u e t o i nt ri n s ic m a g n e t ic fo rc e i s id e n t ic a l w i t h

t h a t d u e t o m a g ne t i fic a t i on Fo r i ns t a nc e t he s t e a dy i nd u c t i on
.
,

o u t s id e a m a g n e t d u e t o h0 i s t he s a m e as t h a t d u e t o a d i s

t ri b u t i o n o f m e as u r e d by t he c onv e rg e n c e of t he i nt ri ns ic
m a g ne t i s a t i o n Fr o m t hi s w e m igh t h a s t ily c o n cl u d e t h a t t h e
.

d i s t u r ba n c e fro m t he s t e a dy di s t rib u t i on pro d u c e d by m o vi ng

t he m e d i u m w o u ld b e t h e s a m e for h0 a s for t he e q u iva l e n t
pro vid e d we k e e p ou t s id e t he re gion o f m a g ne t i sa t i on B u t .

t he a b o ve i n v e s t ig a t i o n only p a r t ly c o nfir m s t hi s c o n cl u s i o n I t .

s h o w s a lik e n e s s a nd a di ffe r e n c e The lik e nes s i s i n t h e

.

e ol o t ro pic p e c u li a ri t y br o u gh t i n by t he m o t i o n In b o t h c a s e s .

w e m a y d o a wa y wi t h t he m o t i o n pro vid e d w e s i m u l t a ne o u s ly
r e d u c e t he i ndu c t ivi ty p a ra lle l t o t he ( a b oli s h e d ) m o t i on from
u
,
t o ap s o a s to c a u s e t he i nd u c t i o n t o r e t r e a t fro m t hi s dir c o
t,

t i on a nd c o nc e nt ra t e i t s e l f t r a ns v e rs e ly Th e di ffe r e n c e i s i n
.

t h e r e ck o ni n g o f t he s t r e n g t h o f s o u rc es I n t he c a s e o f .

m a gne t i fic a t i on ( a s o f e l e c t rific a t i o n) we d o n o t a l t e r t he
s t re ng t h o f t he s ou rc e B u t i n t h e c a s e o f m a g n e t is a t i o n w e
.

d o o r a t a ny r a t e pr o d u c e a n e q u iv a l e n t r e s u l t
, , ,
For a l o ng .
,

w i t h t he r e d u c t i on o f i nd u c t i v i t y i n t he dir e c t i o n o f m o t i o n ,

w e r e q u ire t o i n cr e a s e t h e i nt e ns i t y o f t he i nt ri ns ic m a g n e t ic
fo rc e fro m h0 t o hO/s , Re m e mb e r t ha t s i s a pro p e r fr a c t i o n
.
,

go i ng from u ni t y t o z e ro as t he s p e e d o f m ot i on i ncre a s e s fro m

0 t o 12 t he s p e e d o f pro p a g a t i on o f di s t u rb a nc e s
, .

To e x em pli fy t hi s p u t ,

r = h,/ s — Vc , ( )
7 1

as we s ee we m a y d o, by t he t hird of
( 7 U s i ng t hi s i n t he
s e onc d a nd fi
rs t o f ( 7 O) we obt
di v AVQ di v Rho/s , ( )
7 2

t he e qu a t i on of t he p ot e nt i al (2 . O r, i n t e r m s of C a r t e s i a ns ,

—I
”( V1
2
V2
2
‘3
I V
( 1 01
h V2 h02 8 V3 h03 ) ( )
7 3

The qu i va l e nt m a gne tificat ion i s t he c onve rge nc e o f Ah /s

e
O ,

of m t he r e a l i nte ns i t y o f m a g ne t i s a t i o n no r
O/
no t t f h
[ e y e o s ,
u
, ,

t he s a m e i n cre as e d i n a c o ns ta nt r a t i o .
 80 EL EC TROMAG NE TI C T H EOR Y . CH . I II .

W e m ay , h o w e ve r a rra n ge m a t t e rs i n s u ch a wa y t ha t t he
,

e q u a t i o n ( 66 ) s ha ll be s till v a lid w h e n t h e li ne o f m o t i o n i s

p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he m a g ne t i s a t ion a nd s o ob t ai n a n e x a c t
,

s o l u t i o n s h o w i ng t he i ncr e a s e d i nd u c t i o n t h a t i s e x a c t i n t h e
, ,

a b s e n c e o f w o rki n g e rrors Le t t he re gi on of m a g n e t i s a t i on be
.

c on fi ne d be t we en t wo i nfi ni t e p a ra ll e l pl a nes a nd t he m a gne t i ,

s a t ion I h
p o b e u n i fo r m ly d i s t rib u t e d p a r a ll e l t o t h
,
e

bo u nda ri e s W e t h u s d o a wa y wi t h t he p ole s N o w wh e n t he
. .

me di u m i s a t r es t t he i n d u c t i on i s B = I wi t hi n t he pl a t e
( w hich m a
y b e o f a ny t hick n e s s ) a n d z e r o o u t s id e
, whil st ,

t h e r e i s no di s pl a c e m e nt The i nt ri ns ic m a g ne t ic fo rc e h0 p ro
.

d u c es t he gre a t e s t e ffe ct t ha t i t c a n prod u ce u na id e d Bu t if .

t he m edi u m be m a d e t o m ov e s t e a d ily s t ra igh t a cr os s t h e

m a gn et i s e d re gi on t h e n a ft e r c e r ta i n t ra ns i e nt e ffe c t s h a v e
, ,

p as s ed a wa y ( which m a y be r ea dily c a lc u l a t e d b e c a u se t h ey ,

fo rm s i m ply pl a ne e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic w a v e s ) a l t h o u gh t h e re will,

s t ill b e n o i nd u c t i o n ( o r d i s pl a c e m e n t ) o u t s id e t he pl a t e t h a t
, ,

wi t hi n i t will be i ncre a s e d ( wi t ho u t ch a ng e o f dire c t i on) from

I to Th a t i s t he m o t i ona l m a g net ic fo rc e c om e s i n t o
,

a ss i s t t he i nt ri ns ic m a gn e t ic fo rc e H e re we ha v e t he e xpla na
.

t i o n o f t he pre vi o u s r es u l t r e l a t i ng t o t h e i ncr e a s e d e ffe c t i v e

s t r e ngt h of p o l es .

A l o ng wi t h t hi s i ncre a s e d i nd u c t i on t h e re will be e l e c t ric

,

fo rc e a cc o rdi ng t o
, I t i s e n t ire ly wi t hi n t he m a g ne t i s e d
re gion A s t he s p e e d i ncre a s e s u p t o v t he i nd u c t i o n a nd t he
.
,

a cc o m p a nyi ng di s pl a c e m e nt i n t h e pl a t e g o u t o i n fi ni t y
p .

The t h e o ry o f a n e l e c t ri s e d pl a t e i s s i m il a r The di s pl a c e .

m e nt d u e t o i nt ri ns ic e l e c t ri s a t i on J = ce o wh e r e e 0 i s t he ,

e q u iv a l e nt e l e c t ric fo rc e t h e e l e c t ri s a t i on b e i ng u ni fo r m a nd
,

p a ra ll el t o t he s ide s of t he pl a t e will b e i ncrea s e d from D J

,
:

t o D = J/s by s e tt i ng t he m e di u m m o vi ng s t r a igh t t hro u gh i t ,

i t b ei ng n ow t he m ot i ona l e l e c t ric fo rc e t h a t a s s i s t s t he i h
t r i ns i c The a cc omp a nyi ng m a gne t ic forc e i s a cc ordi ngly giv e n
.

by
( )
7 4
O u t s id e t he pl at e t h er e i s no d is t u rb a n c e i n t he s t e a dy s t a t e .

I t will o f c ou rs e be u nd e r s t ood t h a t if i ns t e a d o f s u pp o s i
, , ,

t i o na l i m pr e s s e d or i nt ri ns i c forc es i n a u ni fo r m m e d iu m w e ,

e m pl oy a c t u a l m a t e ri a l pl a t e s m a g ne t i s e d o r e l e c t ri s e d a s t he
,

c as e m ay be t h e y mus t in t he firs t pla c e be non c o nd u c tors

, , ,
-
,
 ELEMEN TS or VEC T OR IAL ALGE B RA A ND ANALY S I S . 281

a nd ne xt t h ey,m u s t no t i nt e rfe re wi t h t he s u pp ose d u ni form

m ot i on of t he m e di u m In s h o rt , t he r e se r a t i o n i s s i m il a r t o
. v
v
t h a t m e nt i on e d i n c onne c t i on wi t h m o i ng cha rg e d c o n d u c t o rs .

Of c du r s e , in pre sent c as e t he pl a t es m a y be m o v e d
ou r , ,

whil s t t he m e di u m is s u pp os e d t o be a t r e s t .

I t will be re a dily s ee n t h a t t he fu ll i n v es t ig a t i on o f t he
e ff e c t s o f m o v i n g pr a c t ic a bl e e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic a rr a ng e m e n ts o f

c ond u cto rs pre s en t s c on s ide ra bl e di ffic u l t i es W e can how .

,

e v e r ge t s om e in fo r m a t i on r e l a t i ng t o t he m o t i on o f a li ne a r
,

circ u i t .

Theory of t he R e la t i v e M ot i on of El e c t ri c C urr e nt s a nd

t he M e di um .

1 67 . T hu s , firs t a b oli s h t he i nt ri ns ic m a gne t i s a t i on

le t us

of 1 6 6 a nd s u b s t i t u t e e q u i v a l e nt el e c t ric c u rr e nt
, H e re .
,

by e q u i v a l e nt e l e c t ri c c u rr e nt we m e a n a di s t rib u t i on of
,

e l e c t ric c u rr e nt which pro d u c e s t he s a m e i n d u c t i o n as t h e

int ri ns ic m a gn e t i s a t ion 3 s o t h a t if b ot h w e re t o e xi s t t og e t h e r ,

the i nd u c t i on w o u ld be e v erywh e r e d ou bl e d 3 a n d t h e n i f e i t h e r ,

o f t h e m w e r e n e g a t iv e d t h e r e s u l t i n g i nd u c t i on w ou ld be n il
, .

Th a t t hi s i s p os s ibl e wha t e v e r m a y be t he di s t rib u t i on o f

,

i nd u c t ivi t y i s a v e ry re m a rk a bl e pr o p e r ty
, The i n d u c t i o n d u e
.

to m a g ne t i s a t i on i s c ondi t i o ne d s ol e ly by t h e c u rl o f t he i n t r in .

s i c m a gne t ic fo rc e p ol e s a r e es s e nt i a lly qu it e a
“
a n d t he,

s e c o n d a ry m a t t e r Th a t is we m a y va ry t he p ol es a s we lik e
.
, ,

pro vid e d we d o n ot a lt e r t he c u rl o f t he int ri ns ic forc e w i t h o u t ,

a ff e c t i ng t he i n d u c t i o n o r t he a s s o ci a t e d e n e rgy .

The q u e s t i on t h e n pre s e nt s i t s e l f wh e t h e r t hi s e qu i va l e n c e
c ont i nu e s t o h old good wh en t he m e di u m i s s e t i n m ot i on p a s t
the s t a t i on a ry m a g ne t i sa t i on or e l e c t ric c u rre nt r es p e c t i v e ly I n .

t h e circ u i t a l e q u a t i o n p u t h o
= o a nd i nt r o d u c e a t e r m
,

Go on t he righ t s id e pr od u ci ng ,

c u rl ( II VDw ) 0 0 cp E
-

e xpr i ng t h
e ss e firs t circ u it a l la w 3 whi ls t or
282 ELEC TROMAGN ET I C T HEOR Y . on . In .

di s m is s t he i d e a o f m a gn et i s a t i on a nd le t t he s ou rce of t he
,

i nd u c t i on be a ny di s t ribu t i on of i nt ri ns ic e l e c t ri c c u rr e nt 0 0 .

Wi t h i t i s as s o ci a t e d a c e rt a i n di s t rib u t i on o f i nd u ct i on id e n ,

t ic a l wi t h t h a t d u e t o a ny di s t rib u t i o n o f i n t ri n s ic m a gn e t i sa t i on
fo r w hich w e h a v e c u rl h0 = 0 0 a n d t he e q u iv a l e nc e p e rs i s ts
,

wh e n t he m e di u m i s m o vi ng o r wh e n t he s ou rc e s a re m o vi ng
, .

C o rr e s p on d i ng t o ( 7 O) we s h a ll h a v e
div B o B ,
AF ou r ] 1
,
‘

( )
7 7

for t he d e t e r m i na t i on o f t he i nd u c t i o n i n t he e ol o t ro pic m a nne r

pre vi o u sly p u rs u e d wh e n t he s t e a dy s t a t e o f a ffa irs i s re a ch e d ;
,

s u bj e c t a l s o t o t he pr e vi ou s r e s e rv a t i on t h a t w a nd c u rl B a re

e e n dic u la r Th a t i s t o s a y t he i n d u c t i o n i s a ff e c t e d b t h e
p p y
r .
,

mo t i o n i n t he s a m e wa y as if t he m e di u m ha d i ts i nd u c t ivi t y
d e cre a s e d from p t o i n t he dire ct io n o f m ot i o n wi t h ou t a ny
.
,

ch a ng e t r a ns v e rs ely whil s t a t t he s a me t i m e t he s o u rc e 0 0 i s
,

e ffe c t iv e ly i n cr e as e d t o

E q u a t i o ns ( 7 7 ) a r e s u i t a bl e wh e n t he e l e c t ric c u rr e nt s a re i n
l a n e s p e rp e n dic u l a r t o t he dir e c t i o n o f m o t i o n F o r i ns t a n c e
p .
,

le t t h e re be ( t o t a k e a v e ry e as y e x a m pl e ) t wo p a ra ll e l pl a ne
s he e t s o f e l e c t ric c u rr e n t o f s u rfa c e d e n s i t y C o a nd C O re s p e c
-

t i v e ly . The i nd u c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m which i s B = p C 0 wh e n
,

a t r e s t b e c o m e s p C O/s w h e n t h e y a r e i n m o t i o n wi t h v e l o ci t y u
,

p e rp e n dic u l a r t o t h e ir pl a ne s H e re 3 i s t he fra c t i on ( 1
.

a s b e fo r e a nd t he e l e c t ric fo rc e a cc o m p a nyi ng t he ch a n g e d i n
,
.

d u c t i on i s s i m ply t he m ot i o na l e l e c t ric forc e .

Th e re i s a not he r wa y o f m a ki ng t he e ol o t ropic c om p a ri son ,

na m e ly by e m pl oyi ng t he v e c t o r 1 i ns t e a d o f P The n i ns te a d
‘

.
, ,

o f ( 7 7 ) we s h a ll h a v e

div B O B ( A/s ) f
, c u rl f 0 0
,
( )
7 8 .

I n t hi s wa y o f l oo ki n g a t t he m a t t e r w e re g a rd C O as s u ffe ri ng
n o ch a n g e o f e ff e c t iv e s t r e ng t h whil s t t he e o l o t r o pic Op e r a t or
,

s u ch a s t o i n dic a t e i ncr ea s e d i n d u c t ivi t y fr o m p t o p s

M 8 i s
( /) .

t ra n s v e r s e t o t h e m o t i on a nd u nch a n g e d i nd u c t ivi t y p a ra ll e l
,

to it . The v e c t o r f i s t he e x c e ss o f t he m a g n e t ic fo rc e E o f
t he flu x o v e r t h e m o t i ona l m a g n e t ic forc e I nas m u ch a s t hi s
.

wa y e m ph as i s es t he fa c t t h a t t he i n t ri ns ic s o u rc e s a r e re a lly
c on s ta nt i t i s n ot w i t h o u t i ts a dv a nt a g e s B u t t he id e a o f
,
.

i ncre a s e d t ra ns v e rs e i nd u c t ivi t y i s ra t h e r a n u n ma na ge a bl e o ne
in g e ne ra l e s p e ci a lly i n t he c as e o f m o vi ng e l e c t rific a t i o n
,
.
2 84 E LEC TROMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . I II .

m i ne d c s
’
t o m a tch The r el a t i on b e t we e n t he v e c tors D a nd
.

E, which i s fu lly e xhibi t e d i n ( 7 m a y be conv e ni e ntly

s y m b oli s e d by

D = CE ,

w h e re c g e ne ra l li ne a r o p e ra t or
i s t he .

I f w e e xch a ng e on a nd 6 21 & c i n t he s e t ( 7 9 ) w e s h a ll
,
.
,
'
u s u a lly ch a ng e D o f c ou rs e
,
L e t i t b e c om e D
. I t is t h e n .

fu lly gi v e n by t he s e t
'
D l
c
ll
E l
0 15
21 2
0
31
E3,

6 13
12 1
0 15
22 2
6 13
32 3 :

Us c E
ls l
c E
23 2
c E ’
ee e
'
a nd t h e s e r el a t i ons b et w e e n D a nd E m ay be s ymb oli s e d like ,

by the s ingl e e qu a t i on
' '
D c E .
( )
8 2

The m a n ip u l a t i on qu a t i ons lik e ( 7 9 ) a nd ( 8 1 ) i s

o f se t s of e

l e ng t hy a n d l a b o ri o u s By t he u s e of t he li ne a r o p era t ors
.
,

h ow e v e r wi t h prop e r a t t e nt i on to t he l a ws go ve rning t he m
, ,

the v e c t o rs m a y be m a nip u l a t e d wi t h fa cili t y Thu s t o gi ve .

,

t he firs t a n d e a s i e s t e x a m pl e t h a t pr e s e nt s i t s e l f we m a y ,

i ns ta n tly t u rn A B t o A CC B I
This i s obvi ou s e no u gh i nas
‘

.
,

m u ch a s t he o p e ra t i o n i i d i c a t e d by c 1
will be pre ci s ely ca n ‘

c ell e d by t he o p e ra t i on c s o t ha t co B = B B u t t h e r e i s m u ch
,
l ‘

m or e i n i t t h a n t h a t Fo r A ce B i s not m e re ly t he s c a l a r p ro
1 -

d u c t o f t he v e c t ors A a nd oc B t h a t i s of A a nd B bu t is
l ‘

, , ,

t he s c a l a r pr o d u c t o f t he v e c t o rs A c a n d c B which a r e q u it e
l ‘

di ffe re nt The ve c t o r A c i s t he s a m e as t he v e c to r c A whils t

.
’

I
B i s t he v e c to r which whe fi o p e ra te d u p on by C g i v es t he
_

C , ,

v e c to r B .

The c ons t i t u e nts of t he i nv e rs e o p e ra t o r m ay be fou nd

by s ol u t i on o f S i nc e D i s a li ne a r fu nc t i on of B i t fo ll o ws ,

t h a t E i s a li ne a r fu n c t i o n o f D 3 or t he E s m ay be e xpre s s e d
’

i n t e r m s of t he D s by m e a n s of a s et of e q u a t i ons lik e
’

wi t h n e w c oe fficie nt s i ns t e a d o f t he o s t he re S i m il a rly as ’
.

re g a rd s t he i nv e rs e op e ra t or c b e l ongi ng t o ( 8 1 ) a nd
l "

The v e c t o r fo rm e d by t a ki ng h a l f t h e s u m of t he v e c t ors D
'
a nd D i s a sy m me t ric a l fu nc t i on o f E s a
y ,
 '
6
22,
0
33,
ar e t he sa m e as t h ose of c a nd of c . B u t t he ot her
cons t i t u ent s a re h a l f t he s u m o f t he c orre s p ondi ng ones of c
a n d c ; for i ns t a nc e i n pl a c e of 0 1 2 a nd 0 2 1 F r om
’
.

t hi s we s e e t h a t t he o p e ra t o r A i s i t s o wn c onj u g a t e or i s s e l f ,

c onj u ga t e m a ki ng AE a nd A E id ent ica l

,
’
.

O n t he ot h e r h a nd t he v e c to r fo r m e d by t a ki ng h a l f t h e
,

di ffe renc e of D a nd D is a s i mpl e v e cto r prod u ct By i ns p e c

’
.

t i on o f ( 7 9 ) a n d a n d r e m e m b e ri n
g t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a

ve ct or produ ct we m ay se e t ha t ,

t( D

wh e re a i s t he v ct r gi v
e o en by
c
23 )
i 0
31 »M C
2I
cI 2 ) k ( )
8 5

We h e re fo re t ha t a ny li nea r fu nc t i on if i t be not
s ee , t , ,

a lr e a dy o f t he s y m m e t ric a l ki nd m ay be r e pre s e nt e d a s t he,

s u m o f a s y m m e t ri c a l fu n c t i on a n d o f a v e c t o r pr o d u c t Th u s .
,

by a ddi t i on a nd s u bt ra c t i on of ( 8 3) and ( 8 4 ) we ob t a i n
cE =D AH + Va E,

-
VaE .

That i s, in t e rm s of t he Op e ra tors a l one ,

0 A + va , .
( )
8 8
'
c A Va , ( )
8 9
'
wh ere c ( a nd t h e re fore c ) i s ge ne ral whil s t A i s s ymme t ric a l , .

The v e c to r a i s q u i t e i nt ri ns ic a nd i nd e p e nd e nt o f a x es o f r e fe r
,

enc e The s y m m et ri c al Op e ra t o r A i nv olv e s s ix s c a l a r s t he v e c t or

.
,

a t hr ee m o re t hu s m a ki ng u p the ful l ni ne
, .

Not ic e by ,
that
2 86 ELE CTRO MAG NETIC T H EORY CH . 111 .

are h e mse l ves s ca l a r p rod u ct s

t . Thu s , let t hree ne w v ct e ors

d efi ne d by
0
1
l el 1 j cl 2 k cl s ,

c2 16 21 j c2 2
‘
k c23 ,

c3 i c3 1 j c32 k egs ,

be i nt rod u c ed . The n we s ee t ha t e qu a t i ons ( 7 9 ) a re Sim ply

D1 c l E, D2 C 2E, D3 egE,
( )
9 2

a nd, t h e re fo re by combini ng t h e m
, , we prod u c e t he one v cte or

( )
9 3

t h u s prov i ng t h a t e very line r Op er a ato r m ay be exh ibite d in

t he dy a di ca l for m

( )
9 4

wh et h e r i t be sy mm e t ric al or not . The c onj u ga te op e r a t or i s,

s i m il a rly ,

( )
9 5

wh ere the ac c ent e d ve ct ors m ay be obt ai ne d from t he nu

a cc e nt e d gi v e n i n ( 9 1 ) by ch a ngi ng (3 & j u s t as D
’

12
t o o
n c , .
,

was got fr om D i n fa c t , .

It i s now eas ily t o be prov e d th a t

'
CE Ec , E6 ( )
9 6

t hat i s , i f we re move a n Op era tor from b efore t o b e h ind

wi s h to
a v e c t o r w e m a y d o s o by s i m ply t u rn i ng t he Op e ra t o r t o i t s
,

conj u g a t e 3 t h a t i s by p u t t i ng o n t he a cc ent or by r e m o v i ng
, ,

i t i f a lre a dy t h e re I t will o f c o u rse be u nd e rs t oo d t h a t wh e n

.
, ,

a v e c t o r E foll o ws c a nd we u s e t he d y a d i c a l fo r m of c a s i n
.
, ,

i t is only t he t hre e s e c ond v e c t o rs t ha t u ni t e wit h E 3

.

whe re as if E pre c e d es c i t i s t he fi rs t ve c t ors i n c t ha t u ni t e

, ,

wi t h i t Thu s
.

Ec Ei . c
1
Ej . o2 Ek . c
3, ( 7
9
' '
E=i
’
c . c 1E k . c
3
E .
( )
9 8

Thes e a re id ent ic a l v ct r
lwa ys In t he sy mm e t ric a l c a s e
e o s a .
,

t he ac c ent s m ay be dro pp e d of c ou rs e 3 t h e n EA AE I t will

’

:
, .

be s ee n t h at t he a bo v e way of wri t i ng a nd w o rki ng

dy a dic s fits i n pre c is ely wi t h a ll t he pre v i ou s not a t i on e m .

l
p y o e d i n t he v e c t o r a lg e bra The d ot s i n
( )
9 4 a re m e r e ly .
2 88 EL E CTR OMAGNE T I C THEOR Y .

by ou r d e fi nit i on of a s c a l a r produ c t a nd t he p a ra ll e l e pipe d al ,

prop e r ty No w i nt rod u c e CC b e tw en t he V s a nd the ve c tors

.
1 “ ’

pre c e d i n g t h em in Th u s
0 l n, O 1
a ( 1 0 3 )
‘

ncc
"

c .

Th e s e rt ( and we c a nnot bu t b e li e ve i t ) t h a t
a sse t he v ct r
e o

e l u i s p e rp e n dic u l a r t o t he v e c t o rs Inc a nd no or oh an d
‘

C n 3 i t i s t h e re fo r e p a ra ll e l t o t h e ir v e c to r pro d u c t
'
, , . The l as t
s ta t e m ent i s e xpr es se d by
—1 ' '
{t o a Vc mc n , 1 04 )

wh ere a: is kno wn ( or s o
an u n fa r un d e t e rmi ned ) l
s ca ar . Or,
o p e r a t i ng o n b o t h s id es by C ,

m n C
'
VC mC n
'
.
( 1 0
1
5 )
To find t he vl a u e o f x, we h a ve m e rely to mu t l iply ( 1 05 ) by a

t hird v ct r
e o , s ay 1 . Fo r t hi s gi v es
' '
931a lC Vc mC n

which gi ve s the vl a u e o f a: e xplicit ly ,

na m e ly ,

c N o ma n
( )
1 0 7

to be u se d which wi th mt h u s se tt l ed is t he s t at e
in , ,

ment o f t he li t t l e ( bu t i m p o r t ant ) t h e or em The q u a nt i t y :1: .

a pp ea rs t o de p e n d u p on 1 m 11 Th es e ve c t ors h o we v e r e nt e r
, , .
, ,

int o b ot h the nu m e ra t or a nd d enom ina t or i n s u ch a wa y t h a t

t h e y c a n be wh olly eli m i na t e d fr o m x Thi s m a y be s e en by .

e xp a n di ng t he n u m e r a t or a nd d e n om i na t o r I n fa c t a: i s a .
,

p u re c ons t a nt de p e ndi ng u p on the op e ra t or C a l one

, .

I n t he s y m m e t ric a l c a s e we m ay find i t s v a l u e by t a ki ng
1 m n t o be i j k a nd t he l a t t e r t o be t he pri n cip a l a x e s
, , , , , .

Th u s ' '
C l Ci C i
l ,
C m C
2j ,
c h 6 k
3 ,

if 0
1:
0
2,
c a re
3
t he pri ncip a l s c a l a r C s
’
. S O, by

x 0 6 6 ,
1 2 3
ii

the c ont i n u e d pro d u c t of t he pri ncip a l c s

’
.

I n t he g e ne ra l c a se we m ay p u t, as we k no w ,

C = A+ V&
 ELEMEN TS OF VECT OR I AL ALGE B RA AND AN A LYSI S . 289

U s i ng his t in on t he d e rst anding t ha t

un C
l , 0
2,
0
3
a re

t he pri n cip a l s of A n o w, w e s h a ll ge t s i m il ar ly
, ,

which i t will b e a u s e fu l e x e rci s e t o v e ri fy .

S i nc e C i s a ny li n e a r o p e ra t o r ( 1 0 5 ) r e m a i ns t r u e wh en
, fo r C
'
we s u b s t i t u t e i t s c onj u g a t e c pr o d u ci ng ,

ma
’
€ m ( 1 1 0)
wh e re x i s got from t he e x pr e ss io n for a: by cha ngi ng c t o it s
’ '
'
c o nj u ga t e c B u t C a nd c o nly di ffe r i n t he cha n ge d s ign o f a
.
,

as i n O n t he o t h e r h a nd ( 1 09 ) c ont a i ns a q u a dra t i
c a lly s o t h a t a re v e rs a l o f i ts S i gn m a k es no d i ffe re nc e The r e
, .

fo r e as i s t h e s a m e a s x which m igh t no t h a v e b een a nt icip a t e d

'
, ,

a t t he b e gi nn i ng o f t he e v a l u a t i on .

H l t on s C u bic a nd t he Inv ari a nt s c onc erne d

a mi
’

§ 1 7 1 T h.e r e a de r of P r of T a it s pr o fo u
. n d t r e a t i ’
se on

Q u a t e r n io ns w ill p roba b ly s t ick a t t hr e e pl a ce s i n p a rt ic u l a r ,

t o s a y n o t hi ng o f t he n u m e r ou s m i no r s t icki ng p o i nt s t h a t -

pre s e n t t h e m s e lv e s i n a ll m a t h e ma t ic al wo rks of a ny va l u e ,

a nd which m a y b e r e adily o v e rc o m e by t he r e a d e r i f he be

a r ea l s t u d e nt as w ell First t h e re is t he f u nda m e nta l

.
,

C ha pter wh e re i n t he r u l e s for t he m u lt iplic a t i on o f v e ct o rs

a r e m a d e t o d e p e n d u p on t he di ffi c u l t m a t h e m a t ic s o f Sph e ric a l

c on ic s c o m bi ne d wi t h v e rs o rs qu a t e rn i ons a nd m eta phys ics

, , .

Ne xt C h a p t e r I V whe re t he r ea de r m ay be p u zzled t o find o u t

,
.
,

why t he u s u a l s i m pl e not ion o f di ffe re nt ia l s i s d ep a rt e d fro m ,

a l t h o u gh t he d e pa rt u re i s s a id t o be o blig a t o ry Thirdly .
,

C h a p t e r V wh e re t he re a d e r will be s t o pp e d n e a rly a t t he
.
,

b e gi nni ng by a ra t h e r fo r m id a bl e i nves t iga t i o n of H a m il t on s ’

c u bic O nly wh e n t he s t u d e nt i s we ll a cqu a i n

. wi t h t he
n a t u r e o f li n e a r o p e ra t o r s a n d ho w to w o rk t h e m c a n he t a ckl e

s u ch a n i nv e s t ig a t i o n He s ho u ld t he re fo re p as s on t o o b t a i n
’

.
, , ,

t he n e c e s s a ry e x p e ri e nc e O n t h e n r e t u rn i ng t o t he c u bic he
.

m a y find t he i nv e s t ig a t i on no t s o di ffic u l t a ft e r a ll e s p e ci a lly i f ,

i t be s i mplifi e d by s o m e ch a ng e s c a lc u l a te d t o bri ng ou t
t he m a i n p oi nt s of t he w ork m o r e pl a i nly .

The r e a d e r i s le d t o t hi nk t h a t the o bj e c t o f t he i nve s t ig a

t i o n i s t o i n v e r t a li n e a r o p e r a t o r — t h a t is gi v e n D CE t o find , ,

U
29 0 ELE CTROMAGNE TI C THEORY . C II . II I .

E=C 1
D Bu t if t hi s w e re
w ou ld be a re ma rk a bl e a ll, it
"

e x a m pl e o f ho w n o t t o d o i t For t he i nv e rs i o n of a lin e a r .

Ope ra t or c a n be e as ily e ffe c t e d by o t h e r fa r s i m pl e r a nd m or e

n a t u r a l m e a ns The m e re i n v e rs i on i s no t hi ng
. I t i s t he .

c u bic e qu a t i o n i t s e l f t h a t i s t he re a l goa l The pro c e s s o f .

r e a ching i t is s i m pl i fi e d by t he o m i s s i on o f i n v e rs e op e ra t i ons .

s a l s o s i m plifi e d by no t i nt r o d u ci n g t he a u xili a ry f u n c t i o n
( It i
c all e d x ) .

The f u nd a m e nt a l c u bic i s d e r i v e d fro m e q u a t i on or

t he e qu iva l e nt e q u a t i on ( 1 1 0 ) l as t i n v e s t ig a t e d I s h ou l d .

rema rk t h a t t hi s e qu a t i on i s fre q u e nt ly u s e fu l i n a dv a n c e d
ve c t or a na lys i s as a t ra ns fo r ma t i on for m u l a t u rni ng c cn to
-
,

a fu n c t i o n o f a No w u s e t he form
. or

m n C
'
c on,

wh e re a: is a kno wn fu n c t i o n o f C, viz .
,

C c a
( 1 1 2 )
1a

Hr e e c is li nea r op e ra t or No w if g be a c o ns t a n t gm i s
a ny .
,

a li nea r fu nc t i o n o f m a n d t h e r e fo re c — g m i s a ny li ne a r
( )
,

fu nc t i on o f m ; t h a t i s c — g i s a g e ne ra l li ne a r o p e ra t o r
,
.

Eq u a t i on ( l l l ) t h e r e fo re r e m a i ns t r u e wh e n we s u b s t i t u t e
f o r C i n i t no t fo rg e t t i ng t o m a k e t he ch a ng e i n x a n d a l s o
0 g , ,

t he e qu i va l e nt ch a ng e i n c v iz fr om c t o c — g
' ' '
E q u a t i on
,
.
, .

t h e n b e c o m es

'
a
x n= ( 6 -
m
9) ( c -
n
9 , ) ( 1 1 3 )
w h e re x
,
is wh a t It b e co m e s by the ch ang e t h a t
,
i s, by

l
( 1 1 4 )
n

R e me m b e ri ng t h a t g is a c o ns t a n t ,
we m a y r e a d ily e x p a n d ( 1 1 3)
t o t he for m

( an >
3
x 9 a
' ' '
C c on
9( Vea C Vm cn c VC mn)
( Vm on ) ( 1 1 5 )
’
3 2
g a g c a c n ,

whe re t he c u b ic fu n c t i o n of g on t he l e ft s id e i s t he e xp i
a n s on

of T
o
. The ne w c o e ffi ci e nt s a nd x
2
are , of c o u rs e ,
to be
29 2 EL ECT O R MAGNE T I C TH EORY . CH . III .

fo r m of r r a nd deno mina tor For s u pp os e we a l t e r

nu m e a t o .
,

l t o 1 + a m wh e re a is a ny c on s t a nt The a ddi t i o n m a d e t o t he
,
.

nu m e ra t o r v a n i s h es by t he p a ra ll e l e p ip e d a l pro p e r t y a n d s i m i ,

la rly i n t he d e no m i na t o r The s a m e i n va ri a nc e o b t a i ns wh e n
.

we ch a ng e 1 t o l + a n A l s o t he ch a ng e o f 1 t o a ny s c a l a r
.
,

m u l t ipl e o f i t se l f a l t e rs b o t h t he n u m e ra t o r a nd d e no m i na t o r
i n t he s a m e ra t i o B u t u nl e s s I m n a r e C o pl a na r we m a y
.
, , , ,

t u rn 1 t o a ny v e c to r by a d di ng t o i t v e c t o rs p a ra ll e l t o l m ,

a nd n o f t he righ t s iz e The re fo re a n i s t he s a me wh a t e v e r
.
,

ve ctor 1 ma y be By t he sa m e reas oni ng m m ay be a ny ve c t or

.
,

a nd s o m a y 11 B u t 1 m II s h ou ld be i nd e p e nd e nt v e c t ors ( t h a t
.
, ,

i s n ot C o pl a na r)
,
Thi s i s not b e c a u s e we can s u ppo s e t h a t a n
.

a c t u a l di s c ont i nu i t y occ u rs wh e n o r e x a m pl e ) 1 i s bro u gh t

( f
i nto t he pla ne m II bu t me re ly b e c a u s e t he e xpress i on
, ,

ass u m e s a n i nd e t e rm i na t e fo r m i n t he c o pl a na r c as e .

Fro m t he i nv a r i a n c e of It foll o ws t h a t o f t he t hr e e fu nc t i ons

,

i t c ont a i ns na me ly w x1 a nd x 2
, , T ha t of x of c o u rs e ma y be
, , .
, ,

i nde pende nt ly s een by it s el f re a dily e no u gh bu t t ha t of t he o t he rs

, ,

is l e s s pl a i n b e c a u s e on e xp a ns i on t h ey a re fo u nd t o e a c h
,

i nvol ve t hre e p a ra ll e l e pi p e da l pro d u c ts i n t he n u m e ra t o r i ns t e a d

o f only o ne Th u s e xp a ndi ng ( 1 1 4 ) we ob t a i n
.
,

l m c nel nVcl cm

l n

1a

I n t h e s e we m ay , by t he a b o e , s u b s t i t u t e c for c, t h a t i s , v '

t u rn t he li nea r Op e ra t o r t o i ts c o nj u g a t e T hi s d o e s no t me a n .

t h a t at, i s i nd e p e nd e nt of t he e c to r a which c o me s i n wh e n v .

t he pe ra to r i s no t s y mm e tric al
o , bu t t h a t i t on ly In v lvo es a

q u a dra t ically .

The v a l u e of a: b e i ng
a: 6 6 03
1 2
a ca ,

expres se d in t e rm s of t he princip a l c ons ta nt s of t he sy mme t ric a l

o p e ra t o r a nd t he rot a t i on v e c to r we m a y o b t a i n t he r e d u c e d ,

va l u e s o f a) , a nd a , from i t dire c t ly i ns t ea d of fro m t h e i r ge ne ra l

3Xp res s i o ns T hu s : t u rn C t o c g ( i n
.
m a ki ng i t

( 0 9 )( c 9X6 9) g )3
"

2 3
~
1 . .
 ELE M EN TS OF E O A
V C T RI L A LGEBRA A ND A NALYS I S . 29 3

On e xpa ns i on ,
t he c oe ffici e nts of g a nd 9
2
Sho w t ha t
2
a} , 6 0
2 3
0 0
3 1
c 0
1 2
a ,

x2 =c + C + C
, 2 3
.

Th u s at, is i nde pe nde nt o f a whils t i nv ol ves its s qu a re as , ,

w e c o ncl u d e d p re vi o u sly .

Whe n re fe r re d t o t he pri ncip a l axe s Ha mil ton s c u bic t here ,

’

fo re re d u c e s t o
0 ( 6 0 6
1 2 3 ( 0 6
1 2
0 0
2 3
0 6
3 1
3
Z
) C

( 1
C C
2
C c
3 ) 2 3
C ,

a nd i n the s y m me t rica l cas e of v ni hi ng a t

a s o

( 1 2 8 )
Hr e e t he x es a re c 0 p e rp e nd ic u la r Bu t we m a y dis rega rd
a .

t he pri ncip a l a x e s a l t oge t he r a nd wri te t he ge ne ra l c u bic i n,

o= <o ( 1 2 9 )
wh e re the 9 s a re t he r oots o f’
I f t h e n t h e s e roo t s a re , ,

a ll r e a l a nd di ffe r e nt t h e re a r e t hr ee dir e c t i o ns o f p a rall e li s m

,

o f r a nd C r o r t hr e e r s s u ch t h a t
’
,

cr
l
=
gl r v ( 1 30 )
No w m u l t iply t he firs t by r2 a nd t he s e o n c d by r
,,
gi vi ng
r2013 = g l r1 r 2, r i cr z = 9 r r
2 i 2 ( 1 3 1 )
l e ft m e m be rs a re not u s u a l ly e q u a l bu t i n t he sy m
The ,

me t rica l c as e t h e y a re a nd t h e n t he righ t me mbe rs a re ,

e q u a li s e d T he n rl r2 = 0 or T1 is p e rpe ndic u l a r to
. S im i
,

la rly r 2 i s p e rpe nd i c u l a r t o r3 T his is t he c as e o f t hre e .

m u t u a lly p e rp e ndic u l a r a x e s o f p a ra ll e li s m o f forc e a nd flu x

we s t a rt e d fr o m .

The I nv e r s i on of Li near Op e ra t ors .

172 I f w e w ri t e 1
fo r i n t he c u bic ( 1 2 1 ) we t ha t
‘

. C c see

c
‘ ”
l
r be c o m e s xpr d
e esse as a fu nc t i on o f r, or , and Thi s is
o ne wa y of i nv rt i g t h
e n e o p e ra t o r ,
bu t a v e ry cl u m s y Way .

The i m pl e wa y
s Is I n te rm s o f dy a d s , a nd i s fu lly d es cri be d by
s a yi ng t h a t if

c = a .1 I
;
294 E LEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . 1 11 .

is an
y li ne a r op e ra to r i n dy a d i c a l fo r m , t h e n i t s r e cipro c a l is

( 1 3 3 )
whe re A, B ,
C i s t he set c om pl e m e nt a ry t o a , b, c , a nd L , M, N
t he set c o m pl e m e nt a ry t o l m n W e ha v e a lre ady u s e d
, , .

t h e s e c o m pl e m e nta ry v e c t o r s i n t he e a rly p a rt o f t h i s ch a p t e r ,

e q u a t i o ns
( )
5 4 a nd 1 1 4 W e s h o we d by e l e m e n t a ry
.

c o ns id e ra t i o ns t h a t a ny v e c t o r 1 c ou ld be e x pre s s e d i n t e r m s of
'

an
y t hr e e i nd e p e n d e n t v e c t o rs a b c by , ,

( 1 34 )
w h e re t he c o m p l e me n t a ry v e c to rs A , B , C a re g t
o fr o m a, b, c

by
Vbc Ve a Va h
a Vbc
’
a Vbc
’
a Vbc
( 1 35 )
The s e q u a t ions s e r ve t o d e fi ne t he s e t c o m pl e m e nt a ry t o a b c
e , , .

W e a l s o s ho w e d a t t he s a m e t i m e t h a t t he v e c t o r I c o u ld be
e x pre s s e d i n t e r m s o f t he c o m pl e m e n t a ry s e t by

( 1 3 6)
To v rify
e ,
we ha ve m e r e ly t o m u l t iply ( 1 3 4 ) by A B , , G i n t u rn,
u rn
a nd ( 1 3 6 ) y
b a , b, c i n t .

T he s e e q u a t ions m a y be wri tt e n
( 1 3 7 )
( 1 38 )
s ho wi ng t h a t t he dy a dic i n t he bra cke t s i s of a v e ry p e c u li a r
ki nd i na s m u ch a s i t s res u l t a n t e ffe c t o n a ny v e c to r i s t o re p ro
,

d u ce t he v e c t or Th a t i s t a ke n a s a whol e a nd di s re g a rdi ng
.
, ,

i ts d e t a il e d fu nc t i o ns t he dy a dic i s e q u i v a l e nt t o u n i ty
, .

No w s u pp os e i t is give n t ha t
,

R ( a.1 +b . m c . n r, )
so t ha t Ri s a ny li ne r
a fu n c t i o n of r . We k no w t h a t
( 1 4 0 )
an d tha t ( 1 4 1 )
by t h e pro p e rt y o f t he c om pl e m ent a ry v e c t ors e xpl a i ne d
C o m p a ri ng ( 1 4 0) w i t h we s e e t ha t

1r = A R , mr ==BR, nr = C R .
 29 6 EL EC TROMAG NE T I C THEOR Y . CH . 1 11

a nd t he c
se o nd wi t h Vra (t o But ,
. t o g o fu t e rh r i n t hi s
dire c t i on w ou ld be t o go b ey on d t he c p pres e nt s o e o f t he

t r e a t m ent .

The di ffe re nt i a t i on of li ne a r o p e ra t ors m u s t h o w e v e r be , ,

me nt i o ne d b e c a u s e t he pro c e s s i s o f fre qu e nt o cc u rre n c e i n

,

e l e c tro m a g ne t ic i n v e s t ig a t i o n s I f we t hi nk only o f t he .

di ffe re nt i a l c oe ffici e nt of a s ca l a r t h a t i t i s i t s ra t e o f i ncre as e ,

wit h s om e v ar i a ble i t m igh t s e e m a t firs t s ight t h a t t he

,

di ffe re nt i a l coe fii c ie nt of a li ne a r op e ra t or wa s nons e ns e But .

a li tt l e c on s id e r a t i o n will s h o w t h a t i t i s a p e rfe c tly na t u ra l ,

a nd by no m e a ns a di ffic u l t c o nc e p t i o n T h u s from .
,

D = cE , ( 1 47)
wh e re C is a l inea r p e ra tor we ob ta i n by di ffe re nt i a t i on wi t h
o , ,

re s p e c t t o a s c a l a r v a ri a bl e s a y t he t i m e
, ,

D= é E + cE .
( 1 4 8)
He r e i n t he c d
r on t he righ t we s u pp ose t ha t C i s con
s e on te m
s t a nt a n d i n t h e fi rs t t h a t E i s
,
c on s t a n t The m e a ni ng .

o f C E t h e n i s t he ra t e o f i n cr eas e o f D wh e n C a l o ne v a ri e s
'

, , It .

is t he li ne a r o p e ra t o r wh ose c on s t i t u e nt s a re t he ra t e s o f
i ncre a s e o f t he c ons t i t u e nt s of C Tha t t hi s i s s o will be e vid e nt .

o n di ffe r e nt i a t i ng t he s e t o f e q u a t i o ns ( 7 Th e re fore i f ,

C =a 1+b . . m c . n,

we s h a ll h a ve
2: é . n t . m c. 1 i ,

t he sum of t wo dy a di c s . B u t i t m a y be t h a t ou r a xes of

r e fe re nc e a re i nv a ri a bl e as ,
for e x a m pl e wh e n

C i . c1 + j . c2 k . c
3,

i, j , k b e ing a fi xe d s e t of r e ct a ngu l a r or ts . Th e n
one dy a dic
( 1 5 2 )
wh e r e of c ou rs e t he d ot s o ve r t he i a nd j d o n ot s ig ni fy a ny
, ,

di ffe ren ti a t i on .

I n a n i s ot ro pic di e l e ct ric o f v a ri a bl e p er m i t t i v i t y t he e l e c t ric

s t re s s l e a d s t o t h e fo rc e V (% cE ) p e r u n i t v o l u m e wh e re t he
2
c ,

s c a la r C a lo n e i s d i ffe r e n t i a t e d s o t ha t t he r e su l t i s
3 V
2
, E C .
 E LEME NTS or EC TORI AL
V A L G E D RA A ND A NAL YS I S . 29 7

B u t i f t he di e l e c t ric be eol ot ropic , t he c orr es p ondi ng forc e i s

Thi s i s e q u i va l e nt t o
23 3
+ k ( 1 5 3 )
d a: dy
wh e re d e/dr , &c .
, a re di ff e re nt i a l c oe fii c i e nt s of C as a b ove ex

pl a i ned I t
. m e a ns t he s a m e as

( VD VB ) ft ) ,
r-D ( 1 54 )
wh e re V m e a ns D t ha t D l
a on e , a nd VB t ha t E l
a o ne is
di ff e re nt i a t e d .

S u mma ry of M e t h od of Ve c t o r A na l y s i s .

1 74 . l a s t p a ra gr a ph I c a m e da n ge ro u s ly ne a r t o
I n t he
o v e rs t e ppi ng t he i m p os e d li m i t s o f m y t r e a t m e n t o f v e c t o r s ,

which i s m e a n t t o pr e s e nt t he s u bj e c t m e re ly i n t he fo rm i t
as s u m e s i n o rdi na ry phy s ic a l m a t h e m a t ic s I f w e w e re to .

i g nor e t he phy s ic a l a pplic a t i o n s a n d t r e a t v e c t o r a lg e bra as a,

bra nch o f p u re m a t h e m a t ic s r e g a rdl es s of pra c t ic a l li m i ta t i ons

, ,

t h e re w o u ld b e n o b ou n d s t o t he i n v es t ig a t i o n o f t he s u bj e c t .

I t will n o w be c on v e ni e n t t o wi n d u p wi t h a fe w r e m a rk s on t he
pr e vi o u s a nd o n t he n a t u r e a n d pr os p e c ts of v e c to r a na ly s i s
, .

S i nc e w e li ve i n a w o rld o f v e c t o rs a n a lg e bra or l a ng u a g e ,

o f v e c t o r s i s a p o s i t i v e n e c e ss i t y A t t he c o m m e nc e m e nt o f .

t hi s ch a p t e r 9 7 t o 1 02 I m a d e s om e g e ne r a l re m a rk s o n t he
, ,

na t u r e o f c a r t es i a n a n a ly s i s v e c t o r a n a ly s i s a n d q u a t e r ni o ns ;
, ,

a n d t he r e a d e r i s r e c o mm e nd e d t o r e a d t h e m a g a i n fro m a m o r e

a dva n c e d p o i nt of v i e w The n he wa s s u pp os e d t o kno w ne x t

.
,

t o n o t hi ng a b o u t v e c t ors N o w a l t h o u gh he n e e d n ot h a v e
.
,

a b s orb e d a ll t he s p e ci a l a pplic a t i ons o f v e c t o r a lg e bra t h a t h a v e

b e e n g i v e n s i n c e i t m a y be pres u m e d t ha t he h as a cq u ir e d a
,
»

ge n era l kn o wl edge of t he prin cipl e s of t he s u bj e c t The re i s .

no l on g e r a ny q u e s t i o n as t o t he d es ira bili t y a nd u t ili t y o f

v e c t ori a l a na ly s i s The pre s e nt qu e s t i on i s ra l he r a s t o t he

.

fo r m t he v e c t or a lg e bra s h o u ld t a k e O n t hi s p o i nt t h e re i s .

lik ely t o be c on s id e ra bl e di ffere nc e of Opi ni on a cc ordi ng t o t he ,

p oi nt o f v i e w a s s u me d wh e t he r wi th re g a rd t o phys ic a l a pp li
,

c a t i ons or a b st ra c t m a t h e ma t ic al t h e ory L et u s t h e n t o be gi n
,
.
,

wi t h s u m ma ri s e t he l e a di ng p o i nt s i n t he a lg e bra giv e n a bo ve
, .

F irs t t h e re i s t he id e a o f t he v e c t o r a s a di s t in c t e n t i ty
, .

Nea rly e ve ry one n o wa d ay s knows a nd a ppre c ia te s the ide a .

298 E LECTROMAGNE TI C T HEOR Y . CH . 11 1

A nd i t i s a n ot ewort hy fa c t t h a t ig nora nt me n h a ve l o ng b e e n
i n a dva n c e o f t he l e a rne d a b ou t v e c t o rs Ig no ra nt p e o ple like
.
,

Fa ra d a y n a t u ra lly t hi nk i n v e c t o rs
,
Th ey m a y k no w no t hi ng
.

of t h e ir fo r m a l m a nip u l a t i o n b u t i f t h e y t hi nk a b ou t v e c t o rs
, ,

th e y t hi n k o f t h e m a s v e c t o rs t h a t i s dir e c t e d m a gn i t u d e s
, , .

No ig no ra nt ma n c o u ld or w o u ld t hi nk a b o u t t he t hr e e co m
p o n e nt s o f a v e c t o r s e p a ra t e ly a nd di s c onn e c t e d fro m o ne
,

a no t h e r. T ha t is a d e v ic e o f l e a rn e d m a t h e ma t ici a ns t o e na bl e ,

t h e m t o e v a d e v e c t o rs The d e v ic e i s o ft e n u s e fu l e s p e ci a lly
.
,

fo r c a lc u l a ti ng p u rp os e s b u t fo r g e ne ra l p u rp o s e s o f r e a s on i ng
,

t he m a n ip u l a t i on o f t he s c a l a r c o mp one nt s i ns t e a d of t he
ve c tor i tself i s e nt irely wrong .

I n o rd e r t o fac ili t a t e t he r e a di ng o f v e c t o r w ork t he v e c t o r ,

has i t s s p e ci a l t yp e t h u s E
, Thi s C l a re ndon or a ny v e ry s i mil a r
.
,

n e a t bl a ck t yp e ( no t bl o ck l e t t e r s ) i s m e a n t t o m a rk t he v e c t o r
, ,

a l wa y s t h e v e c t o r a nd ne v e r a ny t hi n g e l s e wi t h t he o bvi o u s
, ,

e x c e p t i o n o f h ea dli ne s t h a t s p e a k for t h e m s e l v e s A l so t o .
,

e c o no m l s e l e t t e rs a nd e a s e t he s t r a i n o n t he m e m o ry t he s a m e
, ,

l e t t e r s u i t a bly m odi fi e d s e rv e s for t he t e n s or t he or t a nd t he , ,

t hr e e s c a l a r c om p one nt s Th u s E i s t he t e n s o r o r s iz e a n d E 1
.
, ,

t h e o rt ( s ig ni fyi ng t he o ri e nt a t i on ) s o t h a t E E E1 3 whil s t t h e :

s c a l a r c o m p o ne nt s r e fe rr e d t o r e c t a ng u l a r a x e s a r e
E 2 3 E E , ,
.

The phy s ic a l di m e ns i ons m a y be m os t c o nv e n i e n t ly m e rg e d i n

t he t e ns o r E . E ve ry v e c t o r ha s i t s s p e ci e s T he o n e w e a r e .

m o s t fa m ili a r wi t h i s t he s p a c e v e c t or o r s t r a igh t li ne j o i ni ng
,

t wo p oi nt s o r m o re s t ric t ly t he di s pl a c e m e n t fr o m o ne p o i nt t o
,

a not h e r . B u t a ll ki n d s o f v e c t o r m a g ni t u d e s a re fo rm a ll y
s i m il a r i n h a vi n g Siz e a n d o r t a nd t h e r e fo r e wh e n c o n s id e r e d
, ,

ve c toria lly ob ey t he s a m e l a ws The prop e r t i e s o f t he s p a c e

,
.

ve ct or t h eref ore s u pply u s wi t h t he r u l e s or la ws of ve c tor

a lg e br a .

The a ddi t i on a nd s u b t ra c t i on of v e c t o rs i s em b odi e d i n t he

as se rt i o n ( wh o s e t r u t h i s o b v i o u s ) t h a t t he s u m o f a ny n u m b e r

o f v e c t o rs m a ki n g ( wh e n p u t e nd t o e n d ) a circ u i t i s z e r o ; o r ,

i n a no t h e r fo rm a ll t he v a ri o u s p a t h s by which w e m a y p a ss
,

from o ne p o i n t t o a n o th e r a r e v e c t o ri a lly e q u iv a l e n t n a m ely t o , ,

t he v e c to r s t ra igh t fro m p o i nt t o p o i nt E v e ry v e c to r e q u a t i on
.

t h e re fo re e xpr e s s e s t hi s fa c t E v e ry t e rm i s a v e c to r ; a nd i f
.

a ll t he v e c t o r s be p u t o n o n e s id e wi t h z e r o o n t h e o t h e r w e
, ,

e xpr e s s t he circ u i ta l pr o p e r t y 3 wh i ls t i f we h a v e v e c t o rs o n b ot h
 300 LECTROMAG NE TI C T HEOR Y
E . on I II
. .

pret t y fr e q u e nt b u t t hos e of fou r a re e xc e p t i ona l B u t it

, .

s h ou ld be n o t e d t h a t t he s c a l a r a nd v e c t o r pr o d u c t o f t wo

ve c t o rs a r e i nv ol v e d t hro u gh o u t no n e w id e a be ing i nt rod u c e d

,

wh e n m ore t ha n t wo v e c to rs a re c onc e r n ed .

Wh e n w e p a ss on t o a na ly s i s we find j u s t t he s a m e v e c t or,

a lg e bra t o be i n v o lv e d Ve c tors a re di ffe rent i a t e d wi t h re s p e c t

.

t o s c al a r s t o m a k e n e w v e c t o rs i n t he s a m e w a y a s s c a l a rs a nd ,

t he id e a s c on ne c t e d wi t h di ffe re n t i a l s ( i n fi n i t e s i m a l ) a nd di ffe
re nt i a l c oe ffici e n t s a r e e s s e nt i a lly t he s a m e fo r v e c t o rs a s fo r

s c a l a rs W e n e v e r r e q u ire t o di ff e r e nt i a t e a v e c t or wi t h r e s p e c t
.

t o a v e c t o r a nd t h e re i s a v e ry g oo d re a so n for i t b e c au se t he
, ,

o p e ra t i o n i s a n i n d e t e rm i na t e on e .

The fic t i t i ou s v e c t o r v i s o m nipr ese nt i n t ridi m e ns i ona l a na

ly s i s I t only diff e rs from a ve c to r in b e i ng a di ffe re nt i a t o r as
.

w e ll s o t h a t i t foll o w s v e c t o r r u l e s c o mbi ne d wi t h ot h e r fu nc
,

t i ons Wi t h i t a re as s o ci a t e d t he id e a s o f t he s l o pe of a s c a l a r
.
,

a nd t he div e rg e n c e a nd c u rl o f a v e c t o r wi t h c o rre s p o n di n g ,

i mp o r ta nt t h e ore m s r e l a t i ng t o t he t ra n s i t i on fro m li ne to s u r
fa c e a nd fr o m s u r fa c e t o v ol u m e s u m m a t i ons
,
The t h eory o f .

p o t e nt i a ls i n i t s br oa d s e nse is a l s o i n v ol ve d i n t he m a t h e m a t ic s
of i ncl u d i ng t he r e l a t i o ns dir e c t a nd i nve rs e of p o te nt i a l
V : , , ,

s l o p e c u rl a nd div e rg e n c e
, , .

A s for t he li ne a r Op e ra t or t h a t i s only t he s c a l a r a nd v e c t o r
'

prod u c t sy s t e m a g a i n i n a s p e ci a l form Pro fe s s or G i bbs s .

’

dy a dic i s a u s e fu l id e a a n d I h a ve m odifi e d his nota t ion t o s u i t

,

t he r e s t .

I t i s n e i th e r ne c e ss a ry nor d es ira bl e t h a t a s t u d e nt s h o u ld
k no w a ll t h a t i s s k e t ch e d ou t a b o v e b e fore he m a ke s pra c t ica l
u se of it Fo r v e c t o r a na lys i s like m a ny o t h e r t hi ngs i s b e s t
.
, ,

s t u di e d i n t he c o ncre t e a pplic a t i o n The pri nc ipl e s m ay be

.

ve ry c oncis ely s t a te d be ing li t t l e m ore t ha n e x pl a na t i ons of

,

th e s ca l a r a nd v e c to r pro d u c t wi t h s o m e c on v e nt i ons a b ou t
,

n o t a t i on A s t u d e n t m igh t l e a rn t hi s by h e a r t a nd be li t t l e
.
,

t h e b e t t e r for i t H e m u s t s i t d o w n a nd w o rk if he w a n t s t o
’

a s s i m il a t e i t u s e fu lly He m a y w o rk wi t h s c a l a r pro d u c t s
.

only t o b e gi n wi t h for q u i t e a l a rg e gro u nd i s c o v e r e d t h e re by

, .

W he n fa m ili a ri s e d wi t h t he w orking o f v e c t ors by pra c t ic e s o

fa r as t he s c a l a r pro d u c t g o e s t h e fu r the r i nt rod u c t i o n o f t he
,

ve c tor prod u c t will c om e c o m p a ra t iv e ly e a s y The for m er .

kno wl e dg e i s fu lly u t il i s e d a nd a l so re c e iv e s a v as t e x te ns i on
,
 ELEMEN TS OF VECT OR I AL ALGEB RA AND ANALYS IS . 30 1

of a pplic a t i on For t he v e ct o r prod u c t i s a p o w e rfu l engine

.
,

w hich wi t h i t s c o m p a ni o n t he s c a l ar p ro d u c t i s f u lly c a p a bl e
, ,

o f w o rki n g e l a b o ra t e m a t h e m a t ic a l a n aly s i s i n a c on ci s e a n d

s s t e m a t ic m a nn e r T he s t u d e n t ne e d n o t t ro u bl e a b o u t li n e a r
y .

o p e ra t o rs a t firs t H e w ill gr o w i n to t h e m
. I t i s fa r m o r e .

i m p o rta nt th a t he s ho u ld u nd e rs t a nd t he Op e ra t i o n o f V as a
v e ct or a nd it s me a ni ng i n the s pa c e v ar i a t i on of fu nc t i ons
, .

U ns u i t a bili t y of Qua t e rni ons for Phy ic s al Ne e d s . A x i om

O nc e a Ve ct o r , alw a y s a Ve c t o r .

1 75 . N o w, a fe w wo ds r
r e g a rdi ng Q u a t e rni o ns I t i s .

k no wn t h a t S i r W Ro wa n H a m il t o n di s c ov e re d or i nv e n t e d a
.

re m a rk a bl e sy s t e m o f m a t h e m a t ic s a nd t h a t s i n c e his d e a t h ,

t he q u a t e r n i onic m a n t l e h as a d o r ne d t h e s h o u ld e rs o f P r o f .

Ta i t who has re p e a t e dly a dv o c a t e d t he cl a i m s o f Q u a t e rn i o ns

, .

Pr of T a i t i n p a r t ic u l a r e m ph a s i s e s i t s gre a t p o we r s i m plici ty
.
, ,

a n d p e r fe c t n a t u ra l n e s s o n t h e o n e h a n d ; a n d o n t he o t h e r
,

t e ll s t he phy s ici s t t h a t i t i s e x a c t ly w ha t h e w a n t s fo r h is phy

s ic e l p u rp oses I t i s a l s o k no wn t h a t phy s ici s t s wi t h gre a t
.
,

ob s t i n a cy h a v e b een c a re fu l ( ge ne r a lly s p e a ki ng) t o ha v e

,

n o t hi ng t o d o wi t h Q u a t e rn i ons 3 a nd w h a t i s e q u a lly r e m a rk ,

a bl e wri t e rs who t a k e u p t he s u bj e c t of Ve c t o rs a r e ( g e n e ra lly

,

s p e a ki ng ) po s se ss e d of t he id ea t ha t Q u a t e rn i ons i s no t
e x a c t ly wh a t t h e y w ant a n d so t h e y go t i nk e ri ng a t i t t ryi n g
, ,

t o m a k e i t a li tt l e m o re i nte lligibl e v e ry m u ch t o t he di s g u s t ,

o f P ro f T a i t w ho w ou ld pr es e rv e t he q u a t e r ni o nic s t re a m p u r e
.
,

a n d u nd e file d N o w i s P rof T a i t righ t or a re t he d e filer s

.
, .
,

righ t ? O pi ni ons m a y di ffe r My o wn i s t h a t t he a ns we r a ll .

d e p e nds u pon t he p oi nt of vi e w .

If w e p u t a s id e pra c t ic a l a pplic a t i o n t o P hy s ic s a nd l oo k ,

u p on Q u a t e rn i o ns e nt ir e ly fro m t he q u a te r ni onic p o i n t o f
vi e w t h e n Pr of Ta i t is righ t t h oro u ghly r i gl t a nd Q u a t e r
,
.
, ,

ni ons f u rn i s h e s a u n iq u e ly s i m pl e a nd na t u r a l wa y o f t r e a t i ng

q u a ter ni ons O b s e rv e t he e m ph a s i s
. .

Fo r c ons id e r wh a t a q u a t e r n i on i s I t i s the o p e ra t o r which .

t u r n s o ne v e c t o r t o a no t h e r Fo r i n s t a n c e w e h a v e
.
,

B A A .
'
1
B B A LA B
‘
 30 2 ELEC TROMAGNETI C T HEORY . C II . I II .

ide nt ica lly . Or,

B ( A
’
I
B ( 1 5 7 )
Hr e e t he Op e ra t o r i n t he bra ck e t s s a y 9 d e p end s u pon A a nd
, ,

B in su ch a wa y t h a t i t t u r ns A t o B 3 t h u s B = qA It i s a , .

q u a t e r n i o n I t ha s a
. s c a l a r a nd a v e c t o r p a rt The g e ne ra l .

t yp e o f a q u a t e r ni o n i s

q =w+ Va , ( 1 5 8 )
wh e r e w i s a ny s c a l a r a nd a i s a ny v e c t or S i nc e we know
, .

t he l a w s of s c a l a r a nd v e c t o r pr od u c t s we m ay r e a dily
d e du c e t he l a ws o f q u a t e rni ons s hou ld we d es ire t o d o s o .

B u t w e s h a ll find t h a t t he a b o v e n ot a t i on t h o u gh so w e ll ,

s u i te d for v e c t ors i s e nt ir e ly u nfit t e d for di s pl a yi ng t he

,

m e ri t s of q u a t e rni ons To d o t hi s w e m u st foll o w H a m il t on

.
,

a nd m a k e t he q u a t e rn i on i t s e l f t he m as t e r a nd a rra ng e ,

t he no t a t i on a n d c on v e nt i o ns t o s u i t i t re g a rdl ess o f t he c on ,

v e n i e n c e of t he v e c t o r a nd t he s c a l a r The res u l t i s t h e .

s i ng u l a rly p o w e rfu l a lg e bra of q u a t e r ni o ns To gi v e a no t i on .

of i t s p o w e r a n d e ss e n t i a l S i m plici t y we m a y r e m a rk t h a t t he

pr odu c t of a ny nu m b e r of qu a t e rn io ns p q r s s a y i n t he , , , , , ,

o rd e r n a m e d i s i n d e p e n d e nt o f t he m a nn e r of a ss o ci a t i o n i n
,

t h a t o rd e r . Tha t i s ,

=
29 (q
r8
) ( P9) ( )
T8
( 1 5 9 )
Thi s re ma rk a bl e prop er ty i s t he fou nd a t i on of t he s i m plici ty
o f t he q u a t er n i o nic a lg e br a I t i s u n iq u e ly s i m pl e N o a lg e br a
. .

o f v e c t o rs c a n e v e r m a t ch i t a n d P rof T a i t i s q u i t e righ t i n hi s
,
.

l a u d a t i on s fr o m t he qu at e rni onic p o i nt of vi e w .

B u t wh e n Pr of T a i t v a u nt s t he p e r fe c t fi t ness a nd na t u ra l
.

n e s s o f q u a t e r ni o n s for u s e by t he phy s ici s t i n hi s i nq u iri e s ,

I t hi nk t h a t he i s qu i t e wron g For t h e re a re s om e v e ry .

s e ri o u s dra wb a cks c o nn e c t e d wi t h q u a t e r n i o ns wh en a ppli e d ,

t o v e c t o rs . The q u a t e r ni on i s r e g a rd e d a s a c om pl e x o f ,

s c a l a r a n d v e c t o r a n d a s t he pri n cipl e s a re m a d e t o s u i t t he
,

qu a t e r ni on t he v e c t or i t s el f b e c om es a d e gra d e d q u at e rni on
, ,

a n d b e ha v e s a s a q u a t e rn i o n Tha t i s i n a giv e n e qu a t i on
.
, ,

one ve c t o r m a b e a v e c to r a n d a no th e r b e a q u a t e r ni o n O
y , r .

t he s a m e v e c t o r i n o ne a nd t he s a m e e q u a t i o n m a y b e a ,

ve c tor in one pl a c e a nd a qu a t e rni on ( v e rs or or t u rne r) i n

, , ,

an ot h e r . Thi s a ma lg a m a t i on o f t he v e c t ori a l a nd q u a t e rni onic

3 04 E LECT ROMAG NE TI C T HEORY . CH . I II .

of s a ac l r nd ve c t or a lg e bra i s fa cili t a t e d The s ys t em which

a .

I e xp ou n d I b eli e v e t o re pres ent wh a t t he phy s ici s t w a n t s a t ,

l eas t t o b e gi n wi t h I t is wh a t I h a v e b e e n e xpo u ndi ng

.
,

t h o u gh ra t h e r by e x a m pl e t h a n pr e c e p t s i nc e 1 88 2 Th e r e i s
, .

only o ne p oi nt wh e r e I fe e l i n cli ne d t o a cc e p t a ch a ng e v iz to , .
,

p u t a pr e fix b e fo r e t he s c a l a r pr o du c t s a y S a b i n s t e a d o f a b t o
, ,

ba l a n c e Va h Not t h a t t he S pr e fix i s o f a ny u s e i n t he a lg e br a
.

a s I do it bu t t h a t m a t h e ma t ic a l writ e r s on v e c to rs se e m t o
,

wa nt t o p u t t he s c a l a r a nd v e c t o r p a r t s t o g e t h e r t o m a k e a
gene ra l or c om pl e t e prod u c t s ay Qa b S a b Va h The fu n c t i on
, .

Q a b
,
h o w e v e r d o es n,o t o cc u r i n phy s ic a l a pplic a t i o ns which a re ,

c onc e rne d wi t h t he s c a l a r a nd v e c t o r pro d u c ts s e p a ra t e ly I f I .

c ou ld o m i t t he V a s w e ll a s t he S I w o u ld do s o 3 bu t s om e s i gn
i s ne c es s a ry a nd t he V of H a m il t on i s n o t v e ry obj e c t i on a bl e
, .

G ibb s d e not es t he s c a l a r a nd v e c t o r pro d u c ts by 8 a nd x 8 a .

,
a
, ,

us i ng G r ee k l e t t e r s I n m y e xp e ri e nc e t hi s i s n o t a g oo d w a y
.

whe n wo rk e d o u t I t i s h a rd t o re a d and i s i n s e ri ou s c onflic t

.
,

wi t h t he c om m on u s e of d ot s a nd cross e s i n a lg e bra wh i c h u s e ,

h a s t o be gi ve n u p I u s e d ot s i n t h e ir c om m on m e a ni ng
.
,

e i t h e r a s m u l t ipli e rs or s e p a r a t o rs .

P rof M ac fa rl a n e who i s t he l a t e s t v e ct o ri a l pro p a g a ndi s t

.
, ,

d e not e s t he s c a l a r a nd v e c t or prod u c t s by c os ab a nd S i n a b .

The t rig onom e t ric a l origin i s obvi ou s B u t on t his p oi nt I

.
, ,

w ou ld r e fe r t he re a d e r t o t he e qu a t i o ns ( 1 5 5 ) ( 1 5 6) a b o ve a nd ,

t o t he v e ry t r e nch a nt r e m a rk o f P r of G ibb s which I h a v e .

a lr ea dy q u ot e d a s t o t he i n c o m p a r a bly gr e a t e r a m e ni t y o f t h e
,

s c a la r a n d v e c t o r pr o d u c t t o a lg e bra ic a l t r e a t m e nt t h a n t he

t rig on o m e t ric a l fu n c t i ons t h e m s e l v e s The i nfe re n c e i s t h a t

.

ve c t or alge bra i s fa r more s i m pl e a nd fu nd a m ent a l t ha n t rigo

n o m e t ry , a n d t h a t i t i s a m i s t a k e t o b a s e v e c t o ri a l n o t a t i o n

u p on t h a t o f a s p e ci a l a pplic a t i o n t h e r e o f o f a m or e c o m plic a t e d

na t u r e. I s h ou ld ra t h e r pr e fe r s oa ab a nd v e c a b B et t e r s t il l .
,

S a b a nd Va b wi t h t h e u n d e r s t a n di ng t h a t t he S m a y be
,

dropp e d u nl ess s p e cia lly w a n t e d .

M a c fa rl a ne ha s a l s o a p e c u li a r wa y of t re a t i ng q u a t e r n i o ns ,

a b o u t which I will e x pr e s s n o o pi n i o n a t pr es e nt b e i ng d o u b t f u l ,

wh e t h e r i f t he u s e o f q u a t e rni on s i s wa nt e d the q u a t e r
, ,

n i on i o s y s t e m s h o u ld n ot be u s e d wi t h h o w e v e r a di s t i n c t i o n
, , ,

w e ll pres e rv e d b e t we e n t he v e c t or a n d t he qu a t e rn i on by ,

s p e ci a l t yp e or o t h e rwi s e .
 E LEMEN TS or V E CT OR I AL ALGE B RA AND ANALYS I S . 3 05

I am in h o pe s t h a t t he C ha p t e r w hich I no w fi ni s h m a y s e rv e
as a s t o pg a p t ill r e g u l a r v e c t o ri a l t re a t i s e s c o m e t o be wri tt e n

s u i t a bl e fo r phy s ici s t s b a
,
s e d u p o n t he v e c t o ri a l t r e a t m e nt o f

ve ct ors The q u a t e r ni o nis ts w a nt t o t hro w a wa y t he c a rt e s i a n

.

t ra m m el s , a s t h e y c a ll t h e m . Thi s m a y d o for q u a t e rni o n s ,

bu t wi t h v e c t o rs w o u ld be a gr a v e m i s t a k e . My s y s te m s o fa r
,

fro m b e in g i ni m ic al t o t he c r t e s i a n sy s t e m o f m a t h e m a t ic s i s
a
,

i t s v e ry e s s e nc e
.
 C HA P TER IV .

T H E OR Y OF P A L N E ELEC TR OM AG NETI C WA VES

A c t i on at a Di c r
I nt e r me d i a t e A g e nc y
s t a n e v e su s C ont r a s t .

of N e w w i t h O l d Vi e w s a b ou t El e c t ri ci t y .

1 76 . I t ha s b e e n ob s e rv e d t h a t t he u n iv e rs e i s i n a n
o ft e n

u ns ta bl e c ondi t i o n Not hi ng i s s t ill Nor ca n w e k ee p m ot ion

. .
,

o n c e pr od u c e d t o a p a r t ic u l a r q u a n t i t y o f m a t t e r
, I t i s di ffu s e d
.

o r o t h e r wi s e t r a ns fe rr e d t o o t h e r m a t t e r e i t h e r i m me di a t ely o r
,

e v en t u a lly The s a m e fa c t i s ob s e r v e d i n t he m o ra l a nd i nt e l
.

l e ct u a l w orld s a s i n t he m a t e ri a l bu t t hi s only c onc e rn s u s s o

,

fa r a s t o s ay t h a t i t u nd e rli e s t he c om m u n ica t i o n o f k no wl e dg e
to ot h e r s wh e n t he s piri t m o v e s e v e n t h o u gh t he t as k be of a
‘

t h a nkl e s s n a t u r e .

The l a ws by which m ot i ons or ph e n o m e na which u l t i m a t e ly

,

d e p e nd u p o n m o t i on a re t ra ns fe rr e d na t u rally fo rm a n i m p ort
, ,

a nt s u bj e c t o f s t u dy by phy s ici s t s The re a re t wo e x t re m e

.

m a i n v i e ws c on c e rn i ng t he proc es s Th e r e i s t he t h eory o f
.

i ns t a nt a n e ou s a c t i on a t a di s t a nc e b e t we en di fferent b odi es
wit h ou t a n i nt e rv e ni n g m edi u m 3 a nd on t he o t h e r ha nd t h e re
i s t he t h eo ry o f pro p a g a t i o n i n t i m e t hr o u gh a nd by m ea ns of
a n i n t e r v e ni ng m e di u m I n t he l a t t e r c a s e t he di s t a nt b odi es
.

d o no t re a lly a c t u p o n o n e a not h e r bu t o nly s e e m t o d o s o , .

T he y r e a lly a c t on t he m e d i u m dire c t ly a nd b e t w een t he t wo ,

a r e a c t i o ns b e t w e e n c o n t ig u o u s p a r t s o f t he m e di u m i t s e l f Bu t .

in t he for m e r c as e t he id e a o f a m e di u m d o es not e nt e r a t a ll .

W e m a y h o we v e r s o m e wh a t m odi fy t he v i e w so t h a t a c t i o n
, , ,

t h o u g h s e e m i ng ly i n s t a nt a ne ou s a nd dir e c t d oe s t a k e pl a c e ,

t hro u gh a n i n t e rv e ni ng m e di u m t he s p e e d o f t ra ns m i s s i on
,

b e i ng s o gre a t a s t o be b eyond r e c ogni t i on Th u s t he t wo .

,
30 8 ELE C TROMAGNE T I C THE ORY . CH . Iv

Now , a l th ou gh t h e re i s u nd o u b t e dly gr e at di fference in d et a il

b e t ween t he t ra ns m i s s i on o f s ou nd a nd of el e c t ric a l di s tu rb
a n c es, y e t t h e r e i s s u ffi ci e nt r e s e m bl a n c e br oa dly t o m a k e t h e

a b o v e s u pp os i t i o na l c a s e a n a l o g o u s t o wh a t ha s a c t u a lly ha
p
p e ne d in t he s ci e nc e of e l e c t rom a gn e t i sm Th e re w e re con .

d u c to rs a nd n o n c o nd u c t ors or i ns u l a t ors a nd s i n c e t he fi n it e
-
, ,

s p e e d o f pr o p a g a t i o n i n t he n on c ond u c t i ng s p a c e o u t s id e c on
-

d u c t ors wa s u nk no w n a t t e nt i on was a l m os t e nt ire ly c onc e n

,

t r a t e d u p on t he c on d u c to rs a n d a s u pp os i t i ona l fl u id wh i ch
was s u pp os e d t o r e s id e u po n or i n t h e m a nd t o m o v e ,

a b o u t u p o n or t hr o u gh t h e m A nd t he in fl u e n ce on d i s
.

ta nt c ond u c t o rs w as a t t rib u t e d to i nst ant a ne ou s a ct i on

at a di sta nc e ignori ng a n i nt e rm e di a t e a gency A gai n
, .
,

a v e ry d ee p m i nd e d phi losoph e r e l a b ora t e d a t h eory to e x

-

pl a i n t h es e a c t i ons by t he i nt e rm edi a t e a ge ncy oi a yi eldi ng

m e di u m t ra ns m i t t i ng a t fi ni t e s p e e d B u t a l t h o u gh i n d o i ng
.

s o he u t ili s e d t h e s a m e m e di u m fo r wh os e e xi s t e n c e t h e r e wa s

a lr ea dy i n d e p e nd e n t e vid e nc e viz the l u m ini ferou s et h e r

, .
, ,

a nd p oi n t e d ou t t h e c o ns i s t e ncy o f t h e e s s e nt i a l pr o p e r t i e s r e

q u ire d i n t he t wo c a s e s a nd t h a t hi s el e ct rom a gne t ic t h e ory

,

m a d e e v en a fa r b e t t e r t h e o ry o f ligh t t h a n t he o ld y e t hi s v i e w s ,

d i d not s pre a d v e ry ra pidly The old v i e ws p e r s i s t e d i n s pi t e

.

o f t he i nt ri n s ic pr ob a bili t y o f t h e n e w a nd i n s pi t e o f t he l a rg e,

a m o u nt o f e v id e nc e i n s u pp o r t o f t he vi e w t h a t s o m e m e di u m

o u t s id e c on d u c t o r s a nd i t m a y b e a l s o i ns id e t h e m as w e ll bu t
, ,

no t p a r t ic u l a rly c o n d u c t i ng m a t t e r i t s e l f was e s s e nt i a lly con ,

c e rne d i n the e l e c tric a l ph e nom e na The va l u e a nd v a lidi ty .

o f e vid e n c e v a ri e s a cc o rdi ng t o t he s t a t e o f m i n d o f t he j u dg e .

To s o m e who ha d s e ri o u s ly s t u di e d M a xw ell s t h e ory t he

’

e v id e nc e i n i t s fa v o u r wa s o v e r wh e l m i ng ; o t h e r s did n o t b e li e v e

i n i t a bit . .I a m n e v e r th e l e s s i ncli ne d t o t hi nk t h a t i t w ou ld
, ,

h a ve pre va ile d b e fo r e v e ry l ong e v e n ha d no dire c t e v id e nc e of

,

t h e fi ni t e v e l o ci t y b e e n fo r t hc o m i ng I t wa s s i m ply a qu es t i on
.

of t i m e . B u t t he e x p e ri m e n t a l pro of o f t he fi ni t e s p e e d o f
t r a n s m i s s i o n w a s fo r t hc om i ng a nd t he v e ry s l o w i nfl u e nc e of
,

t h e o re t ic a l r e a s o ni ng o n c o ns e r va t i v e m i nd s was e nforc e d by
t he c o mmon s e n se a pp e a l t o fa c t s
-
I t i s n o w as m u ch a fa c t
.

t h a t e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic w a v e s a r e pro p a g a t e d o u t s id e c o nd u c t o rs
a s t h a t s ou n d w a v e s a r e pr o p a g a t e d o u t s i d e vibr a t i ng b o di e s .

I t i s as l e gi t i m a t e a s ci e nt i fi c i nfe re n c e t h a t t h e r e i s a m e di u m
 ORY OF PLAN E ELECTRO MAGNET IC WAVES 30 9
“

TH E .

to -
d o it i n o ne case as h e r a n d t h e r e i s i nd e
in t he ot ,

p e n d e n t e vid e n c e i h f a v o ur of b oth m e di a a i r fo r s o u nd ,

a nd e t h e r fo r e l e c t ric a l di s t u rba n c e s I t i s a l s o s o e xc e s
.

s i v e ly prob a bl e n o w t ha t ligh t vibra t i on s a re t h e m s e lv e s

n o t hi ng m o r e t han v e ry ra pid e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic v ibr a t i o n s t h a t ,

I t hi nk t hi s vie w w ill f u lly pre va il e v e n i f t he ga p t h at e xi s t s

,

be t w e e n H e rt zi a n a nd ligh t v ibra t i o ns i s no t fill e d u p e x

e r i m e nt a ll t hr o u gh w a nt o f pro p e r a ppli a n c es pr o v id e d —
p y ,

s om e qu i te n e w di s c ov e ry of a n u na n t icip a t e d cha ra c t e r i s
not m a d e t h a t will di s pr ov e t he p o s s ibili t y o f t he a s s u m e d

id e nt i t y .

No w t he i mm e dia t e qu es t i on h e re i s ho w t o pr o p a g a t e a
,

k nowl edg e o f t he t heo ry of e le c t rom a gnet ic w a v e s I f w e

‘

c ou ld a s s u m e t he rea d e r t o h a v e ha d a go o d m a t h e m a t ic a l tr a i n
i ng t h a t w o u ld gr e a t ly e ase m a t t e rs
, O n t he o t h e r h a n d i t i s
.
,

h a rdly a ny u s e t ryi ng t o do i t for t hose who h a ve n o m a t h e

m a t i c a l k no wl e dg e l e a s t o f a ll fo r t h os e a nt i m a t h e m a t ic a l
— -

a t t a ck e rs o f t he t he o rv o f t h e wa v e pr op a g a t i o n o f e l e c t ric a l

dis t u rba nc es who Sho w pl a inly t ha t t h ey do not e v e n k no w i n

t e lli gi bly wh a t a w a v e m e a ns a nd wh a t i s i m pli e d by i t s e xi s t e n c e
, .

B u t b e t we e n t he t wo I t hi n k i t i s p os s ibl e t o d o a g ood d e a l i n
, ,

t he wa y of pr o p a g a t i on by m e a ns o f a d e ta il e d e xp os i t i o n o f t he
t h eo ry o f pl a n e w a v e s e s p e ci a lly i n di e l e c t ric s
,
By t he u s e o f .

pl a ne wa v e s t he m a t h e m a t ic a l c om pl e xi t y o f w a v e s i n ge ne ra l
,

i n a gr e a t m e a s u re di s a pp e a rs a n d c o mm on a lg e b ra m ay be
,

l a rg ely s u b s ti t u t e d for t he a na lys i s which occ u rs i n m o re a d

v a nc e d c a s e s M o s t o f t he e s se nt i a l pro p e r t i e s a nd id e as m a y
.

be a s s i m il a t e d by a t hi nki ng r ea d e r w ho i s n o t a dv a n c e d i n hi s
m a t h e m a t ic s a nd w h a t i s be v o nd h i m he c a n Skip
,
B e s ide s .

t hi s t he t r e a t m e n t o f pl a ne w a v e s i s i t s e l f t he b e s t pr e li m i na ry
,

to m o re g e ne r a l c a s es .

The pro bl e m s t h a t pre s e n t t h e ms e lv es by t he a r t i fi ci a l li m i

t a t i on t o pl a ne w a v e s a r e o ft e n o f a n a bs t r a c t na t u r e Th e re .

a re h o w e v er s om e i m p ort a nt e xc e p t iOn s 3 t he m o s t no t a ble

, ,

b e i ng t h a t of prop a ga t i on a l o ng s t ra igh t wire s o f which t he ,

t h eo ry i s e s s e n t i a lly t h a t o f pl a n e w a v e s m odifi e d by t he ,

res is t a nc e of t he wir es Be fore h o w e v e r pro ce e di ng t o t he

.
, ,

d et a ils o f pl a ne wa v e s which w ill for m t he s u bj e c t o f t h i

,
s

cha p t e r ( a l t ho u gh i t w ill be ne e dl e s s to a l to g e t he r e x cl u d e c on
n e c t e d m a t te rs ) i t w ill be d e s ir a bl e t o pr e p a re t he m i nd by a n
,
3 10 ELECTROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

ou tli ne o f s om e ge ne ra l not i ons c onc e rni ng e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic

w a v e s irre s
,
e o f t h e i r pr e ci s e t yp e .

G e ne ra l N ti o l e ct roma gn et i c W av es . G e ne ra t i on
of d y S t a t es .

177 . C o ns id e r di el e c t ric t o be gin wi t h , .

The t wo pr o p e r t ie s p ort i ng e l e c t ric d i s pl a c e

m e n t a nd m a g ne t ic we sy m b oli s e by p a nd C .
,

t he i nd u c t ivi t y a nd p e rmi t t i v i t y a re i nd e p e n d e nt ly o f o u r a c t u a l
, ,

ign ora nc e o f t h e ir u l t i ma t e n a t u re s o re la t e d t h a t t he s p e e d of
,

prop a ga t i on :0 de p e nd s u p on t h e m i n t he wa y e xpre s s e d by t he
e q u a t i o n p ca ? = 1 ori
(p r
o,
t T h u s a n i n cr e a s e e i t h e r o f t he
,

p e rmi t t i v i ty or of t he i nd u c t i vi ty l o we rs t he s p ee d o f t ra ns
, ,

m i s s i on .I n t ra ns p a r e nt b odi e s we c a nno t m at e ri a lly a l t e r t he

i nd u c t ivi ty bu t we c an v e ry c ons id e ra bly i ncrea s e t he p e r
,

mi tt i vi ty a nd s o l o we r t he s p ee d
,
I f on t he ot h e r h and we
.
,

wi sh t o h a ve i nfi ni t e s p ee d for s om e pra c t ic a l p u rp os e of c al eu
,

l a t i on we m a y get i t by a s s u m i ng e i t h e r = 0 or e l se C = 0
,
u.
,
.

I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e for e x a m pl e we d e s t roy t he p o w e r o f s u p
, ,

p ort i ng e le c t ric di s pl a c e m e nt whil s t pr e s e rv i ng t he m a gne t ic

,

i nd u c t i on Thi s i s wha t i s d one i n m a gn et ic probl e m s ( t he

.

t h e o ry o f c o il s s e l f a nd m u t u a l i nd u c t i o n ) wh e n w e ign o re t he
,

e x i s t e n c e o f e l e c t ric di s pl a c e m e nt O n t he ot h e r h a nd i n t he
.
,

t h e o ry o f c ond e n s e rs c onne c t e d u p by i nd u c t i onl ess r es i s t a nc es ,

a nd i n t h e e l e c t r o s ta t ic t h eory o f a s u b m a ri ne c a bl e i t i s t he ,

m a g ne t ic i nd u c t i o n t h a t i s ig no re d i n a m a nne r e q u iv a l e nt t o ,

s u pp os i ng t h a t a = o I n e i t h e r c as e w e h a v e i nfi ni t e s p e e d or
.

a pp a r e n t i n s t a n t a n e o u s a c t i on .

No w c ons id e r s om e o f t he c ons e q u e nc es of t he pro p e rt y o f

,

pr op a ga t i o n wi th fi ni te s p ee d L e t t he re be a s ou rc e of d is
.

t u r ba nce a t a p o i nt for s i mplici t y I t m ay be e i t h e r a n e l e c t ric

.

s o u rc e o r a m a g ne t ic s o u rc e By an el e ct ric s ou rc e we m e a n
.

a c a u s e which will i f i t c o nt i nu e s te a dily a c t i ng

, re s u l t i n ,

s et t i ng u p a s t a t e o f e l e c t ric di s pl a c e m e nt whil s t a m a g ne t ic ,

s o u rc e s t e a dily a c t i n g w o u ld r e s u l t i n a s t a t e o f m a g ne t ic

i nd u c t i o n In t he form e r c a s e t h e re will be no m ag ne t ic
.

i nd u c t i on a l ong wi t h t he di s pl a c e m e nt a nd in t he l a t te r c a s e ,

n o di s pl a c e m e nt a l o n g wi t h t he i nd u c t i on No w if t he s pe e d .
,

o f pro p a g a t i on w e r e i nfi ni t e i n t he fo r m e r c a s e o f a n e l e c t ric

s o u rc e , by t h e n o n e x is t e nc e o f t he s te a dy s t a te wo u ld be
u
, ,
31 2 ELEC T ROMAG NE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV .

le a vi ng b ehi nd t h e m t he o u t s id e p ort i on o f t he re s id u a l s te a dy
fl u x d u e t o t he s o u rc e which s t e a dy fl u x h o w e ve r r e q u ir es a n
, , ,

i nfi n i te t i me t o b e c om e q u i t e fu lly e s t a bli s h e d .

W e m a y t a k e a Sp e ci a lly s i m pl e c as e i n ill u s t ra t i on o f t he
a b o v e g e n e ra l ch a ra c t e ri s t ic s L e t t he sou rc e of e ne rgy be
.

c ont a ine d w i t hi n a s ma ll s ph e ri c a l p or t ion of t he di e l e c t ric of ,

r a di us a a nd le t i t be of t he s i m pl e s t t yp e v iz a u niform
, , .
, ,

dis trib u t i on o f i m pre ss e d e l e c t ric forc e wi t hi n t he s ph e re W e .

kno w by s t a t ic c ons id e ra t i o ns a l one wha t t he na t u r e o f t he

fi nal di s pl a c em e nt d u e t o s u ch a s ou rc e i s I t i s a circu it a l .

dist rib u t io n o u t from t he s phe re o n o ne hal f and i n on t he

, ,

o t h e r c onne c t i on b e i n g m a d e t hr o u g h t he s ph e r e i t s e l f by a
,

u n i fo r m di s t rib u t i on; b e i n g i n fac t o f t he s a m e na t u re as t he

, ,

i nd u c t i on d u e t o a s ph e ric a l b ody u ni formly ma g ne t i se d i n a

m e di u m of t he s a m e i nd u c t i v i ty as i ts o wn No w we ca n .
,

d e s cribe t he s e t t i ng u p o f t he fi na l s t e a dy s t a te d u e t o t he
s o u rc e , wh e n i t i s s u dde nly st a rt e d a nd k e p t c ons ta nt la t e r ,

t h u s — A t t he fi rs t m o m e nt a n e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic w a v e i s g e ne ra t e d
o n t he s u r fa c e o f t he s ph e r e which i m m e di a t e ly s pr e a d s b o t h
,

wa y s a nd b e c o m es a s ph e rica l s h e ll wh os e ou te r b o u n d a ry
,

goe s o u t wa rd a t s p e e d whil s t t he i nne r b ou nd a ry goe s i nwa rd .

A t t he t i m e t = a /v t h e r e fo re t he di s t u rb a n c e fi lls t he s ph e r e
, ,

o f ra di u s 2 a t he c e n t re b e i ng j u s t r e a ch e d
,
The s t e a dy s t a t e
.

t h e n b e gi ns t o for m c o m m en ci ng a t t he c ent r e a nd e xp a nd
,

i ng o u t w a rds t h e re a fte r a t s p ee d I) A t t he t i me t = 2 a /v
.
,

t h e r e fore we h a v e t he s te a dy s ta t e fu lly fo rm e d wi t hi n
,

the s ph e re o f ra di u s a whil s t j u s t o u t s id e i t i s a n e l e c t r o
,

m a g ne t ic s h e ll o f d e p t h 2 a Up t o t hi s m o me nt t he i m
.

pre ss e d forc e has b e e n c ont i nu ou s ly w orki ng— not i nd ee d , ,

in a ll p a r t s o f t he s ph e re i t o cc u pi es b u t i n a ll p a rt s
,

p a s s e d by t he front o f t he i nwa rd w a v e fro m t he b eginning

u nt il t he c e n t r e wa s r e a ch e d a nd a ft e r t h a t i n t he p a r t s n ot
, ,

o cc u pi e d by t he a lr e a dy fo r m e d s t e a dy s t a t e C ons e q u e ntly a t
.
,
.

t he m o m e n t t = 2 a / C whe n t he s t e a dy st a t e i s fu lly for me d

,

t hro u gh ou t t he r e gi on o cc u pi e d by t he i m pr e s se d fo rc e t he ,

l a t t e r c eas e s t o w ork I t ha s wh olly d on e i ts w ork The

. .

a m ou nt d o ne i s t wic e t he e ne rgy of t he fi n a l c o m pl e t e s t e a dy

s t at e
, s ay 2 U The re s t o f t he work i s d one by t he e l e c t ro
.

m a g ne t ic wa v e i t s e l f F o r t h e s u b s e q u e nt c o u r s e o f e v e n t s i s
.

t ha t t h e f u lly fo r m e d e l e c t ro m a gn e t ic s h e ll o f d e p t h 2 a r u ns
-
 T HEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNE T C WAVES I . 313

o ut to i nfi ni ty of cou rs e e xp a ndi ng o n t he wa y a nd i n d o i ng
,
, ,

s o i t l e a v e s t h e s t e a dy s t a t e b e hi nd i t Th a t i s t o s a y i t
.
,

d ro p s a p a rt o f i t s c ont e nts a s i t m o v e s on s o t ha t t he s t e a dy ,

s t a t e i s a l wa y s fu lly fo r m e d righ t u
p t o t h e r e a r o f t h e e x p a n di ng
s h e ll d u ri ng t he wh ol e o f i t s p a s s a g e t o i n fi ni t y Thi s s he ll is .

not a p u re e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic wa v e wi t h e qu a l e l e c t ri c a n d
,

m a g ne t ic e n e rgi e s The m a g n e t ic e ne rgy i s c o ns t a nt o f

.
,

a m o u nt
3 U o n t h e wh
,
o l e j o u rn e y b u t t h e e l e c
, t ric e n e r gy
1 s 1 n e xc e s s The e x c e s s i s e mpl oy e d i n fo rm i ng t he s t e a dy
.

s t a t e s o t h a t wh e n t he s h e ll has r e a ch e d a gre a t di s t a n c e i t
,

b e c o mes a ppre ci a bly a p u re e l e c t rom a g ne tic w a ve h a vi ng t he ,

a m o u nt U o f e n e rgy h a lf m a g ne t ic h a l f e l e c t ric w i t h a s ligh t

, , ,

e xc e s s i n t h e l a t t e r t o b e l a t e r l e ft b ehi n d i n fo r m i n g t he
,

re m a ind e r of t he s tea dy s t a te The e ne rgy U o f t he s h ell i s

.

wh olly w a s t e d i f t he di e l e c t ric be u nb o u nde d for t he re i s

‘
,

no t hi ng t o s t o p t he t ra ns fe r e n c e t o a n i nfi ni t e di s t a n c e .

I f we wi s h t o fo rm t he s t e a dy s ta t e wi t h o u t t hi s w as t e of
e ne rgy w e m u s t bri ng t he i m pr e s s e d fo rc e i nt o a c t i o n v e ry
,

gra d u a lly— i nfini t e lv s l o wly i n fa c t I n t hi s wa y t he e ne rgy

, .

was t e d i n t he v e ry we a k e l e c t r om a g net ic wa ves g ene ra t e d will

t e nd t o b e c o m e i nfi ni t e ly s ma ll a nd t he w o rk d one by t he
,

i m pre s s e d forc e will t end t o t he v a l u e U t he e n e rgy o i t he , ,

s t e a dy s ta t e .

Wh e n t he s ph e r e of I m press e d forc e i s no t fi ni te bu t i s ,

i nfi nit ely s ma ll s o t h a t i t m a y be r e ga rd e d a s a s p e ci a l ki nd of
,

p oi nt s o u rc e we Si mpli fy m a t t e rs c ons id e ra bly i n s om e re s p e c t s

-

,
.

Fo r by t he a b o v e t he re s u l t i s t h a t t he m om e nt t he s ou rc e
, ,

s t a r t s s a y a t f u ll s t r e ng t h t he s t e a dy s t a t e a l s o i m m e di a t e l y
, ,

b e gi ns t o gr o w s o t h a t a t t he t i m e t i t o cc u pi e s t h e s ph e re o f
,

ra di u s c t O u t s ide i t t h e re i s no di s t u rb a nc e b u t on i t s su rfa c e i s
.
,

a n i nfi n i t e ly t hi n e l e c t ro m a g n e tic s h e ll which p e rfo r m s t he s a m e

,

f u nc t i on s a s t h e pr e v i o u s fi ni t e s h e ll Tha t i s i t l a ys d o wn
.
,

t he s t e a dy s t a t e a s i t e x p a nd s a nd t h e n c a rri e s o u t t o i nfi ni t y
,

i n i t s e l f a s m u ch e ne rgy a s i t l e a v e s b e hi nd .

N o t ic e ho we ve r t hi s p e cu lia ri ty t h a t i f w e ha d s ta rte d wi th
, , ,

wh a t a pp ea rs a t firs t s igh t t o be t he s i m pl e r probl e m viz a , .

,

p o int sou rc e we s hou ld be q u i t e u na bl e t o s e e a nd u nd e rs ta nd

-
,

t he fu nc t i o ns of t he e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic s h e ll on t he e xt re m e v e rg e
31 4 E LEC T ROMAGN E TI C T H E O RY . CH . Iv .

d ue to h e r ki nd o f p oi nt s o u rc e Vl Z e l e c t rific a t i on s u dde nly

a no t -
,
.
,

bro u gh t t o re s t a t a p oi nt a fte r pre vi o u s m ot i on a t t he s p e e d o f

ligh t a s di s c u s s e d i n § 5 5 Th e r e i s a p er fe c t s i mil a ri t y a s r e
,
.

s p e c ts t he u n i fo r m g ro w t h o f t he s t e a dy s t a t e B u t t he na t u r . e

o f t he b ou n di ng e l e c t r o m a g ne t i c s h e ll i s n o t t he s a m e I n t he .

ca s e o f el e c t rific a t i on i t b e l ongs t o t he z e ro d e g re e o f s ph e ric a l

h a rmonic s 3 i n o u r pr es e nt probl e m i t i s o f t he firs t de gree .

I f a ft e r k e e pi ng o n t he i m pr e ss e d fo rc e a t a p o i n t for s a y
, , ,

a n i nt e rva l we s u dd e nly re m o v e i t t hi s i s e q u iv a l e nt t o ,

k e e pi ng it o n bu t wi t h t h e a ddi t i on of a n i mpre s s e d fo rc e which

,

is t he ne g a t iv e o f t h e fo r m e r Fro m t hi s w e s e e t h a t t h e r e
.

s u l t o f p u t t i n g o n t he i m pr e s se d fo rc e fo r a n i n t e rva l 7 o nly i s t o

ge ne ra t e a s hell o f d e p t h which r u ns o u t t o i n fi ni t y
v7 , .

Wi t hi n t hi s s h e ll i s t he s t e a dy e l e c t ric d i s pl a c e m e n t d u e t o t he
s o u rc e a ppr o pri a t e t o t he i ns t a n t a ne o u s p os i t i o n o f t he s h e ll .

O n i ts o u t e r s u r fa c e i s a n e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic w a v e m o vi ng o u t t o
i nfi ni ty a n d g e n e ra t i ng o r l a yi ng d o wn t h e s t e a dy e l e c t ric d i s
,

pla c e m e nt a s i t g oes w hil s t o n t he i n ne r s u r fa c e i s a no t h e r

,

w a v e r u nn i ng a ft e r t he firs t a nd u nd o i ng i t s e ffe c t s Tha t i s

, .
,

i t t a k e s u p t he di s pl a c e m e n t l a id d o w n by t he firs t w a v e s o ,

t h a t i ns id e t h e i n ne r w a v e ( j u s t a s o u t s id e t he o u t e r) t h e r e i s

n o di s t u rb a nc e .

Int e rm i tt e nt S ou rc e p r odu ci ng S t e a d y S ta t e s a nd El e c t r o
mag ne ti c S he e t s A Tra i n o f S E Wa v es
. . . .

§ 1 7 8 . i g
Us n ki n d o f p o i nt s o u rc e le t i t a c t i nt e r
t he s a m e -

m i t t e n tly a nd a l t e rn a t i ng ly 3 s ay o n pos it iv e ly for a n i nt e rv a l

,

a ,
t h e n o ff fo r a n i nt e rva l )8 t h en o n n e g a t i v e ly for a n i nt e r va l
,

fo ll o we d by o ff for a n int e rv a l )8 a nd s o o n r e c u rr e nt ly lik e , ,

pos i t iv e a nd n e ga t iv e a pplic a t i o ns of a b a t t e ry wi t h d e a d i n
t e r v a ls The r e s u l t i s by the l a s t c a s e t o divid e t he s ph e rica l
.
, ,

s p a c e o cc u pi e d by t h e d is t u rb a n c es a t a giv e n m o m e nt i n t o

co nc e nt ric s h ell s o f d e p t h s n a nd
,
r e s p e c t ive ly In t he
o .

l at t e r i s n o di s t u rb a nc e s i nc e t hey c orre s p ond t o t he d ea d i n

,

t e r va ls .I n t he for m e r a re t h e s t e a dy di s pl a c e m e nt s a ppro
r ia t e t o t h e ir di s t a n c e fr o m t he s o u rc e c o ns e c u t iv e s h e ll s
p ,

be i ng p os i t i v e o r n e ga t i v e a cc ordi ng t o t he s t a t e o f t he s o u rc e
wh e n t h e y s ta rt e d fro m i t O n t h e i r b o u nd a ri e s a re e l ec t ro
.

ma g ne t ic s h e e t s g e ne ra t i ng t h e s e s t e a dy s t a t e s c o nt i nu ou s ly on
o ne s id e a nd d es t royi ng t h e m o n t he o t h e r
,
.
 31 6 ELEC T ROMAGN E TI C T HE O R Y . CH . Iv .

s h ou ld t he s ou rc e o cc u py a fi ni t e s p h e ric a l s pa c e t h e n ,

t he b o u ndi n g s h ee t b e c om e s a s he ll o f d e p t h e q u a l t o t he
‘

dia m e t e r o f t he s ph e re a s b e fo re d e s crib e d No w t he s te a dy
, .

fi e lds b e com e i ns ens ibl e a t a gr e a t di s ta nc e i n t he di s c ont i nu o u s

c a s e t o c orr e s p ond wi th t his we h a v e t he fa c t t h a t t he s i m p l e
h a rm onic w a v e s t e n d t O be c om e p u re a s t h e y e xp a nd The
‘

gre a t es t d e p a rt u re from t he p u re s t a t e i s rou nd a bou t t he

s o u rc e H e re t he fre qu e n cy b e c o m e s a m a t t e r o f i m p or ta nc e
. .

W h e n v e ry lo w t he w a v e l e ng t h i s gre a t a nd we s h o u ld t h e r e
,
-

, ,

for e h a v e t o go a gr e a t di s t a nc e t o find a ny s ig n o f w a v e
,

prop a ga t i on .M o r eo v e r t he w a v e s t h e m s e lv e s w ou ld be
,

e xc e e di ng ly w e a k O nly r ou nd t he s o u rc e i s t h e r e s e ns ibl e
.

di s tu rb a nc e a nd i t i s pra ct ic a lly t he s t e a dy d is pl a c e m e nt
,

a ppro pri a t e t o t he m o m e n t a ry s t a t e o f t he s o u rc e a cc o m p a n i e d ,

by a w ea k s t a t e o f m a g n e t ic fo rc e c onne c t e d wi t h t h e di s pl a c e
m ent ne a rly i n t he i n s t a n t a n e o u s m a nn e r Th a t i s t he t i m e .
,

v a ri a t i on o f t he d is pl a c e m ent i s t h e e l e c t ric c u rr e n t a nd t he ,

d is pl a c e m ent i ts e l f i s s e ns ibly t h a t o f t he s ta t ic t h e ory U nd e r .

t h e s e circ u m s ta n c e s t h e r e i s ne x t t o n o w as t e o f e ne rgy .

B u t by i nc re a s m g t he fre q u e ncy w e c a n c om pl e t e ly a l t e r t hi s
s t a t e o f t hi ngs Fo r w e i n cr e a s e t he r a t e o f Ch a ng e of t he
.

i mpre s s e d forc e a nd t h e re for e t he s t reng t h of t he e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic

,

wa ve s ge ne ra t e d for one t hi ng B es id es t hi s we c a n bri ng t he

, .
,

regi on of el e c t ro m a g ne t ic w a v e s ne a re r t o t he s o u rc e a nd s o ,

c ont ra c t t he r e g io n i n which t he di s pl a c e m e nt wa s a p p roxi

m a t e ly s t a t ic a s m u ch a s we pl e a se I n t he li m i t wi th v e ry gre a t .

fr e q u e n cy w e h a v e n e a rly p u r e e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic w a v e s cl o s e u p
t o t he s o u rc e The w a s t e O f e n e rgy incr e a s e s v e ry r a pidly wi t h
.

t he fre q u e n cy v a ryi n g a s i t s fo u r t h p o w e r wi t h s i m pl e h a rm on ic
,
-

wa v e s The e xt re m es t c a s e of w a s t e i s t h a t of a di s c ont i nu i ty
.
,

a lr e a dy m e nt i o ne d a s wh e n s e tt i ng u p t h e s t e a d y s ta t e w e
,

wa s t e h a l f t he w ork d one a nd t h e n wh e n t he fo rc e i s re m oved

, , ,

wa s t e t he o t h e r h a l f .

S e lf-
c ont a i ne d Fo rc e d El e c t r omagnet ic Vi br a t i o ns . C ont r a s t
w it h S ta t i c P l
r ob e m .

179 Wh e n t he s ph e re O f i m pr e s s e d forc e i s O f fi ni t e s iz e
.
,

a n ot h e r e ffe c t c o m e s i nt o v i e w o f a s o m e wh a t s t riki ng ch a r a c t e r ,

o f which t he t h e o ry o f a p o i nt s o u rc e g i v e s no i n fo r m a t i o n
-
By .

i ncre a s i ng t h e fr e q u e ncy s u ffici e nt ly we s h a ll r e d u c e t h e a m pli ,

«
 T H ORY
E OE PLAN E ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C W A VE s . 31 7

tu de of t he e xt
l vibra t i ons a nd on r e a chi ng a c e rt a i n fre
e rn a ,

q u e n c y d e p e n di ng u p on t he s iz e o f t he s p h e r e t h e y w ill e n t ire ly ,

v a ni sh Th a t i s a t a ce rt a i n fr e qu e n cy a s i m pl e h a r m onic
.
~

, ,

i m pre s s e d forc e a c t i ng u ni form l y w i thi n a s ph eric a l s p a c e i n a

,

di el e c tric produ c e s n o e x t e rn a l e ffe c t wh a t e ve r The v i bra t i on s

,
.

a r e s t a t i o n a ry or s t a ndi ng a n d a r e p u r e ly i nt e r na l or c on fi ne d
, ,

t o t he s ph e re i t s e l f By g e ne r a l e x p e ri e nc e o f s t a t ic a l pr o bl e m s
.

t hi s w o u ld s ee m t o be i m po s s i bl e B u t we m u s t e xp e c t to find
.

s t r a n g e m a n ne rs w h e n w e go i nt o s t ra n g e l a n d s .

Thi s s tra ng e b e h a v i ou r a ri ses from t he g ene ra l ele ct ro ma g

ne t ic pro p e r ty t h a t t he t r u e s o u rc e O f di s t u rb a n c e s d u e t o i m

pr es s e d fo rc e ( e l e c t ric or m ag net ic ) i s t he c u rl t he re o f Th e .

i m pre s s e d forc e i t sel f on t he o t h e r h a nd i s a s s oci a t e d wi t h t he

, ,

s u pply O f e n e r y I n t he pr e se n t c a s e t he s u r
g .

fa c e o f t he s ph e re of i mpr ess e d fo rc e i s t he s e a t o f i t s c u rl i t s ,

i nt e ns i ty v a ryi ng a s t he c os i ne o f t he l a t i t u d e i f t he p ol a r a xi s ,

be p a r a ll e l t o t h e i m pr e ss e d fo rc e ; a nd c onse q u e nt ly a s a lr e a dy ,

d e s crib e d for t he c a s e o f s e t t i ng u p t he s t e a dy s t at e t he el e c ,

t ro m a gne t i c w a v e s pr oc e e d b o t h w a y s fr om t he s u rfa c e a t
which t h e y origi na t e The w a v e s go i ng i n wa rd c ont ra ct t h e n
.
,

cross a t t he c en tr e a nd e xp a nd a ga i n W e h a v e t h e re fore .
, ,

t wo t ra i ns of o u t w a rd w a v e s a n d t he e x t e r na l e ffe c t m a y b e
,

i ma g ine d t o be d u e t o t he ir s u p e ri mp os i t i on Th a t t h ey m a y .

s o m e t i m e s a s s i s t a nd s o m e t i m e s p a rt ly c a nc el on e a not h e r ,

a cc ordi ng t o r e l a t i v e ph a s e m a y be re a dily co n c e iv e d a nd
, ,

t he t h e o ry i n dic a t e s t h a t a t a ny o ne o f a n i nfi n i t e s e ri e s o f
d e fi ni t e freq u en ci es t h e re i s c o mpl et e ca nc ell a t i on e x te rnally .

Thi s refe rs t o t he s i mp le ha rm oni c s t a t e The re i s a lwa y s a n .

e x t e rn a l e ffe c t i n i t i a lly a t a ny fr e q u e n cy
,
n a m e ly t he i n i t i a l—
,

e l e c t r o m a gn e t ic s h e ll o f d e p t h e q u a l t o t h e di a m e t e r o f t h e

Sph e r e o f i m pre s s e d fo rc e b e c a u s e i t c ons i s t s e nt ir e ly o f t he

,

b e g inn i ng p a r t o f t he firs t o u t w a rd wa v e t he se c ond on e o nly ,

r e a chi ng t o i ts re a r ; bu t on t he inne r s id e o f tl i s s h ell t h e re

m a y b e no di s t u rb a nc e e xc e p t wi t hi n t he s ph e re o f i m pre s s e d
,

fo rc e . The w a s t e o f e n e rgy i s n o t c o nt i nu o u s a t t h e cri t ic a l fr e

u e n c i e s bu t c o n s i s t s m e r e l o f t h e e n e rgy i n t h e i n i t i a l h ll
q , y s e .

The i m pr e s s e d fo rc e w o rk s c o nt i n u o u s ly b u t a s m u ch p os i t iv e ly ,

a s n e g a t i v e ly wi t hi n a p e ri o d s o t h a t i t i s i n a c t iv e o n t he w hol e
, .
318 ELEC T ROMAGNET I C T HEORY . CH . Iv
.

e ffe cts es pe ci a lly t ho s e o f a s t a t ica l kind The b eh a vi ou r of

, .

e l e c t rific a t i o n o n a Sph e re m a b e t a k e n as a n ill u s tr a t i ve c o n

y
t ras t . W e kno w t h a t if we h a v e a s ph e ric a l s u r fa c e i n a u ni
for m di el e c t ric c o ve re d wi t h e l e c t rific a t i on the di s pl a c e m e nt i s
,

p a r t ly i n t e rna l a n d p a r t ly e x t e r n a l O nly whe n t he ele c t ri

.

fica t ion i s u ni fo rmly s pre a d d o e s t he di s pl a c e m e nt v a nis h

i nte rnally and b ec om e wholly e xt e r nal Thi s was for
, .

m e rly e xpl a ine d by t he i nv e rs e s q u a re la w -

E ve ry e l e m e nt
.

of e l e c t rific a t i o n w as s u pp os e d t o e x e r t fo rc e e q u a bly i n

a ll dire c t i ons ro u nd i t s el f i nt e rnally as w ell a s e x t e r na lly

, ,

a nd a m a t h e ma t ic a l c onse q u en c e o f t hi s i s t he c o m pl e t e
ca nc e lla t i on of t he i nt e rna l forc e whe n t he e l e c tri fi c a t i on
i s u ni fo rm ly s pre a d o n t he s u rfa c e o f a s ph e re The s a m e .

re as oni ng was a ppli e d whe n t he s ph e re was not of t he s a m e

na t u re as t he e x t e r na l m e di u m— wh e n i t was a c on d u c t o r, t o

wi t . No w t he i nt e rna l forc e i s a l s o z e r o i n t hi s c as e M ore .

.

o v e r i t i s z e ro wh a t e v e r b e t he na t u r e o f t he i nt e r na l m a t e ri a l
,

( w i t h o u t e l e c t ric a l s o u rc e s
) B u
. t i t i s c e r t a i nly u n t r u e t h a t

t he e l e c t ric fo rc e d u e t o a p o i n t s o u rc e o f d i s pl a c e m e nt i s t he
-

s a m e i n a ll dire c t i ons a r o u nd i t wh e n t he m e di u m i s no t h o m o

S o t he r e a s o n for t he a b se n c e o f i nt e r na l forc e i s
‘

ge ne ou s .

e n t ir ely wro ng a l t h o u gh i t s e e m s righ t i n o ne c as e v iz

, t ha t ,
.
,

o f h o m o g e ne i t y The t r u e a nd s u ffi ci e nt a nd c o m pr e h e ns iv e
.
, ,

re a s on for t he eq u ilibri u m a nd t he a b s e nc e of i nt e rna l forc e i s

,

t he s a t i s fa c t i on O f t he s e c o nd circ u i t a l la w wh e n t he e x t e r na l
e l e c t ric fo rc e i s p e rpe ndic u l a r t o t he s u r fa c e Thi s i s i nd e p e nd e nt
.

o f t he n a t u re o f t he i n te rn a l m a t t e r a nd i s o bv io u s ly t o be
, p re

fe rr e d t o a hyp o t h es i s t h a t i s o nly v a lid s o me t i m e s Va ryi ng t he .

i nt e rna l m a t e ri a l will m a k e t he la w of s pre a d i ng o f fo rc e be

diffe rent i n a ny n u mb e r o f wa ys a nd if w e like di ffe re nt
, , ,

fo r e ve ry e l e m e nt o f e l e c t ri fic a t i on by a rra ngi ng va ri o u s
,

kind s o f h e te rog e ne i ty B u t i nde p ende nt ly o f t hi s we m igh t

.
,

v a ry t he la w O f forc e i n m a ny w ays i n s p e cia l c a s e s .

Th u s i n t he ca s e o f a u ni for m Sprea d of e le c t ri fi c a t i o n
,

o n a s ph e re we m a y i m a gi ne t he di s pl a c e m e nt fro m a ny
,

p a r t icl e o f e l e c t rific a t i o n t o ra d ia t e i n a n y s y m m e t ric a l m a nne r

t h a t will g i ve z e ro di s pl a c e m e n t i n s id e a nd a u ni fo r m ly

ra di a l di s pl a c e m e nt o u ts id e The s i m pl es t c a s e a ft e r t he u s u a l
.

u n i fo r m s pr e a di ng i n a ll di re c t i o ns i s a pl a na r s pr e a d ing
, Le t .

e ve r e l e m e nt o f e l e c t rific a t i o n on t he s u rfa c e s e nd o u t i t s
y
 320 ELECT ROMAGN E T I C T HEORY . CH IV .

P W ave Effe c t
'

Re la t i ons be t w e e n E a nd H in a ur e . of S e lf
'
I nd u c t i on . Fa t ui t y of M r Pree c e s
. K R la w .

§ 1 80 . I n t he b o v e v e ry li t tl e has b e en s a id a bo u t t he d i s
a

t rib u t i o n o f e l e c t ric a n d m a g n e t ic fo rc e fr o m p a r t to p a rt o f
a n e l e c t ro m a g n e t ic w a v e .Thi s va ri e s g re a t ly in d i ff e re nt
ki nd s o f wa ves an d c a n not be e xpl a i ne d wi t h o u t t he fo r m u l ae
, .

B u t t h e re i s o ne v e ry i m p o r t a n t pro p e rt y o f p u re e le c t ro ma g
ne t ic w a v e s ( which a l s o h o ld s g o o d m o r e o r l e s s a ppro x i m a t e ly
, ,

i n g e n e ra l ) wh i ch m a y be d e s crib e d a t pres e n t A s a lre a dy .

m e nt i one d t he e l e c t ric a nd m a gn e t ic e ne rgi e s a re e q u a l i n a

,

p u re el e c t ro m a g ne t ic w a ve N o w t he d e ns it y of t he e l e c t ric
.

e ne rgy i s § cE i f E i s t he e l e c t ric fo rc e ( in t e ns i ty ) a nd t h a t
2
, ,

O f t h e m a g n e t ic e ne rgy i s 1 H q h b i
?
2/
2 A I f w e e u a t e t e s e w e o t a n ,

a r e l a t i o n b e t we e n E a n d H Th u s
.

c
2
%p H 2
.

A ls o p cv
2
1 .

Th e re fo re E i v .

The p o s i t iv e or n e g a t i v e Sig n d e p e nd s on which w a y t he w a v e

i s g o i ng . D is rega rdi ng t his t he el e c t ric a nd m a gne t ic fo rc e s
,

h a v e a c o ns t a nt ra t i o The y a re t h e re fore i n t he s a m e p ha s e
.
,

or ke e p t i m e t o g e t h e r i n a ll t h e ir v a ri a t i on s wi th o u t la g o r
l e a d A l ong wi t h t hi s t h e y h a v e t he pro p e rt y o f b e i n g p e r
.
,

e n d ic u la r t o o n e a n ot h e r ( t h a t i s E a nd H a r e p e rp e n dic u l a r
p , .
,

no t E a nd H ) ,
a nd t h e ir pl a ne i s i n t he w a v e fr o n t o r t he -

d ire c t i on o f m o t i o n of t h e w a v e i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o B a nd t o H .

I t i s t he dire c t i o n O f t he fl u x o f e ne rgy Th es e pro p e r t i e s h o ld.

g oo d i n a ll p a rt s o f a p u re e l e c t ro m a gne t ic w a v e a l t ho u gh t he ,

m a g n i t u d e s a nd d ire c t i ons o f t he e l e c t ric a nd m a gn e t ic fo rc e s

m a y v a ry gre a t ly fro m o ne p a rt o f t he w a v e t o a no t h e r .

The a b o v e i s a l s o t he s t a t e of t hi ng s t h a t Ob t a i ns m o re or ,

l es s p e r fe c t ly or i m p e r fe c tly i n l ong di s t a nc e t e l e ph ony o ve r

,
-

C opp e r c irc u i t s o f low re s i st a n c e a nd by l o we ri ng t he re s i s t a nc e

,

p e r m il e w e m a
y a ppr o x i m a t e a s n e a rly a s w e pl e as e t o t he

s t a t e o f p u r e e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic w a v e s I t i s t he s e l f i n d u c t i o n
.
-

t h a t bri ngs a b ou t t hi s s t a t e o f t hi n g s s h o wi n g s u ch a c ont ra s t ,

t o t he m o r e fa m ili a r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t he e l e c t ric a nd m a g n e t ic
fo rc es o n circ u i ts i n g e n e ra l Like a ki nd O f fly whe el t he
.
-
,

s e l f i n d u c t i o n i m p a r ts i ne r t i a a nd s t a bil i t y a n d k e e p s t he w a v e s
-
,
 ,
HEORY
T OF PL A NE EL CTR E OMAGNETI C WAVES . 32 1

wa s , n ot m a n y yea rs s i nc e s p u rn e d wi t h c ont e mpt from t he

,

d oo r .S om e p e o pl e t h o u gh t t h e re was a v e ry a b s u rd fu s s m a d e
a b o u t s e l f i nd u c t i on a nd t h a t i t was m a d e a s o rt o f fe t i s h o f
-

s o kno wi n g n o b e t t e r t h e y p o u re d m u ch c old w a t e r o n t he
, ,

id ol B u t wha t e v e r opi ni ons w e m ay h old re gar ding t h e ir

.
,

c o m p e t e nc e as j u dge s t h e re ca n be n o qu es t i on a b ou t t he s t e rn
,

l ogic of fa c t s S e l f i nd u c t i on ca m e t o s t a y a nd s t a y e d i t ha s
.
-
, ,

a n d will s t a y h a v i ng gr e a t s t a yi ng p o w e r
,
Wh a t e v e r s h ou ld .

we t hink o f e ngi ne e rs who d e cli ne d t o t a k e int o ac c ou nt t he

i ne r t ia o f t h e ir m a chi ne ry ? Th ere was a l so s om e c ons id e r
a bl e fu ss m a d e a b ou t a s u pp o s e d la w of t he s q u a r es or K R ,

la w as i t wa s or i s c all e d a cc o rdi ng t o which y ou c o u ld ,

not t e l e ph one fu rt h e r t h a n KR = s u ch or s u ch a nu m b e r ,

be cau s e t he s p ee d of the c u rr ent v a ri e d as t he s qu a re o f

t he l e ngt h of t he li ne o r e l s e i n ver s e ly B u t i n Spi t e of t he
, .

re pe a t ed a t t e mp ts m a de t o b ol s t e r u p t he KR la w t he cri t ic a l ,

nu m b e r has k e p t on s te a dily ri s i n g e v e r s i n c e I s e e no w t h a t .

i t ha s g one u p t o B u t i t n e e d n ot s t o p t h e r e Ma k e .

y ou r circu i ts l ong e r a nd i t will go u p a lot m ore

, .

A s re g a rds t he e t h e r i t i s u se l e s s t o s nee r a t i t a t t hi s t i m e
,

o f d ay What s u b s t i t u t e for i t a re we t o h a ve 1 I t s pri ncip a l

.
’ ‘

fa u l t i s t ha t i t i s m y s t e ri ou s Th a t i s b e c a u se we kno w s o .

li ttl e a bou t it Then we s ho u ld find ou t m ore Th a t ca n

. .

no t be d on e by ig no ri ng i t The pro p e r t i e s of a ir s o fa r
.
,

as t h e y are k no w n ha d t o be fou nd o u t b e for e t h ey b e c a m e

,

know n .

W av e Fr ont s -
; t he i r I ni t i a ti on a nd Progr e ss .

1 81 . S till k ee pi ng
i m pl e di ele c t ric we m ay a lw a y s
to a s , ,

by c ons id era t i on of t h e fa ct t ha t t he s p e e d of pro p a g a t i on i s v ,

find t he for m o f t he w a v e front d u e t o a ny c oll e c t i on of p oi nt

-

s ou rc e s a nd t ra c e t he ch a ng es o f s h a p e a nd p os i t i on i t u nd e r
,

S ee The Electr i ci a/ n, D ec e m be r 30, 1 8 92 , p 25 1 , for

. dt a a, in l
ar t i c e by
32 2 ELE C TR OMAGNE T I C T HEORY . C II Iv .

go es a s it pro gr ess es For obvi ou sly if a p o int P be a t a di s

.
,

t a n c e ut fr om t he n e a r e s t s ou rc e n o di s t u rb a n c e c a n h a v e
r
,

r e a ch e d P from i t if i t s t a r t e d i n t o a c t i on af ter t he m o m e n t
t = O 3 a n d g e n e r a lly t h e e ffe c t a t P a t a giv e n m o m e n t a ri s i n g
,

fro m a p a r t ic u l a r s ou rc e d e p e nd s u p on i t s s t a t e a t t he m o m e n t
r v e a rli e r r b e t he di s t a n c e fr o m t h e s o u rc e t o P a nd u p on
/ ( if ) ,

t h e pr e vi o u s s t a t e o f t he s o u rc e c a u s i n g r e s id u a l o r c u m u l a
,

t iv e a c t i on a t P W e t h e r e for e kno w t he l i mi t i ng di s t a nc e o f
.

a c t i on o f t he s o u rc e s for e v e ry o ne o f t h e ir m o m e nt a ry s t a t e s .

The w a v e front b e l o ngi ng t o a s e t o f d is c onne c t e d p oi nt s o u rc e s

- -

c ons i st s i ni t ia lly o f di s c onn e c t e d s ph e re s B u t a s t h e y e xp a n d .

,

t h e y m e rg e i n t o o ne a no t h e r t o fo r m a c o n t i nu o u s e x t r e m e w a v e
front c ons i s t i ng of p or t i ons o f s ph e r es Wh e n t he p o i n t s o u rc e s.
-

a r e s pr e a d c ont i n u o u s ly o v e r a s u r fa c e t o fo r m a s u r fa c e s ou rc e w e
-

h a ve a c ont in u o u s w a v e front fro m t he firs t m om e nt 3 or ra t h e r

-

t wo w a v e fro nt s one on e a ch s id e o f t h e s u r fa c e
-
,
Th e re i s a n .

e xc e p t i on t o b e m e n t i on e d l a t e r wh e n t he s o u rc e s s e n d w a v e s
, ,

o ne wa y on ly fr o m t he s u r fa c e Thi s i s n ot t he a lre a dy
.

de s crib e d c a s e of t h e c a nc e lling of t wo t ra i ns o f wa v e s a t p a r
t i c u la r fr e qu e n ci e s b u t i s a u nil a t e r a l a c t i on o b ta i n e d by a
,

Sp e ci a l a rra ng e m e nt of s u rfa c e s ou rc e s Pa s s ing o v e r t hi s

-
.
,

ob s e r v e t h a t wh e n we h a v e o nc e g o t a w a v e front w e m a y ig no r e
-

t he s o u rc e s which pr o d u c e d i t a n d m a k e t he w a v e fr o nt i t s e l f
—
,

t e ll u s wh a t i t s s u b se q u e nt hi s t o ry will be Fo r t o t r a c e t h e.
,

cou rs e o f t he w a v e front from one m om ent t o t he n e x t we h a v e

-
,

m e r e ly t o m o v e a n y e l e m e nt o f t he s u rfa c e i n t he dire c t i on o f
the n or m a l t o t h at e l e m e nt t hr o u gh a s m all di s t a n c e a t o
o b t a i n t h e n e w p os i t i o n a t t he m o m e n t a /v l a t e r Thi s b e i ng .

d one for t he wh ol e s u rfa c e gi ve s u s t he n e w p os i t i o n of t he

,

w a v e front a n d by c ont i nu ing t hi s pro c e s s we m a y foll o w t he

-

wa v e front i n i t s pr ogre ss a s long as we pl e a s e Th u s t he w a v e

- .

fr ont c om i ng fr o m t he s u rfa c e O f a s ph e re i s a s ph e r e 3 fr o m a
ro u nd cyli nd e r i f i nfi ni t ely l ong a l s o a ro u n d cyl ind e r 3 bu t i f
, ,

O f fi n i t e l e n g t h t h
,
e n a c y li n d e r wi t h r o u n d e d e n d s 3 fr o m a c u be ,

i ni t i all y a c u b e wi t h ro u n d e d c o r ne rs b u t b e c o m i ng m or e a n d
,

m o re s ph e ric a l a s i t e x p a n d s 3 a n d s o o n I t i s e a s ily s e e n t h a t
.

at a s u f fi ci e n t ly gr e a t di s t a n c e fr o m a fi n i t e c oll e c t i on of s ou rc es
o f a ny ki n d t h e w a v e fr o n t t e nd s t o b e c om e s ph e ric a l o r t he
-

, ,

c o m pl e x s ou rc e t e nd s t o b ec om e e q u iva l e nt a t a gre a t di s t a n c e , ,

t o a p o i nt s ou rc e of s om e c o m pl e x ki nd
- .
32 4 EL ECTR OMAGN ET I C T HEOR Y . CH . Iv.

grea t c omplic a t i ons B u t ho we ver c om pl ex in d eta il we h a v e

.
, ,

t he i m p o rt a nt fa c t t h a t t he m e r e k no wl e d g e of t he s p e e d o f
prop a g a t i on a ll o w s u s t o lay d ow n t he wh ol e c ou rs e of the
wa v e s ge nera t ed and the p os it i on of t he wa v e front s b el ongi ng
,
-

t o a giv e n e p o ch a t t he s ou rc e The m a t h e m a t ic s of t he fu ll
.

t r e a t m e nt m a y be a l t og e t h e r b ey o nd h u m a n p o w e r i n a r e a s on
a bl e t i m e ; n e v e r t h e l es s we c a n a l wa y s pr e dic t wi t h c on fi d e nc e
,

t h a t t he r e s u l ts m u s t h a v e s u ch a nd s u ch g e ne r a l pr op e r t i e s
r el a t ing t o t he c ou rs e of t he wa ves b es id e s t he prop e rt i e s ,

i nvol v e d i n t he p ers i st enc e of e ne rgy .

I n t he a b o v e we w e re c onc e rn e d wi t h di s c ont i nu ou s he
t e roge ne i ty o r a n a br u pt ch a ng e i n t he v a l u e of o ne or b ot h
,

o f t he c ons t a n t s c a nd p a t a n i n t e r fa c e Wh e n t he m e di u m i s .

cont i nu o u s ly h e te r og e ne ou s c ons t a nt s cha nge in

“ ”
or t h e ,

val u e cont inu ou sly from pl a ce t o pla ce t hen t he s p ee d c is ,

ma d e a fu nc t ion o f p os i t i on The pr oc es s of p a rt i a l r e fl e c t i on
.

a nd p a r t i a l t r a ns m i ss i on which o cc u rr e d a t t he i nt e rfa c e n ow

t a k es pl a ce i n g e ne ra l wh e r e v e r t he va l u e of c or [ ch a ng e s 1. .

These ch a nges b e i ng cont inu ou s s o a re t he res u l t s s o t h a t w e

, ,

do not h a v e di s t i nc t ly se p a ra bl e t ra i ns o f w a v e s bu t ra t h e r a ,

c ont i nu ous di s t o rt i on W e ca n h o w e v e r foll o w t he cou rs e o f

.
, ,

a w a v e e xp a n di ng fr om a p o i nt by c om mu n ic a t i ng t o t he w a v e

front t he s p ee d prop e r t o i ts p os i t i on s u ch s p ee d b e i ng a s , ,

a b ove ,
de fi ni t i vely kno wn A s ph e rica l wa ve m ay re ma in
.

s ph e ric al o nly v a ryi n g i n i t s s p e e d ; or m o re lik e ly i t m a

, y ,

ch a nge it s form a s i t e xp a nd s I t m ay be c ome ellip soid a l for

.
,

e x a m pl e a nd o f c o u r s e m u s t do s o i f t he s p e e d i n di ffe re nt
,

p a rt s of t he m e di u m va ry s u i t a bly .

I t i s p os s ibl e for the i ndu c t i v i t y and p e r m i t t i vi ty t o ch ange ,

e i t h e r a br u p t ly or c ont i nu o u s ly wi t h o u t a ny r e fl e c t i on or c as t
, ,

i ng b ehi n d o f t he di s t u rb a nc e as a w a v e progr e s s es a l t h ou gh ,

i t s s p ee d v a ri es . In s u ch a c a se i t will be fou nd t h a t t he ra t i o

n/ o i s c o ns t a n t . T h e ch a ng e i n p o r t he r at i o of i nd u c t i on to
,

m a gne t ic forc e t h e n fu lly c o m p e ns a t es t he Cha ng e i n c t he

, ,

r a t i o of di s pl a c e m e nt t o e l e c t ri c forc e e it he r of which ch a ng es
,

by i t s e l f w ou ld c a u s e re fle c t i on .

I n c onne c t i on w i t h a h e t e rog e neou s m e di u m ( i ncl u di ng a br u p t

ch a nge s of na t u re) we may not ic e i t s b eh av i ou r a s re gar d s
,

s t e a dy s t a t es ,
i n c ont ras t wi t h t h a t o f a t h o rou ghly h om o
e neo u s m e di u m I n t he l a t t e r c as e as w e h a v e a lre a dy
g .
,
 T HEORY OF PLAN E E LECTROMAGNET C WAVES I . 32 5

d e s cribe d t he i nt rod u c t ion of a s t e a dy p o int sou rc e c au ses

,
-

t he s te a dy s ta t e t o b e gin i m m e di a t e ly a t a nd s pre a d a r ou n d i t ,

a ft e r which n o ch a n e o cc u rs Th h m di u m b e i ng
'
a t is t e e
g .
,

h omog ene ou s t h e re is no re fle x a c t i on B u t wh en i t i s h e t e ro
,
.

g e n eo u s t h e c as e i s q u i te di ffe r e nt Th e s t e a dy s t a t e o
. f d i s

pla c e m e nt d u e t o i m pres se d vol t a g e d e p e nds u p on t he p e r

m i t t i v i t y i n a ll p a rt s of t he m e di u m a nd only c om es a b ou t a s ,

t h e fi na l r e s u l t o f t he i nfi ni t e ly n u m e rou s r e a c t i o ns b e t we e n
di ffe rent p a r ts d u e t o t he re fle c t i ons t ha t t a k e pl a c e which
, ,

m o di fy t he fi na l di s trib u t i on of di s pl a c e m e nt as w e ll a s ( u s u a lly)
t he t o ta l a m o u nt The r e i s a s i m il a r c ont r as t i n t he m e ch a n i s m
.

o f t he m a t h e m a t ic s i nv ol v e d i n t he ca lc u l a t i on of t he s t e a d y

s ta t e . Wh e n t he m e di u m i s hom ogeneou s we m a y find i t

t hr ou gh t he p o t ent i a l of fi c t i t i ou s m a t t e r a t t he s o u rc e a l one .

Wh e n h e t e rog en eou s we r e qu ire to ha ve fic t it i ou s ma t t e r a ll

,

o v e r t he m e di u m or r a t h e r i n a ll p a rt s wh e r e i t ch a ng es i t s
,

na t u r e a nd
, o wi n g t o t he i nfi n i t e ly n u m e r o u s r e a c t i ons we
, ,

s h ou ld i n a g ene ra l o r c o m pl e t e s ol u t io n re q u ire t o pe rf or m
, ,

not o ne s p a c e i nt e gr a t i on bu t a n i nfi n i t e s e ri e s o f s u c c e ss i v e
-

s p a c e i nte gra t i o ns b e fo r e we c ou ld a rri v e a t t he t r u e p ot e nt i a l

-

fu nc t i on a ll o wi ng for t he v a ri a t i ons o f p e r m i t t i v i t y e v e ry
,

wh e re Th u s by e l e ct roma gnet ic c ons id e ra t i ons we ob t a i n

.
,

so m e i ns ight O f t he t ru e n a t u re of t ra ns c e nd e nt a l s t a t ic pr ob

l e m s i nv ol v ing p ot ent i a l fu nct i ons a nd ass u m ed i ns tanta ne ou s

,

a c t i on a t a di s t a n ce .

Effe c t of E ol ot r Op y . O p t ic a l W a v e S u rfa c e s
-
.

El e c t romagne t ic v e su s r Elas t ic S oli d Th eori e s .

1 83 . W h en
di u m is n ot is ot ro pic a s re ga rd s e i th e r
t he m e
t h e di s pl a c e m ent o r t he i nd u c t i on o r a s r e g a rd s b o t h w e h a ve
, ,

v ery r e ma rk a ble e ffe c ts kno wn in t he s ci e nc e of op t ics as

,

d ou bl e r e fra c t i on Th e re c a n be t wo di s t i nc t wa ve [ p e e ds for a
-
.
-

giv en p os i t i on O f t he w a v e front a nd t h es e s p e e ds ch a nge wh e n

-

t he dir e c t i o n o f t he n o r m a l t o t he w a v e fr ont ch a ng e s H e nc e -
.

d ou bl e re fra ct i on or t he s ep a rat i on o f a w a ve ente ri ng a n

,

e o l o t r opic m e di u m i nt o t wo w a v e s t ra v e lli n g i nd e p e nd e nt ly o f

o n e a no t h e r a t di ffe r e nt s p ee d s I f t he m e di u m i s only e l e c
.
326 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

so t h a t t he ra y which i ndic a t e s t he dire c t i o n O f t he flu x of

,

e n e rgy i s i n cli n e d t o t he n o r m a l t o t he w a v e fr on t S i m il a rly

-
.
, ,

w i t h m a g n e t ic e olo t ro p y a l o ne i t i s t he m a g n e t ic fo rc e t h a t i s
,

i ncli n e d t o t he wa v e front Wh e n t he m e d i u m i s b ot h e l e c
-

t r i ca lly a nd m a g n e t ic a lly e ol o t r opic b o t h t he e l e c t ric a n d t he

,

m a g ne t ic fo rc e a r e i ncli ne d t o t he w a v e fro nt w hil s t t he d i s

-

pl a c e m e nt a nd i nd u c t ion t h ou gh s t ill i n t he w a v e fron t a re no

,
-

l ong e r p e rp e ndic u l a r t o one a not he r .

By i m a gi ni ng pl a n e e l e ct r om a g ne tic s h e e t s t o t ra v e rs e t he
m e di u m i n a ll p oss ibl e dire c t i ons a b o u t a p o i nt a nd c o m p a ri ng ,

t h e ir p os i t i on s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t he p o i nt a t e q u a l t i m e s a ft e r

cr os s i ng i t we a rrive a t t he c on c e p t i on o f t he wa v e s u rfa c e
,
-
.

Thi s i s Obvi ou sly a s ph e re i n a n i s o t ro pic m e di u m B u t wh e n .

i t i s e o lo t r o pic t h e t wo s p e e d s a nd t h e ir v a ri a t i o n a cc ordi ng
, ,

t o t h e dir e c t i o n O f m o t i o n o f t he w a v e s m a k e t he w a v e s u rfa c e
,
-

b ec o m e a v e ry s i ng u l a r d o u bl e s u rfa c e Wi t h e l e c t ric e olo t rO p y

.

a l o ne which i s t he pr a c t ic a l c a s e i t i s Fr e s n e l s w a v e s u r fa c e
’
-

, , .

I t i s a l s o a not h e r Fr e s n e l s u r fa c e wi t h m a g ne t ic e olot r op y
a l on e . B u t wh e n t he m e d i u m i s e ol ot ro pic a s r e g a rd s b o th t he
i n d u c t i o n a n d t he dis pl a c e m ent t he w a v e s u rfa c e i s o f a m or e
,
-

g e n e ra l a nd s y mm e t ric a l ch a ra c t e r i ncl u di ng t he forme r t wo

,

as e x t r e m e e x a m pl e s . I t i s s t ill a d o u bl e s u r fa c e h o w e v e r , ,

e x c e p t i n o ne c a s e . W e h a ve a lre a dy m e nt i on e d t h a t i n a n
is o t r o pic m e di u m t h e r e i s a p e c u li a r b e h a vi ou r wh e n t he ra t i o
c i s c o n s t a n t a l t h o u gh [ a n d c V a ry W e m igh t a n t icip a t e
u
, / ,
1 .

s o m e p e c u li a ri t y i n t he w a v e s u r fa c e wh e n c
-

/ o is o ns t a nta
. .

Thi s c ons t a ncy no w m e a ns t ha t the dire c t i on al prop e r t i es of u.

,

a r e e x a c tly p a r a ll e l e d by t h os e o f c Th a t i s t he pri ncip a l

.
,

a x es o f a n d t h o s e o f c a r e c o i n cid e nt whil s t t h e v a l u e o f t he
u.
, ,

ra t i o of t he p e rm it t ivi t y t o t he i nd u c t i vi ty i s t he s a m e for t he
t hr e e a x e s .The r e s u l t i s t o r e d u c e t he d o u bl e w a v e s u rfa c e t o -

a s i ngl e s u r fa c e which i s a n e llip so id

,
.

A ss u m i n g ligh t t o c ons i s t o f v ibra t i ons of a n e l a s t ic s olid

m e di u m s i ngl e or o rdi n a ry re fra c t i on i s e x pl a i ne d by a n
,

a l t e ra t i on i n t he d e n s i ty o r t he rigidi t y o f t he e t h e r No t .

o nly i s t he t h e o ry q u i t e hyp o t h e t ic a l i n c o ns i d e ri ng t he ki ne t ic

e n e rgy t o be t he e ne rgy o f vi bra t i o n a l m o t i o n s o f di s pl a c e m e nt ,

bu t t he a l t e ra t i on o f d e ns i ty o r r igidi t y as s u m e d i s a f u rt h e r
hyp oth e s is on t he t op of t he m ai n o ne for t h e re i s no e v id e nc e
,

th a t t h e re is s u ch a ch a ng e . Moreo v e r t he e x pl a na t i o n will
,
 28 L C T ROMAGN E TI C T HEORY
E E . CH . Iv .

or fa l s e , a nd fi na lly c ons t r u c t a p u ri fi e d t h eory not pr ofe s s i ng ,

t o e xpl a i n wh a t ligh t i s b u t s t ill c o nne c t i ng t o g e t h e r i n a p e r

,

fe c tly u nobj e c t i on a bl e m a nn e r fre e fro m hyp o t h e s e s a ll t he

, ,

princip a l fa c t s a nd o f s o c om pli a n t a n a t u re a s t o rea dily a d a p t

,

i ts e l f t o f u t u re di s co ve ri es a nd fi na lly s et tl e d own t o a s p e ci a l
,

fo r m e xpre s s i ng the t h eory o f ligh t I t i s h a rdly lik e ly t h a t

.

t he cl e a r h e a d e d m a n will be fou nd for t he p u rp os e a n d p e r

-

h a p s hi s t h e ory w ou ld no t be v e ry p op u la r I t w o u ld b e SO .

ve ry a bs t ra c t Wha t i s fa r m ore likely i s t h a t t he e l e c t ro

.

m a g ne t ic t h e o ry ( i t s el f a b s t ra c t a nd p os se s s i ng m a ny o f t he
d es ir e d q u a lific a t i ons ) which h a s a lre a dy b eg u n t o find i t s
,

wa y i n t o Op t ic a l t r e a t i se s a t t h e e nd will gra d u a lly w o rk i ts ,

w ay righ t t hr o u gh t h e m t o t he be gi nn i ng a n d i n d o i ng s o , ,

o u st o u t t he m o s t o f t he old fa s hi on e d hyp o t h e s e s -
The .

res ul t will be t o h a v e Op t ic a l t h e ory e xpr e s s e d t hrou gh o u t i n

e l e c t r o ma g n e t ic l a ng u a g e To d o i t pro p e rly i t i s h a rdly
.
,

ne c e s sa ry t o s a y t h a t t he pr e p os t e r o u s which t he B A .

C om m i tte e s ee m t o w a nt t o p e rp e t u a t e s h ou ld be ig nore d from ,

t he b e gi nni n g .

A Perfe c t C ondu c t or i s a P e rfe c t Obs tr u c t or, bu t d oe s not

a bs o rb r of El e c t romagnet i c Wa v es
t he Ene gy .

1 8 4 S O far i n v a ryi ng t he na t u r e o f t he m e di u m we h a v e
.
, ,

n ot i n t r o d u c e d a ny pr op e r t y c a u s i ng i t s l o c a l wa s t e s u ch a s ,

t he e xi s t e n c e of c ond u c t i v i t y ( fi ni t e ) n e c e s s i t a t es I n a ll t he .

va ri ed j ou rneys of e l e c t rom a g ne t ic wa ve s in a ( the o ret ical ) non

c ond u c t i ng di e l e c t ric with non c ond u c t ing o b s t a cl es t h e re i s no
-

l oc a l wa s te o f e ne rg y a nd t he work d one by i m pre s s e d fo rc es i s

,

e nt ir e ly a cc o u nt e d for by t he e l e c t ric a nd m a gn e t ic e n e rgy .

A s s u m i ng a c e r ta i n a m ou nt o f w o rk d on e u p t o a c e r t a i n
m om e nt a nd none l a t e r t h a t a mo u nt e x pr es s es t he e ne rgy o f
, ,

t he e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic fi e ld a nd h o we ve r i t m ay v a ry i n d i s t ri b u
, ,

t i o n t he t ot a l re m a i ns t he s a m e j u s t a s if i t w e r e a q u a n t i ty
, ,

o f m a t t e r m ov i ng a b o u t h a v i ng c ont i nu i t y o f e xi s t e n c e i n t i m e
,

a nd s p a c e . The u s el e s s c o m plic a t i on i nt ro d u c e d by t he cir

c u i t a l i n d e t e r m i na t e n ess O f t h e e ne rgy fl u x m ay b e ig no r e d .

The only way t h e n t o ge t rid o f t he e ne rgy i s t o a b s o rb i t a t

, ,

t he s ou rc e s by w orki ng a g a i ns t i m pr es s e d fo rc e s P u t t i ng .

t h a t on o ne s id e t h e re i s t he w as t e o f e ne rgy by di s s ip a t i on
,

i n s p a c e which c a nnot be s t opp e d

,
The e ne gy i s s t ill i n e xi s
. r
 T HEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNE T C WAVES I . 32 9

ten c e a nd is s t ill i n t he el e c t ric a nd m a gne t ic forms and mu s t

, ,

a lwa y s be a t a fi ni t e di s t a n c e fr o m i ts s o u rc e a n d a n i nfi ni te

di st a nc e from i nfi nit y 3 bu t s inc e i t g et s o u t of pra c t ica l reac h ,

a nd i s c ons t a nt ly go ing o u t 'fu r th e r i t i s v irt u a lly w as t e d

, .

Th u s u l t i m a t ely t he e n e rgy o f a ll di s t u rb a nc e s g ene ra te d i n

, ,

a b ou ndl es s n o n c ond u c t i ng di el e c t ric g o es o u t o f r a ng e a n d i s

-

w a s te d .

To pre v ent t hi s we m a y i nt e rp ose a r efl e c ti ng b a rri e r

, .

I m a gi n e a s cre e n t o be i nt rod u c ed a t a ny fi ni t e di s t a n c e
, ,

e n v e l opi ng t he s o u rc e s O f s u ch a n a t u re a s t o b e i n c a p a bl e o f
,

e i t h e r t ra n s m i tt i ng o r a b s o rbi n g t h e e n e rg y O f w a v e s i m pi n gi n g

u p on i t . Th e n cl ea rly t he di s s ip a t i on o f t he e ne rgy i s s t opp ed ,

a n d i t a ll k e e p s wi t hi n t h e b o u n d e d r e gi o n The w a v e s fro m
.

t he s o u rc e will b e r e fl e c te d fro m t he bo u nd a ry a nd t h e ir s u b ,

s e q u e nt hi s t o ry will b e a n e n dl e s s s e ri es o f cr os s i ng s a nd r e

cros s i ngs The only w a y t o d e s t roy t he i nd u c t i on a nd d i s

.

pl a c e m e nt i s t o e m pl oy a rt fu l d e m ons ( or i m pres s e d fo rc es ) s o ,

s i t u a t e d a n d s o t i m i ng t h e m s elv e s as t o a b s orb t he e n e rgy o f

wa v e s p as s i ng t h em i ns te a d O f g e ne ra t i ng m ore di st u rb a n c e s
, .

I n t h e a b s e n c e o f t hi s d e m on ia c a l p o s se ss i on of t he re gi on t he ,

e n e rgy will r e m a i n W i t hi n i t i n t he e l e c tr o m a g ne t ic fo r m a n d

be I n c ons t a nt m o t i o n .

B u t a ny o p e n i ng i n t he s cree n es t a bli s hi ng a c onne c t i on

,

t hr o u g h e t h e r b e t w ee n t h e i nne r a nd o u t er r e gi ons will a t

'

o n c e p u t a s t o p t o t hi s l o c a l p e rs i s t e nc e o f e ne rgy F or e ne rgy ,

will p a s s t hrou gh t he o p eni ng a nd onc e t hr ou gh c a nnot ge t

, ,

b a ck a ga i n ( t h ou gh a p a r t m ay) bu t will es c a p e t o i nfi ni t y A
, .

m e r e pi nh o l e will be s u ffici e nt i f t i m e e nou gh b e gi ve n t o a ll ow

, ,

a ll t h e e ne rgy t o p ass t hr ou gh i t i nt o t he e x t e rn a l r e gi o n a n d ,

t h e r e g o o u t u n i m p e d e d t o a n i n fi ni te di s ta nc e i n t he a b s e n c e ,

o f a fre s h c o m pl e t e s cr e e n t o k ee p i t wi t hi n b o u n ds .

A s cre e n to p e rfo rm t he a b o v e d e s cri b e d fu nc t i ons m a y be

-

m a d e o f t h a t v e ry u s e fu l s ci e nt ific s u b s t a n c e t he p e rfe c t con ,

d u c t o r which i s p os s ibly e xi s t ent in fa ct a t t he li m i t ing z er o

,

o f a b s o l u t e t e m p e ra t u r e t he l a t e s t e v id e nc e be i ng t h e re c e nt
,

e xp e ri m e nt s o f P r ofs D e w a r a n d Fl e m i ng m e a s u ri ng t he re s is t
.
,

a u c es o f m e t a l s a t v e ry lo w t e m p e ra t u r e s I f a p e rfe c t c on
.
3 30 EL EC TR OMAGN E T I C T HEORY . 0 11 . IV .

C ond u c t ors at L ow Te mp e ra t ur e s .

1 85 . r e a s on a p e rfe c tly c ondu c t i ng m a ss e x p os e d

For t hi s ,

to e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic r a di a t i on i n e t h e r c a nnot b e h e a t e d t h e r e by ,

fo r h e a t i ng w ou ld i m ply t he a b s o rp t i o n o f e n e rgy If the n .

, ,

the la w ( wh os e e x i s t e n c e h a s l on g b e e n s u s p e c t e d ) t h a t m e t a l s
t e n d t o b e c o m e p e r fe c t c ond u c t ors wh e n t h e ir t e m p e r a t u r e i s
s u ffici e nt ly l o we r e d w e re a b s o l u t e ly t r u e i t w o u ld foll o w t h a t
, ,

a m e ta l ,
i f on c e bro u gh t to z e ro t e m p e r a t u r e w o u ld r e m a i n ,

the re pr ov id e d i t s o nly s ou rc e o f h e a t e ne rgy b e e lec t r o m a g

,
-

ne t ic v ibra t i on s .A t t he s a m e t i m e i t i s c on c e i va bl e a nd i n , ,

d e ed i ne v i t a bl e t h a t i t s h ou ld re c e i ve e n e rgy fro m t h e m t o
, ,

so m e e x t ent i n a n o t h e r w a y viz by t he e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic s t re s s
,
.
,

pro d u cing m oti on i n b u lk e v e n t h ou gh t he e s t a bli s h m e nt of

,

irre gu l a r m ol e c u l a r m ot i ons be pre ve nt e d .

S i m il a rly w e s h o u ld e x p e c t t h a t a m e t a l which o b ey s t he la w
,

a ppro xi m a t e ly w o u ld s h o w v e ry s m a ll a b s o rp t iv e p o we r for
r a d ia t i on a t v ery lo w t e m p e ra t u r es Thi s r e fe rs t o t he r e c e p
.

t i on o f t h e e n e rgy o f t r u e r a di a t i o n i n e t h e r t h a t i s i n va c u o —
, .

A b o dy m a y b e c om e h e a t e d i n ot h e r w a y s by t he i m p a c t s o f ,

a i r p a r t icl es for e x a m pl e if a i r b e pr e s e n t P r of D e wa r s l a t e
’
, ,
. .

e xp e ri m ent s ar e s u gg e s t iv e i n t hi s r e s p e c t b u t i t i s t oo s oo n ,

t o dra w c on cl u s i o ns from p a r t i a lly p u bli s h e d e x p e ri m e nt s

-
.

B u t e v e n as re g a rd s s t r o ngly a b s o rp t iv e b odi e s t he p e r fe c t ly ,

bl a ck b ody of t he t h e rm a l phil os oph e rs for e x a m pl e w e m a y , ,

e xp e c t a s i m il a r di m i nu t i o n o f a b s o rp t iv e a n d e m i s s i v e p o w e r

wit h fa ll o f t e m p e ra t u re S t e fa n s la w of ra di a t i on a s s e r ts t ha t
.
’

t he e m i s s ivi t y v a ri e s a s t he fo u r t h p o w e r o f t he a b s ol u t e t e m e

e ra t u re S i n c e h o w e v e r i n d e ri v i ng t hi s la w fr o m e l e c t r o
p .
, ,

m a g ne t ic pri cipln e s a s h a
,
s b e e n r c ly d e by B G a li t zi ne
e e n t o n * .
,

we s e e m i ngly r e q u ire t o i nv ok e t he a i d o f r e v e r s ibl e cycl e s a nd

t he s e c on d l a w o f t h e rm o dy na m ic s wh os e r a ng e of a pplic a t i on
,

i s s om e t i m e s o p en t o q u e s t i on we m a y w ell be e x c u s e d fro m
,

a n o v e rh a s t y a cc e p t a n c e o f t h e la w a s t he e xp re s s i o n o f a bs o

l u t e fa c t The s e c on d la w of t h e r mo dy na m ics i t s el f ne e d s t o
.

be e s ta bli s h e d from e l e c t rom a g ne t ic pri ncipl e s a s s i s t e d by t he ,

l a w s of a v e ra g e s s o t h a t w e m a y c o m e t o s e e m ore cl ea rly t he
,

va lidit y of i t s a pplic a t i on a nd obt a i n m ore di s ti nc t not i ons of

,

t he i nne r m e a ni ng of t e m p e r a t u r e .
33 2 E LEC T ROMAGN ETI C T HEORY . CH . 1v .

cl ea r t h a t t he irregu l a ri ty will p e rs i st , a nd b e c ome '

more
c ompl et e .

Le t u s, he n as su me t hat we h a ve got the medi u m wi thi n ou r

t ,

s cre en i nt o t hi s s t a t e i n i ts e x t r e m e fo r m wi t h o u t e nq u iry i n t o ,

t he i nte r m e di a t e s t a g e s Then t he v e ry irre gu l a ri t y gi ves ri s e

.

t o a re g u l a ri t y of a n e w ki nd t he r eg u l a ri t y o f a v e ra g e s
,
The .

t o t a l e ne rgy which i s a c ons t a nt q u a nt i ty will b e h a l f e l e c t ric

, ,

a nd h a l f m a g ne t ic a nd will b e u n i fo r m ly s pr e a d t hr o u gh o u t
,

t he e n cl os u re so t h a t t he ene rgy d e ns i ty ( or e ne rgy p e r u ni t

,

vol um e) i s cons ta nt A s re ga rds t he di s pla c e m ent a nd t he

.

i nd u ct i on t h ey t a ke a ll dire c t i ons i n t u rn a t a ny o ne s pot q u i t e

, ,

irr egu l a rly bu t s o t h at t h e ir t i m e a ve ra ge s Sh o w no dire c t i ona l

,
-

pre fe re nc e S i m il a rly t he flu x of e ne rgy which is a d e fi ni t e

.
, ,

q u a nt i ty a t a gi ve n m om e nt a t a fi x e d s p ot is c ons t a nt ly ,

cha nging i n a m ou nt a nd dire c t i on B u t i n virt u e of t he con .

s t a nc
y o f t h e m ea n d e n s i t y a n d t he pr ese r v a t i o n o f t h e n o r ma l

s t a te by c ons ta n t e xch a ng e s o f e ne rgy t h e re i s a d e fi n i t e m e a n ,

e n e rgy flu x t o be ob t a i ne d by a v e ra gi ng r e s u l t s Thi s m ea n .

flu x e xpres s es t he flu x o f e ne rgy p e r s e c ond a cro ss a uni t a rea

a nywh e r e s i t u a t e d wi t hi n t he e ncl os u r e .

To e s t i ma t e i ts a m ou n t le t the m e a n d e ns i t y o f t he e ne rgy
,

be U . Thi s i s t o i ncl u d e b ot h kinds No w fix a t t e nt i on u p on .

a u n i t a re a A fi x e d i n p os i t i o n a n ywh e r e wi t hi n t he e n cl os u r e
, , ,

a nd c on s i d e r t he flu x o f e ne rgy t hr o u gh i t u n d e r di ffe r e n t cir

cum s t a nce s First of a ll i f t he e ne rgy a ll m ove d t he sa m e

.
,

w ay a t t he s a me s p ee d 2) ( th a t of pro p a g a t i on) a s i n s i mp l e ,

pl a ne progress i ve wa v e s a nd t he dire c t i on o f i ts mot i on w e re

,

p e rp e ndic u l ar t o t he fi x e d u ni t a rea A t h en t he e ne rgy p as s i ng ,

t hrou gh i t w ou ld b e l ong t o a ra y ( or b u ndl e o f ra y s ) o f u ni t

se c t i o n a nd t he e ne rgy flu x w ou ld be U v s i m ply
,
This is t he .

m a xi m u m B u t t hi s i s i m p oss ibl e b e c a u s e e ne rgy w ou ld a cc u

.
,
~

m u l a to on one s ide o f A a t t he e xp e ns e o f t he o t h e r The .

ne x t a pproxi ma t i on t o p re v e nt t he a cc u mu la t i o n i s t o le t h a l f
‘

, ,

t he e ne rgy go one wa y a nd h a l f t he o t h e r s t ill h o w e v e r i n , ,

t he s a m e li ne Thi s b ri ngs u s d ow n t o § Ua To go fu rt he r
.
,

we m u s t t a k e a ll po s s ibl e dire c t i o ns o f m o t i on i nt o a cc o u nt .

The o rigi na l r a y c on v e yi ng Uv m u s t as s u m e a ll dire c t i ons i n

t u rn a nd t he m ea n va l u e of t he flu x t hr ou gh A m u s t be
,

re ckoned Now i f t he ray of u nit s e c t ion be t u rne d rou nd

.
,

so as t o m a k e a n a n gl e 6 wi t h t he n or m a l t o A t he e ffe c ti ve ,
 TH EOR Y OF PLA NE EL ECTROMAGNE T I C WAVES . 3 33

se ct ion of the ra y is r ed u c ed fr om 1 t o cos 0 ; t h a t is cos 6 is ,

t he fra c t i ona l p a rt of t he ra y which s e nd s i ts e ne rgy t hrou gh

A t hrou gh which t he flu x p e r se c o nd i s t h e re fore U12 cos 0 d u e
, ,

t o t he ra y a t i ncli na t i o n 0 The tru e flu x t hrou gh t he a rea A

.

i s t h e re fore t he m ea n va l u e of UC c os 6 for a ll dire ct i o ns i n s pa c e

a s s u m e d by t he r a y Now t he m ea n v a l u e O f c os 0 for a c o m
.

p l e t e s ph e r e i s z e r o a nd t h e r e fo re t he m e a n fl u x t hr o u gh A i s
,

z e ro Thi s i s righ t as i t a s s e r t s t h a t a s m u ch g oe s t hrou gh

.
,

o ne wa y as t he o t h e r To o b t a i n t he a m ou n t g oi ng e i t h e r wa y
.

we m u s t a v e ra g e o v e r a h e m i s ph e r e only The m ean v a l u e o f

.

c os 6 i s t h e n 3 B u t w e a re o nly c onc e rn e d wi t h h a l f the t ot al

.

e ne rgy o r wh e n we a re c onfi ne d t o o ne h e m i s ph e r e
, % U , C on .

s eq u e nt ly we h a v e

to express t he fl ux of ene rgy W p er s ec ond each way throu gh

an u n i t a r e a i n t he e n cl os u r e
y .

A not h e r w a y of g e t t i ng t hi s res u l t which i s h ow e v e r ess en

, , ,

t ia lly t he s a m e i s t o di vid e t he o rigi na l ra y of u ni t s e c t i on

,

a l on g which t h e flu x i s U 22 i nt o a v e ry gr ea t nu m b e r n o f e q u a l

ra y s of u ni t s e c ti on e a ch c onv eyi ng l /n p a rt of t he s a m e a nd
, ,

pl a c e d a t s u ch i ncli na ti ons t o t he norma l t o A t ha t no direc t i on

i n s p a ce i s fa v ou re d Thi s a m ou nt s t o di v idi ng t he s u rfa ce of
.

a s ph e re wh os e c e n t re i s t h a t o f t he ar e a A i nto 72 e q u a l p a rt s .
,

t he c ent re O f e v e ry one o f which d e fi nes t he po s i t i on o f one of

t he n r ay s A ny ra y no w s e nd s ( Ur /n) c os (9 t hrou gh A p e r
.

se c ond . N ow s u m t his u p ove r t he whole h em i s phe re a nd t he

r es u l t i s W I n the li m i t whe n n i s i nfi ni t ely grea t we ha ve
.
, ,

sin 9 d qtd d = 1 U'v,

as before The 4 di vi sor in t he i nte gral i s not the u ns p e ak

. 7r

a bl e 4 of t h e B A u n i t s I t i s t he a r ea of t he s ph e re o f u ni t
'
11 . .

ra di u s whil s t t he ot h e r fa c t or s in d d qt is t he a rea of a n
,

e l e m e nt O f t he s ph e r e .

A s t hi s i s a n i m po rt a nt fu nd a ment a l r es u l t i n r a di a t i on i t ,

i s d e s ira bl e t o e s t a bli s h i t a s g e ne ra lly a nd s i m ply a nd wi t h as ,

c om e
33 4 ELECTROMAGNET I C THEORY . on . N .

a re , ho we v e r only a ccid e nt a lly i n v o lv e d ) On t he ot h e r h a nd

,
.
,

G a li t zine m a k es i t 1 U?) by c o n s id e ri ng a s p e ci a l c a s e viz , .

,

th a t of a cyli n dric a l e n cl os u r e wi t h fla t e nd s on e o f which i s a ,

ra di a nt s o u rc e p e r fe c t ly b l a ck ) a t c o n s t a n t t e m p e ra t u r e w hil s t
( ,

th e o t h e r e nd a nd t he r o u n d s u r fa c e a r e p e r fe c t l y r e fl e c t ing .

I t w o u ld a pp e a r h o we v e r fr o m t he a b o v e m e t h od t h a t t he
, , ,

r e s u l t i s ge ne ra l a nd is i nd e p end e nt of s o u rc e s of h e a t a nd of
, ,

t he e m i s s ivi t y a n d t e m p e r a t u r e S i n c e w e m a d e n o u se o f t he
.

s cr e e n a ft e r i nt ro d u ci ng i t t o k e e p i n t he r a di a t i o n i t m a y b e ,

di s p ens e d wi t h pr ovid e d t he s t a t i o na ry c ondi t i on be s t ill m a i n

,

t a i ne d Thu s i f a p ort i on of t he s cre e n be m a d e p e rfe c tl y

.
,
“

bl a ck m a i nt a i ne d a t c ons t a nt t e m p e ra t u r e the q u a nt i ty W
,
”
, ,

which r e pres e nt s t he a m ou nt o f he a t fa ll ing u p on i t p er u ni t

a r e a p e r s e c o nd i s c om pl e t el y a b s o rb e d by i t
,
B u t t hi s i s .

p e rfe c t ly c om p e ns a t e d by t h e e m i s s i o n fro m t he bl a ck s u rfa c e

o f a n e q u a l a m ou nt o f h e a t S o i U v m e a s u r e s t he t o t a l e m i s
.

s i v it
y u n d e r t h e circ u m s t a nc e s .

The M ea n Pr es s ur e of R di t i
a a on
.

1 87 . A n ot h e r i m p o r t a nt fu nd a m e nt a l
q u a nt i t y i s t he m ea n
pre s s u r e of ra d ia t i o n I n a s i m pl e r a y t he el e c t ric a nd m a g
.

n e t ic s t ress e s u n i t e t o fo r m a pr e s s u r e U a l o ng t he ra wi t h
y ,

n o pr e s su r e o r t e n s i o n i n li n e s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t he r a y t h a t ,

i s i n t he pl a n e o f t he w a v e a s d e s cri be d i n § 8 6
, , B u t wh e n .

t he ra di a t i o n i s b a l a nc e d a s i n t he l a s t p a r a gra ph t h e r e i s n o ,

di re c t iona l pre fe re n c e a n d t he pre s s u re i s a ll wa y s i n t u r n a nd

, ,

t h e r e for e o n t he a v e r a g e s i m u l a t e s a hydr os t a t ic pre s s u r e

, , Its .

v a l u e m a y be r e a dily e s t i m a t e d i n a m a nne r s i m il a r t o t h a t
e m pl oy e d a b ov e c o nc e r n i ng t he m e a n flu x o f e n e rgy Wh en .

we m a k e t he e ne rgy U go a ll one w a y i n a ra y o f u n i t s e c t i on
t hr o u gh t h e a r e a A s i t u a t e d a ny wh e r e t he pr es s u r e i n t he r a y ,

i s U a nd t hi s i s t he pr e ss u r e o n A i f t he r a y i s p e rp e ndic u l a r
,

to A . B u t wh e n t he ra y i s i n cli n e d t o t he n or m a l t o A a t a n
a n gl e 0 o nly t he fra c t i o n c os 6 o f t h e r a i s c n c r n d i n t h
, y o e e e

a c t i on u p o n A F u r t h e rm or e t he li ne o f pr es s u r e i s i ncli ne d
.
,

t o t he no rm a l t o A a t a n a ngl e 9 s o t h a t t h e e ffe c t iv e n o r ma l,

pre s su re i s s t ill fu r th e r re d u c e d by t he fa c t o r c os 6 a s e c on d
t i me .T e pr e s s r e o n A s t h e r e o r e o nly U c o s d
h u i f g
Thi s .

m u s t no w be a v e ra g e d for a ll dir e c t i o ns i n s p a c e t h a t w e m a y
giv e to t he ra y wi t h ou t pr e fe re nc e No w t he m e a n v a l u e o f
, .
3 36 r ELE T C ROMAG NE TI C THEOR Y . CH . IV .

body whi lst B is m ova bl e t o a nd fr om A a nd is a p e rfe c t

,

re fl e c t o r as i s a l s o t he r ou n d cyli nd e r
, .

Now s ta rt wi t h B close t o A t he volu me of the e nclos u re

i s t h e n ni l D ra w B ve ry s l o wly a w a y from A t hrou gh t he
.

d is ta nc e k e e ping A a t c ons t a nt t e m p era t u re t all t he t i me ,

a nd t h e n s t o p i t D u ri ng t hi s op e ra t ion t he s ou rc e A k ee ps
.

t he e ncl o s u r e fill e d wi t h ene rgy t o d e ns i ty U a nd pre s s u re p , ,

c o rr es p ondi ng t o t he t e mp e ra t u re t a t which A i s m a i nt a i ne d .

The pres s u re p d oe s t he e xt e rna l w ork p h B e s id e s t ha t t h e re .

,

i s e ne rgy Uh i n t he e ncl os u re a t th e e nd of t he op e ra t i on .

Th e ir s u m i s t h e re fo re t he h e at l ost by A ( e xc e s s of h ea t
e m i t t e d by A i nt o t he e ncl osu r e o v e r t h a t r e t u rne d t o A
) .

S ay
H ( U + p ) h .

NOW we kno w p i n t e rm s of U , so t hat we h a ve by ,

H gm .
( )
9

Ne w , B b ing fix ed
e cyli nd e r c ool d o wn t o z e ro t e m p e ra
,
le t t he
t u re . The wh ol e o f t he e ne rg y Uh i n t he e n cl o s u re g o e s o u t
t hrou gh A Las tly pu s h B b a ck t o A wit h ou t w orki ng a nd
.
, ,

th e n ra i s e A to t e m p e ra t u re t A cycl e i s t h e n c om pl e t e d
. .

Applyi ng t he se c ond la w we h a v e ,

H l dH
t t dt
( )
1 0

whe re H is as b e fore a nd dB is an el e ment of t he h ea t l ost in

,

t he c oo li ng pr oc e ss On t he l e ft s id e p u t ( U + p ) h o r gUh
.
—

for H be c a u s e e x t e rn a l w ork wa s d one i n t h e firs t Op e ra t i on

,
.

O n t he ri gh t s id e l ea v e ou t t he p t e rm b e c a u s e d u ri ng t he ,

cooli ng B was fi x e d S o we ge t
.

4 U
1 dU
t t dt
( )
1 1

by om itt i ng c r
t he fa to h . D i ffe re nt i a t e wi th res p e ct t o t, a nd

we ge t
dU 4U

from which c oncl u de t h a t U a nd t h e re fore a l s o 39 a nd W

we , , , ,

va ry as t he fou r th p owe r o f t he t e mp e ra t u re t he res u l t a b o ve ,

ment i one d as a p p li e d t o th e e mi s s i v i t y W .
 T HEORY OF PLANE ELEC T ROMAGNE T C WAVES I . 33 7

We ta ci t ly as s u me t ha t t he e t he r i s a bl e t o es c a p e fr eely fro m ‘

t he Cyli nd e r t hr o u gh i ts e n v e l o p e or e l s e t h a t i t i s fre e ly c o m
,

pre s s ible w i t ho u t re s is ta nc e Thi s di ffic u lt y i n c onn e x i on wit h

,
.

t he e t h e r i s a v e ry old o ne .

I nt e rna l Obs t ru c t i on a nd S u p e rfic i a l C ond u c t ion .

1 89 . prop e rt i e s of a pe rfe c t c ondu c t o r ar e d e rive d fro m

The
t h o s e o f c o m m on c o nd u c t o rs by e x a m i ni ng wh a t w o u ld h a pp e n
i f t he re s i s t ivi t y w e re c ont i nu o u s ly r e d u c e d a nd u l t i m a t e ly,

b e c a m e z e ro I n t hi s w ay we find t ha t a p e rfe c t c on du c t or
.

i s a p e rfe c t o b s t r u c t o r fo r o ne t hi ng which id e a i s s i n gu
, ,

la r ly a t v a ri a n c e wi t h p o p u l a r no t i o ns re ga rdi ng cond u c ~
.

t o rs
. B u t i t i s a ls o a p e rfe c t c o nd u c t o r li t e ral ly t h ou gh ,

i n a di ffe re n t s e n s e t o t h a t c o m m only u nd e rs t o od Oh m s
’
.

la w ha s pl a y e d s o i m p o r t a nt a p a rt i n t he d e v e l o p m e nt of
e l e c t ric a l kn o wl e dg e ,e s p e ci a lly o n t he pr a c t ic a l s id e t h at it ,
,

i s re a lly no t a t a ll a m a t t e r of w o nd e r t h a t s o m e p ra c t ici a ns
'

s h ou ld h a v e b e e n s o r e l u c t a nt t o t a k e i n t he id e a o f a c o n

d u c t o r a s a n o bs t ru c to r S ci e nt ific m e n who c a n foll o w t he

.

re a s oni ng by which t he fu nc t ions of c ond u c to rs follo w from

kno wn fa ct s h a v e no di ffic u l t y i n p u rsu i ng t he c ons e qu e nc e s .

fa r be y on d e xp e ri m e nt a l o b s e rv a t i on A g a i n y ou n g e r m e n
.
, ,

wi t h fe we r pre j u dice s t o s u r m ou nt d o not find m u ch t rou bl e

,
.

w i t h s u p e rfici a l c o nd u c t i o n a nd i nt e r na l o bs t ru c t i o n B u t t he .

o ld es t a bli s h e d pr a c t i t i o ne r w i t h pre j u dic es who c ou ld no t ,

s e e t he r e a s o n w as p u t i nt o a p os i t i on o f s om e d iffic u lty
,

re s e m bli ng Ch a nc e ry If y ou h a v e got a ny thing n e w i n

.
,

s u b s t a n c e o r i n m e t h od a nd w a nt t o pro p a g a t e i t ra pidly
’

, ,

o u n e e d no t e xp e c t a ny t hi ng bu t hi ndra n c e fr o m t he o ld
y
pra c t i t i one r e v e n t h ou g h he sa t a t t he fee t of Fa ra da y
—
.

Be e t l e s c o u ld d o t h a t Be s id es t he old pra c t i t i on e r i s a p t
.
,

t o m e a s u r e t he v a l u e o f s ci e n c e by t he n u m b e r o f d oll a rs
he t hi nk s i t i s lik e ly t o bri ng i nt o hi s p o ck e t a nd i f he ,

d oe s not s e e t he d oll a rs he i s v e ry di s i ncli ne d to di s t u rb his

,
 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEOR Y . CH . Iv .

re a son The p e rfe c t Obs t r u c t i on h a vi n g f il e d t ry t he p e r

’

. a ,

fe c t c o n d u c t i o n .

Yo u s h o u ld m a k e y o u r c onv e r t s o u t o f t he ri s i ng g e ne ra t i on
a nd t he c o m i ng m e n Th u s p as s i ng t o a not h e r m a t t e r Pro f
.
,
.
, .

T a i t s ay s he c a n no t u nd e rs t a nd m y v e c t o rs t ho u g h he ca n ,

u nd e rst a n d m u ch h a rd e r t hi n g s B u t m e n wh o h a v e no q u a t e r
.

n i o ni c pre j u d ic es c a n u nd e rs ta n d t h e m a nd do Yo u ng e r , .

m e n a r e b orn i nt o t he w o rld wi t h m o re a dv a nc e d id e a s o n ,

t h e a v e ra g e The re c a nno t be a do u b t a b o u t i t I f y o u ha d
. .

t a u gh t t he C a lc u l u s t o t he a nci e nt Bri t o ns y o u w o u ld n o t
"

ha ve fo u nd a m a n t o t a k e i t i n a m ongs t t he wh ole lot D ru id s ,

a nd a ll . C ons id e r t oo wh a t a t r o u bl e s ci e nt ific m e n u s e d
,

t o h a v e wi t h t he pri n cipl e o f t he p e rs i s t e nc e o f e ne r gy Th ey .

c o u ld no t s e e i t
. B u t e v e ry b od y s e e s i t n o w
. The i m p ort a nt .

t hi ng i s t o b e gi n e a rly a n d t r a i n u p t he y o u n g s t ick a s y o u
,

w a nt i t t o gro w .N o w w i t h Q u a t e rni ons i t i s diffe re nt .

Yo u m ay p u t o ff t ill t o m o rr o w w ha t y o u c a nno t do t o da y
- -

f or fe a r y ou c o m m e n c e t he s t u dy t oo s oo n O f c o u rs e I
'

.
,

r e fe r t o t h e H a m il ton Ta i t sys te m wh e re y ou ha ve t o d o
-
,

viol e nc e t o r e a s on by m aki ng b eli e ve t h a t a v e c t o r i s a

q u a t e r n i on a n d t h a t i t s s q u a r e i s n e g a t i v e
,
.

A cc o rding t o O h m s la w a l o ne a p e r fe c t c ond u c t o r s h o u ld be
’
,

o ne which c a rri e d a n i nfi ni t e c u rr e nt u nd e r a fi ni t e v ol t a g e ,

a nd t he c u r r e nt w o uld flo w a ll t hr o u gh i t b e c a u s e i t d o e s s o

o rdi n a rily . B u t wh a t i s l e ft o u t o f c o ns id e ra t i o n h e re i s t he
m a nne r i n which t he a s s u m e d s t e ad y s t a t e i s e s t a bli s h e d If .

w e t a k e t hi s i n t o a cc o u n t w e find t h a t t h e r e i s n o s t e a dy s t a t e
,

wh e n t he r e s i s t a nc e i s z e ro for t he va ri a bl e p e ri od i s i n fi nit ely

,
.

prol o ng e d a nd O h m s la w i s t h e re fore ou t o f i t s o fa r a s t he
,
’

u s u a l a pplic a t i o n g oe s I n a circ u i t o f no r es i s t a n c e c o nta i ni n g

.

a fi n i t e s t e a dy i m pr e s s e d v o l t a g e E t he c u rr e n t w o u ld m o u nt
,

u
p i n fi n i t e ly a n d n e v e r s t o p m o u nt i n g u
p O n t h e o t h e r h a n
. d ,

i f w e i ns e r t a r e s i s t a n c e R i n t he fo r m e r C i rc u i t o f no r e s i s t a n c e ,

t h e r e will be a s e tt li ng t o a s t e a dy s t a t e fo r t h e c u rr e nt in t he ,

c irc u i t will t e n d t o t he v a l u e E/ R i n fu ll o b e di e nc e t o O h m s
’
,

law . The c u rre nt i s t he s a m e a ll ro u nd t he ci rc u i t a l t h o u gh ,

a p a r t t h e r e o f ha s no r e s i s t a n ce W e c oncl u d e t h a t t h a t
.

o r t i o n has a l s o n o v ol t a g e
p .

B u t t hi s i s o nly a p a r t o f t he s t o ry Al t h o u gh we h a r m oni s e
.

wi t h O h m s la w we o v e rl oo k t he m o s t i nt e r e s t i ng p a r t
’
, The .
3 40 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY CH . Iv .

m a g ne t ic w a ves to s lip along i ts s u rfa c e in a pe r fe c tly free

m a nn e r wi t h o u t w a s t e o f e ne rgy
,
Tho u gh p e rfe c t ly obs t ru o
.

t i v e i nt e rn a lly i t i s p e rfe c t ly c ond u c t i v e s u p e rfici a lly

,
It .

m e re ly g u id e s t he w a v e s a n d i n t hi s l e s s t e ch nic a l s e n s e of
,

c ond u c t i o n t he id e a o f a p e rfe c t c o nd u c t o r a cq u ir es fre s h li fe .

The Effe ct of a Perf e ct C ond u ct o r on Ext erna l Di s t urb

a nc es . R eflec t i on a nd C ondu c t i on of W a v es .

1 90. The di t i ons a t t he i nt e rfa c e of a p e rfe c t c ond u ct or

co n

a nd a di e l e c t ric a r e t h a t t he e l e c t ric fo rc e i n t h e di e l e c t ric ha s

no t a ng ent i a l c o m p one nt a n d t he m a g ne t ic i nd u c t i o n no no r m a l

c omp one nt . Or
VINE O, NH 0,

i f N be t he un it
r ma l from the c ond u c t o r Th u s wh en
no .
,

t h e r e i s e l e c t ric forc e a t t he b o u n d a ry i t i s e nt ir e ly no rm a l ,

wi t h e l e ct rific at ion t o m a t ch ; a nd i f t h e re i s m a g ne t ic forc e i t

is e nt irely t a ng e nt i a l wi t h e l e c t ric c u rre nt t o m a t ch
, Bo t h .

e l e c t ri fi c a t i on a nd c u rr e nt a r e s u p e rfici a l The d i s pl a c e m e nt .

me as u r e s t he s u rfa c e d en s i t y o f t he o n e a nd t he m a g n e t i c
a ,

forc e t h a t of t he o t h e r s a y 0 t h u s , ,

0
'
= ND , c = VNH ,

i n ra t i ona l unit s wi t hou t a ny u s e l e s s a nd a rbi t ra ry 47: c onst a nt

, ,

s u ch a s i s r e q u ir e d i n t he B A s y s t e m o f u n i t s o f a m a zi ng
.
,

irra t i onali t y If t h en w e h a v e el e ct rom a g ne t ic di s t u rba nce s

.
, ,

giv e n i n a di e l e c t ric c ont a i n i ng a p e r fe c t c ond u c t or t he l a tt e r ,

firs t of a ll is free fro m di st u rb a nc e a nd n e x t ca u s es s u ch r e ,

fle c t e d w a v es as t o a nn ihil a t e t he t a ng e nt i a li t y of t he e l e c t ri c
fo rc e a nd t he n o rm a li t y of t he m a gn e t ic fo rc e .

A s re ga rd s s t e a dy s t a t e s t he i nfl u e nc e o f a p e rfe c t c on d u c t or
,

o n i nd u c t i o n d u e t o fo re ig n s o u rc es i s t o e xcl u d e i t i n t he s a m e

m a nn r a s i f t he i n d u c t ivi t y w e re m a d e z e r o ; t h a t i s t he i nd u c
e
‘

t i on g oe s r ou n d i t t a n g e nt i a lly i ns t e a d of e nt e ri ng i t Thi s .

i s u s u a lly a s crib e d t o a n e l e c t ric c u rr e nt s h e e t i nd u c e d u p on i t s

-

s u rfa c e wh ose i nt e rn a l m a gn e t ic forc e i s t h e n e g a t iv e o f t h a t

,

d u e t o t he e x t e rna l fi e ld Thi s i s righ t ma t h e m a t ic a lly bu t i s

.
,
.

d e c e pt i ve a nd d e l u s i v e phys ic ally The re i s n o i nte rna l forc e .

,

n e i t h e r t h a t O f t he e x t e rn a l fi e ld n or t h a t o f t h e s u p e rfic ia l

c u rre nt The cu rre nt s h e et i ts el f m e re ly m e a ns the a bru p t

.
 THEORY OF PLAN E ELECT ROMAG N E T I C WAVES .

s to ppa g e of g ic fi e ld a nd c a nnot r e a lly be s u ppos e d

t he m a ne t ,

t o be t he so u rce o f m a gne t ic fo rc e i n a b o dy which c a nno t

p e r m i t i ts ent ra nc e The pre v i ou s ly m ent i one d c as e of a p e r

.

fe c t ly c ond u c t i ng wire i ns e rt e d i n a circ u i t o f fi n i t e res i s ta nce

s u pp o rt i ng a s t e a dy c u rr e nt will s e rv e t o bri ng o u t t hi s p o i nt
,

s t ron gly .The s u pp os e d i nd u c e d s u p e rfici a l c u rre nt i s now

ac t u a lly t he m a i n c u rre nt i n t he ci rc u i t i t s e l f .

I t i s di ffe r e nt wi t h t he s t e a dy s t a te d u e t o e x t e rna l e l ec t ric

s o u rc e s . The di s pl a c e m e nt i s j u s t as m u ch s h u t o u t from t he
p e rf e c t c o n d u c t o r ( which m a y a l s o b e a di e l e c t ric ) as w a s t he

m a g ne t ic i nd u c t i on bu t i n a s t rikingly d i ffe re nt m a nne r t e r

, ,

m i na t i ng u p on i t p e rp e ndic u l a rly as i f i t e nt e re d i t i n t he
,

m a nne r t h a t w ou ld h a pp e n w e re t he c o nd u c t o r no n con d u ct ing ,

bu t of e xc e e di ng ly gre a t p e r m i tt i v i t y s o t ha t i t dre w i n t he
,

t u b e s o f di p l a c e m e nt
s .

A l th o u gh a pe rfe c t m a g ne t ic c ond u c t o r i s i n t he a b s e n c e o f ,

k no wl e d g e e ve n o f a fi n i t e d e gr ee o f m a gne t ic c on d u c t i v it y a ,

ve ry far fe t ch e d id ea y e t i t i s u s e fu l i n e l e c t rom a gne t ic t heory

-
,
‘

t o c ont ras t wi t h t he p e rfe c t e l e c t ric c on d u c t o r A p e rfe c t

.

m a gne t ic c ond u c t o r b e h a v e s t o w a rd s di s pl a c e m e nt j u s t as a
pe rfe ct e l e c t ric c ond u c t o r d oe s t o wa rds i nd u ct i on 3 t ha t i s t he ,

d i s pl a c e m e nt g oe s ro u n d i t t a ng e nt i a lly I t a ls o b e h a ve s
.

t o w a rd s i nd u c t i on as a p e rfe c t e l e c t ric c on d u c t o r d oe s t o w a rd s
d i s pl a c e m e nt ; t h a t i s t he i nd u c t i on m e e t s i t p e rp e n dic u l a rly
, ,

as i f i t p os s es s e d e xc e e di ngly gre a t i n d u c t ivi t y wi t h o u t ,

m a gn e t ic c ond u c t ivi t y Thi s m a g ne t ic c on d u c to r i s a l s o p e r

.

fe c t ly o bs t r u c t i v e i nt e rna lly a nd i s a p e rfe c t r e fl e c t o r t h ou gh

, ,

n o t q u i t e i n t he s a m e wa y a s e l e c t ric c o nd u c t o rs The t a n .

g e n t i a l m a g n e t ic fo rc e a n d t h e n o rm a l e l e c t ric fo rc e a r e z e r o .

A s r e g a rd s w a v es t h e re a r e t wo e x t re m e w a y s i n which a
,

p e rfe c t c ond u c t o r b e h a ve s — t ha t i s e x t re m e form s o f t he gene

, .

r a l be h a vi o u r I t m a y wh olly c o nd u ct t h e m or i t m ay wh o lly
.
,

l c t ric
e e a nd m a g ne t ic fo rc es i n t he ra t i o
342 ELE C T ROMAGNET I C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

o f t he e e t l c ric ki nd t he re fl e c t e d s h e e t di ffe rs fr o m t he i ncid e nt

i n h a vi ng i ts di s pl a c e m e nt re v e rs e d bu t i n no o t h e r r e s p e c t , .

This i s p e rfe c t re fl e c t i on w i t h r e v e r s a l o f E D u r ing t he a c t '

.

o f r e fl e c t i o n whil s t t he i n cid e n t a n d r e fle c t e d s h e e t s p a r t ly c o i n
,

c id e E is z e ro a n d H i s d o u bl e d
, Bot h a re t a ng e nt i a l ; b u t
.

t h e re c a n b e no t a ng e nt ia l E s o t he re fl e c t o r d e s t r oy s B a nd
,

i ni t i a t e s t he re fl e c t e d s h e e t i n which H i s t he sa m e as i n t he
,

i ncid ent s he e t w hi ls t E i s r e ve rs e d
, .

O n t he o th e r h a nd wh e n t he c o n d u c t i v i t y i s o f t he m a g ne t ic
,

ki nd t he re fle c te d wa ve s h ee t di ffe rs fro m t he i ncid e nt only in

,

h a ving i t s i nd u c t i o n re ve rs e d The di s pl a c e m e nt p ers i st s

.
,

b e i ng d ou bl e d d u ri ng t he a c t o f r e fl e c t ion whil s t t he ind u c t i on ,

i s t h e n a nn u ll e d .

The o t he r e x t re m e o cc u rs wh e n a pl a n e e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic s h e e t
h a ng s on t o a cond u c t or p e rp e n dic u l a rly I t th e n s lip s a l ong .

t he c o nd u c t o r a t t he s p e e d o f ligh t wi t h p e rfe c t s lip Thi s

, .

m a y o cc u r wi t h a pl a ne r e fl e c t o r b u t o f c o u rs e t he m os t , , ,

s t riki ng a nd u se fu l a nd pra c tic a l c as e i s t h a t o f a s t r a igh t

cylind e r— a wire i n fa c t t ho u gh i t ne e d n ot be r o u nd bu t m ay
, , ,

h a ve a ny form o f s e c t i on The wa v e t he n r u n s a l ong t he wire

.

a t c on s t a nt s p e e d 72 a nd wi t h o u t ch a n g e o f t yp e a t l eas t s o
, ,

l ong a s t he wire c on t i nu e s s t r a igh t a nd o f u ncha ng e d s e c t i on . .

If t he s e c t i o n v a ry r e g u l a rly s o t h a t t he wire i s a c o ne t h en i t
, ,

i s a s ph e ric a l w a v e t h a t i s pro p a g a t e d a l o ng i t w i th o u t ch a n g e
o f t yp e . Thi s c a se i ncl u d e s a n i nfi ni t ely fine w ire wh en we ,

m a y h a v e e i t h e r s ph e ric a l o r pl a n e wa v e s O t h e r i nt e res t i ng .

c a s e s m a y be m a d e u p by v a ry i ng t he a ngl e of t he c one or ,

u s i n g a d o u bl e c o n e o r a c on e a n d a pl a n e & 0
, , .

N o w i n t he firs t m a i n c a s e o f p e rfe c t r e fl e c t i on ( fl u s h ) t he
,

i ncid e n t a nd r e fle c t e d s he e t s a r e wh olly s e p a ra t e d fro m on e

a n o t h e r e xc e p t j u s t a t t he r e fl e c t i ng s u r fa c e wh e re t h e r e i s
, ,

a m o m e nta ry c o i ncid e nc e O n t he o th e r h a nd wh e n a pl a ne
.
,

w a v e runs a l ong a wire or s ay m ore c o nv e ni e nt ly h e re a l ong

, , , ,

a pl a n e w e o n ly s e e o n e w a v e I t i s t he c as e o f re fl e c t i on at
’

.
,

gra zi ng i ncid e n c e a nd m a y be c ons id e re d t he li m i t i ng c as e of

,

pe rmanen t u ni on o f the i ncid ent a nd r e fl e c te d wa v es B e t w e en .

t h es e t wo ca s es we h a ve t he g e ne ra l c as e of i ncid e n c e a nd r e fle c
t i on a t a ny a ngl e . Th e re a re t wo pl a ne w a ve s ( s he e ts m os t ,

c on v e ni en t ly fo r re as o n i ng a nd d e s crip t i o n) o ne g o i ng t o a nd t he

ot he r c om ing fro m t he pl a ne r e fl e c t o r wh e re t h e y j oi n t og e t h e r , ,
3 44 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

r
c ou s e , Hi pl a ne of t he wa ve In ot h e r re s p ec t s we ha v e
s i n t he .

a s i m il a ri t y i n pro p a g a t i o n I t i s no w a s u rfa ce c u r re nt i ns t e a d
.
,

o f e l e c t rific a t i o n t h a t r u n s a l o n g t he s u r fa c e a t s p e e d v/cos 6
,
.

I f t he r e fl e c t o r be a ma gne t ic c ond u c t o r w e h a v e t wo v e ry ,

s i m il a r m a i n c as e s in o ne o f which ma gne t i fic a t i on ( t he a na
,

l o g u e of e l e c t rifica t i o n) a nd i n t he ot he r a magne ti c curre nt

, ,

r u ns or a pp ea rs t o ru n a l ong t he s u rfac e
, , .

Th e Effe c t of C ondu c t ing M a tt er i n Di v er ti ng Ex t e rna l

I nd u c t i on .

§ 1 91 . The t he o ry c t o f a fi ni t e d e gre e of con

of t he e ffe

d u c t i v i t y i n t he m e d i u m o n e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic w a v e s i s fa r m o re
d i fli c u lt a nd c o m p lic a t e d t h a n t h a t o f t he e ffe c t o f i nfi ni t e c on
‘

d u c t iv ity Ne ve rt hel es s we m ay ga i n a ge ne ral i de a of t he

.
,

n a t u r e o f t he e ffe c t by m e a n s o f t he s u bs t i t u t i o n o f s i m pl e

pr obl e m s for t he re a l one s t h a t pre s e nt t h e m s el ves a nd also i n ,

t hi s wa y o b t a i n a k no wl e dg e o f v e ry i m p o r t a nt pro p e r t i e s con
c e rn e d Th e r e a re t wo wa ys i n which we m a y re ga rd t he qu e s
.

t i o n o f c o nd u c t i v i t y Firs t s t a r t i ng from the t h e o ry o f pe rfec t

.
,

c on d u c t o rs s u rr o u n de d by p e rfe c t di e l e c t ric n o n c o nd u c t o rs w e -

m a y e x a m i ne t he e ffe c t o f i nt rod u ci ng a s ligh t a m ou nt o f

r es is t i v i t y t o b e t h e n i n cr e a s e d m o r e a nd m o re u nt il a t l a s t
,

w e c om e t o c on d u c t o rs o f h i g h re s i s t ivi ty or i nfi ni t e wh e n , ,

we h a v e di e l ec t ric s m e re ly The o t h e r wa y i s t o s t a r t wi t h
.

e l e c tr om a gn e t ic w a v e s i n a p e r fe c t di e l e c t ric a nd e x a m i ne t he ,
'
e fiec t prod u c e d u p o n t h e m o f i nt ro d u ci ng firs t a s m a ll a m o u nt

o f c on d u c t ivi t y t h e n m o r e a nd m o re u nt il we c o m e t o pe r fec t
, ,

c ond u c t o rs a ga i n Bo t h w a ys a re i ns t ru c t i ve — none t he less

.

b e c a u s e t h ey gi ve v e ry di ffe rent v i e w s o f t he s a m e m a t t e r .

In t he firs t pl a c e i t m a y be re a d ily c on c e iv e d t ha t i f a c on
,

d u c to r h a v e only a s ligh t a m o u n t o f r e s i s t i v i t y i t m a y b e ha v e
a ppr o xi m a t e ly t he s a m e as i f i t ha d no ne a nd m ay o b s t r u c t ,

w a v es ne a rly p e r fe c t ly i nte rna lly a nd like wi s e re fle c t a nd con ,

d u ct t h e m s u p e rfici a lly ne a rly p e r fe c tly Thi s i s t r u e b u t t he .

,

e l e m e nt o f t i m e ha s t o be t a k e n i nt o a cc ou nt as i t beco m es o f ,

g r e a t i m p ort a n c e whe n t he re i s s o m e re s is t i v i t y ho we ve r li t tle , ,

i ns t e a d o f q u i t e n o ne S u p p os e fo r e x a m pl e w e h a v e a n
.
, ,

i n i t i a lly s te a dy m a g ne t ic fi e ld a nd bri ng a c o n d u c t o r i nt o i t
,

v e ry q u ickly fro m a d i s ta n c e a nd k ee p i t t h e re I f t his be

, .

d one q u ickly e nou gh t he fi rs t e ffe c t i s ne a rly t he sa m e as i f

,
 THEORY or PLANE EL E C T ROMAG NE TI C WAV ES . 34 5

i t t a ng e nt i a lly, as i f t he co n d u c t o r w e re of z e ro i ndu c

up on a p e rfe c t di a m a gn e t ic b od y— t h a t i s t he re w ill be a
'

fo rc e t e ndi ng t o driv e i t fro m s t r o ng e r t o w e a k e r p a r t s of t he

fie ld . I n a no t h e r fo rm w e m a y sa y t h a t e x te rna l fo rc e m u s t
,

be a ppli e d t o t he c ond u c t o r t o bri ng i t i nto t he fi e ld a nd

\

t o h o ld i t t h e re B u t t hi s s t a t e o f t hi ng s will no t c o nt i nu e
. .

The m a gn e t ic fo rc e which is a t fi rs t only s ki n d ee p will p e ne

, ,

t ra t e i nt o t he i nt e ri o r in t i m e a c c or d i ng t o a la w r e s e m bli ng
'

t h a t Of t he d i ffu s i o n o f h e a t G i v e n t i m e e no u gh i t will
.
,

a s s u m e t he s a m e di s t rib u t i on a s i f t h e re w e r e no c o nd u c t ivi t y ,

a l t h o u gh o ur as s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e re i s n e a rly n o r e s i s t ivi t y

t h a t i s i n t he u l t i m a t e s ta t e t e nd e d t o i t i s m e re ly t he i nd u c
, ,

t i v ity t h a t s e t t l es ho w t he m a gn e t i c i nd u c t i on will di s t rib u t e

i t s e l f I ni t i a lly t h e r e i s a s ki n c u rre nt i ts t o ta l be i ng m e a
.
, ,

7s u r e d by t he di ffe re nc e i n t he m a gne t ic fo rc e j u s t o u ts id e a nd
.
a li t t l e w a y i ns id e t he c o nd u c t o r i n t he b u lk o f which t h e re
,

i s pra c t ic a lly no m a gn e t ic fo rc e o r e l e c t ric c u rre nt A s i n t he .

c as e o f a p e r fe c t c o nd u c t o r O h m s la w i s f u lly ob e y e d Th ere
’
«
, .

i s n o i nte rn a l c u rr e n t be c a u s e t h e re i s no i nte r na l e l e c t ric or

,

m a g ne t ic forc e .The y s i m ply ha ve no t ha d t im e t o ge t i n on ,

:a cc o u n t o f t he o b s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n o f t he h igh c o nd u c t ivi t y It .

i s as u s e l es s a nd m i s l e a di ng t o s a y t h a t o ne e l e c t ric forc e i s
c a n c e ll e d by a n ot h e r as i t i s t o as crib e t he a b s e n c e o f m a gne t i c
,

forc e t o t h e c ou nt e ra c t i ng m a g n e t ic fo rc e o f t he s ki n c u rre nt
“

A s t he m a gn e t ic fo rce s pre a d s i nto t he c o nd u c to r s o d oe s t he ,

3 46 ELEC T R OMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . IV .

c a u se The re wil l s t ill be t he sa m e i nt e rna l ob s tru c t io n

.

o ff e r e d by t he c ond u c t o r a nd c o ns e q u e n t d el a y i n t he as s u m p
,

t i on of t he s t e a dy s t a t e t hro u gh ou t i t I n b ot h c as es t oo .
, ,

t he re i s a ne c e s s ary w as t e of e n e rgy i nv ol v e d i n t he pro c e s s ,

a cc o rdi ng t o Joul e s la w o f t he g e ne r a t i o n o f h e a t by t he e xi s t
’

e n c e o f e l e c t ric c u r r e nt i n c ond u c t i ng m a tt e r Th u s two t hi ngs .

h a pp e n wh e n t he d e gre e o f c ondu c t i v it y i s n ot i nfi ni te Firs t .

,

t he r e fl e c t i on i s i mp e rfe c t a t t he b ou nd a ry o f t he c ond u c t or ,

a p or t i o n o f a n i ncid e nt di s t u rb a n c e b e i n g t ra ns m i t t e d i nt o

it . N e xt in t he a ct of t ra ns m i s s i o n a nd t he a tt enu at i on
,

i nv olv e d t h e re i s a l oss of e ne rg y from t he e l e c t r oma g ne t ic

,

fi eld W e s h all s ee l a t e r m o re pre ci s ely t he na t u re of t he

.

a t t e nu a t i ng pro c es s A t pre s e nt we m ay not e t h a t i f t he

.

e x te rna l fi e ld be n o t s t e a dy o r d o n o t t e nd t o a s t e a dy s t a t e ,

s o t h a t t he c ond u c t o r i s e xp os e d t o fl u c t u a t i ng fo rc e s t h e n t he ,
.

i nt e rna l p a r t of t he c ond u c to r n ee d ne ve r a cqu ire a ny s ens ible

m a g ne t ic fo rc e Thu s i f t he e x t e rna l fi eld be t he s u m of a
.
,

b a l a nc e d a l t e r na t i ng a nd of a fi eld which w ou ld be s t e a dy i n
,

t he a b s e n c e o f t he c o nd u c t or only t he l a t t e r p a rt will p e ne t ra t e
,

fu lly i nt o i t T he fo rm e r a l t e rn a t i n g p a r t will p e ne t rat e

.

i m p e rfe c tly t he m ore s o t he grea t e r t he c on d u c t i v i t y a nd a s

, , ,

be fore sa id not a t all wh en t he c ond u c t ivi t y i s p e rfe c t The

, .

o t h e r fi e ld i s t h e n a l s o e xcl u d e d Wi t h ra pid al t e rna t i ons the

.

re gi on of se ns ibl e p e ne t ra t i on i s o nly s ki n d ee p c ons i s t ing of -

,

l a y e rs of o ppos i t e ki nds ( a s re ga rds d ire ct i on of t he ma gnet i c

forc e which i s ne a rly t a ng e nt i a l ) wi t h h o w e v e r s o v e ry ra pid
,

, , , ,

a n a t t e n u a t i on o f i nt e ns i t y i n g o i ng i n w a rd t h a t p r a c t ic a lly

o nly o n e w a v e n e e d be c o ns id e r e d ( e xc e p t fo r s h o r t w a v e s lik e ,

light ) O f c ou rs e t he h ea t ge ne ra t i on i s n o w c o nfi ne d t o t he
.
,

s kin . W h a t go e s i n fu rt h e r d oes s o by ordina ry h e a t di ffus i on .

The t i m e c o ns t a nt o f r e t a rd a t i o n of a c on d u c t o r va ri e s a s t he
-

c o nd u ct ivi t y as t he i ndu c t ivi t y a nd as t he s qu a r e of t he li n ea r

, ,

di m e ns i ons This re fe rs t o t he i nt e r va l s of ti m e re qu ire d t o

.

es t a bli s h a d e fi ni t e pro p o rt i o n of t he s t ea dy s ta te u nd e r t he
ac t i o n o f s t e a dy fo rc e s i n b o di es of di ffe re nt s iz e c on du ct i vi t y
—
, ,

a nd i nd u c t ivi t y bu t g eo m e t ric a lly s i m il a r

, He re t he t wo p ro .
.

e rt i e s c on d u c t i v i t y a nd i n d u c t i v i t y a c t c on j o i nt ly s o t h a t for
p , , , ,

e x a m pl e ir on i s fa r m o r e o b s t r u c t i v e t h a n C o pp e r a l t h ou gh i t s
, ,

c ond u c t ivi ty i s m u ch i nfe ri o r I t i s di ffe re nt wi t h t he he a t

. :

ge ne ra t io n Th e re t he i nd u c t ivi ty a nd c ond u c t ivit y a ct in

.
3 18 ELECTR OMAG NE TIC T HEOR Y . CH . Iv .

rema rk abl e exp eri m ents o f Prof Elih u Th omson on t his e le c .

t ro ma gne t ic r e p u l s i o n w i ll b e r e m e m b e r e d The ph e no m e no n
”
.

has n o t hi ng s p e ci a lly t o d o wi t h e l e c t ro m a gn e t ic w a v es It is .

m a gne t ic re p u ls ion ra t h er t ha n e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic u s i ng t he
, ,

w ord ma gn et ic in i ts ge ne ra l se ns e a p a rt fro m t he s p e ci a l
“ ”
,

fac t o f m a g ne t i sa t i on wh e n t he i nd u c t i v i t y o f t he c ond u c t o r
i s no t t he sa m e as t h a t o f t he e t h e r *
.

When a co nd u c to r is bro u gh t i nt o a n el ec t ric i ns tea d f a

ma g ne t ic fi eld t he c as e i s s om e wh a t di ffe re nt
, The re I s i n .

a ny cas e m e r e ly s ki n co n d u c t i on fo r t h e re i s a n a c t u a l d e s t ru c ,

t i on of t he fl u x d is pl a c e m e nt by c ond u c t ivi t y Th e fi na l r e s u l t .

t h e re fo r e i s t ha t t he u l t i ma t e p e r m a ne nt s ta t e i n t he c on
,

d u c to r i s a s ta t e o f p e rfe c t ne u t ra li t y j u s t as i f t he c ond u e ,

t i v it y w e re p e rfe c t El e c tric c o n d u c t i v i t y d e s t roy s di s pl a ce

.

m ent bu t i t c a nno t d e s t ro y i nd u c t i o n
, S i m il a rly m a g ne t ic .
,

c ond u c t i v i ty wou ld d e s troy i nd u c t i on bu t wo u ld be u na bl e t o ,

d e s t roy di s pl a ce me nt Th u s a m a g ne t ic c o nd u cto r bro u gh t.

,

int o a n e l e c t ric fi e ld w o u l d i n t i m e p e r m i t i t s fu ll p e n e t ra , ,

t i on bu t i f br o u gh t i nt o a m a g ne t ic fi e ld t h e fi na l r e s u l t w ou ld
,

be a s ta t e o f i nt e rnal ne u t ra li ty h o w e v e r lo w t he c o nd u c t i v i t y , .

If h o we v e r i t be v e ry lo w t h e n wh e t h e r i t b e o f t he e l e c t ric
, , , ,

o r t he m a gne t ic ki nd t h e r e will b e a n i n i t i a l n ea rly com pl e t e

,

p e n e t r a t i o n ( o wi ng t o t he r e m o v a l o f t h e o b s t r u c t i on
) f o ll o w e d ,

by s u bs ide nc e t o z e ro o f t he fl u x a ppropri a t e t o t he c ondu c

t i v i ty e l e c t ric or m a gne t ic r e s p e c t i ve ly
, The p e rs i s te n c e of .

m a gn e t ic i n d u c t i on i n s pi t e o f t he pr e se nc e o f e l e c t ric c o n
,

T his r e fe r e n ce l
t o E i hu Tho m s o n
’
s e xp e ri m e nts mu s t no t be un d er

s t oo d as a fu ll l
e x p a n a t i on, w hi c h i s s o me t i m es c o m p e x. l The i d ea i n t he
t e xt has be e n l u m p o f m e ta l
of a . W he n m a d e a di s c or a li nea r c ir c u i t

we have S p e c ia l p ec u l i ari t i e s a nd d , t he t he ory m a y be p e r ha p s be s t one

in t m f i d t
er s d o n u c a nc es l d f an r e s i s ta nces The p ri nc i p e c o nc e r ne
. o

th t mp
e y di v
e i f m g ti i d ti
o r ar by ers ond ti g m tt o a ne c n uc on c on uc n a er

rem i i f
a ns h w v wh th
n th m t
o r ce , b i o l mp i
e er , l d e er e a te r e n a u or n a c os e

line I t h l tt
. n th t d y f th
e a d t n i t k p th
er c as e e en e nc o e c on uc a ce s o ee e

t t l i d
o a ti th ngh i t uc t t onC id fi tr ou i fi i ly c o ns a n . ons er rs an n n te c on

d ti g di whi h m p l t ly di v t i d t i ; d t i g m d
uc n sc c co e e er s n uc on an ne x ,
a r n a e

by m vi g
re ly ll th di
o n pt h
n ea r t p t a I d ti w e sc e xce t e ou er ar . n uc on no

g o esth gh t h i rouit f wh b egh t i t

c rc u m g t i fi ld
, o c ou rse , en rou n o a a ne c e ,

b t it t t l i
u s by o a f th i fi i t
s ze r o , d t d th t
rea s o n o e n n e c on u c a nce a n e c u r re n

i d d i t h i g A i w ll k w M w ll i d d p f tly
'
”
n u ce n e r n . s s e no n, ax e co ns e re er ec

co nd t i g li uc m l n l i it i l i
pp y g
nea r hi vi w t
o e c u arW b c rcu s n a n s e s o e er s
’

th y f d i m g ti m
e or o a a ne s .
 THEORY OF PL ANE ELE CTROMAGNE T C WAVES I . 3 49

s hall giv e a s i m ple proo f in a la t e r S e c t ion i n a m pli fica t i on of my ,

proof of 1 88 7 8 The pre s e nt m e t hod of p as s i ng from p e rfect

-
.
'

t o fi ni t e c o nd u c t i v i t y i s u ns u i t a bl e for t he p u rp o s e be c a u s e ,

i n g ood c on d u c t o rs t he di e l e c t ric p e rm i t t ivi t y i s a l t oge t h e r

s w a m p e d a nd i s t h e r e fo r e ign o re d ; whil s t o n t he o t h e r h a nd
, , ,

i n v e ry ba d c o nd u c t o rs t he p e r m i t t i v it y i s a fa c t o r o f t he
gr ea t e s t i m p or ta nc e N o w w e ca n p as s c ont i nu o u sly fro m a
.

non c o nd u c t i ng di e l e c t ric t o a c o nd u c t i ng o ne u p t o p e rfe c t

-
,

c ond u c t i on bu t we c a nnot p a ss t he ot h e r wa y wi t ho u t ha vi ng
,

t he p e r mi t t i v i t y in Vi e w a ll t he t i m e which m a k e s t he m a t te r ,

d i ffi c u l t.

1 9 2 As
. p e opl e s ’
m e m o ri e s a re v ry h rt
h ere i s s ome e s o , a nd t
di s c u s s i on on t he s u bj e ct I m a y r ep ea t h e re t h a t t he S O
,
«

fr e qu e nt ly u s e d w ord i nd u c t ivi ty i s n ot i nte nd e d for u s e a s a

-

m e r e s y nony m for p e rm e a bili t y The l a t t e r i s t he ra t i o o f t he

.

ind u c t ivi ty o f a m e di u m t o t h a t o f e t h e r a nd i s t h e re fore a ,

me re n u m e ric O n t he o t h e r h a nd i n d u c t i v i t y ha s a wid er
.
,
-

m e a ni ng na m ely s u ch t h a t n
,
z
,
i s t he d e ns i t y o f t he m a g ne t ic
e ne rgy , irre s p e ct iv e of di m e ns ions W e c a n o nly m a k e i t a .

n u m e ri c by as s u m p t i o n E v e n t h e n i t ha s only a fict i t i o u s
.
,

id e nt i t y wi t h p e r e bili ty a forc e d nu m eric a l id e nt i t y

m a —
.

S i m il a r r e m a rk s a pply t o s om e o t h e r q u a n t i t i es bu t t he y ,

a re p a rt ic u l a rly n e c e ss a ry in t he c as e of i nd u c t ivi t y on ,

a cc o u nt o f t h e Ob s c u r e a nd m i s l e a di ng m a nn e r I n which t he

c onne c t i ons b e t we en i nd u c t i on m a gne t ic forc e a nd m a g ne t is a

, ,

t i on w e r e fo rm e rly c om m only pres e nt e d ( a n d s t ill a r e s o me

t i m e s ) t o g e t h e r wi t h t h e m i s l e a di ng c onne c t i o n b e t w e e n t he
,

s u s c e p t ibili ty a n d t he p e rm e a bili t y W e s h o u ld wri t e .

2’ 1 K:

i f p i s t he p e rm a b ilit ye a nd K t he su s e c p t ibili t y i nst ea d , of

Pi 1 4 77 %
350 E LEC T ROMAGNETI C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

Maxw e ll s r t h e ory a nd ma k e p a w/m wh e re j o i s t he

’
e the , . u

i nd u ct i v it y of e t h e r a nd [ t ha t of s ome o t h e r s u bs t an c e ( wi th
,
1.

t he u s u a l r es e r va t i ons ) t h e n ,

I" K
)
k
t a es the pla ce of t he c omm on
1 4 7mg,

which i s m i sle a ding i n t wo r es p e c ts fi rs t a s re g a rds t he ob s t re ,

~

p e rons 4 a n d n e x t i n m a king a nd be q u a n t i t i e s of t he
71 u
,
K

s a m e ki n d B u t i s a lw a y s a nd e ss e nt i a lly a nu m e ric wh ils t ,

. K
,
u

i s n ot W e s e e t h a t t he u s e of i nd u c t ivi t y ra t h e r t h a n p e r me a
.

bili ty i s n e c ess a ry i n e l e c t ro m a gn e t ic t h e ory as a m a t te r o f ,

l ogic al c om m on s ense a s well as for t he p u rp ose of s ci e nt ific

cle a rn es s Bu t t hi s nee d not i nt erfe re wit h t he u s e o f p e rm e a
.

bi li t y i n i t s a b ov e d e s crib e d se ns e of a ra t i o
-
I f on t he o th e r .
,

h and one o f t he t wo w o rd s s h o u ld b e a b oli s h ed t h e re ca n I

, , ,

t hi nk b e li t t l e d ou b t as t o which s h ou ld g o
,
.

I n t he cas e o f p u r e ly e l a s t ic m a g ne t i sa t i on ( wit h ou t i nt ri ns ic )
we h a ve
B = Hr = fl o a K
) P:

wh e re B i s t he i nd u ct i on a nd I t he m a gne t ic force H er e MOP '

.

i s wh a t t he i nd u c t i o n w ou ld be i n e t h e r s o t h a t t he a ddi t i ona l ,

p a rt [ O F e xpre ss es t he e ffe c t o f t he m a tt e r pre s e nt which

. L K
,

b e c om e s m a gne t ise d The ra t io t h e re fore n a t u ra lly e xpresse s

. K,
,

the s u s c e p t ibili t y for m a g n e t i s a t i o n o f t he m a t t e r P e rha ps in .

,

p a ss ing i t m ight be t hou gh t t ha t p ox s h o u ld e xpre s s t he s u s

,

c e p t i bi li ty B u t t hi s will not d o b e ca u s e m a g ne t i s a t i on a nd
.
,

i ndu c t i on a re Si mil a r The i ndu c e d m a gn e t i s a t i on is O P In

. u
,
K .

s t ric t n e s s i t s h o u ld n o t be c a ll e d t he i nt e ns i t y o f m a gn e t i s a t i o n ,

b u t ra t h e r t he d e ns i ty i f we p rop e rly c a rry o u t M a xw e ll s pri n

‘
’
,

c i p les a b ou t fo rc e s a nd fl u x e s or i nt e n s i t i e s a n d d e n s i t i es
, B is .

a fl u x t h e r e fo re s o i s [ O F t o be m e as u re d p e r u ni t a re a
,
L K
’ .

No w t he c om m o n for m i s
,

B = MP < 1 m a.r . .

01
‘
B i = Fi + 4 1rI a

if Hr
h a ve a p a r t from t he 4 a b s u rdi t y a n
e e we , 11
'
,

i rra t i o n a li t y of a di ffe re nt ki nd v iz t h a t i n d u c t i on a nd ma g , .
,

ne t i s a t ion a r e m a d e id e n t ic a l i n ki n d wi t h m a gne t ic fo rc e s i nc e ,

w e h a v e t he d i ffe re nc e o f t wo flu x d e ns i t i e s e xpre ss e d by a n
 52 ELECTR OMA GNE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV .

a nd l as t ly , om i t t i ng t he ( t o by a ss u m n i g it t o be un ity , we
Obtai n t he c om mon
3: P12
cont a n n i i g t hre e fa u l t s t he ar bi t ra ry 4 t he e qu ali s i ng of a n
,
1r,

i nt e ns it y a nd a fl u x a nd t he u nna t u ra l u n i o n of phys ic a lly d is

,

t i nc t m a g ne t i s a t i o ns .

“
D iffe rent m e n h a v e di ffe rent Op i ni ons — s o m e like apples :
,

s om e lik e i ni o ns B u t ca n a nyo n e pos s ibly r e a lly like t he

”
.

r ou nda b ou t a nd m i sl e a di ng wa y o f pre s ent i ng t he m a gne t i c

flu x re l a t i ons which I h a v e a bo v e cri t ici s ed ? Th e re i s no
e xc u s e for i t e xce p t t h a t i t was e m pl oy e d by gr e a t m e n wh e n
,

t h e y w e re e ngag e d i n m a ki ng m a g ne t ic t h e o ry b e fo re t he y ,

ha d as s i m il a te d i t s c ons e q u e nc e s t h o r o u ghly Wh e n t he ro u gh .

w or k of c on s t r u c t i o n i s o v e r t hen i t i s d e s ira ble t o go o ve r ,

i t a g a i n a n d p u t i t i n a b e t t e r a nd m o r e pra c t ic a l fo r m
, We .

s h o u ld c opy t he v ir t u es O f gre a t m e n i f we c a n bu t n o t t h e i r , ,

fa u l ts .

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t o f u lly a ppre ci a t e t he i m p o rt a nc e o f t h e s e t hi ng s b e c a u s e t h e i r ,

a pplic a t i on s a r e o f s o highly s p e ci a li s e d a n a t u r e i n t he d e t a il s ,

o f which t h e y m a y b e c o m e w ho lly a b s o rb e d The y m ay e ve n .

g o s o far as t o s a
y t h a t t he p a p e r t h e o ry o f m a gne t ic i n d u c t i o n i s

not o f t he l e a s t m o me nt b e c a u s e t h e y a r e c on c e rn e d wi t h iro n
, ,

a nd a l t h o u g h t h e re m a y be a c e r t a i n s m a ll ra ng e O f a pplic a t i o n

o f t he t h e o ry e v e n i n ir on y e t t h e y a r e s c a rc e ly c onc e r ne d,

w i t h i t a nd t h e re for e i t i s of no c ons e q u e nc e
, , , Th e re c ou ld .

no t be a gr ea t e r m i s t a k e A c o m pl e t e t h e o ry o f m a gne t i c
.

i nd u c t i on i ncl u di ng hy s te re s i s m u s t ne c e ss a rily be s o c on
, ,

s t ru c t e d as t o h a r m o ni s e wi t h t he li m i t e d t h e o ry t h a t has

a lr ea dy b e e n e l a b o ra t e d wh i ch i s u nd e rs t a n d a bl e w he n e xhibi t e d
,

i n a p u rifi e d for m free d fro m 4 s a nd o t h e r a no m a li e s Firs t

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1r
, .

of all w e h a v e t he e t h e r i n whic h B no? o r B

, H b e c a use a
, o , ,

O f t he a b s e nce O f i n t ri ns ic m a g ne t i s a t io n N e x t we c o m e to .

e l as t ic a lly m a gn e t i s e d b od i e s i n whic h t he r e l a t i o n b e t we e n fl u x

a nd fo rc e i s li ne a r The n B p H wh e re di ffe rs from o b e i ng

.
,
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, a
, ,

e i t h e r gre a t e r o r s ma ll e r a nd i s e i t h e r a c o ns t a nt s c a l a r o r e l s e
, ,

( wi t h e olot rop y ) a li ne a r o p e ra t o r I f t h e r e i s no i nt ri ns i c m a
g
.

ne t i s a t i on I a n d H a r e s t ill t he s a m e a nd t he c u rl o f e i t h e r i s
‘
, ,

t he c u rr e nt d e ns i t y B u t s h o u ld t h e re be i nt r i ns ic m a g ne t i s a
.

t i on t h e n w hil t B = MH s t ill a nd i t is t he c u rl
‘

s
, ,
 T HEORY OF PLAN E ELEC TR OMAGNE T I C WAVES . 35 3

F t h a t i s t he c u rre n t d e ns i t y O r B = l o + nF The n ex t
'

of .
, .

i
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t e p i s t o m a k e ”P be n o t a li ne a r bu t s o m e o t h e r f u nc t i o n ,

of F , t o be e x p e ri m e n t a lly d e t e rm i ne d if i t b e p o s s ibl e t o ,

e xpr e ss B I o which i s t he fr e e i n d u c t i on a s a fu n c t i o n o f F
-

, , .

Of c ou rs e i t c a n be d on e a ppro xi m a t e l y
,
Th e n c o m e s t h e .

di ffi c u l t q u e s t i on of hy s t e res i s Thi s i nv ol ves t he v a ri a ti on o f

.

IO wi t h F wi t h c ons e q u e nt w a s t e of e n e rgy
, I f t hi s li t t l e .

ma t t e r be s a t i s fa c t o ri ly d e t e r m i ne d w e m a y e xp e c t t o h a v e a
,

so u n d m a t h e m a t ic a l t h eo ry of m a gne t ic i n d u c t i on i n a n
ex t e n d e d fo rm which s h a ll pro p e rly h a r m on i s e w i t h t he
ra t i o na l fo r m o f t h e e l e m e n t a ry t h e o ry The div e rg e n c e o f .

B i s z e ro all t hrou gh The e x p e ri m e n t a l j u s t ific a t i on o f t hi s

.

ge ne ralis a t ion is t he fa c t t ha t no u nip ola r m a gnet s h a v e y e t

bee n di s c o v e re d .

Effe ct of a Thi n Plane C ondu c t i ng S he e t on a W ave .

P e rs i s t e nc e of Indu c t i on a nd L os s of Di s p la e me nt . c
§1 93 . C o m i ng no w t o pr o d u ce d
t he e ffe t s
o n e lce c t r o m a g
ne t ic w a v e s by a s m a ll a m ou nt o f c on d u c t ivi t y t o be a ft e r ,
.

wa rd s i ncr e a s e d w e s h a ll a d op t a p a r t ic u l a r d e vic e for s i m pli fy

,

in g t he t re a t m e nt I m a gi n e firs t t he di e l e c t ric m e di u m t o
.
, ,

os s e s s a u n i fo r m ly d i s t rib u t e d s m a ll c o nd u c t ivi t y E id e n t ly
p v
-
.
,

t he a c t i o n of t h e c o nd u c t ivi t y o n a w a v e i s a c o n t i n u o u s a nd

cu m u l a t iv e one Ne x t l oc a l is e t h e c ond u c t a nc e i n p a ra ll e l
.
,

sheets — t h a t i s s u b s t i t u t e for t h e u n i for m c on d u c t ivi t y a gr e a t

,

nu m b e r o f p a ra ll e l pl a n e c o nd u c t i ng s h e e t s b e t w e e n which t he ,

me di u m i s non c ond u c t i ng
-
If w e i n cre as e t h e ir n u m b e r s u fii
.
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e

c i e nt ly t h e ir a c t i o n o n a w a v e w h os e pl a n e i s p a r a ll e l t o t h a t
,

of t h e s h e e t s will a ppr o x i m a t e i n t h e gr os s t o t h e e ffe c t o f t he

, ,

u n i fo r m c ond u c t ivi t y which t he c on d u c ta nc e o f t he s h e e t s

re pl a c e s W e h a v e t h e re fo re t o e x a mi ne t he Infl u e nc e O f a
.
, ,

s i ngl e v e ry t hi n c o nd u c t i ng s h e e t u p on a w a v e Thi s i s n ot .

di ffi c u l t .

I m a gi ne t h e n a s i m pl e pl a ne e l e c trom a gne t ic s he e t t o be
, ,

r u nn i ng t hrou gh t he e t h e r a t t he s p e e d of light Thi s i s t he .

na t u r a l s t a t e o f t hi ng s a n d i n t he a b s e n c e o f c o nd u c t ivi t y o r
,

o the r di s t u rbi n g c a u s es t h e r e will be n o ch a ng e

, N o w i ns e r t .

a pl a n e c on d u c t i n g s h e e t i n t he p a t h o f t he w a v e I t s h o u ld .
35 4 E LECTROMAGN ET I C TH EORY . CH . Iv .

s hows t ha t i t is i mm ed ia t e ly spl it int o t wo s i m il ar wa ve s one ,

o f which i s t ra ns m i t t e d b e yo nd t he pl a t e whil s t t h e o t h e r i s ,

re fl e c t ed . The t ra ns m i t t e d wa v e di ffers fr o m t h e i ncid e nt i n

no r e s p e c t e xc e p t s t re n gt h I t i s a t t e n u a t e d i n a c e r t a i n ra t i o
.

de pe ndi ng u p on t he c ond u cta nc e of t he s h e e t b e i ng gr e a tl y ,

a t t e n u a t e d wh e n t he c o n d u c t a nc e i s l a rg e a n d s ligh t ly a t t e n ,

u a t ed w h e n i t i s s m a ll The form u l ae ar e r e s e r ve d
. Th i s .

t ra ns mi t t e d w a v e m o v e s on j u s t a s t he i n cid e n t w a v e did a nd ,

not hi ng fu r t h e r h a pp e ns t o i t The re fl e c te d w a v e on t he
.
,

o t h e r h a nd h a v i n g i t s dire c t i on o f m o t i on o pp os i t e t o t h a t o f
,

the incid e nt a nd t ra n s m i t t e d w a v e s t ra v e ls b a ck t he w a y i t ,

c a me and nothing fu rt h e r h a ppens t o it

,
.

The dire c t i on of t he m a g net ic fo rc e i n t he t hre e w a v e s i s t he

sa m e . Thi s i s one g ene ra l prop e r ty i rr esp e ct i ve O f t he a m ou nt ,

o f cond u c t a nc e B u t a m u ch m ore s t riki ng o n e c onne c t s t he

.

int e ns i t y o f t he m a gn et ic forc e i n t he t hre e w a v es The s u m .

o f t he i nt e n s i t i e s i n t he r e fl e c t e d a n d t ra n s m i t t e d w a v es e q u a l s

t he i nt e ns i t y i n t he o rigi na l i n cid e nt w a v e Tha t i s t he c on .

,

d u c ta nce wi t h di s s ip a t i on o f e n e rgy ha s h a d n o e ffe c t wh a t e v e r

, ,

o n t he t o t a l i n d u c t i o n I t h as m e re ly r e di s t rib u t e d i t by
.
,

s pli tt i ng i t i nt o t wo p a rt s which t h en s e p a ra t e fro m one

,

a no t h e r . The “
n u mb e r o f t u b es i n t he r e fl e c t e d w a v e m a y
be m a d e t o b e a r a ny ra t i o we pl e a s e t o t he nu m be r i n t he
t ra ns m i tt e d w a v e by a l t e ri ng t he c o nd u c t a n c e of t he pl a t e
bu t t h e ir s u m i s a lw a y s e xa c t ly t he nu mb e r o f t u be s i n t he
i ncid ent w a ve Thi s prop e r ty e x e m plifi e s i n a manne r which
.
,

m a y be r e a d ily u nd e rs t o od t he p e rs i s te nc e of in du c t ion i n
, ,

Spi te of c ondu c t ion a nd was t e of e ne rgy .

B u t as re ga rd s t he di s pl a ce m e nt t he c as e i s qu i t e di ffe re nt
, .

Fro m t he fa c t t h a t t he re fl e c t e d w a v e r u ns b a ck whil s t i t s ,

m a gne t ic forc e prese r v es i ts o rigina l dir e c t i on we s e e t h a t t he ,

e l e c t ric fo rc e m u s t be r e v e r s e d O n t he o t h e r ha nd i t i s
.
,

u n ch a n g e d i n t he t r a ns m i t t e d w a v e I f t h e n t h e ir s u m .
, ,

e q u a ll e d t h e e l e c t ric fo rc e i n t he i ncid e nt w a v e , i t w o u ld i m pl y

t h a t t he t r a ns m i t t e d w a v e was of gr ea t e r a m pli t u d e t h a n t he
i ncide nt Bu t i t i s s ma ll e r i n va ri a bly S o t he re is a l o s s O f
.
, .

di s pla c eme nt Thu s i f H i n t he i ncid e nt b e c o m e s ( 1 n) H i n

.
,

the t ra ns m i t t e d w a v e w he re n i s s o m e pro p e r fra c t i o n i t

, ,

b e c om es nH in t he re fle c t e d wa ve A t t he s a m e t i m e E in t he .

i nc i d e nt b e c o m e s ( 1 n ) E i n t he t ra ns m i t t e d a nd n E i n t he ,
35 6 L C T ROMAG NE TI C T HEORY
E E . CH . 1v .

di s pl a c em ent re v e rs e d as com p a re d w it h t he i ncid ent so t h a t ,

t he l o s s o f di s pl a c e me nt i n t he s e ns e d e s crib e d is t he gr e a t e s t
, ,

p os s ible v iz 2 D
, .
, .

It will be s ee n fro m t h es e d e ta il s t h a t whil s t t he a b s o rp t i o n

or di s solvi n g o f i nd u c t i on by c o nd u c ta n c e i s a m y t h t he id e a ,

o f a n a b s o rp t i o n o f di s pl a c e m e nt i s n o t w i t h o u t i t s i nc o n
v e n i e n ce s wh e n t he c o n d u c t a n c e i s gr e a t a n d t h a t t hi s b e c o m e s
,

e x t r e m e wh e n t h e re i s r e a lly n o l os s o f e ne rg y i n t he pl a t e ,

wh en in fa c t the i ncid e nt wa v e does n ot hing i n i t b u t i s w holly

, , ,

rej e c t e d wit h i ts di s pl a c e m e nt re ve rs e d I t s e e m s t he n m or e
.
, ,

na t u r a l t o c ons id e r t he w a s t e o f e n e rgy fr o m t h e fi e ld c a u s e d

by t he pl a t e as l os s This t a ke s pl ac e e q u a lly fro m t he e l e c tric

.

a nd m a g ne t ic e ne rgi es Si n c e t h e y a re n e c e s s a rily e q u a l i n e v e ry
,

o n e o f t he t hr e e w a v es B u t i n t he a pplic a t i o n m a d e l a t e r
.
,

t he pl a t e i s t o h a v e v e ry s ligh t c ond u c t a n c e ( i n t he li m i t a n
i nfini tely s m all a m ou nt ) s o t ha t t he t o ta l di s pl a c e m e nt c a nno t
,

ch a ng e s ign bu t m e rely s u ffe rs a s ligh t los s Th e n t he id e a

,
.

O f l os s of di s pl a c e m e nt by c o n d u c t a n c e b e c o m e s u s e fu l a g a i n .

The l o s s o f e ne rgy t a k e s pl a c e a s t he i ncid e nt w a ve i s t ra v e rs

i ng t he pl a t e I t s s u cc e s s i v e l a y e rs e a ch c a u se a m i nu t e a t t e nu a
.

t i on o f t he wa v e pa s s i ng a nd t hi s a ppli e s e q u a lly t o t he i nd u c
,

t i on a nd di s pl a c e m e nt s o t h a t t he t ra ns m i t t e d w a v e e m e rg e s
,

from t he pl a t e a p u re e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic w a ve a re d u c e d c opy o f ,

t he i ncid e nt The s u cc e s s iv e l a y e rs t oo e a ch cas t b a ck a

.
, ,

m i nu t e p ort i on of t he w a v e t ra v e rs ing t h e m wi t h u nch a ng e d ,

Sign of t he i nd u ct i on bu t wit h di s pl a c e m e nt re ve rs e d ; a nd
,

t h es e r e j e c t e d fl u x e s m a k e u p t he r e fl e c t e d wa v e Th e re a re .

e vid ent ly r es id u a l e ffe c t s d u e t o t he i nt e rn a l re fl e c t i o ns o f

m i nu t e p ort i ons of t he m a i n re fle c te d wa v e b u t t h ese re s id u a l s ,

t e nd t o v a n i s h wh e n t he pl a t e i s t hi n e no u gh .

I f t he pl a t e be a m a gn e t ic i ns t e a d of a n e l e c t ric c ond u c t o r ,

t he t h e o ry i s qu i t e s i m il a r The t ra ns m i t t e d w a v e i s a n
.

a t te n u a t e d c ont i n u a t i o n o f t he i n cid e nt The r e fl e c t e d w a v e

.

i s a l s o a c opy o f t he i ncid e nt a ls o r e d u c e d , B u t it is no w .

t he i n d u c t i on t h a t s u ff e rs l os s b e c a u s e i t s dir e c t i on i n t he
,

re fl e c te d w a ve i s o pp os i t e t o t h a t i n t he i ncid e nt a nd t ra ns
m i tt ed . O n t he o t h e r h a nd t he di s pl a c e m e nt no w fu lly p e r
,

s i s ts be i ng m e r e ly s pli t i nt o t wo p a r ts by t he pl a t e
, .

N o t ic e t h a t i f t he pl a t e b e b ot h a n e l e c t ric a nd a m a g ne t ic
c ond u cto r i ts a tt e nu a t i ng e ffe ct from t hese t wo ca u s e s on t he
,
 TH EORY OF PLANE ELEC T ROMAGN ETI C WAVES . 35 7

t ran smi t t e d wa v e will be a ddit iv e s o t ha t i t will e m e rg e a ,

'

p u re wa v e wi t h e x t ra a t t e nu a t i on B u t a s re ga rd s t he r e fl e c t e d
.

w a ve we h a ve a p e cu li a r re s u l t The a c t i on of t he m ag n e t ic
,
.

c o nd u c t a n c e i s t o re ve rs e t he i nd u c t ion whil s t k ee pi ng t he
di s pl a ce m e nt s t r a ight ; whil s t t h a t of t he e l e c t ric c ond u c tan c e
i s t o re v e rs e t h e di s pl a c e m e nt a n d k ee p t he i nd u c t i o n s t ra igh t .

The re s u l t i s t ha t t he r e fl e ct e d w a v e i s r e d u c e d i n m a g ni t u d e
by t he a ddi t i on of m a gn e t ic c o nd u ct a nc e t o pr e vi o u ly e x is t e nt s

e l e c t ric c on d u c ta n c e Wi t h a pro p e r pro p o r tionin g of t he t wo

.

co nd u c t a n c e s t he re fle c t e d w a v e m a y be brou gh t ne a rly t o
,

e v a ne s c e n c e fr o m a pl a t e O f fi ni t e c o n d u c t a n c e I n t he li m i t .

t he c o m p e n s a t i on i s p e rf e c t a n d t he i n cid e n t w a v e g o e s righ t
,

t hr o u gh wi t h o u t r e fl e c t i o n t h o u gh i t s u ffers e x t r a a t t e nu a
,

t ion . Thi s i s t he e xpl a na t i on o f t he di s t o rt i onle s s prop a g a t i on

o f w a v e s i n a di e l e c t ric m e di u m p o s s es s i ng d u pl e x c o n d u c t i

v it
y,
e l e c t ric a n d m a gn e t ic Whil s t t h e r e i s n o r e fl e c t i on i n
.

t ra ns i t t h e re i s a c o nt in u ou s l os s bo t h o f di s pla c e m e nt a nd o f
,

i n d u c t i on .

Th e Pr c I ndu ct i on i n Pla ne S t ra t a a nd i n ge nera l

e s i s t e n e of , .

A ls o i n C ore s a nd i n L i nea r Ci rcu i t s .

1 9 4 N o w re t u rn t o t h e c a s e of e l e c t ric c on d u c t ivi t y a lo ne
.
,

a nd a s d e s crib e d le t i t be l o c a lly c o nd e ns e d i nt o t he c o n d u c
, ,

t a nc e o f a ny n u m b e r of p a r a ll e l pl a t e s W e kno w t h a t t he
.
4

e ffe c t o f a ny o ne o f t h e m on a t hi n e l e c t ro m a g n e t ic s h ee t i s t o

Split it a s pre vi o u s ly d es cribe d If w e lik e t he r e fore w e c a n

,
.
, ,

fo ll o w e a ch o f t he r e s u l t i ng w a v es a nd o b se r ve how t h e y a r e
, ,

i n t he i r t u r n Spli t by t he firs t pl a t e s t h e y m e e t gi vi ng ri s e t o
, ,

fo u r w a v e s t o b e a li t t l e l a t e r p li t i nt o e ight a nd s o o n Thi s
,
s
, .

pro c e s s m a y s e e m c u mbro u s bu t i t i s a ls o a n i ns t ru ct i ve one

, .

Th u s c ons id e r wha t ha pp e ns t o t he t ot a l i nd u ct i on W e
, .

kno w t ha t i t p e rs i s t s i n a m ou nt a nd dire c t i on wh e n a s i ngl e

s pli t o cc u rs No w t he s a me prop e rt y a ppli e s t o e very su cc e s
.

s iv e s plit a w a v e s u ffe rs i n ou r di e l e c t ric m e di u m c o n ta i n i n g

p a ra lle l c ond u c t i ng pla t e s S O t he t o ta l i nd u c t ion re m a ins

.

c on s t a nt I t i s re di s t ri bu te d a nd s pre a d s o u t bot h w a y s bu t
.
,

wit hou t t he le a s t l os s Th e r e i s a s m a ll l os s of e ne rgy a t e v e ry

.

s pli t bu t t hi s d oe s n ot a ffe c t t he t o t a l i nd u c t i on
,
Thi s appli es .
358 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I v.

o f a ny nu m b e r of s u ch s h e et s o f a ny st re ngt h s fo rm i ng a pe r
, ,

fe ct ly a rbit r a ry i n it i a l di s t rib u t i o n o f i nd u c t i on a nd di s pl a c e
m e nt i n p a ra ll e l pla ne l a y ers Th e re i s s t ill p ers i s t e nce of
.

t he i nd u c t i o n Fi na lly t he s a m e a ppli es w he n we s pli t u p

.
,

t he cond u c t i ng pl a t es t h e ms e lv e s i nt o pl a t es o f s m a ll e r c on
d u c t an ce a nd s pre a d t h e m o u t a t u n i fo rm di s t a n c e s
, The .

u l t i m a te li m i t o f t hi s pr o c e s s i s r e ac h e d wh e n t he c ond u c t

a n c e i s q u i t e u n i fo r m ly s pr e a d s o t h a t w e h a v e a p e rfe c t ly
,

h omoge ne o u s m e di u m u nd e r c ons id e ra t i on I t i s fu nd a m e nt .
,

a lly a d i e lec t ri c pr o p a g a t i ng di s t u rb a nc es a t s p e e d 72 ; bu t i t
,

i s i n a ddi t i on a c ond u c t o r a s w ell a nd di s t o r ts t he w a v es a n d

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di s s ip a t es t h e ir e ne rgy The s p ee d c is . wi t h t he pro p e r

va l u e s of p a nd c The c ondu ct i vi t y d oes not int e rfe re wi t h
. .

t hi s pro p e r t y o f pro p a g a t i on a t fi ni t e s p ee d B u t o bs e rve t h a t .

i f we ch o os e t o ig n o re t he di s pl a c e m e nt t h e n t he c orre s p ondi ng ,

s p e e d i s i nfi n i t e ly gr e a t W e c on cl u d e from t he a bo ve t h a t
.

pl a ne s h e e t s of i nd u c t i on i n e l e c t ric c ond u c t o rs a lwa ys pre s e r ve

t he t o t a l i nd u c t i on c ons t a nt i n a m o u nt irres p e c t i v e o f t he ,

a m ou nt o f e l a s t i c di s pl a c e m e nt o r wh e t h e r t h e re i s a n a t a ll
, y .

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, .

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, , ,

o t h e r c a u se I t m ay be m e re ly a c a nc e ll a t i on by t he u ni on o f
.

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Thi s m a y be t e rm e d a ve ct ori a l
.

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.
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.
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ind u ct i on be i nit ia lly z e ro which d oe s not re q u ire t he ind u c ti on

,

dens i ty t o be z ero t he fi nal e ffe c t wi ll be a c om pl e t e a nnihila

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t i on of t he i nd u c t i on by m u t u a l c a nc e lla t i ons S h o u ld ho w .
,

ever ,t he t o t a l i nd u c t i on be not z e ro i t w ill p e rs i s t The

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indu ct i on d e ns ity will t end t o z e ro bu t t h at will be m e re ly on ,

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an
y d e s t r u c t i on b
y t he c o n d u c t a n c e o r r e s i s t a nc e wh e n e i t h e r

of t h e m i s fi ni t e To pr e v e nt t he a t te n u a t io n t o z e ro we m a y
.

i nt e rp os e i nfi n i te ly c ond u c t i ng b a rri e rs one on ea ch s id e i n , ,

pl a ne s p a ra ll el t o t he s h ee t s o f i nd u ct i o n The n t he fi na l .

r es u l t will be t h a t th e i n d u c t io n w ill s pre a d i t s e l f o u t u ni fo rm ly

be t w e e n t he ba rri e rs a nd m a i n t a i n a fi n i t e d e ns it y .

To i ll u s t ra t e t hi s pr op e rt y i n a s o m e wh a t l e ss a b s t ra c t m a n
ner c ons id e r a l a rg e ri ng s a y o f c o pp e r t h ou g h ir o n will d o
, , ,

e q u a lly we ll e x c e p t a s re gar d s so m e co m p li ca t i o ns c on ne c t e d
3 60 ELECT ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

w ill a l wa ys do s o,b s e nc e o f i m pre s s e d forc e t o a lt e r

i n t he a

t he a m ou nt The i n d u c t i o n i s l o ck e d i n a nd c a nnot p as s
.

thr o u gh t he i n fini t e ly c on d u c t i ng circ u i t t o di s s ip a t e i t s e l f

-
.

If t he c o nd u c t a n c e o f t he circ u i t be fi ni t e t h e n i t c a n ge t ,

t hr o u gh The t i m e c on s t a nt v a ri e s a s t he c o n d u c t a n c e
.
-
The .

dis a pp e a ra nc e of t h e i nd u c t i on i s m a ni fe s t e d by t he wa s t e o f
e ne rgy i n t h e circ u i t t he e l e c t ric c u rr e nt i n w hich i s s u p
,

p o r t e d by t he v o l t a g e o f t h e d e cr e a s i n g i n d u c t i o n t hr o u gh i t .

Bu t t he c u rr e nt i s t h e re a ll t he s a m e ( m e as u r e d m a g n e t ic a lly )
wh e n t he c ond u c t a nc e i s i nfi ni t e The i nd u c t i on i s s t e a dy .
,

a n d t h e r e i s n o v ol t a g e i n t he circ u i t B u t n o ne i s ne e d e d . .

O n t he o t h e r h a nd i f t h e re i s i ni t i a lly n o i n d u c t i o n t hrou gh
,

t he circ u i t t h e r e will c on t i nu e t o b e n on e wh e n a m a g ne tic fi e ld

,

i s cre a t e d i n i t s ne igh bo u rh oo d B u t a l t h ou gh t he t u b e s o f i n d u c
.

t i on c a nn ot c u t t hr o u g h t he i nfi n i t e ly c on d u c t i ng circ u i t so a s t o
m a k e t he i nd u c t i o n t hro u gh i t be a fi n i t e q u a n t i t y y e t t h e y d o ,

p a s s t hrou gh a s u rfa c e b ou nd e d by t he circ u i t a s m u ch p os i t ive ly ,

a s n e g a t iv e ly The r es u l t i ng i n d u c t i on di s t ribu t i on i s to be go t
.

by s u p e ri m p os i ng t he e x t e rna l i ndu c t i on a n d t h a t d u e t o a cu r
re nt in t he circ u i t o f s u ch s t reng t h a s t o m a k e t he t o ta l ind u c t i on
t hrou gh i t be z e r o The prop e r t y i s a g e n e ra l o ne fo r if t he cir
.
,

c u i t be m o ve d a b ou t i n a m a gne t ic fi e ld t h e re i s a lway s i n vi rt u e , ,

o f i t s i m p e r m e a b ili t y t o t he m a g ne t ic fl u x z e r o t o t a l i n d u c t i o n ,

t hr o u gh i t if i t s c o n d u c t a n c e b e i nfi ni t e ; whil s t if i t b e fi ni t e
bu t gr e a t t h e re i s a n a ppr o xi m a t i on t o t hi s r e s u l t s o l ong as t he
,

m ot i o n i s k e p t u p o r t he e x t e rna l fi e ld be k e p t v a ryi ng
,
A t t he .

s a m e t i m e t he le a s t a m ou n t o f r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e circ u i t will be
,

s u fli c i e n t if t i m e e n o u gh be gi v e n to a ll o w t he e x t e r na l i nd u c
, ,

t i on wh e n d u e t o a s t e a dy c a u s e t o g e t p as t i t t o t he fu ll
, ,

e x t e nt wh e n of c o u r s e t he c u rr e n t i n t he circ u i t will c e a s e
, .

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,

circ u i t of p e rfe c t m a g ne t ic c ond u c t a nc e The re i s a l s o p er .

s i s t e nc e o f di s pl a c e m e nt i n s pi t e o f a fi ni t e d e gr e e o f m a g ne t ic

condu c t i vi ty i n a c o nt i nu ou s m e di u m u nl e s s i t be e l e c t ric a lly ,

’

cond u c t i n g as w e ll .

The L a w s of A t t e nu a t i on of Tot a l Di p l c
s a e me nt a nd Tota l
I nd u c t i on by El e c t ri c a nd M a g ne t ic C ond u c t a nc e .

1 95 . N xt c
e o ns ide r t he e ffe c t O f a c on d u c t i ng m e di u m u p on
t he t ot a l di s pl a c e m ent . We k no w th a t t he l a t te r d e cre as es
 T HEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNET C WAVES I . 361

ih
w t i
t he t m e , a n d t he la w o f d e cr ea s e m a
y b e r e a dily fo u nd

fr o m t h e t h e o ry o f a s i ngl e c o nd u c t i ng pl a t e W e fo u n d t h a t .

wh e n i t s c o nd u c t a nc e e x c e e d e d a c e rt a i n v a l u e t he l o ss o f d i s ,

pl a c e m e n t e x c e e d e d t h e origi na l B u t i n r e ga rdi ng t he a c t i on
.
,

o f a h om o g e ne o u s c on d u c t o r u p o n a w a v e as t he li m i t ( i n t he

gros s ) o f t ha t o f a n a s s e m bl a g e o f p a ra ll e l pl a t e s i n which t he
c on d u c t a n c e i s l o c ali s e d ( which pro c e ss m a y n o t s e e m u nas s a il
a bly a cc u r a t e b e fo r e h a nd bu t which i s j u s t ifi e d by t he re s u l t s
, ) ,

i t i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t w e ha v e m e r e l y t o d e a l wi t h pl a t e s o f
s u ch v e ry lo w c o n du c t a n c e t h a t t h e l os s a t e a ch i s e x t r e m e ly

s m a ll ,
s o t h a t t he a bo v e m e nt i on e d di ffi c u l t y d o e s n o t e nte r
-
.

T hu s le t t he l os s a t one pl a te be s u ch a s t o re d u c e t he i ni t i a l
,

d i s p l a c e m e nt D i n a w a v e t o m D w h e r e m i s a fra c t io n n e a rly
,

He re mD is t he s u m o f t he di s pl a c e m e nt s in
,

e q u a l t o u n i ty .

t he t ra n s m i t t e d a nd r e fl e c t e d w a v es t h e l a t t e r b e i ng v e ry
,

s m a ll a nd o f t h e o pp o s i t e s ig n t o t he i ni t i a l D As t h e s e w a v e s .

s e p a r a t e t h e y r e a ch o t h e r pl a t e s a nd a r e s pli t a ne w
, If t he s e .

pl a t e s h a v e e a ch t he s a m e co n d u ct a nc e a s t he firs t t he t o t a l ,

m D i s f u r t h e r a t t e nu a t e d by t h e m t o m D wh e n t he t wo w a v e s
2

b e c o m e fo u r N e x t wh e n t h e s e fo u r w a ves a re s pli t i nt o e igh t

.
,

by t he ne x t pl a t e s t h a t a r e r e a ch e d the t o t a l di s pla c e m e nt ,

b e c o m e s m D a n d s o on T he s e s u cc e s s ive d i s pla c e m e nt t ot a l s
3
.

d e cre as e a cc ordi ng t o t he la w of a ge o m e t ric a l s e ri e s It fo l .

lo ws t h a t i n t he li mi t we s h all h a v e t he t ota l di s pl a c e m e nt
, ,

re pre s e nt e d by a n e x p one nt i a l fu nc t i on o f t he t i m e sa y by ,

— ”t
D D oe , ( )
I

w h e re D O i s t he i n i t i a l v a l u e a nd D wha t it b e co m es at t i me t
, .

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,

t he fra c ti on m o b se rv e ho w i t d e p e n d s o n t he cond u c t a n c e of
,

o n e pl a t e ,
a n d pr o c e e d t o t he li m i t by m a ki n g t he nu m b e r

o f pl a t e s i n fi ni t e whil s t t h e ir c o n d u c t a n c e s a re i n fi n i t e ly s m a ll
, .

The r e s u l t i s t h a t t he c o n s t a nt 77 ha s t he va l u e klc wh e r e k i s
.
,

t he c o nd u c t ivi t y a n d c t he p e r m i t t ivi t y o f t he homoge ne o u s ,

c o nd u c t i ng m e di u m .

I n t h e irra t i o na l u n i t s o f t he B A C o m m i tt e e t hi s qu a nt it y .

i s r e pre s e nt e d by 4 / /c whic h i s o f c ou rs e n o ns e ns e lik e t he

7r c , , , ,

qu a t e rni onic d o c t ri n e a b o u t t he s qu a re of a vec to r The y a re .

bo t h g o i ng to go The a b o v e reas o ni ng a ppli es t o a ny in i t i a l

.

d i s t ri b u t i o n o f di s p l a c e m en t i n pl a ne l a y e rs i ns t e a d o f m e re ly ,
362 ELEC T ROMAGN ETI C T H EORY . CH . I v.

l
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di pl ce me nt i n a c ond u c t i g c onde ns e r ( a pa rt fro m a bs orp

s a n “

t i on a nd hy s t e re s i s ) o r o f t he s t a t i c d is t ri b u t i o n o f di s pl a c e
”
,

m e nt a s s o ci a t e d wi t h e l e c t rific a t i o n i n a c on du c t i ng m e di u m .

W e s ee t h a t t he la w ha s a fa r m ore g e ne ra l m e a ni ng The .

i ni t i al di s pl a c e m e nt n e e d n ot be s t a t ic bu t m a y be a e c om ,

a n i e d by m a gn e t ic i nd u c t i o n a nd m a c n q n t ly m v
p y o s e u e , o e

a b ou t i n t he m o s t v a ri e d m anne r whil s t i t s t ot a l a m ou nt ,

d e cre a s e s a cc o rdi ng t o t he s t a t ic la w A h om o gen e ou s m e d i u m .

i s pre s u pp o s e d a nd m o dific a t io ns m a y be i nt ro d u c e d by t he
,

a c t i o n o f b o u n d a ri es .

P as s i ng n e xt t o t he a n a l og o u s c a s e o f a m a g ne t ic c o nd u c t o r ,

i n which t he t o t a l di s pl a c e m e nt re m a i ns c ons t a nt wh il s t
t he t ota l i nd u c t i o n s u b s id e s i t i s u nne c e ss a ry t o re p e a t t he
,

a rg u m e n t bu t i s s u fli c i e nt t o p o i nt o u t t he la w a cc o rdi ng t o
,

which t he s u b s id e nc e o cc u rs I f B 0 b e t h e i ni t i a l t o t a l
.

ind u c t i on a nd B wha t i t b e c om e s a t t i m e t we s h a ll ha ve
, ,

( )
2

wh e re g is t he ma gnet ic cond u c t ivi ty a nd p t he i nd u c tivi t y . .

The t i m e c ons t a nt c/k of t he fo r m e r c a s e ha s b e c om e p /g

-
.

Re t u rning t o t he for m e r c a s e i t Sh ou ld be not e d t ha t when ,

t he i ni t i a l di s t rib u t i on i s o f t h e s t a t ic n a t u r e u na cc o m p a n i e d ,

by m a gne t ic force i t r et a i n s t hi s prop e r ty d u ri ng t he s u b

,

s i d e nc e For s i nc e t he di s pl a c e m e nt s u b s id e s e v e rywh e re
.
,

a cc o rdi ng t o t he s a m e t i m e fa c t o r i t s di s t rib u t i on d o es no t
-

a l t e r re l a t i v e ly o r i t r e m a i n s s i m il a r t o i ts el f
, S i nc e t h e n .
, ,

t h e re i s n o m a gn e t ic fo rc e t h e re is a l s o no t ru e e l e c t ric c u rr e n t
, .

The re i s a l s o n o flu x o f e ne rgy T ha t i s t he e l e ct ric e n e rgy .

,

i s c onv e rt e d i nto h e a t on t he s p ot .

A c ons id e ra bl e e x t e n s i o n m a y be giv e n t o t his prop e rt y If .

t h e r e b e a c o n d u c t i ng di e l e c t ric i n which t he p e r m i t t ivi t y

v a ri e s fr om pla c e t o pla c e c onta i ni ng a s ta t ic di s t rib u t i on of
,

di s pl a c e m ent t h e n i f t he c ondu c t ivi t y va ry s i m ila rly fro m

, ,

pl ac e to plac e s o t ha t t he t i me c ons t ant c/lc i s t he s a m e e ve ry

,
-

wh ere t he di s pla c e m e nt will s u b s id e e ve rywh ere a lik e wi t hou t

, ,

ma gn et i c forc e or flu x of e ne rgy and wi t h p u r ely l oc a l d i s ,

 3 64 E LEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . N .

t he er i s m a gne t ic forc e It i s i n fa ct d i ffi c u lt t o c onc e ive how

.
, ,

dis pl a c e m e nt i n a h e t e roge ne o u s m e di u m o f m ol e c u l a r c o ns t i
t u t i o n c o u ld be d on e a w a y wi t h wi t h ou t t he g e ne ra t i on o f
m a gn e t ic fo rc e c ons id e ri ng t h a t t he e ne rgy of t he di s pl a ce
,

m e nt i s c onv e r te d i nt o h e a t e ne rgy .

Thi s m a t te r h o we v e r d oe s not b el ong t o the s k ele ton t heory

, ,

o f e l e c t ro m a gn e t i s m b u t i s r a t h e r t o be c o ns id e r e d as a s id e
,

m a t t e r i nv ol vi ng p hy s ic a l hyp ot h e s e s t o a cc ou nt for t he i nflu

e nc e o f m a tt e r u p on t he e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic l a w s .

The La w s of A t t e nua t i on at t he Fr ont of 3. W a v e, du e t o

El e c t r i c a nd M a gne t ic C ondu c t a nc e .

1 96 . B e s ide s b ove s i m pl e l a w s re l a t i ng t o t he s u hs i
t he a

d e n c e o f t h e t ota l fl u x e s ( s om et i m e s t r u e for t he el e m e nt a ry
p a rt s ) t h e re a re e qu a lly s i m pl e l a ws r e l a t i ng t o t he s u b s ide nc e
O f t he fl u x e s a t t h e fr o nt o f a w a v e a d v a nci n g i nt o pr e vi ou s ly

u ndi s t u rb e d p a r ts o f t he m e di u m which s o m e t i m es a d m i t o f ,

e x t e ns i on t o t he b o dy o f t he w a v e To u nd e rs t and t hi s i t m a y
.

be m e nt i one d firs t t h a t t he fro n t of a wa v e i n a non c ond u c t

,
-

ing di e l e c t ric i s a l wa y s p u re t h a t i s t he e l e c t ric a nd m a g ne t ic ,

flu x e s a re i n the w a v e pl a n e a nd a re p e rp e ndicu l a r a nd i n
-
,

cons t a nt ra t i o The b ody O f t he w a v e n e e d not be of t hi s

.

p u r e t yp e O,
w i n g t o t h e ch a n g e o f f o r m o f t h e w a v e fr o n t a nd -

ot h e r c a u s e s ,b u t t he prop e r ty of p u ri t y a l wa y s ch a ra c t e ri s es
the w a v e fr on t
-
. Thi s m ay be di s g u i s e d i n t he c a s e of a t hi n
el e c t ro m a g n e t ic s h e ll whe n i t i s re ga rd e d a s t he front for
, ,

the s h e ll i t s el f m a y b e c o m pl e x Th en t he m e re front O f t he
.

s h e ll m a b e t h e o n ly q u i te p u r e p a r t B ut t a ki n g c ases
y .

fre e fro m t h is c om plic a t i on we s h o u ld n e x t no t e t h a t t he

,

int r od u c t i on o f c o nd u c t ivi t y i nt o t he m e di u m m a k e s no
di ffe renc e i n t he form o f t he w a v e front or i ts p os i t i on a t a -

iv e n s t a g e o f i t s pr o gr e s s pr o v id e d o f c ou r se t h a t t he t wo
g , , ,

qu a nt i t i e s u p on which t he s p e ed o f prop a g a t i on d e p e n d s — t he
ind u c t i v i ty a n d p e r m i t t ivi t y — a re not a l t e r e d N o w a s ha s .
,

be en a lre a dy e x pl a i n e d i n c o nne c t i o n wi t h t h e t h e o ry o f a t hi n
con d u c t i ng pl a t e a s t he w a ve a dv a n c e s t hr o u gh a c o n t i n u o u s l y
,

con d u c t i ng m e di u m i t s su cc e s s i v e l a y e rs a r e b e i n g c o n t i nu o u s ly

su bj e ct e d t o a r e fl e c t i ng proc es s a m i n u t e p o rt i on o f e v e ry
,

l a ye r be i ng t hro wn b a ck whils t t he b u lk i s t ra ns m i tt e d I n
,
.
 TH ORY OF PLAN ELECT ROMAGNE T C WAVES
E E I . 36 5

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t he bod y of a wa v e t he re fore t h e re i s a m ix e d u p s ta t e of
, ,
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t hi n g s . A t t he v e ry fr ont on t he o th e r h a nd t h e re i s no s u c h
, ,

m i x t u re for t he di s t u rb a nc e c o n s i s t s wh olly o f wh a t has b e e n

,

t ra ns m i tt e d o f t he fr on t l a y e r W e m a y t h e r e fore f u lly e x pe c t
.
, ,

t ha t t he la w o f i t s a t t e n u a t i o n i n t r a ns i t i s o f a Si m pl e na t u r e .

TO find i t l o c a lly c o nd e ns e t he c o nd u c ta n c e i nt o t h a t o f
,

an n u m b e r o f e q u a l c o n d u c t i ng pl a t e s L e t an o n e o f t h es e
y y .

pl a t e s a t t e nu a t e a w a v e t ra v ers i ng i t from E t o mE I f .

i ni t i ally p u re i t e m e rge s a p u r e w a ve a nd p a s s e s on t o t he ,

n e x t pl a t e whe re i t s u ffe rs a s e c ond a tt e n u a t i on— v iz t o

,
.
,

n , a nd a g a i n e m e rg e s p u re A t t he t hird pl a t e i t b e c om e s
.

m E a nd s o o n
3
,
The re fl e c t e d po rt i ons we wh olly ig nore a t
.

pre se nt The li m i t o f t hi s p ro c es s wh e n t he pl a t e s a re i n
.
,

fi n i t ely cl os ely p a ck e d a nd O f i nfi ni t e ly s m all c ond u ct a nc e s o ,

a s t o b e c o m e a h o m og e n e o u s di e l e c t ric p o ss es s i ng fi n i t e c on

d u c t i v i t y i s t h a t t he t i m e fa c t o r of a t t enu a t i o n t a k e s t he
,

e x p on e n t i a l fo r m The re s u l t I s .

E = E0 W
( )
3
-
c
e ,

E0 b e i ng i ni t i a l a nd E t he va l u e a t t i m e t The t i m e
t he , .

c on st ant 2 c/k i s j u s t d ou bl e t h a t of t he s u b s id e nc e of t ot al
di s pl a c e m e nt Whil st for e x a m pl e t he t o t a l di s pl a c e m ent i n
.
, ,

a pl a n e wa v e a t t e n u a t e s t o o f i ts i n i t i a l v a l ue t he
s ay
fin; , , ,

di s t u rb a nc e a t t he w a ve front ha s only a tt enu a t e d t o TT; of i ts I

o rigi na l v a l u e .

The pro p e rty ( 3) a ppli es t o t he m a gne t ic as w e ll a s t o t he

e l e c t ric fo rc e a n d fl u x It d oes not a pply m e r e ly t o pl a n e
.

w a v e s bu t t o a ny w a v es b e c au s e the s u p e rficia l l a y e r only i s

, ,

i nvolve d a nd a ny el e m e nt a ry p o rt i on t h e r e of m a y be r e ga rde d
,

a s pl a n e S o i t c om e s a b ou t t h at t he e x p one nt i a l fa c to r gi v e n
.

i n ( 3 ) m a k e s i t s a pp e a ra n c e i n a ll i n v e s t iga t i o ns o f w a ve s i n
e l e c t ric a l c o nd u c t o r s wh e n t h e p e r m i t t ivi t y i s n ot ig no r e d It
i s a m or e f u nd a m e nt a l for mu l a t h a n t h e pr e v i o u s I nc wi t h t he
t i m e c on s ta n t c/k which i s t he fi na l r e s u l t o f t he c o m pl e x p ro
-

c es s of m ixt u re o f re fl e c t e d wa v e s or i s e q u i va l e nt t he re t o , .

The c orr e s p o ndi ng pr o p e rt y i n a m a g ne t ic c o nd u c to r i s t h a t

t he d i s t u rb a n c e a t t he fr o nt o f a w a v e i s a t t e n u a t e d i n t i m e 1:

a cc o rdi ng t o t he t i m e c o n s t a n t 2 p g
/ Th -
us .
,
366 ELECTRO M AGNE TI C TH EO R Y . CH . Iv
.

Hr e e t he t i m e c ons t a nt i s t wice t h at of t he s u b s ide nce of the

-

t o t a l i nd u c t i o n L ike t he for mer form u lae t he se modifi ed

.
,

one s ( 3 ) a nd
, h a ve t h e ir re pres en ta t iv e s i n t he t h eory o f a
t el e gra ph circ u i t in s pi t e of t he a b s e nc e of m a g ne t ic c on
,

du c t a n c e I t i s re pl a c e d by s ome t hin g t ha t pr od u c es a p p roxi

. o

m a t ely t he s a me r e su l t .

In a c o n d u ct o r p os s e s s i ng d u pl e x c on d u c t ivi t y e l e c t ric a nd ,

m a gn e t ic t h e ir a t t e nu a t iv e a c t i o ns a t t he w a v e fr o nt a r e
,
-

ind e p e nd e nt ly c u mu lat i ve or a ddit i ve , The a t te nu a t i on i s

.

e xpr ess e d by

( )
5

I t is re ally t he a tt enu at i v e a c t i ons of a s ingl e c ond u c t i ng pl a t e

t h a t a re a ddi t iv e This a ppli e s se pa r a t ely t o e ve ry su cc es s i ve
.

t hi n c on d u c t i ng l a y e r t hr o u gh which t he fr o nt of t he w a v e
ru ns wi t h t he r es u l t
,
wh e re t he t i m e fa c t or i s t he prod u c t
-

O f t he t wo fo r m e r t i m e fa c t o r s of ( 3) a n d
-

I n t he t h e ory o f c o il s a nd c o nd e nse r s not o nly d o we m e e t ,

wi t h t he t i m e c ons t a nt s L /R a nd S / K t he ra t i os o f i nd u c t a n c e
-
,

to r e s i s t a n c e a n d O f p e r m i t t a nc e t o c ond u c t a n c e b u t a l so wi t h ,

t he d o u bl e v a l u es Th e ir u l t im a t e origi n m a y b e t ra c e d i n t he
.

t h e o ry o f t h e e ffe ct o f a t hi n c ond u c t i ng pl a t e u p o n a wa v e .

The e xp o ne nt i a l t i m e fa c t ors c on c e r ne d i n ( 3 ) a nd
-
a nd

the m ore c o m pl e x one i n a l so m a k e t h e ir a p p e a ra nc e i n

co nne c t i on wi t h t he di st u rb a n c e i n t he b ody o f a w a v e t h o u gh ,

in a l e ss s i mpl e m a nn er Th is will b e re t u rne d t o

. .

The S i mp l e Pr op a ga t i on of W a v es i n a. Di s t ort i onl es s

C ond u c t i ng M e d i u m .

§ 1 97 . C o m i ng i
now n fl u e n c e o f c ond u c t ivi t y o n a
t o t he
wa ve e l s e whe re t h a n a t i t s e x t re m e front wh e re we ha ve ,

re c o gn i s e d t h a t t he i n fl u e n c e i s s i m ply a t t e nu a t i v e t he e a s i es t ,

wa y of t r e a t i ng t he m a t t e r i s not t o p as s fr o m t he kn o w n t o
t he u nk no w n b u t t o r e v e rs e t he pro c e s s a n d pick ou t t he
,

ca se s which t h e ory i ndic a t e s a r e m os t re a dily u nde rs t a n d a bl e .

This i s t o be d one by a pro c ess o f g e ne ra li s a t ion The t h eo ry .

of a c o n d u c t o r wi t h d u pl e x c o nd u c t ivi t y i s i n a c e r t a i n c a s e
, ,

fa r s i m pl e r t h a n t h a t of a r e a l e l e c t ric c o nd u c t o r W e ha ve .

a lr e a dy m e n t i one d t h a t t h e r e fl e c t iv e a c t i o n s o f t wo pl a t e s ,

o ne a n e l e c t ric t he o t h e r a m a g ne t i c con d u c t o r a re o f Opp o

, ,
3 68 L C TROMAGNET I C THEORY
E E . CH . Iv .

a cc om p a nying di s t o rt i on N e v e r th el e s s i t s c ons id e ra t i on w ou ld
.
,

p os s e ss only a t h e or e tic a l v a l u e on a cc o u n t o f t he non e xi s t e nce

,
-

of t he s e c o n d ki n d o f c o n d u c t ivi t y i n v olv e d w e r e i t n o t fo r t he ,

re m a rk a bl e pra c t ic a l i m i t a t i on of t he di s t o r t i onl e s s s t a te of
t hi n g s which i s pr e s e nt e d i n t h e t h e o ry o f t e l e ph o n e a nd o t h e r
circ u i t s u nd e r c e rt a i n circ u m s t a n c e s I f we a b oli s h t he fic ti .

t i o u s m a gn e t ic c on d u c t ivi t y t hr o u gh o u t t h e m e di u m t r a v e r s e d
by t he w a v e s we s h ou ld t o ha v e di s t o r t i onl e s s t ra ns m i s s i o n
, , ,

a l s o a b o li s h t h e e l e c t ric c ond u c t i v i t y Thi s i s only t o be .

a tt ai ne d by u s i n g wire s o f n o r e s i s t a n c e t o g u id e t he w a v e s

t hr ou gh a n on c o nd u c t i n g m e di u m
-
B ut t h e y h a v e r e s i s t a nc e
.
,

o f gre a t e r or l e s s e r i m p o rt a n c e a cc o rdi n g t o circ u m s t a n c es Of .

wh a t na t u re t he n i s t he di s t or t i on o f w a v e s pr od u c e d by t he
, ,

re s i s t a n c e o f a wire a l o ng which t h e y r u n ? The a ns w e r i s ,

t h a t i t i s a ppr o x i m a t e ly o f t h e ki n d d u e t o m a g n e t ic c on
d u c t i v i t y i n t he m e di u m g e n e ra lly O n t h e o t h e r h a nd.
,

t he di ffe r e nt ki nd o f di s t o r t i on d u e t o e l e c t ric on d u c c

t i v i t y i n t he m e di u m g e n e ra ll y r e m a i ns i n a c ti o n b e i ng ,

t he e ff e c t of t h e l e a k a g e c o nd u c t a n c e o f
-
t he i n s u l a t i n g
m e di u m s u rr o u n di n g t he wir e o r t he a v e ra g e e ffe c t o f o t he r
,

ki nd s of l e a k a g e a t di s t i n c t a nd s e p a ra t e s p o t s a l ong t he
circ u i t Th u s we obta i n a n a pprox i m a t e re pr od u c t i on of t he
.

t h e o ry o f m a gn e t ic c o nd u c t ivi t y a c t i n g t o n e u t r a li se t he
di s t or t i ng e ffe c t of e l e c t ric c ond u c t ivi t y The t i m e c ons t a nt s .
-

u
, /g a n d c
/lc b e c o m e L /R a n d S / K i n a t e l e gr a ph circ u i t ,

L be ing i nd u c ta n c e R res i s ta nc e S p e rm i t ta nc e a nd K
, , ,

l ea k a g e c ond u c t a n c e Th e ir e q u ali s a t i on pro d u c es t he d i s t or

-
.

t i o nle s s circ u i t which m a y t u r n u p a g a i n l a t e r on

, I n t he .

m e a nt i m e I m a y r e m a rk t h a t i f t he r e a d e r wi s h e s t o u nd e r
s t a n d t h es e t hi ngs he m u s t g i v e u p a ny a n ci e n t pre j u dic e s he
,

m a y b e e n a m ou r e d o f a b o u t a K R la w a nd t he c on s e q u e n t
“ ”

i m p o s s ibili t y of t el e ph oni ng wh e n K R i s o v e r “ ”

Wh e n p oi nt i ng ou t i n 1 8 8 7 t he t r u e na t u re o f t he t e l e phon ic
, ,

pr obl e m a nd t he a b s u rdi t y O f t he K R la w a ppli e d t h e re t o

“ ” '

ge n e ra lly I pre dic t e d t he p os s ibili t y of t e l e ph o ni ng w i t h

,

s e v e ra l t i m e s a s gr e a t I t ha s s i n c e b e e n d o n e
”
KR . In .

A m e ric a o f c o u rs e
,
A s h o r t t i m e s i nc e i n n o t ici ng t he K R
.
,

re a che d by t he Ne w Yo rk C hic a go c irc u i t I fu r t he r p re

-
,

dic t e d t ha t i t wou ld go u p a lo t m ore It did v e ry s hor tly a ft e r . .

The r e c ord i s n o w a b ou t ( B os t o n C hic a g o

) f o r pr a c t ic a l
-
 TH EORY OE PLA N E EL ECT ROMAGNE T I C WAV S E . 3 69

wo rk I b eli e ve It m e a ns a good d ea l
,
. m ore for p os s ibl e w ork .

Bu t t h e re i s n o n e e d t o s t o p a t Th a t c a n be l a rg e ly

e xc ee d e d i n a n e n t e rpris i ng c ou nt ry .

The Tr a ns forma t i on by C ondu c t a nc e of a n El as t i c W av e to

a W ave of Diff u s i on. G e nera t i on of Ta il s . Di t inct

s

Effe c t s of El e ct ri c a nd M a gnet i c C ond u c ta nc e .

§1 98 . We ar e p r
no we p a r e d t o s om e wh a t u n d e r s ta n d t he

na t u re o f t he ch a ng es s u ffe r e d by e l e c tro m a g ne t ic w a v es I n

t ra ns i t t hr ou gh a c on d u c t i ng m e di u m I t b e i ng t he di s t ort i on
.

d u e t o t he c ond u c ta n ce a l one t ha t i s in q u e s t i on w e e li m i na t e ,

tha t d u e t o ot h e r c au s e s by choos i ng pl a ne wa ves for e xa m i na

t i on s i n c e t h es e do not s u ffe r a ny di s t o r t i on i n a h om og e ne ou s
,

di e l e c t ric whe n i t i s non condu c t i ng I ma gine t he n a s i m pl e

-
.
, ,

e l e c t r o m a gnet ic pl a ne w a v e s h e e t o f s ma ll d e p t h t o be r u nn i ng
-

t hrou gh a di e l e c t ric a t t he n a t u r a l s p e e d c ondi t i one d by i t s

ind u ct i vit y a nd permi t t i v it y A t a ny s ta ge of i ts progres s le t
.
,

t he m e di u m b e c om e s ligh t ly e l e c t ric ally c ond u c t i ng a ll o v e r ,

no t m e r e ly i n a d va nce o f t he w a v e b u t b e hi nd i t as w ell for a ,

re as on t h at will pres e ntly a pp ea r Wh at ha pp e ns t o t he wa v e

.

no w t h a t t he fres h in fl u enc e i s in o p e ra t i on ?

A p a r t of t he a ns we r we c an gi v e a t onc e by t he p re ,

v ions The wav e shee t will mov e on j u s t as be fore bu t will

.
,

a t t e nu a t e a s i t g o e s a cc ordi ng t o t h e t i m e fa c t o r
, S inc e
-

we s u pp os e t he c ond u c t i vi t y t o be s ligh t i t foll o ws t ha t a grea t

,

di s ta nce ma y be t ra v e rs e d b e fore t he re i s nota ble a t te nu at ion .

W e a l s o kno w t h a t t he t ota l i nd u c t i on r em a i ns c ons t a nt .

The r es t o f i t — th a t i s wh a t i s n ot i n t he s h e e t a t a ny mome nt
,

— i s t h e re fo re l e ft b e hi n d The r ej e c t i ng pr oc e s s c om me nc es t he
.

m om e nt t he c ond u c t i vi t y i s i nt rod u c e d a nd c ont i nu e s t o a c t

,

u nt il t he pl a ne w a v e is a t t e nu a t e d t o n o t hi ng The re j e c t e d .

r t i r a v e l b a ckw a rd s B u t t h e y a re t h e m s e l v e s s u b e c t
p o on s t .
j
t o t he s a m e l a w s as t he m a i n pl a ne w a v e a nd s o ge t m ixe d u , p .

The res u l t i s t h a t a t t i me t a ft e r t he i nt ro d u c t i o n o f t he c on
d u c t i v i t y t he wh ol e regi on of di s t u rb a nc e e x t e nd s o ve r t he
,

di s ta nc e 2 m h a lf to t he righ t a nd h al f to t he l e ft O f t he
,

i n it i a l p os i t i o n A t t he a d va nci ng righ t e nd we ha ve a s t rong

.
37 0 ELECT ROMAGNE TI C T H EORY . CH . IV .

mis u nde rs t a ndi ng re fe r to t he m as t he he a d a nd t he t a il wi t h ,

o u t a ny bo dy t o c om p lic a t e m a t te rs No w t he n a t u re o f t he .

t a il i s q u i te di ffe re nt as r e ga rd s t he di s pl a c e m e nt a nd t he .

i nd u c t i on I t i s t he re fore c on ve ni e nt t o re ga rd o ne of t h e m
.

a l on e i n t he fi rs t pl a c e a nd o f c ou rs e we s e l e c t t he i nd u c t i o n
, , , ,

on a cco u n t o f t he s i m pl e pro p e rt y o f p e rs i s t e nc e t h a t i t

p os sess es W e ca n d is ti ng u i s h t hre e or fo u r di ffe re nt s t a g e s i n

.

i t s de v e l o pm e nt .

The fi rs t s t a g e i s wh en t he a t t e nu a t io n o f t he h e a d i s no t
g r e a t s a,y whil s t t h
, e h e a d d e cre as e s fro m 1 t o 0 7 5 Whil st .

t hi s o cc u rs t he t o t a l i nd u c t i on i n t he t a il ri s e s fr om 0 t o 0 2 5
, .

The t a il i s l o ng a nd t hi n a nd t a p e rs t o a p o in t a t i t s e x t r e m e
,

e nd o r t i p a t di s t a nc e 2 v t b e hi n d t he h e a d a nd i s t hick e s t
, , ,

wh e re i t j oi ns on t o t he h ea d
,
.

The s e c o nd s t a g e ro u gh ly b e lo ng s t o t he p e ri o d d u ri n g which
t he h e a d f u r t h e r a t t e nu a t e s fro m 5 to 0 5 o r 0 4 The to t a l .

i nd u c tion i n t he ta il t he n I ncre a s e s fro m 0 2 5 t o 0 5 or 0 6 .

D u ring t hi s s t a g e we find t h a t t he t a il which has of c ou rs e , , ,

gre a t ly i ncreas e d in l eng t h d oes n o t g o on i ncre as i ng i n t hick

,

n es s at t he pl a c e wh e re i t i s d e v e l o p e d b u t s t o p s i ncr ea s i ng ,

a nd s h o ws a m a xi mu m a t or n e a r t h a t pl a c e .

The t hird s t a g e occ u rs d u ri ng t he fu r th e r a t t e nu a t i on of t he

h ea d to s ay ,
whil s t t he t ot a l i nd u c t i on i n t he t a il i ncre as e s t o
,

0 9 The ma xi m u m t hick nes s o f t he ta il i s n o wa l ong wa y from

.

t he h e a d a nd a t t he e nd o f t he s t a g e i s n ea r e r t o t he m iddl e t ha n
,

t o t he h ea d O f c ou rs e s i nc e t he h e a d i t s e l f i s n o w s o s m a ll
.
, ,

t he a ddi t io ns m a d e t o t he t a il m u s t a l s o b e c om e s m a ll e r .

The fou r th s t a ge i s wh e n t he h e a d pra c t ic a lly di s a pp e a rs

a nd a ll t he i nd u c t i on i s i n t he t a il The m a xi mu m t hick ne ss .

i s now ne a rly i n t he middl e — o u t he righ t s ide h o we v e r— a nd ,

t he t a il i s nea rly s y mme t ric a l wi t h r e s p e c t t o i t s m iddl e wh e re ,

t h e r e is a s we lli ng b e yond which t he t a il t a p e rs o ff b ot h wa y s

,

t o i t s t wo t ip s *
.

The fi na l s ta t e i s t he c ons u m m a t i on o f t he pre v i ou s a n d i s ,

o ne o f pe rfe c t s y m m e t ry wi t h re s p e c t t o t he m iddl e o f t he t a il ,

which i s s i t u a t e d e x a ct ly wh e re t he pl a ne wa v e was wh e n t he
A s t he divi i s on i n to d i ti t t g i m wh t abi t y thi d ip
s nc s a es s so e a r rar ,
s e s cr

t i on of t he t r a n s i t i o n f m
ro l t i t d iff i
a n e as v h ld b d
c o a u s on wa e s ou e un er

s t oo d to be on ly ro u ghl y pp im t
a It i m d
rox
p t f m th
a e . s a e u ,
no ro e

fo r mu la , b u t by a. n u m e r i ca l p r oc e s s of m i x tu r e .
37 2 E LECTR OMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

(
or a ma x i mu m a nd a m i ni mu m )
d is pla c e m ent Tofhi s ma
y .

be rea dily u nd e rs t oo d by c ons id e ri ng tha t i n t he e xpre s s i o n fo r

the t ru e e l ec tric c u rre nt IcE + cE t he se c ond t e r m fi na lly b e
, ,

co mes a s m all fra c t i on o f t he fi r s t o r t he c u rr ent i s pra c t ic a lly

,

t he c ond u c tio n c u rrent o nly

-
Th e n E a nd t h ere fo re t he d is
.
,

pl a c e ment i s pr o po r t ional t o t he s pa c e va ri at i on of t he i nd u c
,
-

t i on . O wi ng t o t he t a il b e i ng m a d e u p o f a c o m p li c a t e d m ix
t u re of i nfi ni t e s i ma l e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic wa v es g o i ng b ot h w a y s ,

we l os e s ight of t he f u nd a m e nt a l pro p e r ty o f e l a s t ic w a v e p r o -

'
t i n i n a di e l e c t ric t he r e s u l t a nt e fle c t b e i ng pr o p a g a t i o n
p ga a o ,

by di ffus i on no w o r v e ry nea rly s o

,
The a pproxi ma t ion t o t hi s
.

re s u l t i s cl oses t i n t he m iddl e o f t he t a il A t t he t ip s on t he.

,

ot h e r h and , we s t ill h a ve e l as t i c w a v e s bu t of c o u rs e o f , , ,

i ns e ns ibl e s t re ng th .

Now s u pp os e t h a t t he i ni t i a l s t a t e i s one o f i nd u c t i on o nly

, ,

t hou gh s t ill i n a pl a ne s h e e t I t m a y b e r e g a rd e d a s t he c o i n
.

c i de nce o f t wo pl a ne e l e c t r o ma g ne t ic s h ee t s o f h a l f t he s t re ng t h ,

wi t h s i mi la r i nd u c t i ons a nd o pp os i t e di s pl a c e m e nts The s u b .

s e q u e nt hi s t ory m a y t h e re fo r e be d e d u c e d fro m t he pre c e di ng

, , .

The i ni t i a l i nd u c t i on s pli t s i nt o t wo ha l v es of which o ne mov es ,

t o t he righ t a t s p e e d c a nd t he o th e r to t he l e ft
, The hi s t ory .

o f t he fi rs t w a v e a s di s t or t e d by t he c ond u c t a nc e has be e n

g i v e n . T h a t o f t h e se c o nd w a v e i s t he s a me i f we a ll o w fo r ,

t he ch ang e d dire c ti o n o f m ot i on a nd s e nse o f t he di s pl a c e m e nt .

S O we h a ve only t o s u p e rp ose t he t wo s y s t e m s t o s h o w ho w a n
i ni ti a l di s t rib u t i on of i nd u c t i on i n a pl a ne s hee t s plits a nd
S pre a ds , a nd t he a cc om p a nyi ng el e c t ric di s pl a c e me nt We .

h a ve t wo e qu a l h ea ds s e p a ra t i ng from one a not h er a t s p e ed

,

whilst t he t wo ta ils u ni te t o ma ke a s t ou ter ki nd of ta il

( r e fe r ri n
g t o t h e i n d u c t i on) j o i ni ng t he t wo h ea d s T hi s t a il .

i s a l wa y s t hick es t i n t he m iddl e In fa c t t he di s t rib u t i ons o f

.
,

i nd uct ion a nd dis pla ce ment a re sy mme tric al wi t h re s p e c t t o

t he i ni t i a l p osi t i on fro m t he firs t moment I n t he fina l s t a t e .

t h a t i s te nd e d t o whe n t he t a il s h a v e v ani s h e d , t he i nd u c t i on
,

i s di s t rib u t e d i n t he s a m e way a s i n t he for me r c as e i n s pi te ,

of t he re ma rk a bl e di ff e re nc e i n t he i ni t i a l ph e no m e na .

I f a g a in the i ni t i a l s t a te i s one of di s pl a c e m ent a l one i n a

, ,

pl ane s he et t hi s ge ne ra t es t wo opp os i t ely t ra v elli ng e le c t ro

,
-

m a gne t ic w a v es i n wh i ch t he di s p la c e me nt s a re s i mil a r a nd t he
i nd uc t ions a re oppos i t e The res u l t i s t h e re fo re t o be go t by
.
 T H ORY OF PLANE ELECTROMA N E C WAVES
E G TI . 373

co m bi ni ng t he pr e vi ou s s ol u t i on for a w a ve of pos i t i ve i nd u c
t i on a nd dis pl a c e me nt m o vi ng t o t he righ t wi t h a s i m il a r w a v e ,

o f ne g a t iv e i nd u c t i o n a nd p o s i t i ve di s pl a c e m e nt m o vi ng t o t he

l e ft
.

Wha te ve r be t he m a g ni t u d e o f t he c ond u c t ivi t y i f fi ni t e t he , ,

s a m e ph e no m e na o cc u r d u ri ng t h e c o nv e r s i o n o f e l a s t ic w a v e s

to di ff us i on w a v e s a nd t h e y m ay be re pre s e nt e d by t he s a m e d ia
,

g r a m s i f s u i t a bly a l t e re d i n t he r e l a t iv e s c a l e o f o rd i na t e s a n d
,

a bs c is s ee . B u t by i n cr e as i ng t he c o nd u c t ivi t y fro m t he s m a ll
va l u e which m a k e s t he a bo ve d e s c rib ed pro ce ss t a ke pla ce ov e r -

a c o n s id e r a bl e i n te rv a l o f t i me w e m a k e i t o cc u r i n a s m a l l ,

i n te r va l only ; a nd wh en we c om e t o wh a t a re u s u a lly c o n
s i d er ed g oo d c o nd u c t o rs v iz m e t a l s t h e n t he i nt e r va l o f t i m e
,
.
, ,

is s o s m all t ha t we m a y s ay pra c t ic ally t h a t t he h e a d s v a ni s h

a l m os t a t Onc e a nd b e fo re t h e pr o p a g a t i o n has pr o c e e d e d a ny
,

no t a bl e di s t a n c e The re s t o f t he s t o ry i s t he s pre a di ng by
.

di ffu s i on or m ix t u re Th u s w e h a ve a n i mpor ta nt pra c t ic a l

.

d is t i nc t io n b e t we e n the v e ry goo d a nd t he v e ry ba d c ond u c t or ,

a s r e g a rd s t he m a nn e r o f pr o p a g a t i on o f i nd u c t i o n I n t he .

fo r m e r t he e l e c t r i c di s pl a c e m e nt i s o f no a cc o u nt h a rdly ,

e xc e p t p e rh a p s fo r v e ry s h o r t w a v e s a nd t he pr a c t ic a l t h eo ry ,

i s t he t h e o ry o f d i ff u s i on A t t he o t h e r e x t re me a re p e rfe c t
.

no n c on d u c t o rs i n which t he pro p a g a t i o n i s e nt ir e ly by e l as t ic
-

wa v es B e t we en t he t wo we h a ve i n bad c o nd u c t o rs a m ix
.
, ,

t u r e o f t he t wo ki nd s t h o u gh wi t h a c onti n u o u s t ra ns i t i on
,

fr o m o ne ki nd t o t he o t h e r The m a t h e m a tica l t r e a tm e nt o f
.

e l as t ic w a v es i s t he e a s i e s t The ne x t in o rd e r o f di ffic u l t y a re
.

t he w a v e s o f p u r e d i ffu s i on by t he o rdi na ry Fou ri e r m a t h e

,

m a t i cs . The m o s t t rou bl esom e a re t he i nt e rm e di a te for ms o f

ch a ngi ng t yp e a nd t he fu ll a na ly t ica l re s u l t s a re b es t got by
,

a g e n e r a li s e d c a lc u l u s B u t t he ge ne ra l na t u re of t he r e s u l ts
.

ma y b e o b t a i ne d a ppr oxi ma t ely by e as y nu m e ri ca l c a lc u l a t i o ns ,

wi t h di a gra mm a t ica l as s i s t a nc e T hi s is e xpl a i na bl e wi t h ou t .

di fii c u lt y a nd m ay be e nt e re d u p on l a t e r on wh e n We c o m e t o
, ,

det a il e d probl e m s .

In t he a b o v e t he c ond u c t ivi t y has b e e n e l e c tric o nly a n d ,

we h a v e se e n t h a t t h e re i s a g re a t di ff e re nc e b e t we e n i t s e ff e c t s
on th e e l e c t ric a nd o n t h e m a g ne t ic fl u x which a ri s e s fro m t he ,

pos i t i ve re fle c t io n a nd p e rs i s te nce o f t he l a t t e r a nd t he ne ga ,
37 4 E LEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

p onding e ffe c ts i n a m agnet ic c o nd u c t o r m ay be rea dily

d ed u ce d by the prop e r t ra ns form a ti ons a nd e xhibi t an al ogo u s ,

di ffe rences Th u s s ta rt i ng wi t h a p u re pl a ne wa ve s h ee t
.
,

m ov i ng t o t he righ t i t i s no w t he di s pl a c e m e nt t h a t i s c o n
,

s e rv e d a nd di v id e d b e t w e e n t he h ea d a nd t a il b e i ng i ni t i a lly a ll ,

i n t he h ea d a nd fi na lly a ll i n t he t a il
,
O n t he o t h e r h a nd t he
.
,

ind u c t i on i s ne g a t iv e i n t he t a il a t firs t a nd u nt il t he a t te nu a
t i on o f t he h ea d i s c ons id e ra bl e A f te r t hi s t he r e gi on of p os i
.
,

t i v e i nd u c t i on e x t e nd s fr o m t he h e a d i nto t he ta il As t i me .

goe s on a nd t he h ea d dis a pp ea rs we ha v e ne ga t i ve i nd u c t i on
, ,

i n o ne h a l f a nd p os i t i ve i n t he o t h e r ( fo rw a rd ) h a l f whil s t t he ,

dis pla ce m ent is p os i t i ve all a l o ng i t wi t h i t s m a xi mu m ne arly

,

i n t he middl e In t he fi na l s ta te o f di ffu s i on we h a v e s y mm e t ry
.

wit h res p e c t t o t he i nit i al p os i t i on o f t he wa ve a nd t he i nd u c ,

t i on is prop or t i ona l t o t he s p a c e v a ria t i on of t he di s pl a c e m e nt

-
.

The s e cond te rm of t he m a g net ic c u rr e nt gH + p H i s t h e n a

s m al l fra c t i o n o f t he fi rs t t e r m .

No w i n t he m e di u m wi t h d u pl e x c ond u c t i v i t y w e m u s t ta k e
,

t he di s t o rt i onl e s s co ndi t i on fo r t he s t and a rd s ta t e Whe n t hi s .

Ob ta i ns t h e re i s no t a iling a l th ou gh t he he a d ( d i s pl a c e m ent a nd
,

i nd u c t i on t og e t h e r) a t te nu a te s a cc o rdi ng t o t he t i m e fa c t o r e M -
-
"
.

B u t i f t he e l e c t ric c ond u c t i v i ty be i n e x c e s s ( t h a t i s gr e a t e r t h a n ,

i s re qu ire d t o ma k e th e re i s t a ili ng o f t he ki nd d e
s cribe d as d u e t o e l e c t ric c o nd u c t ivi t y wi th t he i nd u c t i o n p o s i
,

t i ve a nd t he di s pl a c e m e nt ne g a t i ve i n t he t a il a t fir s t A nd i f .

t he m a g ne t ic c ond u c t i v i ty i s i n e xc e s s t he t a ili ng i s o f t he,

o t h e r ki nd wi t h p os i t iv e di s pl a c e m e n t a nd ne g a t i v e i nd u c t i o n
,

a t firs t . B u t of c ou rs e t he d e ta il s a re not t he s a m e b e c a u s e ,

bo t h t he fl u xes now a tt e nu ate to zero i n t i me i n t he ta il as w ell ,

as i n t he hea d .

A p p li ca t i on t o W av es al ong S tra i ght W i re s .

§ 1 99 . W e mu st d vou r t o gi ve a g ene ra l id e a o f
no w e n e a

t he t a ili ng o f w a ves wh e n t h e y r u n a l ong c ond u c t i ng wir e s i n

,

c c o rdi na t i o n wi t h t he pre v i o u s
-
I n t he fi rs t pl a c e o b s e r ve
.
,

t h a t a l t h o u gh t he li nes of e l e c t ric a nd m a g ne t ic forc e i n a p u r e

e l e c t r om a g ne t ic s h ee t i n e t h e r m u s t b e a l wa y s p e rp e n d i c u l a r t o

o n e a no th e r y e t t h e y n e e d n o t be s tr a igh t li ne s e x c e p t i n t h e ir
, ,

e l e me nt a ry p ar ts O n t he c ontra ry we m a y h a v e a n i nfi ni t e
.
,
0
3 76 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C TII EO R Y . CH . IV .

or m ag ne t ic c ond u c t ors pro vi d e d we ha v e t he di s pl a ce m en t

,

t e r m i na t i ng u p on t h e m i n t he fi rs t c a s e a nd t he i nd u c t i on i n
t he s e c o n d .

A g a i n i f t h e m e di u m i s ma g ne t ic a lly c on d u c t i ve t h e t h e o ry
, ,

s t ill h o ld s g o o d w i t h t he s a m e r e s e r v a t i o n s as
,
r e g a rd s t e r m i
n a t i ng t he fl u x es B u t no w t he di s t o r t i on i s o f t he o t h e r ki nd
.
,

w i t h p e r s i s t e n c e o f t he di s pl a c e m e nt a nd s u b s id e n c e o f t he
i nd u c t i on .

F i na lly t he t h e ory i s s t ill t r u e wh e n t he me di u m i s a d u pl e x

,

c ond u c to r whils t t he t u be s a r e e i t h e r p e r fe c t e l e c t ric or m a g

,

n e t ic c on d u c t o r s a cc o rdi ng t o ch o ic e
,
The di s t o r t i on i s n o w
.

o f t he e l e c t ric o r o f t h e m a g ne t ic ki nd a cc o rdi ng a s Ic c i s
, /
grea t e r o r l e s s th a n g/p .

B u t n ot o ne o f t h e s e c as e s i s q u i t e wha t we w a nt t o r e pro
s e nt pr o p a g a t i o n a l ong r e a l wir e s The ne a res t a p p r oa ch i s
'

the c as e o f fi n i t e el e c t ric c o n d u c t ivi t y i n t he m e di u m c o m bi ne d

wi t h p e rfe c t e l e c tric c ond u c ta nc e of the t u b es I f we m a k e .

th e ir c ond u c t a n c e b e i m p e r fe c t we t h e n c om e cl o s e t o t he r e a l
,

pr obl e m N o w wh e n w e d o t hi s t he t h eory wh en d one p re

.
, ,

c i s el
y,
b e c o m es e xc e s s iv e ly di ffi c u l t fo r t wo r e as o ns, F irst .
,

t he w a v e s i n t he e t h e r o u t s id e t he t u b e s ar e n o l o ng e r p la ne ;
a nd ne x t ,
t h e p e ne t r a t i o n o f t he di s t u rb a n c es i n t o t he s u b
s tan c e o f t he t u b es i n t i m e by m e a n s o f cyli nd ric a l w a v e s ha s

t o b e a ll o w e d for The l a t t e r i s o f c o u rs e m o re n e c e s s a ry
.
, ,

wh e n s olid wires a re i n q u e s t i o n A pra c t ic a l w o rki ng t h e o ry

.

is se e m i ngly i mp os s ibl e o f a t t a i n m e nt by s t ric t ly a dh e ri ng t o t he

a c t u a l c o nd i t i o n s . B u t on e i s p os s ibl e by t a ki n g a dv a n t a g e o f
the fa c t t h a t t he w a v e s i n t he e t h e r a r e v e ry ne a rly pl a ne u nd e r
o rdi na ry circ u m s t a nc e s O f t hi s we m ay a s s u re o u rs e l ves
.

by c ons id e ri ng t h a t t he t angent i a l c om p on ent o f t he e l e c t ric

fo rc e a t t he s u rfa c e o f a wir e ( u p o n which t he p ene t ra t i on
d e p e nd s ) i s u s u a lly a v e ry s m a ll fra c t io n o f t he n o r m a l c om
p on ent o f t he s a m e o u ts id e i t The pra c t ic a l c ou rs e t he n i s
.
, ,

t o t r ea t t he w a v e s i n t he di e l e c t ric a s i f t h e y w e re q u i t e pl a ne .

Thi s d oe s not pre v e nt o u r a ll o wi ng for t he di s tor t i ng e ffe ct of

t he r es i s t a n c e o f t he wir e s I t ha s t h e e ffe c t o f m a ki ng o u r
.

sol u t i o ns a ppr oxi m a t e i ns t e a d O f c o m pl e t e B u t t he i m p o rt a n t

.

t hi ng i s t o h a v e a t h e o ry t h a t w hil s t s u ffi ci e nt ly a cc u r a t e i s
, ,

pra c t ic ally w o rk a bl e a n d h a r moni s e s wi t h m o re r u di m e nt a ry

,

t he o ri e s
. Thi s i s pr e ci s ely w ha t w e do ge t as d on e by m e i n ,
 THEORY OF PLANE ELEC T ROMAGNET I C WAVES . 37 7

1 8 86 . The t h eo ry i s bro u ght t o s u ch a for m t ha t we m a y

e m pl o y i t i n s e v e ra l w a s a cc o rdi ng a s circ u m s t a n c e s a ll o w u s
‘

y ,

t o ignore t hi s or t h a t i nfl u e n c e d W e m a y for e x a m pl e t r e a t , ,

t he wire s a s m e re r e s i s t a nc es c ons t a nt a n d t hi s i s q u i t e s u fli
( ) ,

ci e nt i n a v a ri e ty o f a pplic a t i on s Or u s i ng t he s a m e e q u a t i ons
.
,

wi t h m ore ge ne ra l m e a ni ngs a t t a ch e d t o t he s ym b ol s w e m a y ,

find t he e ffe c t s d u e t o t he i m p e rfe c t p e ne t ra t i on o f t he m a g

ne t ic i nd u c t i o n a nd e l e c t ric c u rr e n t i nt o t he wire s wh e n s u b .

j e c t e d t o v a ryi ng f o rc es a t t h e ir b ou n da ri e s e i t h e r, s i m pl e
h a r m on ica lly or ot he rwi s e F u rt h e rmore t he t h e ory i s i n s u ch
’

.
,

a fo r m t h a t i t a d m i t s r e a dily a n d wi t h o u t ch a ng e o f t he i nt r o

d u c ti o n o f t e r m i na l or i nt e r m e di a t e c o ndi t i o ns o f t he ki nd t h a t
o cc u r i n pra c t ic e wh o s e e ffe c t s a r e bro u gh t i n a cc o rdi ng t o t he
,

u s u a l e q u a t i o n s O f v o l ta g e a nd c u rr e nt i n a rra ng e m e n t s of

a pp a r a t u s .

Wh a t we a r e i mm e di a t e ly c o nce rne d wi t h h e r e h o we v e r i s , ,

t he c onn e c t i on b e t w e e n t hi s t h e o ry a nd t he g e n e r a l t h e o ry of

wa ve s i n a m edi u m o f d u pl e x c ond u c tivi ty Whe n t he t u b es .

a r e s o t hi n t ha t p e n e t r a t i o n i s pra c t ic a lly i ns t a nt a neo u s

( for

t he w a v e l eng t h c o nc e r n e d ) a c ons t a n t r a t i o i s fi x e d ( a s s i s t e d
-
,

by Oh m s la w) b e t we e n t he i nt e n s i t i e s o f m a g ne t ic a nd of ta n
’

g e n t i a l e l e c t ric fo rc e a t t he b o u nd a ry o f t he t u b e wh e r e i t ,

m ee t s t he di e l e c t ric . A nd wh e n we i nc orp ora t e t hi s r e s u l t i n

the s e c on d circ u i t a l la w a ppli e d t o a ny s e c t i o n o f t he ci rc u i t
fo r m e d by t he p a ra ll e l t u be s w e find t h a t t he re s u l t i s t o t u r n
,

it t o t he for m e xpre s s i ng t he e x i s te n c e o f m a gn e t ic co nd u c t ivi t y

”

in t he o u t e r m e di u m wi th o u t r e s i s t a nc e i n t h e wire s
, Tha t is
.
,

the r es i s ta n c e o f t he wire s ha s t he s a m e e ffe c t i n d i s t o rt i ng

a nd di s s ip a t i ng the w a v e s o u t s id e a s t he fic t i t i ou s m a g ne t i c

c ond u c t i v it y i n t he m e di u m g enera lly This i s t ru e i n t he

.

firs t a nd m ost i m p ort ant a pproxi m a t i on t o t he c o mpl e te t h eory .

It i s a p o i nt t h a t i s n ot a l to g e t h e r e a s y t o u nd e rs ta nd b e c a u s e ,

the m a gne t ic c on d u c t i v i ty i s fic t i t i ou s wh e r e as I he r es i s ta nc e
,
378 ELECTROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

Tra ns forma ti on of Vari a bl e s from El e ct ri c and M a gnet i c

Forc e t o Vol t a ge a nd G au ss a ge .

2 00 . con s id e ra t i on of the t ra ns m i s s i on of wa v e s
I n t he
a l o ng wire s e s p e ci a lly o f c o u rs e i n pra c t ica l c a lc u l a t i o ns i t i s
, , , ,

m o re c onv e ni e nt t o e m pl oy t he li ne i nt e gra l s o f t he e le c t ric a nd -

m ag n e t ic fo rc e s as v a ri a bl e s ra t h e r t h an t h e s e fo rc e s t h e m
s e lv e s .This t ra ns fo rma t i on O f v a ri a bl e s i n volv e s o t h e r ne c e s
s a ry t ra ns fo r m a t i on s a nd t he con ne c t i o n b e t w e e n t he o ld
,

q u a nt i t ie s s u i t a bl e for wa ves i n ge ne ral a nd t he ne w s ho u ld

, , ,

be t h o ro u ghly u nd e rs t o od if s o m e t hi ng m ore t h a n a su p e r,

fic ia l kno wl e dg e o f t he s u bj e c t he d e s ire d .

Thu s c o mm e nci ng wi t h a circu it c o ns i s t i ng o f a p a ir o f

,

p a rall e l s t ra igh t c ond u c t i ng t u b e s o f n o re s i s t a nc e i n t he fi rs t ,

pl a c e t a k e for r e fe re n c e a ny pla ne which cro s s e s t he t u b e s p e r

,

e nd i c u la rl I t i s t he pl a n e of t he w a v e a t t he pl a c e a n d t he
p y .
,

li ne s o f el e c t ric a nd m a g ne t ic fo rc e li e i n i t t he form e r s ta rt i ng ,

fro m o ne ( t he p os i t iv e ) a nd e ndi ng u pon t he o t h e r ( t he n e g a t iv e )

t u b e t he l a t t e r p as s i ng b e t w ee n a nd r ou n d t h e m
,
The s e li ne s .

a l w a y s cr os s o ne a no t h e r p e rp e n dic u l a rly bu t t h e ir di s t rib u t i o n ,

i n t he pl a ne m a y be v a ri e d by ch a ngi ng t he s iz e a nd for m o f
s e c t i on o f t he t u b e s by t he pl a ne a n d t he di s t a nc e o f s e p a ra t i o n .

No w t h e re i s no a x i a l m a gne t ic i nd u c t i o n t h a t i s i nd u c t i o n —
,

pa ra ll e l t o t he t u b e s N or i s t h e re a ny t a ng e n t i al c om po ne nt
.

o f e l e c t ric fo rc e on t he s u rfa c e of t he t u b es I t foll o w s by t he .

,

s e c o n d circ u i t a l la w t h a t t he li ne i nt e gra l o f t he e l e c t ric fo rc e

,
-

fro m one t u be t o t he ot he r i s t h e s a m e by a ny p a t h i n t he
re fe renc e pl a ne I t i s not t he s a m e by a ny p a t h wi th t he
.

s a m e t e rtni n a t i o ns if we d e p a r t from t he r e fe re n c e pl a ne bu t ,

t h a t i s no t y e t i n q u e s t i o n C a ll t hi s c ons ta nt li ne i nt e gra l V
.
-
.

I t i s t he t r a ns v e rs e v ol t a ge I n a not h e r fo rm we m a y s ay
.
,

t h a t t he c irc u i ta t i on o f t he e l e c t ric fo rc e i n t he r e fe re nc e pl a n e
i s z e ro .

N ex t cons id er t he ma gne t ic forc e Its c ircuita t ion i s a ls o .

z ero i n t he re fe re nc e pl a ne pro v id e d t he one t u b e or t he ot h e r

,

i s no t e m bra c e d b e c a u s e t h e re i s no a xi a l e l e c t ric c u rr e nt i n
,

t he di e l ec t ric Bu t wh e n a t u b e i s e mbra c e d t he c i rc u i t a t i on
.

i s fi ni t e C a ll t hi s q u an t i t y C
. It is t he c u rr e nt .
i n t he
”

t u b e s o r a t a ny ra t e i s t he m ea s u r e t h e r eo f a nd i s p o s i t iv e
, , , ,

fo r o ne t u be a nd n e ga t i v e for t he o t h e r Th e s e t wo qu a nt i t i e s .
,
380 ELECT ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

l
a so rict ly a na l ogou s i n s pi t e of t h e ir q u ant ita t i ve r e cip ro
st ,

c a li t y T he y ar e b oth m a d e u p s i m il a rly t o c ond u c ta nc e only

.
,

i n the cas e o f p e rm i t t a nc e i t i s r e ck o ne d a cros s t he di e l e c t ri c

fro m t u b e t o t u b e a nd i n t he c a s e o f i nd u c t a nc e rou nd a nd be
,

t w e e n t he t u b es — t h a t i s t he m a g ne t ic circ u i t i s cl os ed a nd
, ,

t he el e c t ric circ u i t u n cl os ed The r e a re othe r wa ys of s et t i ng

.

o u t t he c o nn e c t i on s b u t t he a b o v e wa y bri ng s ou t t he a na l o gi e s
,

be t wee n t he e l e c t ri c a nd m a gn e t ic s id e s i n a co m pl e te m ann e r .

The q u a nt i t y C m a y be q u i te di ffe r e nt ly r e g a rd e d wh e n t he
m a gn e t ic fi e ld p e ne t ra t e s i nt o t h e s u b st a nc e o f a t u b e ( t h e n t o
be o f fi n i t e c ond u c t a n c e) viz a s t he tot a l flu x of c ond u c t i on
, .
,

c u rre nt or s o me t i m es of di s pl a c e m e nt c u rrent as w ell i n a

, ,

t u b e B u t t h e a b o v e m e t h o d i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p e n e t r a t i on
.
,

h oldi ng goo d wh e th e r t h e re i s p ene t ra t i on or not s a vi ng s ma ll ,

c orre c t i ons d u e t o t he wa ves not b e i ng q u i t e pl a ne The m a g .

n e t ic Vi e w o f C as t he g a u ss a g e i s a l s o t he n e a res t t o e xp e
, ,

r i m e nt a l e l e c t ric a l k no wle dg e The ot h e r v i e w is d a rk e r

.
,

b e c au se we c a nnot re a lly go i ns id e m e t a l s a nd ob s e rv e wh a t
is g o i ng on t h e re o r t he fo rc es in a c t i on
, Th ey m u s t be .

infe rent i a l i n a gre a t e r d egr e e t h a n t he e xte rn a l a c t i ons .

The el e c t ric e ne rgy p e r u ni t v ol u m e b e i ng § ED or c 2

,

wh e n t hi s i s s u m m e d u p t hr ou gh ou t t he wh ol e s lic e o f t he
m e di u m c ont a ine d b e t we e n t he re fe r e nc e pl a nes a t u n i t d i s
t a n c e a p a rt we obt a i n t he a m ou nt § VQ or § S V
,
2
which is ,

t h e re fo re t he e l e c t ric e ne rgy p er u ni t o f l e n g t h a x i a lly .

S i m il a rly t he m a g n e t ic e ne rgy d e ns i t y $ 11 3 o r gy m wh e n
, ,

s u m m e d u p t hr o u gh o u t t he s lic e a m ou nts t o é C P o r c
z
.
,

The r e a d e r s h ou ld i n a ll t h e s e t ra ns fo r ma t i on s c om p a r e t he
, ,

tra ns fo r m e d e xpr e s s i o ns wi t h t he origi na l a nd not e t he pr op e r ,

corr es pon dences I t i s a ll in rat i onal u ni t s o f c ou rs e t o a void

.
, ,

th a t u nm i t i ga t e d nu i s an c e the 4 1: fa c t or of t he pr e se nt B A
, . .

u n i ts .

The d ens i ty of t h e fl u x of e n e rgy which i s t he v e c t o r p ro ,

du c t of E a nd H in ge ne ral i s o f a mo u nt Si m ply E H w hen ,

the force s a re p e rp e ndic u l a r as a t pre s e nt , Whe n t hi s i s .

s u m m e d u p o v e r t he r e fe r e n c e pl a n e t he r es u l t i s VC t he p r o , ,

du ct of t he volt a ge a nd c u rrent The flu x of e ne rgy i s p a ra ll e l .

t o t he g u idi ng t u b e s a nd E H i s t he a m ou nt for a t u be i n
,

t he di e l ec t ric o f u ni t s ec t i on whil s t V0 i s t h e t o t a l fl u x of
,
 TH EORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNE T C WAVES I . 38 1

The rela t i on E = pl uH or which m e a ns t he s a m e H = c

, , , ,

which ob t a i ns i n a p u re e le c t r o m a g ne t ic wa v e b e c o m e s c o nv e r t e d ,

to V = L v C o r C , S e v W e s e e t h a t L II i s o f t he di m e ns i ons o f
: .

el e c t ric res i s ta n c e a nd 8 72 o f e l e c t ric c o nd u c t a n c e

, S i mil a rly .
,

be c a u s e V a nd C a re t he li ne i nt e g ra l s of E a nd B we s e e t h a t
-
,

In ) i s o f t h e di m e n s i o ns o f r es i s t a n c e a n d c c of c o n d u c t a n c e
, .

The a c t i v it y pro d u c t V0 i s wh a t e ngi ne e rs h a v e a g o o d d e a l t o

d o wit h no w t h a t el e c trica l e ne rgy o r e n e rgy which has b e e n
”
, ,

c on v ey e d by e l e c t ro m a gne t i c m e a ns is a m a rke t a bl e c o mm odi ty

, .

Ho we ve r mys t e ri o u s energy ( a nd i ts flu x) m a y be i n s om e of i t s
t h e o re t ica l a s p e c ts t h e re m u s t be s o m e t hi ng i n i t b e c a u s e i t i s
, ,

c onve rt ibl e i nt o d oll a r s t h e u l t i t e o fici a l m e a su re o f va l u e

m,
a f *
.

Trans fo rma t i on of t h e Ci r c u i t al Equ a t i ons t o t h e Forms

i nv o l v i ng Vol ta g e a nd G au ss a g e .

201 . N ill u nd e r t he li m i ta t i on t h a t t he g u idi ng t u be s

o w, s t

h a v e no r e s i s t a nc e a nd t h a t t he d i e l e ct ric ha s n o co nd u c ta nc e
, ,

c ons id er t he s p e ci a l form s as s u me d by t he ci rc u i ta l la ws The s e .

a re i n g e n e ra l
, ,

c u rl H as , ( )
1

cu rl E p H .
( )
2

No w, i n pplyi ng t hes e to o u r pl a ne w a ves we may ob s e r v e

a ,

a t t he b e gi nn i ng t h a t E a n d H a nd t h e ir t i m e va ri a t i o ns a r e i n -

t he r e fe r e n ce pl a n
'

e a nd h a v e n o a xi a l c o m p on e nt s
, S o t he .

only v a ri a t i o ns c on c e r n e d i n t he o p e ra t o r a r e s u ch a s
“
cu r

o cc u r a xi a lly o r p a ra ll e l t o t he g u i d e s l Le t a: be di s ta nc e
'
,

a l ong t h e m t h en t he circ u i t a l l a w s b e c o me
,

S ee t he Pr e s i d e n t ia l A ddr ess t o the I ns t i t u t io n of El e c tri ca l Enginee rs ,

Ja nu a ry 26, 1 89 3 .
38 2 ELEC TR O MAGN ETI C T HEO RY . CH . Iv .

w hich a pp ly an ywh e re i n t he re fe ren c e pl a ne . Tra nsfor ming

to V a nd C , we Ob ta in

da:

dV
dx
( )
6

By ( 3) a nd
( )
4 w e p a c e va ri a ti on of H is the
s ee t ha t t he s -

e l e c t ric c u rr e n t d e ns i t y a nd t he s p a c e v a ri a t i o n o f E t he m a g
-
,
-

ne t ic c u rr e n t d e ns i t y i n t he di e l e c t ric
-
By ( 5 ) a nd ( 6) we .

e xpr e s s t he s a m e t r u t h s fo r t he t o t a l s c o n c e r ne d .

W e m a y s ee t he m e a ni ng o f ( 5 ) t h u s D ra w a cl o s e d line i n .

t he r e fe re n c e pl a ne on a nd e m br a ci ng t he p os i t i v e g u idi ng t u b e .

The c ir c u i t a t i o n o f H t he re is t he t o ta l s u rfa c e c u rr e nt 0 Let .

t he c l ose d li ne be s hi ft e d t o t he ne x t re fe r e nc e pl a ne a t u ni t
di st a n c e forwar d Then d C /dx i s t he a mo u nt by whi ch C
.
-

d e cre a ses d u ri ng t he s hi ft a nd ( 5 ) t ells u s t h a t i t i s e qu i va

,

le nt ly r e pr e se nt e d by t he t i m e ra t e o f i ncr e a s e o f t he ch a rg e on
-

t he t u b e b et w een t he r e fe r e nc e pl a ne s or t he r a t e of i ncr e as e ,

o f t he t o t a l d i s pl a c e m e nt ou t wa rd Thi s pro c e s s m ay be a pplie d

.

t o a ny cl os e d li ne i n t he r e fe re nc e pl a ne pr o vid e d i t e mbra c e s ,

t he t u b e . Whe n i t i s s hi ft e d b odily fo r wa rd t hrou gh u nit

dis ta nc e to the ne xt re fe renc e pla ne t he a mou nt by which t he ,

c i rc u i t a t i on o f E t h a t i s C d e cre a s es fro m t he fi rs t t o t he
, , ,

s e c o nd p os i t i o n m e as u r es t he di s pl a c e me nt c u rre nt t hrou gh

t he s t rip o f t he cyli nd e r s w e p t o u t by t he cl os e d li ne This .

i s t he t i me r a te of i ncre as e o f the ch a rg e p e r u nit l e ng t h of

-

t he t u b e s a n d i s t he t o t a l t r a n s v e rs e c u rr e nt from one t u b e
‘

to t he o t h e r .

The m ea ni ng of ( 6) re q u ire s a s ome wh a t di ffe r e nt t h ou gh ,

a na l og o u s e l u cid a t ion
, J o in t he t u b es by a ny li ne i n t he fi rs t
.

re fe re n ce pl a ne The li ne i nt e gra l o f E a l ong i t i s V t he

.
-

t r a ns v e r s e v o l t a g e S hi ft t he li ne b o dily a l ong t he t u b e s to
.

t he n e x t r e fe re nc e pl a ne The t ra ns v e rse vol t a g e b e c om es

.

s t ill r e ck one d fro m t he p os i tiv e t u b e t o t he

ne g a t iv e “ B u t if we j o i n t he t wo s t a rt i ng p oi nt s on t h e

p os i t iv e t u be t og e t h e r a n d lik e wi s e t he e ndi ng p o i nt s on t he
,

ne ga t i v e t u b e we m ak e a c o m pl e t e circ u i t
,
h a vi ng t wo t ra ns ,

vers e s ides a nd t wo a xi al s id e s No w re ck on u p t he vol t ag e i n .

thi s circ u i t The a xi a l p or t i ons c ont rib u t e no thi ng b e c au s e

.
,
38 4 EL ECT ROMAGN ETI C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

to KV, th e c om pl et e tra ns ve rs e c ond u c ti on cu rr ent in the s a me -

wa y as t he di s pl a c e me nt d e ns i ty cE s u m s u p t o t he t o ta l t ra ns
v ers e dis plac e m e nt S V i n t erms of t he p e rmi t ta nce and
,

vo l t a g e .

The fi rs t circ u i t a l la w ( 1 ) b e c om e s ch a ng e d t o

c u rl H IcE E
c , ( )
7

by t he a ddit i on o f t he c ond u ct ion c u rr ent . A nd i t s m odifi e d

fo r m r pl a ne w a v es b e c o m e s
( )
3 for o u

whil st i n te r ms of t he ne w va ria ble s v ol t a g e ,

a nd ga u ssa g e , we
ha ve t hi s e x t end e d form of t he e q u a t i on

KV S V .

N xte ,
le t t he m e di u m b e c ome m a gne t ic ally c ond u c t i ve a s
we ll no ot h e r ch a nge b e i ng m a d e The c ond u c t i on c u rre n t
, .
-

de ns i t y i s 9 H a nd i ts di s t rib u t i o n r e se m bl e s t ha t O f the indu c

,

t i o n i t s el f whil s t i t s a mou nt i s c ont r oll e d by t he q u a nt i ty C

, ,

t he g a u ss a g e The t ot a l m a g ne t ic c ond u c t i on c u rre nt m ay

.
-

t h e r efo r e be re pre s e nt e d by R C wh e re R i s t he m a g ne t ic
, ,

co nd u c t a n c e which v a ri e s a s t he ma gne t ic c ond u c t i v i t y 9 a nd

, ,

invol v es t he ge om et ric a l d a t a i n t he s a me m a nne r as t he

ind u c ta n c e d oes .

S i mil arly t he r a t e o f was te o f ene rgy d u e t o the m a g ne t i c

,

c o nd u c t i v i t y i s 9 H i v l m l r
2
p e r u n t o u e a n d t he t o t a ,
a t e of

w as t e in t he slic e of t he m e diu m b et ween the t wo r e fe renc e

pl a nes a m o u nts t o RC c orre s pondi ngly
2
‘

F i na lly t he e ffe c t o f t he ma g ne t ic c ond u c t ivi t y i s to t u rn

,

t he s ec ond circ u i t a l la w fro m t he e l e m e nt a ry fo r m ( 2 ) t o

c u rl E = gH ( H
A ,

c orres p ondi ngly

a nd , , t he s p eci a l form ( )
4 for ou r pl a ne wa v e s
bec omes t u rned to
 THEORY OF PLAN E ECTROMAGN T C W AVES E L E I . 385

Thi s ,
i n t e rm s of V a nd C , is e qu i va l e nt to

dV
dx

which i s the prop e r c omp a n ion to t he equ a t i on ( 9 ) e xpres s i ng

t he firs t circ u i ta l la w Th e se e qu a t ions ( 9) a nd ( 1 2) ar e t he
.

pra c t ic a l w orki ng e q u a t ions .

W e h a v e a lre a dy r e m a rk e d t h a t t he s t r u c t u re of the el e c tri c

pe r m i tt a n ce a nd c ond u c t a nc e a re s i mil a r Fro m t hi s i t foll o ws .

t h a t t he t ime c o ns t a nt c/k i s id e nt ica lly re pre s e nt e d by S / K .

S i m il a rly t h e t i m e c o ns t a nt j n/g i s id e nt ic a l wi t h L/R

,
-
u .

The d e ns i t y o f t he fl u x o f e ne rgy i s wi t h t he t wo c ond u e ,

t i v i t i e s s t ill r e pr e s e nt e d by t he v e c to r pro d u c t of E a nd H a nd
, ,

t h e r e fo re t he t ot a l fl u x i s s t ill t he a c t i v i ty pr o d u c t V0 TO .

c orrobo ra t e t hi s s t a t e m e nt a nd a t t he s a me t i m e s h o w t he
,

dy na m ic a l c onsi s t e ncy of the sy s t e m c ons id e r t h at if the q ua n ,

t i t y V0 i s r e a lly t he fl u x o f e ne rgy a cr os s a r e fe re nc e pl a ne t he ,

e xc e s s of i t s v a l u e a t o ne pl a ne o v e r t h a t a t a s e c o nd pl a n e

fu r th e r on a t t he s a m e m om e nt r e pre s e nt s t he ra t e o f s t o ra g e
o f e n e rgy b e t w ee n t he pl a ne s Th er e fore t he ra t e of d e cre as e
.
,

o f V0 wi t h a: i s t he r a t e of s t o ra g e b e t wee n t wo r e fe re nc e pl ane s

a t u n i t di s t a n c e a p a rt N0 w .
,

d
( E N )
C
dx 3720
"
( )
1 3

O n t he right s id e u se the circ u i ta l e qu a t i ons ( 9) a nd a nd

it be c om es
V( K V+ S V) ( )
1 4

or , which is t he sa m e,

KV + R C +2 Z
(g u
s v gL C a
) .
( )
1 5

By the pre vi ou s t he fi rs t t e r m i s t he t o ta l e le c t ric wast e t he

, ,

s e c o n d i s t he t o t a l m a g ne t ic w a s t e t he t hird i s t hl i ncr e as e of
,

t o t a l e l e c t ric e ne rgy a nd t he fo u rt h i s t h e i n cre as e of t o t a l

,

m a g ne t ic e ne rgy p e r u ni t o f t i m e be t we e n t he t wo re fe re nc e
, ,

pl a nes Thi s prove s o u r prop os i t i on wi t h a re s e r va t io n to be

.
,

u n d e r s t oo d c o n c e r n i ng t he ci rc u i ta l i nd e te r m i na t e n e ss of t he

fl ux of e ne rgy .Th e re is t h e re fo re no i ndi s t inc tnes s a nywh e re

, , ,
38 6 ELECTR OMAGNE T I C THEORY . CH . Iv .

The S ec ond Ci r c u i t al Equa t i on for W i res i n Terms of V a nd

P
C w h e n e net ra t i on i s I nst ant a neous .

2 02 . L e t thep a ra ll e l c ond u c t i ng t u b es be o f fi ni t e r es i s t
a nc e . As a r e s u l t t he e x te rna l di s t u rb a n c e p e ne t ra t e s i nt o
,

t h e m a nd a w a s t e o f e ne rgy foll o ws
,
A s a fu r t h e r r e s u l t t h e
.
,

e x t e rna l di s t u rb a n c e be c o m es m o difi ed Thi s o cc u rs i n a t wo

.

fold m a nne r .By c u mu l a t i v e a c t i on t he na t u re of a w a ve s e nt

,

a l ong t he l e a d s m a y be pr ofo u ndly m o difi e d as i t pro gr e sses .

Be s ides thi s t h e re i s what we m ay t e rm a l o ca l modifica t i on

, ,

whe reby t he wa ve a t a ny pl a c e i s no l o nge r s t ric tly a pl a ne

wa ve I t i s m e rely wi t h t hi s e ffe c t t h a t we a re no w c o nc e rne d
. .

The d e p a r tu re fro m pl a na rit y r e q u ires a c o ns id e ra bly m o difi e d

a nd m u ch m o re d i fli cu lt t h e o ry no l o ng e r e xpr e s s ibl e i n t e rms
,

o f V and C s i m ply i n o rd e r t o t a k e i t i nt o a cc ou nt
)

, B u t in .

t he c ons t r u c t i on o f a pr a c t ic a l t h e o ry we t a k e a d v a nta g e o f t he
,

fa ct t h a t t he d e p a r t u re from pl a na ri t y i s s ligh t t o which we ,

ha ve a lre a dy r e fe rre d t owa rds t he e nd o f § 1 9 9 A li ne of el e c .

t ric fo rc e d oe s n o t no w s t a r t q u i t e p e rp e ndic u l a rly fr om t he

p os i t i ve l e a d a nd e nd s i mil a rly on t he ne ga t i v e l e a d I t ha s a .

s ligh t i ncli na t i o n t o t he p e rp e ndic u l a r a nd t h e r e fo re c u r v es o u t

,

o f t he r e fe r e nc e pl a ne t o a s m a ll e x t e nt I n t he di e l e c t ri c
.

i ts el f t hi s p e cu li a ri t y i s of li t t l e i m p ort a nc e Bu t t he s light
, .

a m o u n t o f t a ng e nt i a li t y o f t he el e c t ric fo rc e a t t he s u rfac e of

the l e a d s whic h i s c ondi t i one d t h e re by i s of c ont rolli ng i m po rt

, ,

a nc e a s r e g a rd s t he l e a d s t h e m se l v e s a nd e v e nt u a lly t hr o u gh
,

t h e m t o t he w a v es i n t he di e l e c t ric by a t t en u a t i ng a nd a l t e ri ng
, ,

t he s h a p e o f w a v e s ( c ons id e re d a xi a lly ) a s j u s t re fe rr e d t o W e
, .

s h o u ld n o w c on s id e r wh a t fo r m i s a s s u m e d by t he s e c ond c i r

c u i ta l la w i n t e r m s o f V a nd C wh e n we a d m i t t h a t t h e re i s
,

t a ng e nt i a l e l e c t ric fo rc e on t he s u rfa c e of t he l ea d s bu t on t he ,

as s u m p t i on t h a t t he m i no r e ffe c t s i n t he di e l e c t ric i t s e l f which ,

a r e as s o ci a t e d wi t h t he pr e s e nc e of t he t a ng e nt i a l forc e a re of ,

ins ens ibl e i nfl u en c e .

W e m a y s t ill re g a rd V as t he t ra ns ve rse v ol t a ge i n t he
re fe re n c e pl a ne W he t h e r we go s t ra igh t a cros s fro m t he
.

p os i t i ve t o t he n e ga t i ve l e ad ke e pi ng in t he r e fe re nc e pl a ne
, ,

o r l e a v e i t s ligh tly i n o rd e r t o pr e ci s e ly foll o w a li ne o f fo rc e i n

es t i m a t i ng t he v ol t a g e i s o f n o m o m e nt b e c a u s e t he re s u l t s
, ,

diffe r SO s li ght ly The q u a nt i ty C i s s u bj e c t t o a s i mila r Sli gh t

.
3 88 L C OMAGNE TI C T HE ORY
E E TR . CH . IV
.

O bs e r v th
e at we h a ve
p e ci fi ca t i on of t he na t u re of
ma de no s

the l e a d s s o t h a t t he e qu a t i on p os s e s s e s a high d e gre e o f

,

ge ne ra li t y A s re ga rd s the firs t circ u i ta l la w t h a t i s u nch a ng e d

.
, ,

b ei ng e xpress e d by ( 5 ) wh en t he di el e c t ric i s non c ond u ct ive -

a nd by 9 wh e n c ond u c t i v e s inc e t he m i no r ch a n g e s a ll u d ed
( ) ,

t o as re g a rd s V a nd C a re n o t s ign ific a nt .

Be i ng gene ra l t he e qu a t i on ( 1 6) ne e d s t o b e s p e ci ali s e d
,

be fore i t ca n be w o rk e d I f o u r e l e c t ro m a g ne t ic v a ri a bl e s a re
.

t o c ont i nu e t o be V a nd C we re q u ire t o e xpre s s E 1 a nd E2 a s

.

fu nc t i ons o f C Fo r t u na t e ly t hi s c a n be d o ne s o m e t i m e s v e ry
.
,

s i mply a n d a t o t h e r t i m es i n a m o r e c o m plic a te d w a To
, y .

t a k e t he s i m pl es t c a s e le t t he l ea d s be t u b es ( or s h e e t s ) o f s o
,

s mall d e p t h t h a t p e ne t r a t i o n i s pr a c t ic a lly i n s ta nt a n eo u s a s

wa ves p ass a l ong t he m Th en E1 i s not only t he b ou nd a ry

.

t ange nt i a l e l e c t ri c fo rc e bu t i s a l so t he a xi a l e l e c t ric fo rc e
,

t hro u gh ou t t he s u b s t a nc e of t he p os i t i v e t u b e S i m il a rly a s .

re ga rds E2 for t he ne ga t i ve t u b e I t i s t r u e t ha t i n v irt u e o f .

,

t he t r a ns v e rse e l e c tric c u rre nt from t u b e t o t u b e t h e re i s a l s o ,

t r a ns v e rs e c u rr e nt i n t he t u b e s a nd t h e r e fo r e t ra ns v e rs e
, , ,

e l e c t ric for ce b u t t hi s i s t o be ign o r e d be c a u s e i t i s a s m a ll

, ,

fr a c t i on o f t he a xi a l The c u rr e n t d e ns i t y i n t he p os i t iv e t u b e
.

i s t h e re fore a xi al of s t r eng t h kl E l if lcl i s t he c ond u c t ivi ty

, ,

of t he m a te ri a l ; a nd t he t ota l c u rr e nt i n t he t u b e i s K E
I I ,

wh e re K1 i s t he a xia l c ond u c ta nc e p e r u ni t l engt h or which i s , ,

t he s a m e El /R l i f R I i s t he r es i s t a n c e p er u ni t l eng t h
, , Bu t .

t hi s qu a nt i t y is a l so t he pr e v i ou s ly i nv e s t ig a t e d q u a nt i t y C ,

t he c irc u it a t io n of t he m a g ne t ic fo rc e on t he b ou nd a ry of t he
t u be . S o we h a v e the e l e m e nta ry rel a t i ons
E1 R C
I E
E2 R2 0 2: ( )
1 7
which a re be it obs e r ve d e sse nt ia lly t he conne c t i ons of t he
, ,

e l e c t ric a n
d ma g ne t ic fo rc es a t t he b ou nd a ri es t h ou gh br o u gh t ,

t o a p a r t ic u l a rly s i mpl e fo rm by t he i n s t a nt a n eou s p e n e t ra t i o n .

The s e c ond circ u i t a l e q u a t i on ( 1 6) t h e re fore t a k es t he fo rm

( )
1 8

O r, fi nally ,
if R i s t he r es is t a n c e p e r un i t l eng t h of t he t wo
l e a ds ,
 THEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNE T C WAVES I .
"
38 9

c o m p a ri ng it wi t h t ha t t h e r e i s a n id en t i t y o f fo r m bu t ,

wi t h a ch a ng e d m e a ni ng of the sy m b ol R In the e x a c tl y s t a te d
‘

probl e m of pl a ne wa v e s r u nni ng t hro u gh a m e di u m of d u pl e x

c ond u c t ivi t y b o u nd e d by p e rfe c t c ond u c to rs t he qu a nt i ty R ,

is t he e x t e rna l m a g n e t ic c ond u ct a nc e p e r u ni t l e ngt h a x ia l ly .

I n t he pres e nt a pproxi m a te ly s t a te d probl e m o f v e ry n e a rly

pl a n e wa v es ru nni ng t hrou gh a n e l ec t ric a lly c ond u c t i ng m e d i u m
bo u nd e d by re s i s t ing w ire s t he q u a nt i ty R i s t he re s i s t a nc e o f
,

t he wir e s p er u ni t l e ng t h a xi a lly
,
W h a t w e h a v e t o d o t he
.
,

fo r e i n o rd e r to t u rn t he re a l pr o bl e m i nt o o n e r el a t i ng t o
,

s t ric tly pl a n e w a v e s a d m i t t i ng o f ri g o ro u s t re a t m e n t i s to ,

a bo li s h t he r es i s ta n c e o f t he l ea d s a nd s u b s t i t u t e e q u iv a l e n t

m a g ne t ic c ond u c ta n c e i n t he di e l e c t ric m e di u m o u t s i d e The .

t wo m a t e ri a lly d i ffe re nt pro p e r t i e s a r e n e a rly e q u i v a le n t i n

t h e ir e ffe c t s Eq u a t i o ns
. s t ill h old g o o d o nly ,

R C i s no w t o be t he ra t e o f w a s t e i n t he l e a d s i ns t e a d o f i n
2
,

t he m e di u m g e n e ra lly d u e t o t he ( n o w s u ppr e s s e d ) m a gn e t ic
c ond u c t a nc e The flux of energy i s no w not qu i t e p a ra ll e l t o t he
.

l e a d s e v e ry whe re bu t ha s a s ligh t Sl a nt t o wa rd s t h e m B u t
, .

t he u s u a l fo r m u l a gi ve s t he w a s t e c o rr e c tly The prod u c t

.

El H 1 O f t h e t a ng e nt ia l e l e c t ric fo rc e E1 a nd t he m a gne t ic fo rc e ,

say H a t t he b ou nd a ry o f t he p o s i t i v e l e a d i s t he r a t e o f
,
1 ,

s u pply o f e ne rg y t o t he l e a d p e r u n i t s u r fa c e Th e r e fore by
.
,

c i rc u i t a t i o n t h e pro d u c t E C i s t h e r a t e o f s u p p ly p er u ni t
,

l eng t h a x i a lly This i s t he s a m e a s t he pr e vi o u s R1 0

.
2
.

The e q u i v a l e nc e o f e ffe c t of m a gn e t ic c on d u c t a nc e e x t e rna lly

a n d o f e l e c t ric r e s i s ta n c e i n t he l e a d s i s u n d ou b t e dly a s o m e
,

wh a t m y s t e ri o u s m a t t e r pri n cip ally b e c a u s e i t is h a rd t o s e e

,

a p a r t fr o m t he m a t h e m a t ic s ) why i t s h o u ld be s o s r e g a rd s
( A .

t h e a b o v e re a s oni ng h o w e v e r i t i s e s se nt i a lly s i m pl e a nd i s a
, , ,

dir e c t a pplica t i on o f fu nda me nt a l el e c t ric a l pri ncipl e s I t m a y .

,

t h e re fo r e c a u s e n o m i s g i v i n gs exc e p t t he d ou b t t h a t m a y
, ,

pr e s ent i t s e lf wh et h e r t he ignore d s m a ll e ff e c t s i n t he di el e c t ric

d u e t o d e p a r tu re fro m pl a na ri ty of t he wa v e s a r e r e a lly i gn o r
a bl e . A s a m a t t e r of fa c t t h e y a r e n ot a l wa y s o f i ns e ns ibl e
,
‘

e ffe c t a nd pl e n t y o f pr obl e m s c a n b e m a d e u p a nd w o rk e d o u t
,
 90 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T H EORY . CH . IV .

i ng, t h ou gh qu i t e u nlik e t h os e pre s ent i n qu est i on B u t

at .

t h es e a re no t pra c t ic a l probl e m s , a n d h a v e li t t l e b e a ri ng u p o n

t he qu es t i on o f t he fre e pr op a g a t i on o f w a v e s a l on g l o n g p a ra ll e l
s t ra igh t wir e s The y d o not s t a r t a s f u ll gro wn pl a ne wa v e s
.

from t he sou rce o f d i s t u rb a n c e b u t t h ey v e ry s o on fit t h e m

,

s e l v e s O u t o t he wir es pr o p e rly a nd t h e n foll o w t he l a w s o f

,

pl ane wa v es pr e t t y clos ely .

Al t h ou gh t hi n t u b es for l e a d s w er e s p e ci a lly m e nt i on e d i n
co nne c t i on wit h e qu a t i on y e t a ny s o r t o f l e a d s will d o

prov id e d t he p e net ra t i on be s u ffi ci en tly ra pid t o be i ns t a n z

t a neou s wi t hi n t he m e a n i ng of t he A c t I t i s o bv i o u s ly t r u e
.
l

fo r s t e a dy c u rr e nt s wh e n t he i ne r t i a l t e r m di s a pp e a rs a nd R i s
,

t he st e a dy r e s i s t a nc e A nd if t he v a ri a t i o ns o f c u rre n t b e not
.

s u fii ci e n tly r a pid t o c a u s e a s e ns ibl e d e p a r t u r e fr o m u ni fo rm i t y

o f di s t rib u t i o n o f c u rr e nt i n t he c ond u c t i ng wir e s t h e n of , ,

c ou rs e ( 1 9 ) m ay s t ill be s a fely u s ed A t t he s a m e t i me i t
,
.
,

s h ou ld be m e nt i o n e d t h a t t he i nd u c t a n c e L s h o u ld u nd e r t he ,

circ u ms t a nc es be i ncre as e d by a ( u s u a lly) s m a ll am ou nt d u e

,

to i nd u c t i on i n t he c ond u c t o rs t h e m s e lv es a s wi ll be pr es e nt ly ,

note d m ore cl os e ly F u r t h e rm or e r e m e m b e r t h a t n o a ll o w
.
,

a nc e ha s b ee n m a d e for t h e i nfl u e nc e o f p a ra ll e l c o nd u c t o rs ,

s h ou ld t h e r e b e a ny The e a r t h d o es n ot c ou nt i f t he l ea d s be
.

a lik e a n d e q u idi s t a n t from t he grou nd as i t s i nfl u en c e c a n b e ,

e mb o di e d i n t he v a l u es o f L a nd S t he i nd u c ta n c e and p e r
,

m i t t a nc e .

Th e S e c ond C irc ui t al Equ a t i on w he n P enetra t i on i s Not

I ns t ant a ne ou s . R
e s i s t a nc e Op e r a t ors , a nd th ei r D e fini t e .

M ea ni ng .

2 03 . x t q u e s t i on i s wh at to d o wh en p ene t ra t i on is
The ne

no t i ns t a n ta neo u s wi t hi n t he m e a n i ng o f t he A c t W e s h ou ld .

firs t go b a ck t o which r e m a i ns va lid a nd i nqu ire wh e th e r ,

t he t a ng e nt i a l e l e c t ric forc es c a nnot be e xpr es s e d i n t e r ms o f

t he c u rre nt ( o r c onv e r s ely ) i n som e ot h e r wa t h a n by a li ne a r
y
r el a ti on S u pp os e we s ay
.

E2 = R 2 C .
( )
2 0

Is i t p os s ibl e t o g ive a d e fi ni t e m e ani ng t o t he symb ol R ? I s ”

t h e r e a d e fi ni te c onne c t i on b e t w ee n C r e g a rd e d as a fu nc t i on,

o f t he t i me a nd E o r E a l s o r e a rd e d i n t hi s wa i
, 1 2 g y
39 2 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

E is explici t ly k now n I t i s n o t obvi o u s t h a t wh en t he m a rch

.

o f E i s g i v e n t h a t o f C i s k no wn by t he s a m e Op e ra t o r i m p li
, ,

Tha t is by ( 22 ) we h a ve
'

c i tly.
,

R L} m
’
1
( S
-

a nd gi ven E as a fu n c t i on of the t i m e C i s k no wn a s a fu nc t i on ,

o f t he t i m e o r if n o t k no wn c a n b e fo u n d w i t h ou t a m big u i t y
, , .

I t i s not o bvi ou s b e c au s e w e d o n ot i m m e dia t e ly s ee ho w t he

,

o pe ra t i on i ndic a t e d i n ( 2 4) i s t o be c a rri e d o u t wh e r eas i n t he , ,

c as e of i t i s v i s ibl e by i ns p e c t i o n N e v e rt h el es s t he fa c t .
,

t h a t t he m a rch of E phy s ic a lly c o n s id e re d c o ndi t i o ns t h a t o f

, ,

C m a k es t h e a b ov e e qu a t i on ( 2 4 ) no t o nly d e fi ni t e bu t c o m
, ,
.

l e t e I n t h e u s u a l t re a t m e nt o f t he t h eo ry o f di ffe re nt i a l
p .

e qu a t i on s t h e re i s no s u ch d e fini t e ne s s
,
A rbi t ra ry c ons t a n t s .

a r e bro u gh t i n t o a n y e x t e nt t o be a ft e rw a rd s got rid o f , No w .

t hi s i s a ll v e ry w e ll i n t he g ene ra l t h e o ry o f di ffe r e nt i a l
e q u a t i on s wh e r e a rbi t ra ry cons t a nt s fo r m a p a r t o f t he t h eo ry
,

i ts e l f bu t for t he pra c t ic a l p u rp ose of re pr e se nt i ng a nd obt a i ni ng

,

s ol u t i on s o f phy s ic a l pr o bl e m s t he u s e o f s u ch a rbi t ra ry a nd ,

r o u nd a bo u t m e t ho ds ( which a re t oo oft e n foll o we d e s p e ci ally ,

by e l e m ent a ry wri t e rs ) l e a d s t o a l a rg e a m o u nt o f u nne c es s a ry

w o rk t e nding t o ob s c u re t he s u bj e c t wi t h ou t h elpi ng one on
, , .

I t w ou ld n ot p e rh a p s be g o i n g t o o fa r t o s ay t h a t s u ch a
, ,

[ 11 1 8 11 8 6 or i ne fii c i e nt a pplic a t i on o f a na ly s i s O ft e n m a k es rig s

m arole .

Whe n we s ay t h a t E = R C wh e re R i s t he re s i s ta nc e "

,
”

o p e ra t o r ( s o ca ll e d b e c a u s e i t re d u c e s t o t he re s i s ta nc e i n
s t e a dy s t a t e s ) w e as se r t a d e fi n i t e c onne c t i o n b e t w ee n E a nd
,

C s o t h a t wh e n C i s fu lly giv e n as a fu nc t i o n o f t he t i m e a nd
, ,

t he o p e r a t i on s c ont a i ne d i n R a re p e r fo r m e d u p on i t t he fu n c
”

t i on E r e s u l ts a nd s i m il a rly wh e n i t i s E t h a t i s gi v e n t h e n
, , ,

t he i nv e rs e o p e ra t o r ( or t he c on d u c t a n c e o p e ra t o r
) a ct

i ng u p on i t will pr od u c e C The r e m a y be a n i nfi nite nu m b er

.

o f di ffe r e n t i a t o r s i n R a n d s o o n wh e re 0
2 3 "
as p 19 p , 1 , m e a ns , , ,
”

d /d t
n ”
B u t t h e re i s no t a s i ngl e a rb i t ra ry c ons ta nt i nv ol v e d
.

i n E = R C nor i nd e e d a ny t hi ng a rbi t ra ry
”

, , , .

Re t u rni ng t o t he wire s t he for m o f t he re s is t a nce op era t or

,

as a f u nc t i o n o f p d e pe n ds u p on t he e l e c tr ica l a nd ge om et rica l
,
 THEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNE T C WAVES I . 39 3

da ta . I t has b e e n d e t e r m i ne d for r o u nd wir es a nd r ou nd tu be s ,

a nd pl a ne She e ts . W e m ay ta ke
dV ”
_

da:
=
( R 1
C LC , ( 2 5

as t he fo m r c d circ u i t a l la w a nd m a k e t he d e t e rm i
of t he s e on ,

n a t i o n o i t he Op e ra t o r s a m a t t e r o f s e p a r a t e c a lc u l a t i o n .

A s a lre a dy m e nt i o n e d wh en C i s s t e a dy R l d e g e n e ra t e s t o
”
, ,

R I a nd R 2 t o R2 t h e s t e a dy re s i st a nc e s ( p er u n i t l e n gt h ) o f
” ‘

t he w i re s t u b e s rod s o r cylin d e rs o f a ny s h a p e t ha t m a y b e
, , ,

e m pl oy e d A t t he s a m e t i m e t he i n e r t i a l t e r m di s a pp e a rs
. .

A l s o wh e n C v a ri es i t i s s o m e t i m e s s u fii e ie nt t o t a k e i nt o
, ,

a cc o u n t o nly t he firs t a ppr o xi m a t i o n t o t he fo rm o f t h e o p e ra

t o rs . Thi s i s f or a s olid r ou n d wir e

, ,

R T R I "? ( ?
2 6

a nd i m il a r ly for R 2 Thi s f/ I i s t he v a l u e o f t he s t e a dy
s . ‘

i n d u c t a n c e o f t he w ir e be i ng i t s i nd u c t ivi t y Wh e n n ot
, .

s o li d o r n o t r o u n d s o m e o t h e r e x pre s s i o n i s r e q u i r e d
, ,
N ot ic e .

t h a t t hi s bri ng s ( 2 5 ) t o t he e le m e nt a ry fo r m b e c a us e
t he i nd u c t a n c e o f t he wir e s m a y be i n cl u d e d I n L i t s e l f wh ich ,

t h e n b e c o m e s t he c o m pl e t e s t e a dy i n d u c t a n c e ( p e r u n i t l e ng t h
a x i a ll i n cl u di n g t h a t d u e t o t h e di e l e c t ric a n d t h a t d u e t o
y) ,

t h e t wo wi r es Thi s u s u a lly m ea ns only a s m a ll i ncreas e i n

.

t he v a l u e o f L u nl e ss t he wir es be of ir on
, .

S i mp l y P e ri odi W c a v es Ea s i l y Tr ea t e d i n C as e of Imp erfe c t

P e ne t ra t i on .

bBu t id h e a b o ve s i m plific a t i on t h e r e i s a n e x
§ 20 4 . e s e s t ,

c e e d i ngly i m p o r t a n t g e ne r a l c a s e i n which a Si m il a r r e d u c t i o n

t a k e s p la c e Thi s o cc u rs wh en the s ou rc e s o f di st u rb a nc e v a ry
.

s i m pl e p e ri o dic a lly wi t h t he t i m e Th e n t he e l ec t ric a nd m a g .

n e t ic fl u x e s e v e rywh e r e v a ry u l t i ma t e ly a c o rdi ng t o t he sa m e c

la w w i t h t he s a m e p e ri od pro vid e d t he r e l a t i ons o f t he fl u x e s t o

,

t he fo rc e s a r e li ne a r ; t h a t i s wh e n t he c ond u c t i v i t y p e r m i t , ,

t i v i ty a n d i n d u c t i v i t y a re c o ns t a n t s a t a ny o ne pl a c e
, , Now .
,

wh e n t hi s c om e s t o p a s s b o t h E a n d C i n t he eq u a t i on E = R C
,
”

va ry s i m pl e p e ri odic ally wi th the t i m e B u t wh e n t he s i ne or .

g i ve d
ne a t , a nd wi t h a fa c t o r i ntro d u c e d .
Th u s , i f t h e fre q u e ncy
39 4 EL EC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

is n / 2 1r, ha t s in ( n t + 6) m a y be c ons id e re d t o be t he t i m e
so t
fa c to r i n t he e xpr e s s i on for e i t h e r E o r C w e h a v e t h e pro p e rt y ,

d /d t P u t t h e r e fo re 39 n i n t he e xpr e s s i on s for t he
2 2 2 2
,

re s i s ta nc e op e ra t ors a nd we r e d u c e t h e m t o
,

il I I ll I l
B l R] L IP, R 2
R2 L 2p ,

wh e re R
'
a nd L ’
a re f u n c t i o ns
Th e y a re t h e re fore con
of , ,

s ta nt s a t a giv e n fr e q u e n cy a n d t hi s i s a v e ry v a l u a bl e pr o p e rt y
, ,

as i t i s cl e a r a t onc e t h a t we r e d u c e t he e q u a t i on
( )
2 5 t o t he

s i m pl e fo r m

(L
' '
C L 2) p C , ( )
’

( R l
L I
2 8

or, m ore bri efly a nd cl ea rly ,

d a:

which i s t he sa m e as v lid wh
p en et ra t ion i s i n
a en t he
s t a nt a n e ou s bu t wi t h di ffe re nt v a l u es o f t he c o ns t a nt s i nv olv e d
,
.

The s t e a dy r es i s t a nc e R i s re pl a c e d by R t he e ffe c t i v e r e s i s t
’
,

a n c e o f bo t h t u b es p er u n i t l e ng th ) a t t he give n fre q u e n cy
( ,

a nd L t he s t ea dy i nd u c ta nc e i cl u s i ve o f t he p a r t s d u e t o t he
( n

W ire s ) by L t he e ffe ct i ve i ndu c ta nc e

'
,
.

O wi ng t o t he re d u c t i on of t he s e c ond circ u i t a l e qu a t i on t o
t he pri m i t i v e fo rm we a re e na bl e d t o e xpres s t he pro p a g a t i on
,

of s i m ply p e ri o dic w a v es a l ong wire s by the s a m e fo r mu l ae ,

wh e t h e r t h e re be or be not i m p e r fe c t p ene t ra t i on W e s i mply .

e m pl oy ch a ng e d v a l u e s of t he c o ns t a nt s r e s i s t a n c e a nd i nd u c t ,

a n c e which m a b e i nd e e nd e nt ly c a l c u l a t e d o r l e ft t o t he
, y p ,

i m a ginat i on s h ou ld t he c a lc u l a t i on be i mpra c t ica b le Thi s i s

, .
,

wh en i t ca n be e ffe c t e d t he b es t way of m a ki ng e x t ens ions of

,

t h eo ry D o t he w ork i n s u ch a wa y t h a t h a rm ony i s pr o du c ed
.

wi t h t he m ore r u di m ent a ry r es u l ts a nd s o t ha t t he y will wo rk ,

t og e t h e r w e ll a nd t he ne w a pp ea r as na t u ra l e x t e ns i o ns o f t hr
,

old . A n a pp e a ra nc e o f fa r gre a te r o rigi na li t y m ay i nd ee d be , ,

prod u c e d by ignori ng t he fo r m of t he e l e me nt a ry re su l t s bu t ,

t he r es u l t s w o u ld be c u mbr ou s h a rd t o u nd e rs t a nd a nd u n , ,

pra c t ic a l .

The e ffe c t o f i ncre a s i ng t he fre q u e ncy fro m z e ro t o a high

.

degree is t o fi rs t l ess e n t he p e ne t ra t ion a nd e nd i n mere s kin ,

 39 6 ELECT ROMAGNE TI C T H EORY . CH . Iv

m e di u m we m a y re d u c e t hi s di s t o rt i on, a nd u l t i m a t e l y a b oli s h
it whe n t he m a g ne t ic c ond u c t ivi t y r e a ch e s a c e r t a i n a lu e v .

No w b s e r ve h e re t ha t t he c orre c t i ng i nfl u e nc e of t he m a gne t i c
o

c ondu c t ivi t y i s e xe rt e d pre ci s e ly wh e re i t i s re q u ire d na m e ly , ,

i n t he b o dy o f t h e w a v e i ts e l f The w a v e i s a c t e d u pon i n
.

e v e ry p a r t by t wo c o u nt e ra c t i ng di s t ort i ng i n fl u e nc es so t h a t ,

t he c o rr e c t i o n i s p e r fo r m e d e x a c tly i n o t h e r w o rd s we ob t a i n ,

a n e x a c t t h e o ry o f di s t o r t i o nl e s s t r a n s m i s s i on
,

B u t on t he o t h e r h a nd wh e n we e m pl oy t he r e s i s t a n c e of
, ,

t he l e a d s t o p e r fo r m t he s a m e f u n c t i ons t he c orr e c t i ng in ,

fl u e nc e i s no t e x e r te d u n i fo r mly t hro u gh ou t t he b o dy of t he
wa v e bu t o u ts id e t he w a v e a l toge t h e r a t i ts la te ra l bo u n
,

d a ri es i n fa c t N e v e r t h e l es s fo r r eas ons b e fo re s t a t ed we s t i ll
,
.
, ,

t re a t t he w a v e s a s i f t h e y pr e s e rv e d t h e ir pl a n a ri t y u nd e r t he
i nfl u e nc e of the re s i s t i ng l e a d s Whil s t t h e re for e we fu lly
‘

.
, ,

re c og ni s e a nd e m p loy t he fi ni t e s p e e d of pr op a g a t i on of di st u rb
a n c es a x i a lly o r p a r a ll e l t o t he l e a d s w e vir t u a lly as s u m e t h a t
, ,

t he c orr e ct i ng i nfl u e n c e o f t he l e a d s i s t ra ns m i t t e d la t e ra lly
o u t w a rd s i n s t a n t a n e o u s ly W e m ay t h e re fo re p e rc e i ve t h a t
.
, ,

t he wa v e l e ng t h i s a m a tt e r o f i m p o r t a n c e i n d e t e r m i ni ng t he
-

a pplic a bili t y o f t he pra c t ic a l t h eo ry I t i s o f n o m o me nt wh a t

.

e v e r i n t he e x a c t t h e o ry e m pl oyi ng m a g n e t ic c ond u c t a n c e bu t ,

wh e n we re m o ve t hi s pr op e rt y from t he m e di u m g e ne ra lly a nd ,

( vi rt u a lly c on c e nt ra t e i t a t t he l e a d s w e s h o u ld a t t he s a m e
) ,

t i m e k ee p t he w a v e l e ng th a c ons id e ra bl e m u l t ipl e o f t he d is
-

t a nc e b e t w e e n t he l e a d s if t he pra c t ic a l t h e o ry i s t o be a p pli c
a bl e. To s e e t hi s i t i s s u ffici e nt t o i m a gi ne t he c a s e of w a ve s
,

wh os e le ng th i s o nly a s m a ll fra c t i o n o f t he di s t a nc e b e t w een

t he l e a d s wh e n i t i s cl e a r t h a t t h e ir c o rr e c t i ng i nfl u en c e c oul d
,

no l o ng e r be a s su m e d t o be e x e r t e d l a t e ra lly a n d i ns ta nt a neo us l
y ,

as if t he s m a ll p o r t i o n o f t he l e a d s b e t we e n t wo c lo se r e fe r e nc e

pl a ne s b el ong e d t o a nd wa s a s s o ci a t e d s ol ely wi th t he slic e O f

t he m e di u m b e t w e e n t he s a m e pl a n e s .

W e h a v e r e fe rre d I n t he a b o ve t o t he a c t i on o f t he res is ta nc e
of t h e l e a d s as a c o rr e c t i n g o ne ne u t r a li s i ng t he di s t or t i on d u e
,

t o a no t h e r c au s e B u t t he s a m e r e a s o ni ng i s a pplic a bl e wh e n t he
.

a c t i on i s no t o f t hi s n a t u r e Thu s wh e n t he e x te rna l m e di u m
.
,

i s non c ond u c t iv e a nd t he l e a d s a r e non r e s i s t i ve we h a v e

-
,
-
,

p erfe c t t ra ns m i s s i o n Ma king t he l e a d s re s i s t i ve t he re fore now

.

brings on di s to r t io n W e m a y no w sa y t ha t in ord e r t ha t t his

.
 T HEORY OF PLANE E ECTROMAG N T C WAVES
L E I . 39 7

of m a g ne t ic c ond u c t ivi ty In t he e x t ern al m e d i u m t he w a v e ,

l e ng t h s h ou ld n ot be t oo s ma ll a s Sp e cifi e d a b ov e The pre c

, .

t ica l t h eory i s t h e r e for e t he t h e ory of l ong wa v e s a nd i n t he ,

in te rpr et a t i on of t he w ord l ong s om e j u dg m e nt m a y be

“
,
”

e x e rci s e d a s r e g a rds t he l e a d s a nd o t h e r m a tt e r s b e c a u s e t h e r e ,

i s n o h a rd a nd fas t di s t i n c t i on a nd wh a t m a y b e a l ong w a v e
,

u n d e r s o m e circ u m s t a n c es m a y be a s h o r t o ne u nd e r o the rs f

To ill u s t ra t e t hi s p o i nt i ma gin e t h a t w e h a v e go t a n i nge

,

ni on s i ns t r u m e nt ( n o t y e t m a d e ) for c ont i n u o u s ly r e c ordin g

,

t he e l e c t r om a g ne t ic s t a t e o f a n on c o n d u c t i ng m e di u m s a y t he
-

a ir a t a c e r ta i n pl a c e ( j u s t a s we h a v e t h e rm o m e t ric a nd
ba rom e t ric re c ord e rs ) a nd t h a t t hi s i ns t ru m e nt i s s o i m m ens e ly
,

q u ick in i t s a c t i on as t o t a k e oognis a nc e of ch a ng es h a pp e n
i ng i n v ery s h o rt i nt e r va l s o f t i m e s a y on e t h o u s a nd m illi on t h
,
-

of a s e c on d . No w in a p p lyIng t hi s ins t r u ment to re gi s t e r t he

s t a t e o f a i r t ra v e rs e d by e l e c t r om a g ne t ic w a v e s i t i s cl e a r t h a t ,

t he s iz e o f t he w a v e s m u s t be c ons id e r e d i n r e l a t i on t o t he s iz e o f
t he in s t r u m e nt . If t h e i n s t r u m e n t w e re on e d e ci m e t re a cr o ss ,

t he n w a v e s of on e kil o m e t re i n l e ng t h c o u ld a s w e ll be r e g a rd e d
a s o f i nfi n i t e l e ng t h . B u t i f only one m e t re i n l e n gt h t h o u gh ,

i t c o u ld s t ill be u s e d t h e re w ou ld be n o l on g e r t he s a m e a cc u
,

ra cy of a pplic a t i on . A nd if o f only a c ent i m et re i n l e ng t h .

,

t h e n i t i s pl a i n t h a t s e v e r a l w a v e s w o u ld be a c t i ng a t o nc e o n
'
t he a pp a ra t u s in d i fie re nt p a r ts a nd t h e r es u l t a nt e ffe c t
,

re c ord e d wou ld not re pres ent t he hi s t o ry of t he w a ve s by a ny

m ea ns .

No w as re ga rds wa ves s ent a l ong pa ralle l l ea d s i t is obvi ou s ,

t h a t ligh t wa v es a r e t ot a lly o u t o f t he q u e s t i on b e i ng i m
.
,

m e nse ly t oo s h o r t O n t he o t h e r h a nd t e l e ph on ic wa v e s a r e t o
.
,

be t re a t e d as l o ng w a v e s — v e ry l ong i n fa c t t ho u gh t h e y a re
,
—

s h o r t c o m p a r e d wi t h t e l e gr a phic w a v e s B u t i t i s s om e wh a t
.

c u ri ou s t ha t t he el e c t rom a gne t ic wa v e s i nv es tiga by H e rt z a re

s o m e t i m e s s o s h o r t a s t o c o m e wi t hi n t he s c o p e o f t he a b o v e .

r e s e r v a t i o na l r e m a rks or of o t h e r s o f a s i m il a r n a t u r e
, Wh e t h e r .
 98 EL ECTROMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . Iv .

ca t e s t h a t t he a t t e nu at ion fac tor for wa ve s r u nni ng al ong

p a ra ll e l l e a d s is i n t he di s t a n c e x o r e R t lzL i n t he ,
-

eq u iv a l e nt t i m e o f t ra ns i t t Th is i s wh en R a nd L a re c on
.

s t a nt e . I f n o t a nd t he w a v e s be s i m ply p e ri odic t h en we m a y
, ,

u s e t he s a m e fo r mu l a wi t h t he e ffe c t i v e v a l u e s o f R a nd L a t

t he fr e q u e ncy c on c e rne d B u t i f t hi s b e t r u e fo r l on g w a v e s
.
,

we ca nnot e x p e c t i t t o c on t i nu e t r u e o n s h or t e ni ng t he w a v es
t o t he t ra n s v e r s e di s t a n c e o f t he l e a d s m o re es p e ci a lly if we ,

a re igno ra nt o f t he pre ci se t yp e o f t he w a v e s A t t he b e s t w e .
,

s h o u ld n ot e xp e c t m o r e t h a n r e s u l t s o f a s i m il a r ki nd Bu t .

n o t m u ch has b ee n d on e y e t i n t he qu a n t i t a t i ve e x a m i na t i o n o f

He rt zia n w a ve s for s u ffi cie nt ly ob vi ou s reas ons

, .

I n one re s p e c t h o w e v e r a fo r m e rly v e ry s t ra n g e a nom aly

, ,

has b een cl e a r e d u p s a t i s fa c to rily Wh e n H e rt z o p e ne d p eopl e s ’

.

e y e s a n d m a d e t h e m s e e t h e r e a li t y o f Ma x well s e t h e r as a
’

m e diu m pr op a g a t i ng e l e c t rom a g ne t ic di s t u rb a n c e s a t t he s p ee d
o f ligh t by s ho wi ng t h e ir t ra ns mi s s i on a cross a roo m a nd
,

re fl e c t i on by a m e t a llic s cr e en t he fu ll a cc e p t a t i on o f M a x we ll s
’
,

t h e ory was c o ns id e ra bly hi nd e re d for a t i m e by hi s fi ndi n g

t h a t t he s p e e d of w a v e s se nt a l o n g w ir e s wa s m u ch l e s s t h a n
t h a t of fre e wa v es The di s cre p a ncy was a l a rg e o n e
.
,

a nd ga v e s u pp or t a pp a r e nt ly t o t he old vi e w r e g a rdi ng
t he fu nc t i on o f wir e s which m a d e t h e wires t he pri m a ry
,

se a t of t ra n s m i s s i o n a nd , e ffe c t s o u t s id e s e c on d a ry du e ,

t o t he wires .A nd i t c a m e t o p a s s t h a t p e o pl e whil s t ,

a d m i t t i ng t he t ru t h of M axw e ll s t h e ory y e t m a d e a d i s t i n c
’
,

t i o n b e t w ee n w a v es i n fr e e s p a c e a nd i n wir e s Thi s wa s
“ ”
.

t h or ou gh l y o u t of h a r m o ny wi t h M a xw e ll s t h eory which ’
,

m a k es o u t t ha t t he wir es t h ou gh o f gr e a t i m p or t a n c e as
,

g u id e s are ne ve rt h el ess only s e c ond a ry O n t he ot h e r ha nd

,
.
,

i t s h ou ld be m e nt i one d t h a t L odg e fou n d no s u ch l a rg e d e

p art u re from t he s p ee d of light in hi s e xp e ri me nts B u t t he .

m a t t e r has b e e n e xpl a i n e d by t he di s c o ve ry t ha t a n e rron e ou s

e s ti m a t e wa s m a d e of t he p e r m i tt a nc e o f t he os cill a t o r i n t he

e xp e ri m e nt s which a pp a r e nt ly s h o w e d t ha t t he s p ee d w a s l a rg e ly

re du c e d Wh en c orre c t e d t h e re i s not l e ft a ny n ot a bl e di ffe r

.
,

e nc e b e t w e e n t h e s p e e d o f a fr e e w a v e a n d o f on e g u id e d by

wires O f c ou r s e t he re i s no reas on why re fe ren c e t o w a v e s

.
,

i n wire s s h o u ld n ot be dropp e d u nl e s s t he l a te ra lly p ro p a

“ ” -
,

a t e d cyli ndric a l w a v e s a re m e a nt Th e se a r e se c ond a ry a nd

g .
,
4 00 EL ECTROMAGNE TI C THEORY . CH . Iv .

s ph e ri c al w a v e of which t h e y form a p a rt N e ve rt h e l e s s we .
,

ha ve t he propa ga t i on of ne a rly pl a n e wa v e s o f fi ni t e ene rgy or ,

o f a pe rfe c t ly pl a ne w a v e s h e e t of i n fi n i t e e ne rgy a l ong a s i ngl e

-
,

g u id e.

No w t hi s t a ke s pl a c e o u t s id e the c o nd u c t i ng gu id e a nd t he
, ,

qu e s t i on p re sent s i t s e l f wh e t h e r we c a nn ot t r a ns m i t a n e l e c tro
m a gn e t ic w a v e a l on g t he i n t e ri o r of a t u b e i n a m a nne r r e s em ,

bli ng a b e a m of ligh t ? W e c a n c e r t a i nly d o s o i f we h a v e a

s e c o n d g u id e wi t hi n t he firs t t u b u l a r o n e for t hi s d oes n ot ,

d i ffe r s u b s t an t i ally from t he c as e o f t wo p a r a ll e l wires e a ch o u t ,

s id e t he o t h e r . B u t i t d oes n ot s e em p os s ibl e t o d o wi t h ou t
t he i nn e r c ond u c t o r for wh e n i t i s t a k e n a w a y w e h a v e no t hi ng
,

l e ft u p on which t he t u b e s o f di s pl a c e me nt c a n t e rm i na t e i nt e r
na lly a n d a l on g which t h e y c a n r u n
, A t h e or e t ic a l e x p e di e nt
.

i s t o c a rry t he e le c t rific a t i o n fo r wa rd a t t he pr o p e r s p e e d B u t .

we w a nt t he pro c e s s t o b e a u to m a t ic s o t o s p e a k h e n c e co nv ec
, ,

t i o n will no t d o A g a i n if we m a k e t he di s pl a c e m e nt s t a r t fro m
.
,

o n e p or t i on of a n e l e c t ric a lly c o n d u c t i ng t u b e a n d t e r m i n a t e

u p o n t he r es t w e m u s t i ns u l a t e t he t w o p or t i o n s fro m o n e
,

a no th e r ,
a n d t h e n t h e re will b e a divi s i on o f t he ch a rge s
b et we e n t he i nt e ri or a nd e x t e ri or s o t h a t t he r e s u l t will be a n
,

e x t e rn a l a s w e ll a s a n i nt e r n a l w a v e o r r a t h e r o n e w a v e o c on
, ,

py i n g b o t h r e g i o n s .

I t w ou ld a pp ea r t h a t t he o nly w a y o f c om pl e t ely s ol vi ng t he
probl e m of t he a u t o ma t ic t r a n s m is s ion o f pl a ne w a v es wi t hi n a
s ingl e t u b e i s a t h e o r e t ic a l o ne e mpl oyi ng m a g ne t ic a s w e ll a s
,

e l e c t ric c o nd u c t a nc e To s e e t hi s i m a gi n e a ny ki nd o f p u r e ly
.
,

pl an e w a v e b ei ng t ra ns m i tt e d i n t he nor ma l m a nne r t hrou gh

t he e t h e r a nd fi x a t t e nt i on u p on a t u b e o f t h e flu x of e ne r gy
, ,

or a b e a m u s i ng o p t ic a l l a ng u a g e
,
Thi s b ea m c u ts p erp e n
.

d i c u la rly t hr o u gh t he r e fe re nc e pl a ne s i n which t he li ne s o f ,

e l e c t ric a nd m a g n e t ic fo rc e li e which a g a i n cr os s o ne a n ot h e r
,

p e rp endic u l a rly The s h a p e o f t he s e c t i on of t he b e a m by a

.

r e fe re n c e pl an e m a y be a rbi t ra ry B u t le t i t be q u adrila t e ra l a nd
.
,

s o t h a t i t i s b ou nd e d by m a g n e t ic li ne s o n t wo o pp os i te s id e s
’

a nd b
y e l e c t ric li n e s o n t he o t h e r t wo N o w le t t he t wo s id e s
.

o f t h e t u b e u p on which t he di s pl a c e m e nt t e rm i n a t e s p arp e n

d ic u la r ly be e l e c t rica lly c ond u c t iv e t hi n s h e e t s a nd t he o th e r

, ,

t wo s id e s u p on which t he i nd u c t i o n t e r m i na t e s p e rp e n dic u l a rly

, ,

be m a gn et ica lly c ond u c ti v e s h ee t s I f t he c o nd u c t i on be p e r fe c t

.
,
 T HEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNET C WAVES I . 4 01

wi thi n t he tu be Tha t i s we h a ve s olv e d t he probl e m s t a te d

.
, .

W e m a y a l so n ot ic e t h a t t he e xt e rna l p or t i o n of t he w a v e i s
no t wi t h by t he t u b e B u t t he i n t e rp os i t i on o f t he
.

t u b e i n t he m a nne r d e s c ri be d r e nd e r s t he e x t e rn a l a nd i nt e rn a l
w a v e s qu i te i nd e p e nd e nt of o ne a not h e r a nd e it he r of t h e m ,

m ay be s u ppre s s e d .

S i m il a rly i f t he i nt e ri or r e gi on be m a d e fi ni t ely c ond u c t iv e

, ,

e l e c t ric a lly o r m a g ne t ic a lly or b o t h t o g e t h e r w e c a n s t ill i n

‘

, ,

v e s t i ga t e t he t ra ns m i s s i on o f w a v e s a l ong it i n t he s a m e w a y
'

a s pr e v i o u s ly d e s cri b e d fo r c o m pl e t e pl a n e w a v e s i n a h om o

e n e ou s m e di u m m a d e c on d u c t i v e a nd t h e s a m e a ppli es t o t he
g ,

e x te r na l r e gi on i nd e p end e n t ly o f t h e i nt e r na l
, G o i ng fu r th e r .
,

we m a y d o a w a y wi t h t he di ffu s e d c o nd u c ta n c es an d conc e n ,

t r a t e e qu iv a l e nt r e s i s ta nc e s i n t h e pl a t es b ou n di n g t he t u b es ,

i n t he s a m e w a y a s w e r e pl a c e m a g ne t ic c ond u ct a nc e of t he
e x t e r na l m e di u m by e q u i v a l e nt e l e c t ric r e s i s t a n c e o f t he wir e s

i n p as s in g fr om t h e e x a c t pl a n e w a v e t h eo ry t o t he pra c t ica l
-

t h e o ry of wir e s in t e r m s o f V a n d C Th a t i s t he t wo pl a t e s
.
,

o n which t he di s pl a c e m e nt e nd s m a be m a d e e l e c t ric a lly r e s i s

y
t i v e t he r e s i s t a nc e t a ki ng t he pl a c e of t he m a g ne t ic c ondu c t
,

a n c e i n t he i nt e ri o r 3 whil s t t he o t h e r t wo pl a t es s h ou ld be
'

m a d e m a gn e t ic a lly re s i s t iv e i f t he i nt e ri o r el e c tric c ondu c ta n c e

,

i s a l s o t o be a b oli sh e d W e m a y t h e n e xpress t he prop a gat i on

.

o f w a v e s i n t he t u b e i n a m a nn e r r e s e m bli n g t h e pra c t ic a l

t h e o ry of wir es t h ou gh i t will n o l o nge r be a n e x a c t t h e ory

, .

Nor will t he i nt e ri o r a nd e xt e ri or r e g i o ns be q u i t e i nd e p e nd e n t
’

of o ne a no th e r n o w t h a t t he t u b e i s only fi ni t e ly c ond u c t i v e .

I nt erp r et a t i on of I nt e rme di a t e or Te rmi na l C ondi t i ons i n

§ 2 07 . Le av m g t h es e s o me wh a t a b st ru s e c ons i d e ra t i ons ,
re

w ti h t he e x a ct t h e o ry i n v olvi ng m a gn e t ic c ond u c ta nc e I n .

t h e w orki n g o u t o f t he pr a c t ic a l t h e o ry ( which i s n ot y e t ho w ,
40 2 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . 0 11 . IV
.

The q u es t i on no w i s wh a t do t h ese i ns e r ti ons r e pres ent i n t he

,

e x a c t t h e o ry ?

C ons id e r fi rs t a p a ir o f p a ra ll e l l e ad s of n o res i s t a nc e Thi s .

will a dm i t of t he a pplic a t i o n of t he e x a c t t h e o ry pro vid e d t h e re ,

be e i t h e r no l e a k a g e o r t he e x t e r na l m e di u m b e u ni for m ly c o n
i

d u c t i v e e l e c t ric ally No w w e k no w t ha t wh e n the le a d s h a v e

.

res is t a nc e we m a ke t he t ra ns form a t i on t o t he ex a c t t h e ory by

,

s u b s t i t u t i ng u ni fo r m m a gn e t ic c o nd u c t ivi t y o f t he e x t e rn a l

m e di u m of t he prop e r a m o u nt Pl a i nly t h e n i f we i ns e r t a n
.
, ,

el e c tric a l r e s i s t a n c e i n a l u m p i n t he circ u i t o f t he l e a d s a t a ny

pl a c e we s h o uld i n t he e x a c t t h eory t ra ns fe r i t e qu i va l en tly

, , ,

( ch a ng e d to m a g ne t ic c on d u c t a nc e ) t o t he wh ol e o f t he c orr e

s p ond ing r e fe r e nc e pl a ne Tha t i s t o s ay we m u s t m a k e t he

.
,

r efe renc e pl a ne ( ou t s id e t he l ea d s ) u ni fo rmly c ond u c t i ve m a g

ne t i c a lly s o t h a t t he t ot a l m a g ne t ic c on d u c t a n c e of t he e q u i
,

va l ent pl a te i ns ert e d e qu al s t he el e ct ric r es is t a nce which i t

re pl a c es W e m ay t h e n i nves t iga t e t he a c t ion of t he pl a t e on
.

t he w a v es t r a v e rs i ng i t i n t he m a nne r d e s crib e d i n a pre v i ou s

p a ra gra ph 1 9 3 a nd a ft e r) .

S i m il a rly t he e ffe c t o f a n e l e c t ric a lly c on d u c t i ng bri dg e

,

a cr oss t he circ u i t i s e q u i v a l e nt t o t h a t of a n e l e c t ric a lly co n

d u c t ing pl a t e a t t he r e fe rence pl a ne The ir c ond u ct a n c es a re .

h e re n ot only e qu al bu t o f t he sa me kind W e m e re ly re
, .

a rr a ng e t he l e a k a g e c ond u c t an ce s o t h a t i t s h a ll a c t u ni for m ly ,

t o s u i t pl a ne w a v es .

Th u s a t e rm ina l sh ort circu it sh o u ld be re pl a c e d by a

,
-

t e r m i na l p e rfe c t ly c ond u c t i v e pl a t e r e fl e c t i ng H p o s i t iv e ly a nd
,

I : n e g a t i v e ly o r wi t h re ve rs a l of s ign ; or which i s t he s a m e
, , ,

C p os i t iv e ly a nd V ne ga t i v e ly Thi s ma i nt a ins E a nd V p er
.

m a ne nt ly z e ro a t t he s h or t circ u i t u nle ss t h e re be i m pre s s e d

-
,

fo rc e t h e r e A n d a t e rm i na l di s c onn e c t i on m a y be re pr es e nt e d
.
,

i n t h e e x a c t t h e ory by a t e r m i na l p e rfe c t ly m a gn e t ic a lly c on

,

d u c t i v e pl a t e r e fl e c t i n g E p os i t i v e ly a nd H n e g a t iv e ly or V
, ,

p os i t iv ely a nd C ne g a t i ve ly t hu s m a i nt a i ni ng C p e r m a ne ntly
,

z e ro a t t he di s c onn e c t io n .

A s o m e wh a t d i ffe r e nt ki nd of t ra n s for m a t i o n i s r e q u ire d i n

c onne c t i on wi t h i mpre s s e d forc e s S u pp os e for i n s t a nc e w e .
, ,

i ns e rt a n i m pre ss e d v ol ta ge i n t he circ u it o f t he l e a ds a t a give n

r e fere nc e pl a ne Ho w i s i t t o be e qu iv a l e n t ly t ra ns fe rr e d t o
.

t he wh ol e pl a ne or t o t h a t p a r t of i t o u t s id e t he l e a d s s o t h a t
, ,
40 4 ELECT ROMAG NE TI C T HEORY . CH . Iv ,

de v el op m e nt o f t hi s wo rk Only a fe w g e ne ra l c ons id e ra t i ons

.

c a n b e t a k e n u p h e r e i n c o nn e ct i o n wi t h t he t h eo ry o f pl a n e

w a v es W e h a v e se e n t h a t t h e re a r e fo u r dis t i nc t q u a nt i t i es
.

which fu nd a m e nt ally c ont rol t he prop a ga t i on o f s ig na l s or ”

di s t u rb a nc e s a l ong a circ u i t sy m b oli s e d by R K L a nd S

, , , , ,

t he r e s i s t a n c e e x t e r na l
,
c o n d u c t a nc e i nd u c t a n c e a n d p e r
, ,

m i t t a nc e 3 w hil s t t h e r e a r e t wo di s t i n c t v a ri a bl e s t h e t ra ns v e rs e ,

vol ta ge V a nd t he circ u i t a l ga u s s a g e C or t he di ffe re nc e of ,

pot e nti a l ( in a n e x t e nd e d s en s e ) o f t he l e a d s i n a re fe re nc e
pl a n e a nd t he c u rre nt i n t he l e a ds The word s vol t a ge a nd
,
.

ga u ss a ge w e re pr o p os e d i n 2 7 t o r e pre s e nt e l e c t rom o t i v e forc e

a n d m a g ne t o m o t iv e fo rc e a nd , h a ve b e e n e m pl oy e d e xp eri
m e nt a lly to s ee ho w t h e y w ou ld w o rk Th e y work v e ry w e ll
.

for t h e ore t ic a l p u rp ose s bu t I o b s e r ve t h a t t h e y a r e no t ‘

g e n e r a lly o r u n iv e r s a lly a ppr o v e d o f p e rh a p s o n a cc o u nt o f

,

t he t e rm i na t i on o r b e c a u s e o f t h e c o m m e n c e m e nt s v o l t
“ ”
a ge ,

a nd g au s s b e i ng u n i t a ry n a m e s I t i s Op e n o f c o u r s e t o a ny
.
, ,

o ne t o fin d n a m e s which s h a ll b e m o r e s u i t a bl e o r m e e t wi t h

g e n e ra l a ppro v a l .

B u t I s t ick t o i nd u c t a n c e O f a ll t h e w ord s which I h a v e

.

prop os ed t h a t one s e e ms t o m e t o be m ore t ha n a ny o th e r

, ,

e xc e p t i m p e d a nc e a n d c ond u c t a n c e t he righ t w o rd i n t he righ t

,

pl a c e a nd I a m b ou nd t o t hi nk i t p os s ibl e t h a t s o m e of t h os e
,

wh o pre fe r t he old c o e fii c i e n t o f s e l f i n d u c t i o n d o n ot fu lly

”
-
,

a ppr e ci a t e t he v i t a l s ig nific a n c e o f i nd u c t a n c e i n a t h e o ry o f

i nt e rm e di a t e a c t i on o f a m edi u m The id ea of t he dire c t .

m u t u a l a c t i on o f c u rr e nt el e m e nt s u p on o ne a not h e r i s pl ay e d
-

ou t . A n d a s r e ga rd s the n a m e o f t he pra c t ic a l u ni t of i nd u c t
a n c e I t hi n k t he b es t n a m e i s m a c i n h o nou r o f t he m a n wh o
, ,

k n e w s ome t hi ng a b ou t s e l f i nd u c t i on of c ou rs e Ma ny ot h e r
-

, .

n a m e s h a v e b e e n pr o p o s e d bu t n one s o g ood a s m a c
, S om e .

crit ic ha s m a d e e ty m ol ogic a l obj e c t i ons B u t wh a t ha s .

e t y m ol ogy go t t o d o w i t h i t ? The pro p e r pl a ce for e ty m ol ogy

i s t h e gra mm a r b ook . I a l wa y s h a t e d gra mm a r The t e a ch .

i ng o f gr a mm a r t o childre n i s a b a rb a r ou s pra c t ic e a n d s h o u ld ,

be a b oli s h e d .Th e y s h ou ld be t a u gh t t o s p ea k c orr e c tl y by

e x a m pl e n ot by u n u t t e r a bly d u ll a nd s t u pid a nd i n e ffici e n t
,

ru l e s . The s ci e n c e o f gra m m a r s h o u ld c om e l as t as a s t u dy ,

fo r l e a rn e d m e n who a r e i ncli ne d t o v e rb a l finn i c k i ng Our .

s a v a g e fo r e fa t h e r s k n e w n o gr a mm a r B u t t h e y m a d e fa r
.
 T H ORY OF PLANE ELEC T ROMAGN C WAVES
E E TI . 4 05

b e tt e r word s t h a n t he l e a rne d gra m m a ri a ns N ot hi ng i s m or e .

a d m ira bl e t h a n t he s i m pl i ci t o f t he o ld s t l e o f s h o r t w ord s
y y ,

a s i n t he A s a d la d A b a d d o
g o f t,
h e s p e ll ing b o o k I,f y o u .

t r a ns fo r m t h es e t o A l u g u bri o u s j u v e n i le A v ici o u s c a ni n e , ,

wh e r e i s t he i m pr o v e m e n t ?
Now as we h a v e a lre a dy e xpl a i ne d t he cha ra c te ris t ics of d is
,

tor t i o n o f pl a n e w a v e s by c on d u c t a n c e i n t h e m e d i u m g e n e ra lly ,

o f t wo ki nd s a c t i ng d i ffe r e n t ly o n t he e l e c t ric a nd m a g n e t ic
,

flu x e s t he c orre s p ondi ng r e l a t i o ns i n a l ong circ u i t o f l e a d s

,

n e e d be o nly bri e fly m e nt i o n e d C on s id e r a n i n fi ni t e ly l o ng
.

circ u i t o f p a ra ll e l a n d e qu a l re s i s t i ng l e a d s u nd e r u ni for m
e x t e r na l c on d i t i o ns a n d g o v e rn a b le by t he r e l a t i o ns l a id d o wn
'

.
,

Le t i t be a t a giv e n m o m e nt w h o lly fr e e fro m ch a r g e o r c u r

, ,

r e nt e x c e pt a t on e pl a c e wh e re t h e re i s m e r e ly a ch a rg e s a y
, ,

Q0 . O r s a Q
y O
= S V o n u n i t l e ng t h o nly a t t he pl a c e
, 0
L e ft .

t o i t s e l f t hi s will s pr e a d
,
B u t i t w ill d o s o i n wid e ly div e r s e
.

m a nn e r s u nd e r di ffe r e nt circ u m s t a nc es a l t h o u gh t h e r e a r e s om e ,

c o mm on cha ra c t e ri s t ics The s p ee d o f prop a g a t i on of di s t u rb

.
«

a n oe s i s i nd e p en d e nt o f t he v a l u e s O f R a nd K t he ,

di ss ip at i on c on s t a n ts Th u s a t t i m e t a ft e r t he s pre a di ng
.
,

b e gi ns w e a re b ou n d t o find t he ch a rge o r wha t i s l e ft o f i t

, , ,

wi thi n t he r e gion o f l e ng t h 2v t b e i ng c t o n e a ch s id e o f t he ,

o rigi n .B eyond t hi s r e gi on t h e r e i s n o di st u rb a nc e .

N e x t a s re ga rds t he a m o u nt o f t he ch a rge I t c a nnot i n .

cre a s e bu t i t m a y di m in i s h I f t he i ns u l a t i on be p e rfe c t which

,
.
,

m e a ns t h a t K 0 t h e ch a rg e r e m a i ns c o ns t a n t
, I t i s u na ff e c t e d .

by t he r es i s ta n c e o f t he l e a d s a l t h o u gh e n e rgy i s w a s t e d i n ,

th e m . I t only d e cre a s e s by t he e x t e r na l c o nd u c t a nc e or by ,

e q u i v a l e nt l e a k a g e Th e n w e h a ve.

Q =
Qo ( )
I

to e xpre ss t he ch a rg e Q a t t i m e t d e cre a s i ng a cc ordi ng t o t he ,

w ell kno wn e xp on ent i a l la w

-

A s r e ga rd s t he m a nn e r o f s pr e a di ng e i t h e r wi t h o r wi th o u t ,

t he s u b s id e n c e t hi s i s r e pr e s e nt e d i n t he e x a c t t h e o ry by t h e
,

s pr ea di n g a n d s u b s id e n c e o f di s pl a c e m e nt i n a m e d i u m which
 06 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

a na t u ar l di vis ion b e t we en t wo di s t i nc t ki nd s o f re s u l ta nt
di st o rt ion I n t hi s n e u t ra l c a s e t he ch a rg e Q 0 s pli ts i nt o t wo
.
,

h alv es which a t on c e s ep a ra t e from o n e a no t he r a t r el a t iv e ”

s p ee d 20 A t t i m e t l a t e r t h e y a re e a ch a t t e n u a t e d t o
.

m’s
N t ( )
2
‘

The e ne rgy was wh olly e l e c t ric t o b e gi n wi t h bu t in e a ch o f ,

t he r e s u l t i ng w a v e s i t i s h a l f e l e c t ric a nd h a l f m a g ne t ic be ,

c a u s e t h e y a re p u re w a v es A s t h ey a tt e nu a t e t h e ir e ne rgy i s
.
,

was t e d a nd t hi s o cc u rs s o t h a t h a l f i s w a s t e d by t he re s i s t a n c e
,

o f t he l e a d s a n d h a l f by r e a so n o f t he e x t e r na l c o n d u c t a n c e
,
.

Thi s i s n e c e s s a ry i n ord e r t h a t a p u r e w a v e s h a ll re m a i n p u re .

The fi na l r e s u l t i s a t t e nu a t i o n o f t he t w o ch a rg e s t o z e r o wh e n ,

t h e y a re i nfi n i t e ly wid e ly s e p a r a te d a nd wi t h t hi s a c om pl e t e ,

s i m u l t a ne o u s di s a pp e a ra n c e o f t he o th e r ch a r a c t e ri s t ic s a s t he ,

m a g ne t ic forc e I n t he e xc e p t i on a l c a s e o f no r es i s t a n c e a nd
.

n o l e a k a g e t h e r e i s o f c o u r s e a n e v e rl a s t i ng p e r s i s t e n c e o f t he
, , ,

t wo ch a rge s a nd of t he w a v es of which t h e y for m a fe a tu r e .

Th e y go ou t o f ra ng e bu t not ou t o f e xi s t e n c e I n a ll oth e r
, .

c a s es bu t t he di s t or ti onl e s s on e t he ch a rg e ( or t he r e m a i ns o f
,

t he o rigi na l ch a rg e ) i s o nly p a r tly i n t he pl a ne w a v e s a t t he

t wo e nd s of t he di s t u rb e d r e gi o n t h e r e s t b e i ng di ffu s e d ,

b e t w e e n t h e m B u t t hi s m ay h a pp e n i n t wo w a y s The t ot a l
. .

ch a rge a t t i me t i s e x p re ss e d by ( 1 ) a b ov e B u t t he cha rg e i n . .

t he t e r m i na l w a v e s h a l f i n e a ch i s giv en by
, ,

Q0 6
( )
3

re d u ci ng to ( 2 ) d ou ble d i n t he di s tor ti onl ess c as e Th e re for e .

t he e xc ess o f ( 1 ) o ve r ( 3 ) i s t he a m ou nt of t he di ffu s e d cha rg e .

It i s
K t/S
Q0 ( 1 ( R /2L
( )
4
- -
e e

a nd p os i t i v e or neg a t i ve a cc o rdi ng a s R/ L i s grea t e r or l e ss

is
t h a n K/ S .

That i s whe n t he re s i s t a nc e o f t he l e a d s i s i n e x ce s s t he
, ,

ch a rg e i s p os i t i v e b e t we en t he w a v e s a s w e ll as i n t he m B u t .

wh en t he l e a k a ge is i n e xc es s t he in t e r m e d ia t e ch a rg e i s n eg a
t i ve .Thi s h a pp ens e q u i va l ent ly wh e n t he i nd u c t a nc e i s i n
e xc es s or t he p e r m i tt a n c e i n d e fici t
,
H o w t hi s re v e rs a l c o m e s .

a b ou t has b e e n a lre a dy e xpl a i n e d i n t he e x a c t t h e o ry I n t he .

pre s ent circ u m s t a n c e s w e m a y s ay t ha t a n i nt e r m e di a t e re s i s t

4 08 ELE C T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . 1v .

t ra ns form i ng from one s et t o t he o t h e r w e e x ch a ng e V a nd C , ,

Q a n d P ,
R a n d K L ,a n d S I n t h e . e x a c t t h e o ry t he R i n

th es e fo r m u l ae w ou ld a l s o be a c ond u c t a nc e a s b e fo r e d e s crib e d , .

By ( 7 we s e e t h a t i n t he di s to r t i onl es s c a s e a ll t he i nd u c t i on
le ft i s i n t he t e r mi na l wa v e s which i s t o be e xp e c te d Bu t we
,
.

requ ire t he l e a ka g e t o be i n e x c es s for t he i nt e r m e di a t e i nd u c

t i on t o be p o s i t i v e a nd c on v e rs e ly t he r e s is t a n c e m u s t b e i n
,

e xc e s s for i t t o be n e g a t i ve O f c ou rs e t he i n i t i a l i nd u c t i o n i s
.
,

a ss u m e d t o be p o s i t iv e A l s o o b s e r v e t h a t l e a k a g e by i t s e l f
.

ha s n o e ffe c t on t he t o t a l i nd u c t i on e xc e p t t o re di s t rib u t e i t ,

j u s t a s t he re s i s t a n c e of t he l ea d s ha s n o a tt e nu a t i ng e ffe c t
on t he t o t a l ch a rg e A s b e fo re t he m a x i m u m or m i ni m u m
.
,

d e ns i t y of i nd u c t i on i s a t t he origin t ho u gh of c o u rs e t he , , ,

t e r m i n al i nd u c t i ons m ay h a v e gre a t e r or s m a ll e r d e ns i t y t h a n
t hi s a cc ordi ng t o t he e x t e nt o f a t t e n u a t i on a t t he m o m e nt
,

c once rned R e m e m b er t h a t t he d e s t r u c t i on o f i nd u ct i on by
.

t he r e s i s t a n c e o f t he l e a d s i s r e pre s e n t e d i n t he e x ac t t h eo ry , ,

by i t s d e s t r u c t i on by t he e qu i va l e nt m a g ne t ic c ond u c ta n c e
e x t e rn a lly .

P u t t i ng t og e t h e r t he pr e c e di ng r e s u l t s we m a y r e a dily s e e ,

t he e ffe c t o f h a vi ng b ot h V a nd C i ni t i a lly a t a ny s p ot O ne .

c a se is s p e ci a lly not e w ort hy T a k e V0 = LO C0 i ni t i a lly Thi s

. .

m e a ns a p u re pl a n e w a v e s h e e t t r a v e lli ng i n t he p os i t iv e
,

dir e c t i on . Th e re i s t h e re for e n o i ni t i a l s pli tt i ng a n d t he

, , ,

w a v e j u s t goe s o n TO wh a t e x t ent t hi s will c ont i nu e d e p e nd s

.

u p o n t he r e l a t i o n t he c o ns t a n t s o f t h e Circ u i t b e a r t o t he

di s t or t i onl es s s t a t e Whe n t he l a t te r ob t a i ns t he w a v e i s
.
,

t ra n s m i t t e d wi t h o u t s pr e a d i ng ou t b e hi nd s o t h a t a t t i m e t ,

t he i n i t i a l s t a t e i f e xi s t e n t o v e r u n i t l e ng t h will be fou nd
, ,

o v e r u n i t l e ng t h a t di s t a n c e s t t o t he righ t a t t e nu a t e d t o ,

( )
8

wh e re for t m a y be s u b st i t u t e d i t s e q u iv a l e nt x/v I n a ll ot h e r ,

c a se s t h e r e i s re fl e c t i on i n t ra ns i t a nd t he r e fl e c t e d p or t i ons
,

t r a v e l b a ck b es id e s g e t ti ng m i x e d t og e t h e r t h u s m a ki ng a t a il
, ,

o f l e ng t h 2 s t ,h a l f on e a ch s id e o f the origi n bu t now of , ,

c ou rs e w i t h ou t a h e a d a t t he n e ga t i ve e nd t o b a l a nc e t he one
,

a t t h e p os i t iv e e n d .

I f t he re s i s t a nc e be i n e xc es s t he ch a rg e i n t he t a il i s p o s i t iv e
,

a nd t he c u rre nt i s n e g a t i v e a t l e as t i ni t i a lly 3 whil s t if t he

,
 THEORY OF PLANE ELECTROMAG NE T C WAVES I .

l e a kag e be i n e xc e ss t he c u rre nt i s p os i t iv e a nd t he ch a rge

,

i ni t i a lly n eg a t iv e S ee 1 9 5 t o 1 9 9 for m ore d e ta ils which m a y

.
,

be re a dily t ra ns la t e d t o s u i t t he pr e s e nt c as e The t o t a l ch a rg e .

s u b s id e s a cc o rdi n g t o e q u a t i on a b o v e a nd t h e t o t a l i n d u c
( )
1 ,

t i o n a cc o rdi ng t o S i m il a rly ( 3) r e pre s e n t s t he ch a rg e i n

t he one t e r m i na l w a v e ( i n s t e a d o f b o t h a s t h e re ) a nd ( 6 ) , ,

s h o w s t he i n d u c t i on i n t h e t e r m i na l w a v e .

I f i n i t i a lly V L v C o t hi s m e a ns a ne g a t iv e w a v e ( g o i ng
,

t o t he l e ft ) t o s t a r t wi t h Thi s ne e d s no s e p a ra t e no t ic e i n
.

d e ta il.

The D i t r t i nl
s o o ess C i rc u i t . N o li m i t i ng Di s t a n e s et c by i t
w h e n t he A t t e nu a ti on i s i gnor e d .

§2 09 . Thedi s t o r t i o nl e s s s t a t e fo r m s a S i mpl e a n d na t u r a l

bou nd a ry b e t we e n t wo d i v e r s e ki nd s o f pr o p a g a t i on o f a com
plic a t e d na t u re i n e a ch o f w hich t h e re i s c ont i nu o u s dis t ort i on
,

which i s u l t i m a t e ly u nli m i t e d G iv e n t i m e e nou gh a nd a

.
,

circ u i t of i nfi ni te l e ng t h t o w ork wi t h t he l e a s t d e p a r t u re ,

fr om t he di s t o r t i o nle s s c ondi t i o n w o u ld be s u ffi ci e nt t o a ll o w

a ll t h e n a t u r a l c ha ng e s t o b e g o ne t hr o u gh wi t h u l t i ,

m a t e u n li m i t e d di s t o r t i o n The a t t e nu a t i o n i s a s e p a ra t e
.

m a t t e r i n t hi s c o nn e c t i on t h o u gh i t s e l f o f gr e a t i m p ort a n c e
, .

I f h o w e v e r we a r e o nly c on c e rn e d wi t h t he di s t or t i on pro d u c e d
, ,

in a fi ni t e i nt e rv a l O f t i m e w hich m a y be q u i t e s m al l t h e n t he
, ,

m a t t e r m a y b e di ffe re ntl y r e g a rd e d Th er e i s m u ch or li t tl e
.

d i s t or t ion g e ne r a ll y s p e a ki n g a cc o rdi ng a s t he r a t i o s R/ L a nd
”

, ,

K/S a r e n e a rl y e q u a l o r w id ely di ff e r e nt B u t t hi s n e e d s t o be
.

u n d e rs t o o d w i t h c a u t i o n fo r ob vi o u s ly t h e r e m a y be n e x t t o no
,

di st ort i o n o f s ig na l s e v e n wh e n t he di s t ort i onl e s s s ta t e i s wid ely

d e p a r t e d from pro vid e d the ch a nge s of ch a rg e a nd c u rre nt a r e
,

m a d e s l o wly e n ou gh B u t wh e n t hi s i s not t he c ase a nd t h e re

.

is m a rk e d di s t o rt i on o f w a v e s i n t ra ns i t t h e n we s h a ll i n cre as e ,

i t by m a ki ng t h e t i m e c o ns t a nt s m or e u n e q u a l
-
t h e y a re ,

a n d d e cr e a s e i t by a t e nd e n cy t o e q u a li sa t i o n F u r t h e rm o r e .
,

t hi s pro c e s s i s a c ont i nu ou s one s o t h a t s t a r t i n g fr om t he d i s

, ,

t or t i onle ss s t a te c onn e c t e d wi t h e qu a l t i me c o n s t a nt s we m a y ~

, ,

by c on t i nu ou s ly i n cr e a s i ng o ne t i m e c o ns t a n t bri ng o n con -

t i nu o u sly i n cr e as i n g di s t o rt i o n o f o ne ki nd o r e l s e by i n creas i n g , ,

t h e o th e r w hil s t t he firs t i s k e p t c o ns t a nt b ri ng o n c o n
, ,
410 ELEC TROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

t ru e by va ri a t i on of a ny one o f t he fou r qu a nt i t i es c onc e rne d ,

t he r e s i s t a n c e l e a k a g e i nd u c ta n c e a nd p e r m i tt a n c e t o pr o v e
, , , ,

which we n e e d only re m a rk t h a t wit h a ny va l u e s giv en t o t h e s e

c ons t a nts we c an e qu a lis e t he t i me c o ns t a nt s a nd a b oli s h t he -

dis t or t i on a l t oge t h e r by a lt e ri ng a ny one only o f t he fou r .

Wh en a circ u i t ha s b e e n bro u gh t t o t hi s s ta t e t h e n a rbi t ra ry ,

s ign a l s o f a n s iz e a n d m a nn e r o f v a ri a t i o n o rigi na t e d a t t he
y ,

b egi nn i ng o f t he circ u it will r u n a l ong i t a t t he s p e e d of ligh t

, ,

a nd i n d o i n g s o s u ffe r no a l t e r a t i on s a v e a w e a k e n i ng a cc ordi ng

t o t he e x p o ne nt i a l la w gi v e n a b ov e The v ol t a g e a nd g a u s s a g e
.

at an
y s p o t will b e a lw a y s i n t he s a m e ph as e a n d t he s u c ,

c e s s i o n o f v a l u e s will fa i t h fu lly re p ea t t h os e a t t he origi n I f .

t he circ u i t be i n fi ni te ly l ong t he t ra i n o f di s t u rb a n c es will ru n

,

ou t t o i n fi ni t y o f c o u rs e t h o u gh i t m a y b e s t ill a l o ng wa
, , y
fro m i nfi n i t y wh e n t h e a t t e n u a t i o n i s s o gr ea t as t o m a k e t he
di s t u rb a nc e s i ns e ns ibl e Th e re fore di s r e g a rdi ng t he a tt e n u a
.
,

t i on t h e r e i s no li m i t i ng di s t a n c e of p os s ibl e s ig na l l i n g
, More .

t h a n t h a t i t i s n ot only p o s s ibl e bu t p e rfe c t s igna lli ng a cc o rd

, , ,

i ng t o t hi s t h e o ry .

B u t t h e re i s n o p e rfe c t i on i n t hi s w o rld E v e n i f a circ u i t .

we r e c o n s t r u c t e d wi t h c o n s t a n t R K L a nd S a nd wi t h R / L
, , , ,

K/ S e x a c t ly s o t h a t i t s h ou ld be t r u ly di s t o r t i onl e s s i n t hi s
,

pra c t ic a l t he ory i t w o u ld n ot be so i n r e a lit y The re a r e

, .

s e v e ra l di s t u rbi ng c a u se s which t h o u gh t h e y m igh t n ot b e o f

, ,

m u ch i m p or t a n c e i n g e ne r a l w o u ld s e r v e t o pr e v e n t t he a t t a i n
,

m e n t o f t he cl e a n c u t p e rfe c t i o n o f t he t h eo ry which ig nor e s

-

th e m . I ns t e a d of z e ro di s t or t i on t he n i t i s pra ct ica lly o nly a

, ,

s ta t e o f m i n i m u m di s t or t i o n t h a t i s a t t a i na bl e B u t i t m ay be .

a v e ry g o o d i m i t a t i on o f t he t h e o r e t ic a l id e a l I t i s u nne c es s a ry .

t o e nl a rg e u p on t he n e c e s s a ry fa il u r e of a pr o fe ss e dly a p p r oxi
m a t e t h e ory wh e n p u s h e d t o e x t re m e s It i s s u ffici e nt t o s ay
.

t h a t t he ignor e d di s t u rbi ng i nfl u e n c es a l one w o u ld s e rv e t o s e t

a pra c t ic a l li m i t e v e n i f t he c o ndi t i o n R L = K / S w e re t r u ly
, /
a tt a i n e d a nd a t t e nu a t i on w e r e o f n o i m p o rt a n c e
,
.

B u t t h e re i s a n i nfl u e n c e i n fu ll a c t i on i n t he pra c t ic a l t h eory
it s e l f which m u st n o t be o v e rl ook e d na me ly t he a t t e nu a t i on , ,

d u e t o r e s i s t a n c e a nd l e a k a g e O f wh a t u s e w o u ld i t be to
.

ha v e a di s t or t ionl e ss circ u i t if i t t ook ne a rly a ll t he li fe ou t of

t he c u rr e nt i n t he fir s t 1 0 0 m il e s wh e n y o u w a nt i t t o go ,

N o w on p a p e r no t hi ng is e a s i e r t h a n t o i ncrea s e t he
,
412 E LEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

l ea k a g e u nl e s s i t be a s a c u ri o s i t y a nd for t he s a k e of i ts
, ,

t h e o re t ic a l c o nne c t i o n w i t h o t h e r e l e c t r o m a gn e t ic probl e m s .

N o w t hi s c o nc e r ns t he pro p a ga t i on o f V a nd C t hrou gh t he
e x t e rn a l di e l e c t ric The i nfl u e nc e o f R pre v a il s o v e r t h a t o f
.

K a nd c o nt rol s m a t t e rs
, I t i s h o we v e r s o m e wh a t r e m a rk a bl e
.
, ,

t h a t t h e o t h e r s id e o f t he pr o p a g a t i o n pr o bl e m d oes a c t u a lly
pre s e nt i t s e l f a c tive ly w h e n w e re ga rd t he i m p or ta nt s e c ond a ry
,

e ff e c t o f t h e pr o p a g a t i o n i nt o t he g u id e s o f t he c y li ndric a l

w a v e s which r e s u l t fro m t he p a s sa g e o v e r t h e m of t he pl a ne
,

wa v e s i n t he e x t e rna l di e l e c t ric S u pp os e for e x a m pl e t he re .

, ,

i s no e x t e r n a l c o n d u c t a n c e Thi s giv e s o ne e x t re m e for m of

.

p ro p a ga t i on o f V a n d C t he q u a nt i ty K/S ( o r e qu i va l e ntly k/c)

,

b e i ng z e ro a nd R/ L fi ni te N o w r e m e m b e r t h a t i n t he e xa c t
,
.
,

pl a ne wa v e t h e o ry R s t a nd s for t he m a g ne t ic c ond u c t a nc e o f
-

t he e x t e r na l m e di u m s o t h a t R/ L i s t h e s a m e a s g/p a nd t h e r e
, t
,

fo r e we a r e wh e n c ons id e ri ng V a nd C a l s o di s c u s s i ng t h e
, ,

i nfl u en ce u p on t he pl a ne w a v es o f t he fi c t i t i ou s pro p e rty of
m a g ne t ic c ond u c t a nc e .

O n t he o t h e r h a n d i n t h e g u id e s t h e m se l v e s which a r e e l e c
, ,

t ri c a l c o nd u c t o rs a nd p e rh a p s a nd m os t pr ob a bly di e l e c t ric s
, , ,

as w e ll i t i s k c t h a t i s gr e a t e r t ha n g I s i nc e t h e l a t t e r i s
, / / L,

z e ro H e r e t h e n we h a v e t he o t he r e x t r e m e for m o f t he
.
, ,

t h e o ry I n t he e x t e rna l di e l e c t ric lc/c i s z e r o a nd g/j ( e qu i v a

. u

l e nt t o R/ L ) fi ni t e wh e r e a s i n t he g u id e s g/p i s z e ro a nd Ic/ c
,
.

fi ni t e The di s to rt i on of t he e x t e rna l pl a n e wa v e s by t he
.

re s is t a n c e O f t he g u id e s i s t he re fo re o f t he oppos i t e ki nd t o
, ,

t h a t o f t h e cyli ndric a l w a v e s i n t he g u id e s fo r E a nd H ch a ng e ,

pl ac e s wh e n t he fo rm o f t he di s t or t i on i s di s c u s s e d .

No w i n t he g u ide s o n a ccou nt of t h e i r b e ing v e ry go od c o n

, ,

d u ct ors t he p e r m i t t ivi t y i s s w a m p e d a nd m a y be ig no r e d
, ,

i n c a lc u l a t i ng r es u l t a n t e ffe c t s Th en we h a v e t he t h eory o f
.

p u re di ffu s i on ( a s of h e a t a cc ordi ng t o Fo u ri e r) c o nt roll e d by ,

t he tw o c ons t a nt s [c a nd s i n c e b ot h 9 a nd c a r e n o w z e r o
u
, ,
. .

S im il a rly i n t he e x t e rn a l di e l e c t ric i t m a y h a p p e n t h a t t he i n
, ,

r e q u iv a l e nt ly o f L ) i s i ns e n s ibl e a s i n t h e s l o w
flu en c e o f ( o u.
, ,

worki ng of l ong c a bl e s ; th en t he propa g a t i on o f V a n d C i s

cont r o ll e d by t he tw o c o ns t a nt s g a n d c ( o r a c t u a lly a nd e qu i v a

le nt ly by R a nd S ) whil s t t he o t h e r t wo It a nd p a re z e r o
, , ,
.

H e re t he n we ha v e a c u rio u s e x cha nge o f a c t iv e prop e r t i e s

, ,

be t we e n t he di e l e c t ric a nd t h e c o nd u c t o r I n bo th t he r e s ul .
,
 THEORY OF PLANE ELEC R MAGNET C WAVES T O I . 41 3

di ffe re nt prop e r t i e s The prop a ga t i on o f V or E ou t s id e i s lik e

.

t h a t o f H i ns id e a nd t he pr o p a ga t i on o f C o r H ou t s id e i s lik e
,

t h a t o f E i ns id e .

W e s e e by t he a b o v e ill u s t ra t i o ns t h a t i n s pi t e o f t he a bs e nc e
o f m a g n e t ic c o nd u c t i vi t i n r a li t y w e a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s o bl ig e d
y e , , ,

t o c on s id e r b o t h s id e s o f t he w a v e t h e o ry i t i n v o lv e s e v e n I n
-

o n e a n d t h e s a m e a c t u a l pr o bl e m pr o vid e d i t be t r e a t e d co m
,

r e he n s i v e l
p y .

Th e Eff e c t ry i ng t he Four Li ne C ons t a nt s a s r e gar d s

of v a -

Dis t o rt i on a nd A tt enua t i on .

§ 2 1 1 A .s h o w, e v e r w e a r e n o,t i m m e di a t e ly c o n c e r n e d wi t h
th e i nt e r na l s t a t e o f t he g u id e s a n d s o t o s p e a k e li m i n a t e i t
, , ,

by t re a t i ng R a nd L a s c ons t a nt s we m a y n o w di s m i ss i t s ,

c on s id e ra t i on a nd r e t u r n t o V a nd C only on o u r u nd e rs t a nd
, ,

i ng t h a t t he q u a n t i t y K /S i s a lw a y s l e s s t h a n R/ L or d oe s n o t ,

e xc ee d i t i n t he li m i t .

N o w we h a v e Sh o wn t h a t t he di st ort i on in t ra ns it d e p ends
u p o n t he di ffe r e nc e

'
0 "
2L 28

w hil s t t he a t t e nu a t i on of t he fr ont of an a dv a n ci n g wa ve
d e p e nd s u p o n t he s u m

B ot h a n d p s h o u ld be as s m a ll a s p os s i bl e of c ou rs e The
a ,
.

fo u r li n e c on s t a n t s a c t u p on p a nd
-
i n di ffe r e n t w a ys a nd i t i s
0
'

r a th e r i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m S O r e m e m b e ri n g t h a t .
,

t he fir s t t e r m o f t he righ t m e m b e r s o f ( 9 ) a n d ( 1 0) i s b igg e r

t h a n t he s e c ond o b s e rv e t he e ffe c t o f v a ry i n g t he line c on

,
-

s t a nt s o n e a t a t i m e
,
.

re s i s t a nc e of t he g u id e s i s wh olly pr ej u dici a l s i n c e i t n ot on ly ,

w e a k e n s s ig n a l s i n t r a n s i t b u t d i s t o rt s t h e m I t i s t h e r e fo re
’
.
, , ,
41 4 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . IV .

L
[ ] By i n.cr i ng L d e cr e a s e b ot h p and
ea s Thu s t he
we
i nd u c t anc e o f t he circ u i t ( ot h e r t hing s b e i ng e qu al ) i s wholly .

b e ne fici a l s i nc e i t di m i ni s h es b ot h t he a t t enu a t i on a nd t he d is
,

t or ti on i n t r a n s i t or m a k e s t he r e c e iv e d s ig na l s b o t h l a rg e r a n d
,

pl a i ne r Th e s e a re not n e c e s s a rily i ns ig nific a nt e ffe c t s b u t

.
,

m ay be v e ry l a rg e wh e n a ppli e d t o v e ry ra pid v ibr a t i ons o n a

l ong circ u i t .

[ ]
K I ncre a s i ng K i ncr e a se s p a nd r e d u c e s
. Th u s l ea k a ge

i s b ot h b e ne fici a l a nd pr ej u dici a l a cc o rdi ng t o circ u ms t a n c e s , ,

s i nc e a l t h o u gh i t r e d u c e s t he di s t o r ti on i t s i m u l t a n e o u s ly i n ,

creases t he a t t e nu a t i on i n t ra ns i t This a c t i on i s m os t p ro .

no u nce d wh e n t he s ig na lli n g i s s l o w .

I n cr e a s i ng S i n cr e a s es a nd r e d u c e s p
[ ]
S I t m a y be '
. 0 .
,

t h e r e fo r e b o t h pr ej u d i ci a l a nd b e ne fici a l
,
B u t pra c t ic a lly th e .

i mp ort a nt e ffe c t o f S not a bly o n c a bl e s i s t he pre j u dicia l o ne

, ,

o f di s t or ti n g t he s ig na l s which i s a l a rg e e ffe c t
*
.
,

No w t he a b ov e s ta t e m e nt s t h o u gh obvi o u s ly t r u e e n ou gh a s ,

d e d u c t i ons from ( 9) a nd a r e m e r el y q u a li t at i ve The .

pra ct ic a l i mp or t o f v a ryi ng one q u a n t i t y w h en t hre e o the r s a re

c ons t a nt d e p ends u p on t he a c t u al i mm e dia t e v a l u e s of a ll fou r
, .

The l e ng t h o f t he li ne a l s o c o me s i n a s a n i m p o r ta nt fa c t o r ,

a n d lik e wi se t he fr e q u e ncy o f t h e w a v e s t o s e t t l e u n d e r wh a t ,

circ u m s t a nc e s thi s or t h a t va ri a t i on of t he li ne c ons t a nt s i s

i m p o r ta nt i n a s p e ci a l c a s e N e v e r th el e s s t he a b ov e prop e r ti e s .
,

a r e i m p o r t a nt a nd s h ou ld be m os t u s e f u lly b or n e i n m i nd i n
,

g e ne ra l re a s oni ng a s w e ll a s i n t h e d e t a il e d e x a m i n a t i on o f
,

for m u lae fo r i ns t a n c e t he i m p o r t a nt s ol u t i o n s for s i mply

, ,

p e ri odic w a v e s .

S o m e o f t h e s e e ffe c t s ha v e b ee n k no w n a nd u nd e rs t o o d fro m
t h e e a rli e s t t i me s o r m o re c orr e c t ly s i nc e t he t i m e wh e n
, , ,

Willi a m Tho m s on t a u gh t t el e gra ph c a ble e ngi ne e rs t he pri n -

c i p les o f t h e ir b u s i ne s s n i t s e l e c t ric a l a s p e c t s )
( i a nd t o a , ,

gre a t e x t e nt t he pra c t ic e t oo Th ey w e re pre vi ously i n q u i te a

, .

b e nigh t e d s t a t e g e ne rally s p ea ki ng t hou gh t h e re w e re a fe w

, , ,

wh os e n a m e s i t i s n e e dl es s t o m e nt i on who c ombi ne d e nou gh ,

l d v l
.

E v e ry ru e is sai to ha e a n e xc e p t i o n. I t is, p oss i b e

a t a n y r a te ,

fo r t h e ab o v e ru es l t o fa i l , or ap p ear t o fa i l ,
k
w he n t he m a i ng a n d r e ce p t io n
of the s i gna s l is no t o f a s i m p e l ki d n . We m a y t he n a t t r i bu te t he fa i u r e l
t o i ns t ru m e nta l p ec u li a r i t ie s . An e xa m p e l wi ll oc c u r a l i ttl e la t e r i n whi c h
K re d u c es k
wor i ng s p e e dl a rge ly .
41 6 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . 1V .

a nd S are prej u dici a l d oe s not m ak e the la w of t he s qu a r es To .

h a v e th a t R a nd S m u st b e t he o nly c o nt rolli ng ele c t ric a l fa c tors

, .

A ll t he o t h e r e ffe c ts a r e o f l a t e r r e c og ni t i o n a nd w e re m o s t ly ,

d i s c o v e re d a nd t h e ir l a w s i nv e s t ig a t e d a nd c on s e q u e nc e s
, ,

w ork e d o u t by m y s el f T he y c o m p l e te ly r e m od e l t he s u bj e c t
. .

The O ld Vi e w s r e m a i n rig ht i n t h e ir pro p e r a ppli c a t i on bu t

, ,

h a v e a v e ry li m i t e d a pplic a t i on i n g e n e r a l a s i n m od e rn t e l e ,

ph o ny p a r t ic u l a rly My e x t e nde d t h e o ry o p e ne d o u t a w id e
.

fi eld for p os s ibl e i m pr o ve m e nt s i n Sig na lli ng o v e r l ong circ u i t s

i n a dv a nc e o f wh a t c o u ld be p o ss ibl e w e re R a nd S t he o nly
c o nt rolling fa c t ors a nd s o fa r a s i t g oes m o d e rn t el e ph ony
, ,

a lr e a dy g oes fa r b e y on d t he s u pp os e d r e s t ric t i o n s of t h e la w o f

t he s q u a res .

W e s h ou ld not only c on s id e r t he e ff e ct s of v a ryi n g t he fo u r

li ne c ons t a nt s one a t a t i m e bu t a l so o f c ombi na t i ons Th u s
-

, .
,

K m ay be c ou nt er a c t e d by L The for m e r i s b e ne fici a l i na s .

,

m u ch a s i t l e ss e ns t h e d i s t o r t i on b u t i t i s prej u dici a l i n t he ,

a t t e nu a t i o n i t c a u s e s i n t r a ns i t B u t if w e s i m u l t a n e o u s ly i n
.

cre a s e L we c o u n t e ra c t t he a t t e nu a t i on c a u s e d by K 3 m o r e
,

o v e r we s t ill fu r t h e r l e s s e n t he di s t o r t i o n
, Thi s i s c o rrob o ra .

t iv e o f t h e pr e c e di ng r e m a rk a s t o t he u nr e s e rv e d b e ne fi t d u e
to L . W e s e e t h e r e fo re t h a t [K] a n d [L] a b o v e p o i n t t he wa y
, ,

t o s a lv a t i on i f t h a t be by m e a ns o f i ncr e a s i ng t h e di s t a n c e
,

t hro u gh which s ig na lli ng c a n b e c a rri e d o n wi th a c a bl e of gi v e n

t y p e a s r e g a rd s R a nd S B u t le t i t n o t be forg o t t e n i n s t u dyi ng
.

K a nd L t h a t R a nd S t h e ms e lve s m igh t p e rh a p s ( i n s o m e
,

p a rt ic u l a r s ch e m e for e x a m pl e ) be r e d u c e d a s ch e a ply a s K a n d
,

L c ou ld be c a rri ed o u t Be li be ra l wi t h t he Copp e r for one t hing

.
,
.

Lo ok ou t for s o m e pra c t ic a l wa y of i ns u l a t ing t he wires which

s h a ll n ot m a k e t he p e r m i t t a nc e b e so gr e a t a s i t i s a t pr ese n t

wi t h g u t t a p e rch a o r i ndi a r u b be r S o m e t hi ng of t hi s s ort has

- -
.

be e n d o ne for t e l e ph o ne u nd e rgrou nd c a bl e s t h o u gh I d o n o t ,

kno w t he pra c t ic a l m eri t s B u t a s re g a rd s A tl a n t ic c a bl e s i t

.
, ,

s h ou ld be s o m e t hi n g v e ry g oo d a nd t r u s t w o r thy , or t he re d u c e d

p e r m i tt a nc e m ay be b o u gh t t oo d ea rly .

The re ha s b e e n s o m e d i ffi c u l ty i n g e tt i ng p e opl e t o gra s p t he

ide a s e mb odi e d i n [K] a nd [L] e s p e c i a lly t he l a t t e r of c ou rs e
, , ,

o n a cc o u nt o f i t s n o v e l t h l a s a lrea dy p a r t i a ll
y 3 w i s t [ ]
K w y
r e c ogni s e d by k no wi ng on e s a nd i s c a p a bl e o f v e ry r e a dy e x
,

pl a na t i on [L] was t he t r o u bl e N o w re m e mb e ri ng t he s t a t e
. .
,
 T H ORY OF PLANE ELEC TROMAGNE T C WAVES
E I . 41 7

of pr e v a il e d i n the fi ft i e s as r e ga rd s t he e ffe ct s o f
”

fog t ha t
t a nd S a l o n e t h e r e i s no r e a s o n for w on d e r t h a t m o re re c o n
’

:
,

d i t e e ffe c t s a s o f L u na cc o m p a n i e d by pri o r e x p e ri e n c e s h ou ld
, , ,

n o t b e r e a d il r e c o g n i s e d wh e n p o i n t e d O u t t h o u gh t h a t w a s
y ,

n o e x c u s e fo r bu rki ng t h e m a tt e r L e s pe c i a lly t he
[ ]
K . a nd
[ ] ,

la t t e r r e q u ir e t o be s t u d ie d t o b e u n d e rs t o o d
,
B u t i f p e o pl e
.

w ill n o t t a k e t he t r o u bl e t o s t u dy t he m a t t e r h o w c a n t h e y ,

e x p e c t t o u nd e rs t a n d i t ? N o w I find t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n t oo

m u ch o f a n id e a t h a t I h a v e m e r e ly gi v e n s o m e v e ry c om pli
c a t e d fo r m u l a which no fe ll o w c a n u nd e rs ta nd a n d h a v e m a d e ,

s o m e d o g m a t ic a n d p a r a d oxic a l s t a t e m e n t s a b ou t t he c ou se

a r e fe r e n c e t o m l c ric l p r will h
“ ”
q u e n c e s . B u t y E e t a P a e s s o w
t ha t I h a v e t r e a t e d t he m a t t e r o f pr op a g a t i on v e ry fu lly i n ,

t he e l e m e n ta ry p a r t s a s w e ll a s i n t he a dv a nc e d a n d fr o m ,

m a ny p o i nt s o f Vi e w a n d t h a t I h a v e n ot b ee n a b o v e p oi nt i ng
,

t he m o ra l by n u m e ric a l e x a m i n a t i on o f r e s u l t s whil s t a t t he ,

s a m e t i m e I h a v e b e e n p a r t ic u l a rly c a r e fu l i n e l a b or a t i ng t h e

t h e ory o f t h e di s t or t i o n l e s s circ u i t o n a cc ou n t o f i t s ca s t i ng
,

s o m u ch ligh t u p o n t h e s u bj e c t g e ne ra lly . The n ot i on t h a t

ha s b e e n pr o m u lg a t e d t h a t I c a nno t m a k e my s el f u nd e rs t ood
,

by phy s ic is t s r e c o il s u p on i t s a u t h o rs wi t h gre a t fo rc e
,
L ett i ng .

a l o ne t he fa c t t h a t s om e phy s ic i s t s h a v e u nd e rs t o o d m e a n d ,

m or e o v e r t h e fa c t t h a t v a r io u s s t u d e nt s h a v e u nd e r s t oo d m e
,

( a s I k n o w by m y c o rr e s p o nd e nc e
) t h e r e ,i s t h e v e ry n o t a bl e

fa c t t h a t t h e pr o m u lg a t o r s o f t he fa l s e id e a ( which m u s t be
m os t d i s c ou r a g i ng t o s t u d e nt s ) h a v e e vid e nt ly n o t t a k e n t he
t r o u bl e t o e x a m i n e m y wri t i n g s t o s ee wh a t m y Vi e ws r e a ll y
a r e b u t h a v e o nly m a d e a cq u a i n ta n c e wi t h fr a g me nt s t h e re o f
, .

I h a ve a dve r ti s e d t h e di s to rt io nl e s s circ u i t s o o ft e n t h a t I h a v e
b e c o m e a s h a m e d o f d o i n g s o N e v e r t h e l e s s s i nc e i t i s a s I
.
, ,

h a ve o ft e n p o int e d o u t t he r oy a l ro a d t o a n i nne r u nd e r
,

s ta nd i ng o i t he s u bj e c t i n g e n e r a l I d o n o t h e s i t a t e n o w t o
,

a dd s o m e m o r e r e m a rk s i n c o nn e c t i o n t h e r e wi t h a nd l ea di ng ,

u
p t h e r e to i
,
n a t t e m p t e d e l u cid a t i o n o f fo r m e r w o rk We .

Sh ou ld firs t c on s id e r [K] a lo ne or i n c onj u n c t ion wi t h [R] a nd

,

S
[ ] ,
a nd t h e n L
[ ] a n d fina lly b o th
, [ ]
K a nd
[ ]L .

§ 21 2 . Wh a t l e a k a g e d oe s i s to i n cr e a s e t he a t t e nu a t i on o f
w a ve s i n t r an s i t b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o l e s s e n t he di s t o r t i on
,
41 8 EL E C TR OMA G N ET I C T HEORY . CH IV
.

t he y s u ffe r Now t h e re i s by ele m e nt ary kno wl ed ge no

.
, ,

d i ffic u l t y i n s e e i ng why l e a kag e on t he li ne s ho u ld di m i ni s h t he

s t r e ng t h o f t he r e c e i v e d c u rr e n t i n s pi t e o f t h e fa c t t h a t t he
,

s t r e ng t h o f t he c u rr e nt s e nt i s i ncr e a s e d by t he l e a k a g e O hm s
’
.

la w a ppli e d t o a s i m pl e circ u i t wi t h a s h u nt a tt a ch e d will

s u ffi c e t o giv e t he re a s o n s o fa r as o ne fa u l t i s c o n c e rn ed 3 a n d

t he pri n cipl e i s t he s a m e fo r a ny nu m b e r o f fa u l t s or for d i s ,

t rib u t e d l e a k a g e .

A s re g a rd s t he l e ss e ni ng of t he di s t ort i on t h a t i s not q u i t e ,

s o e l em e nt a ry I t d oe s n ot pre s e nt i t s el f for c ons id e ra t i on a t

.

a ll i n c omm on t e l e gra ph circ u i t s Wh e n h o w e v e r a c a bl e i s

.
, ,

i n q u e s t i on a nd t h e r e i s m a n i fe s t di s t or t i o n of s igna l s t he
, ,

i nfl u e nc e t he re u p on o f l e a k a ge b e c om es a n ob v i ou s m a t te r of
i nqu iry W e m ay d o i t on t he b a s i s o f t he el e c t ros t a t ic t h eory
. .

I n fa c t i n hi s t e l e gr a ph t h e ory Lo rd K e l v i n did i ns e r t a t e r m
, ,

i n t he di ffe re n t i a l e q u a t i o n t o e xpr e s s t he e ffe c t on the p ot e n

t ia l o f u ni fo r m l e a k a g e t h o u gh i t wa s m e r ely i n p a s s i ng a nd
, ,

I do not t hi nk t h e re was any d e v e l op m e n t o f t he m a t t e r i n his

l a t e r p a p e rs The ob v i ou s a t t e nu a t i ng e ffe c t o f l e ak a ge a n d
.
,

t he m a n i fe s t e v il s o f fa u l t s c a u s e d high i n s u l a t i on t o b e a i m e d
,

a t a nd p os s ibly c a u s e d t he fu ll e ffe c t o f l e a k a g e t o be o ve r
,

l oo k e d a nd i t s t h e ory t o r e m a i n u ni nve s t ig a t e d
,
.

No w a c abl e is a c ondens e r o r l eyde n a nd a v e ry big o ne , ,

t oo a l t h ou gh i t s p e rm i t t anc e i s s o w id e s pr e a d t h a t t he p e r
,

m i t t a n ce o f a y a rd or s o i s v e ry s m a ll The di s ch a rg e o f -

a c ond e nse r a g a i n s t r es i s ta nc e t a k e s t i m e a nd s o d o e s i t s ,

ch a rge a nd t he gre a te r t he re s i s ta nc e t he grea t e r t he t i me

,

ne e d e d .In t he e x t r e m e a p e rfe c t ly i ns u l a t e d ch a rg e d con

,

d ens er k e e p s i t s ch a rge u nch a ng e d a nd s o d o es a w ell i ns u la t e d ,

-

c able i f a l so i n s u l a t e d a t t he e nd s E v e n wh en i t i s e a r th e d
, ‘
.

o r gro u nd e d a s t he A m e ric a n s s ay a t bot h i t s e nd s ly

( , ) o n t he ,

p or t i ons cl os e t o t he e nd c a n di s ch a rg e a t on c e A way fr om .

t he e nds t he di s ch a rg e ha s t o t a k e pl a c e t hro u gh r e s i s t a nc e
, -
,

t o a v a ryi ng e x t e nt t ho u gh i n di ffe r e nt p a r ts wh e n w e r e g a rd ,

t he l on g cyli n dric a l c on d e n s e r a s a c o ll e c t i on o f s m a ll c o n ,

d e ns e rs s id e by s id e i n p a ra ll e l wi t h a l l t he s i mil a r p ol e s j o i n e d
,

t o g e t h e r by r e s i s t i ng w ires Thi s is ho w i t c om e s a bo u t t h a t
.

t he re s i s t a nc e a c t s c onj o i nt ly wi t h t he p e r m I t t a nc e i n c a u s i ng
r e ta rd a t i o n i n c a bl e s s o t h a t t he e l e c tro s ta t ic t i m e c ons t a nt
,
-

i s pro p o r t i ona l t o t h e ir pr o d u c t o r B S I2 I t is o b v i o u s t h e n
, .
, ,
 ELE CT ROMAGNE TI C THEORY . OH . Iv .

p oss ibl e c a u s ing t h e m to be re gu l a rly s t ra ngl ed chok ed a nd

, , ,

m u t il a t e d t o s ay n o t hi ng of t h e ir s om e t i m e s dyi ng of i na ni t i on
, .

B u t t hi s was m e re t h e o ry A s a m a tt e r o f fa c t t he e ffe c t
.
,

o f l ea k a g e pre s e n t e d i t s el f t o m e a t t h a t t i me i n pra c t ic e

o n re a l liv e c a bl e s i n a s u rpri s i ngly di ff e r e nt m a nne r The .

o ppos i t i on b e t w e e n pl a u s ibl e t h e o ry a n d liv e pr a c t ic e was s o

gl a ring t h a t i t will be i ns t r u c t i v e t o bri e fly d es crib e i t ne xt .

S hort H i s t ry o of L e ak a ge Effe ct s on a C a bl e C ircu i t .

§ 2 1 3 Firs t . r e ga rds l ong l a nd li ne s o f s ay 400 mil e s i n

,
as ,

l e ng t h ( which i s a l o ng dis ta nc e i n t hi s s m a ll c ou nt ry ) l ea k a ge ,

present e d i t s el f a s a n u nm i t iga t e d n u i s a nc e The wo rst c a s e o f .

a ll wa s d u ri ng a c ont i nu o u s s o a ki ng r a i n a ll o v e r t he c o u n t ry .

W he n t h is ha d g one o n fo r a fe w h ou rs t he i ns u l a t i on r es i s t a nc e
fe ll s o lo w by l e a k a g e o v e r t h e dir ty we t i ns u l a to rs mos tly
, ,

t h ou gh a s s i s te d by c o nta c t s wi t h we t foli a g e & c t h a t m a ny o f ,

.
,

t he i mp o r t a nt circ u i t s w e r e c o m pl e t e ly i nv a lid e d t he r e c e iv e d ,

c u rre nt ( e ve n wi t h i ncrea s e d b a t t e ry p o we r) b e i n g t oo s m all for

pra c t ica l u se wi t h t he i ns t r u m e nt s c on c erne d T h i s wa s u s u a lly .

t he c as e i n t he U K on a ny v e ry w e t d a y
. . B u t i t wa s a l s o .

t he s a me i n e ffe c t i n t he E a nd I a l t h ou gh n o t s o m a ny
. .
,

l ines w e re i nva lid ed nor did t h e y brea k d o wn s o q u ickly

, .

I ncide nta lly i t m a y be m e nt i o ne d h e re t h a t t he s o c all e d

,
-

e a r t h c u rr e nt s e a n i ng c u rr e n t s i n the li ne i t s e l f cc rri
”
( m )
“ -
o u ng ,

d u ri ng m a g ne t ic s t or m s s u ch c u rre nt s b e ing a m ani festa t i o n

,

t h e r e of did n ot s e e m t o m i nd t he l e a k a g e m u c h p e rh a p s
, ,

b e c a u s e t h e ir E M F was not lik e t h a t o f a b at t e ry a t on e

. . .

e nd o f a li ne bu t a c t e d c o nt i n u o u s ly a l o ng t he circ u i t by a
, ,

c ont i nu o u s s lo w ch a nge g o i ng on i n t he e a rt h s m a gne t ic forc e ’

,

or ,
r a t h e r i n t he m a gne t ic fo rc e i n t he a ir s u rro u ndi ng t he
,

e a rth P rob a bly t he e a r t h c u rr e n t g oe s t h e s a m e w a y i n

“ -
.

t he li ne as i n t he e a rt h ( pr o vid e d t he li ne i s n ot s e t a t righ t
a ngl e s t o t h e r e a l e a rt h c u rr e n t wh r wh b a t t e ry i s
) e -
eas e n a,

u se d ,
t he e a r t h a nd li ne c u rr e nt s a r e o pp os e d -
B u t i t i s no t .

e a s y i n we t w e a t h e r t o g e t a g o o d m a g ne t ic s t or m s o t h a t cl os e ,

o bs e r v a t i o n s c a n b e m a d e r e g a rdi n g t he i nfl u e n c e o f l e a k a g e o n

e a r t h c u rr e nt s
-
W e m a y dis m i s s t h e m a n d s u m u p t h a t a s
.
, ,

e g a rd s l a nd l i ne s l e a k ag e d oes not s e e m t o h a ve a s i ngl e

,

r e d ee m i ng fe a t u re .
 THEO Y OF PLANE ELEC T ROMAGNE T C WAVES
R I . 42 1

The c ts o f l e a k a ge n e x t pre s e nt e d t h e m s e l ve s to m e on
e ffe

ca bl e circ u i t s w i t h l a nd l i n e s a t t a ch e d a nd w e r e e x c e e di n g ly
-
,

c u ri o u s Th e re w e re t wo circ u i t s o f t he kind b u t o ne in p a r
.
,

t i c u la r ha d a v a ri e d hi s t o ry as r e g a rd s l e a k a g e I t w as a c a bl e .

o f a b o u t 4 00 o r 4 50 m il e s r u n ni ng e a s t a nd w e s t h a vi n g a l a nd ,

line o f 1 2 0 m ile s a t t he e a s t e nd a nd o ne o f 2 0 m il es a t t he
,

we s t e nd The a pp a ra t u s u s e d wa s t he Wh e a t s t one a u to m a t ic
.
,

t h a t i s a n a u t o m a t ic t ra ns m i t t e r a nd a p ol a ri s e d r e c e i v e r
, ,

re c ordi ng d ots a nd d as he s an d t he w ork i ng wa s d o ne w i th o u t

,

c o nd e nse rs by u t ili s i ng t he e a rt h dire c t t o c o m pl e t e t he circ u i t

, .

The b e s t r es u l t s w e re o b t a i ne d i n fine dry w e a t h e r wi t h a

ha rd fr os t— t he ha rd e r t he b e t t e r The i ns u l a t i o n o f t he l ong
.

e a s t l a n d li n e w a s t h e n a t i t s high e s t a nd t h e s ig na lli ng c o u ld
( ) ,

be d one u p t o 3 0 w o rd s p e r m i nu t e o r a li tt l e m ore fr o m w e s t
t o e a s t t h ou gh c ons id e ra bly l es s t he o t h e r wa y for a p e c u li a r
, ,

re a s on B u t t hi s was qu i t e e xc e p t i o na l a nd d id n ot l a s t l ong
.
, .

The ne x t b e s t w as i n a ny v e ry dry we a th e r B u t i n o rdi na ry .

a ve r a g e fa ir w e a t h e r n o t r a i ny o r d a m p t he s p e e d w a s m u ch
, ,

l o we r s ay 2 4 or 2 0 w ord s p e r m i nu t e The e ffe c t of r a i n wa s

,
.

a l wa y s t o l o w e r t he s p e e d p e rh a ps d o wn t o 1 5 w or ds p e r
,

m i nu t e .A l e a k a g e fa u l t o n t h e l a n d li ne o r a c o nt a c t wi t h
a no t h e r wi re h a d a s i m il a r e ffe c t o nly w o r s e pro v id e d i t w a s a
, ,

ba d fa u l t a nd t he s p e e d w o u ld go d o wn t o 1 0 w o rd s p e r m i nu t e
,

or l e s s . No w i t i s po ss ibl e t ha t t he e x tra g ood re s u l ts Ob ta i ne d

I n a ha rd dry fr o s t a r os e p a r t ly fr o m t he re d u c e d re s i s t a nc e o f

t he e a s t l a nd li ne ( t he u s u a l ir o n wire ) b u t t h e r e was no d o u b t
,

a t a ll t h a t t he m a i n c a u s e o f t he wid e v a ri a t i o n s o f s p e e d wa s

l e a k a g e on t he l a n d li ne s e s p eci a lly on t he l o ng o ne o f c ou rs e
, , .

NO Wi t i s t o be n o t e d h e r e t ha t i n t he form e r ca s e o f l on g
la nd li nes t he l e a k a ge wa s pre j u dici a l by t he a t t e nu a t i on i t ,

ca u s e d wh e r e by t he r e c e iv e d c u rr en t s w e re m a d e t oo fe e bl e t o
,

s u i t t he a pp a r a t u s The w o rki ng s p e e d t h o u gh re l a t iv e ly fa s t
.
, ,

w a s t o o s l o w for a ny no t a bl e di s t o r t i o n o f s ig n a l s i n t ra ns i t by
t he c o nd e ns e r a c t i on s o m a rk e d i n c a bl e s B u t i n t he l a t te r
.

l e a ka g e o cc u rr e d ,
 22 EL E C T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . IV

a c t u a l s p e e d of w orki ng wa s a l wa ys p u sh e d u p t o t he gr ea t e s t
p os s ibl e ( t he pr es s o f b u s i nes s b e i ng s u ch a s t o m a k e 2 5 h o u rs ’

w ork p e r d a y a ll t oo s h or t ) a nd t h a t t he a u t om a t i c ch a r a c te r
,

o f t he s ig na lli ng m a d e t h e fix a t i on o f a li m i t i n g s p ee d wi t h o u t
‘

c o mpl e t e fa il u re of a ny m a rk s q u i t e d e fin it e a t a ny p a r t ic u l a r
,

t i me .Pr a c tic a lly h o w e v e r t he w orki ng s p ee d was p u s h e d a

, ,

g o od d ea l high e r t h a n t hi s li m i t by m a ki ng re g u l ar u se of
m u t il a t e d s igna l s N o w i t wa s pro ve d by d a ily e xp e ri e nc e t h a t
.

t h e r e wa s a r e m a rk a bl e s e ns i t iv e n e s s t o d a m p o r l e a k a g e o f ,

an
y ki n d t,
h e s p e e d o f w o rki ng c o ndi t i o ne d by t he r e c e p t i on
,

o f g oo d m a rk s g o i ng u p a nd d o w n lik e t he b a ro m e t e r t h o u gh
, ,

wi th a fa r wid e r r a nge t h an t h a t i ns t r u m ent The e as t l a nd .

l ine wa s s o m a ni fe s t ly t he o ffe nde r t h a t i t c a me i n for a grea t

d e a l o f bl a m e Ye t i t wa s not a ba d li ne by a ny m e a ns a nd
.
,

i t s l e a k a g e w o u ld h a v e p a sse d u nno t ic e d ha d t h e re no t b e e n ,

s u ch a p e c u li a r l o we ri ng e ffe c t o n t he s p ee d c onne c t e d t h e r e

wi th .

B u t ho w a b ou t l e a k a g e i n t h e c a bl e i t s el f s e e i ng t h a t t he ,

a b o v e r es u l t s w e r e s o o u t o f h a r m o ny wi t h w h a t t h e y s h o u ld

h a ve b een by g e ne ra l r e a soni ng re g a rdi ng re t a rd a t i on ? Thi s

,

q u es t i on was s oon a ns w e re d by t he a u t om a t ic d e vel op m e nt of a

firs t cl a s s l e a k a g e fa u l t i n t he c a bl e
-
I t s e ffe c t on t he s p e e d.

wa s s u b s t a nt ia lly t he s a m e a s t h a t o f l e a k a g e o n t he l a nd li ne -
.

I t l o w e re d t he s p e e d a nd s i n c e i t was a lwa y s on t he e fie ct was

, ,
f

p er m a ne nt The ordi na ry fl u c t u a t ions dis a pp ea re d i n a gre a t

.

m e a s u re a s o f c ou rs e did t he fine w e a t h e r high s p e e d s

, It wa s .

like c ont i nu o u s h ea vy we t A s t he fa u l t got v e ry ba d t he .

s p ee d w e n t d o w n t o 1 0 w ord s p er m i nu t e o r l es s i n s pi t e of ,

i ncrea se d b a t t e ry p ow e r .

O n d es cribi ng t hi s pre j u dici a l e ffe ct of l e a k a g e t o t he e l e c

t ri c i a n o f t he c a bl e s hip which c a m e t o r e m o v e t he fa u l t ( i t was
t he l a t e M r S E Phillip s o f H e nl ey s ) he a ss u r e d m e I w a s
’
. . .
, ,

q u i t e wro ng I t wa s i m p os s ibl e for a l e a k t o a c t l ik e t ha t S o

.

’
.

s a id t he c a p t a i n t o o I t wa s k no wn s a id t h e y t h a t a l e a k
, .
, ,

w a s a n e xc e ll e nt t hi ng I t ha d b e en fo u nd s o o n t he Fr e nch
.

A tl a nt ic n o t l ong b e fo r e a nd i n o t h e r c a s es ,
I f u lly b eli e v ed .

t hi s b e c a u se i t s ee m e d t h eo re t ic a lly s o u nd a n d I h a d h e a rd
, ,

s i m il a r s t a t e m e nt s b e fo re B u t t h e y did not a ss i s t m e t o a n
.

u nd e rs t a ndi ng o f t he p a t e nt fa c t t h a t l ea k a g e c o u ld b e highly

pre j u dicia l i ns t e a d o f be ne fic ia l I n c orro bo ra ti o n of t hi s wh e n

.
,
42 4 ELEC T ROMAGNE T IC T OR
HE Y . C II Iv .

B u t, t o cli nch t he m a tt e r a s e c ond l ea k a ge fa u l t a pp e a r e d

,

i n t h e c a bl e wh il s t t he s iph on r e c o rd e r w as o n a n d r a pidly ,

d e v e l ope d N o w i t wa s only a t t he w e s t e nd t h a t t h e re wa s a
.
,

s i h on r e c ord e r 3 a t t h e e as t e n d wa s t h e p ol a ri s e d r e c o rd e r
'

p .

The r e s u l t was t h a t t he s p e e d fro m w e s t t o e a s t w e n t d o w n

g re a t ly a s t he fa u l t d e v e l op e d i n a cc o rd a nc e wi t h pri or k n o w
,

l e dg e B u t t he ot h e r wa y fr om e a s t t o w e s t re c e ivi ng wi t h
.
, ,

t he s iph o n r e c o rd e r t he w o rki ng w a s gr e a t ly i m pr o v e d
,
The .

u l t i m a t e r e s u l t wa s t h a t w h e n t he fa u l t g o t v e ry b a d n o m a rk s

a t a ll c o u ld b e got a t t he e a s t e n d e v e n b k e y s e n di n g o wi n g
y
-
, ,

t o t he g rea t a t t en u a t i on whil s t we c o u ld r e c e i ve fir s t r a t e on
,

t he s iph on r e c ord e r a t t h e w e s t e nd O n t h e v e ry l a s t d a y .
,

w h e n c o mm u nic a t i o n fro m we s t t o e a s t h a d t o b e d one by a

ro u nd a b ou t c ou rs e we we re a bl e t o r e c e iv e a l ong b a t ch o f I
, ,

t hi nk 1 5 0 m e s s a g e s a t high s p e e d ( a b o u t 5 5 o r 6 0 w o rd s p e r
,

m i nu t e ) by u s i ng 8 0 L e cla nc hé c ell s a t t he s e ndi ng e nd a nd ,

p u tt i ng o n t h e e l e c t r o m a gn e t s a ll t he t r a y b a t t e ri e s a v a il a bl e ,

i ncl u di ng m os t o f t he s m a ll one s t o m a g ni fy t he m a rks N o w ,

.

t hi s m igh t s e e m t o be m e r el y a t e s t i m o ny t o t he s e n s i t iv e n e s s
o f t he i n s t r u m e nt B u t t he s ig nific a n t p o i nt w a s t h a t a l t h o u gh
.

t he m a rk s w e re v e ry s m a ll i n s pi t e of m a g nific a t i o n by i ncr e a s e d
,

ba t t e ry p o w e r a t b ot h e nd s t h e y w e r e e x c e e di ngly cl e a r Th e y
, .

w e re t he b e s t e ve r got a t t he s p e e d W e w e re pra c t ic a lly .

w orki ng p a s t a fa u l t of n o r es i s t a n c e for t he c a bl e so on g a v e ,

u t h e gh os t T he t a il e n d of t he b i b t ch fi n a lly d e g e ne r a t e d
p .
g a

t o a s t ra igh t li ne i ndic a t iv e o f a v e ry d e a d e a r th
, .

O n t he re m o v a l of t hi s fa u lt t he r e c e iv e d c u rr e nt wa s l a rg e ly
,

i ncre a s e d of c ou rs e B u t s i m u l ta ne ou sly t he d is t o r t i on o f t he
.
, ,

m a rk s o n t h e s iph on r e c o r d e r b e c a m e h u g e a t t he s p e e d 6 0 .

I t n e e d e d t o be m u ch l o w e r e d t o gi v e c on v e ni e n tly r ea d a bl e
m a rk s .

Exp la na t i on of A noma l ou s Effe c t s . A rt i fici a l L ea k s .

§ 21 4 . N ow b ov e fa c ts ga v e a d e ci s i v e a nd c u m u l a t i ve
t he a

p roo f t h a t l e a k a g e wa s b e n e fici a l e v e n w h e n c onc e nt r a t e d a t a

s i ngl e s p o t pro vid e d t he c u rr e n t v a r i a t i o ns w e r e r e c o rd e d i n a
,
-

s i m pl e m a n ne r B u t a c o m pl e t e e x pl a na t i o n o f t he v e ry l a rg e
.

d e cre as e i n t h e s p e e d p os s i bl e wh e n t he p ola ri s e d r e c ord e r wa s

u s e d t u r ne d o u t t o b e r a t h e r a c o m lic a t e d m a t t e r i n d e t a il
, p ,

a l th o u gh s u ffi c ie nt l i m p l i n t h f u nd a m e nt a l p r i nc i l e
y s e e p .
 T O Y
HE R OF P LANE ELEC T ROMAGN E TI C WAVE S . 4 25

Thi s ~

d e t ri me nt a l t o a n e ffici e nt u s e of t he c a bl e wa s
e ff e c t, s o ,

m ix e d u p wi t h a n o t h e r o ne viz a di ffe r e nc e i n t he w o rki ng

,
.
,

s p e e d a cc o rd in g t o d ir e c t i o n o f s a y 2 5 p er c e nt wi h
, ( t t h e s a me .

i ns t r u me nt s ) b u t v a ri a bl e wi t h circ u ms ta n c es Thi s e ff e c t
,
.
,

a g a i n s e e m e d t o h a v e t wo c a u s e s
, o ne d e p e ndi n g u p o n t he
,

circ u i t a nd t he u nc e nt ric a l p os i t i on o f t he c a bl e i n i t i nd e p e n
, ,

d e nt o f t h e ki nd o f i ns t r u m e nt s u s e d ; w hil s t t he o t h e r w a s
s p e ci a l a n d p e c u li a r t o t h e a u t o m a t i c t r a n s m i t t e r a n d r e c e iv e r

wh e n c om bi ne d wi t h t he u nc en t ric a l p os i t i on o f t he c abl e I t .

m a y be r e a dily i m a gi ne d t h a t t he r e s u l t a nt e ff e c t o n t he
w ork ing s p e e d re q u ire s s om e s t u dy t o b e u n d e rs t o od It will .

b e s u ffi ci e n t h e r e t o m e nt i on t h e i n s t r u m e nt a l p e c u li a ri t y i n
i t s r el a t i o n t o t he d e tri m e n t a l e ffe c t O f l e a k a g e .

The o rigi n a l a u t o m a t ic t r a ns m i t t e r o f W hea t s t one w a s c on

s t r u c t e d t o m a k e d o ts o nly u p o n t he s lip o f a s p e ci a l r e c e iv e r 3

t h e r e w e re t wo r o w s o f d o t s o n e s e t b e i n g for t he d o ts a n d t he
, ,

o th e r for t h e d a s h e s o f t h e M o rs e c o d e B u t wh e n t h e i n v e nt o r
.

w a n te d t h e E a n d I C o t o t a k e i t u p t h e y d e m a n d e d d o t s
. . .
,

a nd d a s h e s a s u s u a l
, S o t h e i ns t r u m e n t s ha d t o be m odifi e d
. .

No w I h a v e p e rs ona l re a s on t o kno w t h a t a fe w y e a r s l a te r t he
i n v e nt o r wa s q u i t e a t s e a a s t o t he r e a s on o f t he p e c u li a r e ffe c t s
Obs e rv e d i n w o rki ng his i ns t r u m e nt s o n c om p os i t e circ u i t s a n d
c a bl e s I t i s th e r e for e pr e tt y s a fe t o a s s u m e t h a t pre v i ou s ly
.
,

wh e n t he c on v e rs i o n wa s m a d e t he m a nn e r o f t he c onv e rs i on
, ,

fr o m m a ki ng d o u bl e d o t s t o d o t s a n d d a s h e s wa s dic t a t e d ,

p u rely by c o ns id e ra t i o ns o f m e ch a n ic a l c onve ni e nc e a nd ,

t hi s c o n cl u s i on m ay b e m a d e n e a rly c e r t a i n by a c o m p a ri s on o f
t he o rigi na l wi t h t he m odi fi e d t r a n s m i t t e r B u t M r S t r oh . .

k no ws a ll a bou t i t A t a ny ra t e t he p e c u li a r wa y o f m a ki ng
.
,

t h e d a s h a n d t h e l o ng s p a c e w a s t h e c a u s e o f a ll o u r t r o u bl e
wi t h l e ak a g e w hic h c os t t he C o m p a ny a n i mm e n s e s u m of
,

m one y v iz w h a t t h e y m i g h t h a v e g a i ne d ot h e r wi s e for t h e y
, .
, ,

w ere bl o ck e d w i t h w ork a n d m ight h a v e ha d m u ch m ore

, .

To m a k e a do t a s h o rt p os i t ive c u rr e nt wa s s e nt i m m e di a t e ly
, ,

fo ll o w e d by a s i m il a r s h o r t n e g a t iv e c u rr e nt To m a k e a d as h .
,

a ft e r s e ndi ng t h e firs t s h o r t p os i t iv e c u rr e n t t h e r e was a n ,

i nt e rva l of no c u rr e nt l a s t i ng t wic e a s l ong a s t he firs t c u rre nt ,

426 ELEC T ROMAGNE TI C T HE O RY . CH . IV
.

p os it i ve c u rr ent Now in t he se i nt e r v a l s o f n o c u rre nt t he

.
,

s e ndi ng e nd o f t h e li ne wa s i ns u l a t e d Wh e n s e ndi ng c u rr ent .

,

o n t he o t h e r h a n d t he li n e was t o e ar th t hr o u gh t h e b a t t e r
, y , .

Two di s t i nc t e l e c t ric a l a rra ng e m e nt s w e re t h e r e fo r e o p e ra t iv e

i n t u rn v iz a c a bl e wi t h b ot h e nd s e a r t h ed a nd a c a bl e wi t h
, .
, ,

only o ne e nd t he r e c e i v i n g e nd t o e a rt h r r
( ) I f t h e fo m e s y s .

t e m a l wa y s pr e v a il e d t he m a nne r of t r a ns m i s s i on o f e l e c t ric a l
,

cha nges w o u ld follo w one la w I f t he l a t t e r s ys t e m pre v a ile d

.
,

i t w ou ld foll o w a no t h e r la w a nd w o u ld give m u ch gre a t e r

,

r e t a rd a t i on I n re a l fa c t t he t wo w ays w e re i n a l t e rna te a c t i o n
.
,

irre g u la rly This has t o b e c ons id e re d c a re f u lly i n e xa mi ni ng

.

t he i nfl u e nc e o f t he u nc e nt ric a l p os i t i on of a c a bl e i n a co m po
s i t e circ u i t a nd a l s o o f l e a k a g e
, .

No w t he pra c t ica l e fie c t w ork e d ou t t hu s Th ere was a re al

'
.

p os i t i v e a nd m a t e ri a l a d va nt a ge i n m a ki ng t he d as h a nd long
s p a c e o f t he M or s e c od e by a s h o rt i ni t i a l c u rr e nt i ns te a d o f a

l ong one a s i n o rdi n a ry w orking wi t h r e ve rs i ng k ey s I es t i

,
.

m a t e d t he g a i n a s a m ou nt i ng t o fro m 1 00 t o 1 2 5 p er c e nt .

u n d e r fa v ou ra bl e circ u m s t a n c e s Thi s i mpli e s t h a t t he li m it i ng

.

s p ee d i s r e a lly w ork e d u p t o B u t i t was v i t a lly n e c e s s a ry

.

t o s e c u r e t hi s a d va n t a g e t h a t t he i ns u l a t i o n s h o u ld be v e ry
,

good A p e c u li a r b a l a nc e ha d t o be pre s e rv e d b e t w ee n t he
.

p os i t i ve a nd t he n e g a t iv e c u rre nt s The c u rre nt s w e re of e q u al.

d u ra t ion a nd of a lt e rna t e s ig ns b u t ne c ess a rily no t e q u idi s ta nt

,

i n t i me . N o w wi t h e xc ee di ngly goo d i ns u l a t ion t he Sh or t

, ,

c u rr e nt s ent a t t he b egi nni ng of a da s h was s u ffi ci e nt ly pr ol ong e d

i n r e c e p t i on a s t o n o t m e re ly m a k e a g oo d d a s h fi rm ly bu t t o ,

ke e p t he b a l a nc e for t he ne x t c u rre nt s B u t i f y o u p u t a fa u l t .

o n t he li ne a n d le t t he
, ch a rge l ea k o u t d u ri ng t he d e a d
i nt e r va l o f t he d as h t h en t he n e xt follo wing ne ga t i ve c u rre nt ,

t e r m i na t i ng t he d a sh w o u ld be t oo s t r ong so t h a t a n i m m
,

,
e ,

di a t ely s u cc ee di ng p os i t i v e c u rre nt ( wi t h a n e g at i ve c u rre nt a ft e r

i t ) to m a k e a d ot w o u ld m i s s fire a l to g e t h e r S imil a r r e ma rk s .

a pply t o t he s p a c e I f t he n e g a t i v e c u rr e nt t h at i ni t i a te d t he
.

s p a c e we re a ll o we d t o d i e a w a y by t he a c t i on o f a l e a k t he ne xt ,

foll o wi ng p os i t i v e c u rr e nt w ou ld be t oo s t ro ng a nd c a u s e a n ,

i m me di a t ely foll o wi ng n ega t i ve c u rr e nt t o m i s s fire Re m e m b er .

t h a t t he r e c e p t i o n o f t he s ig na l s wa s wi t h a p o l a ri s e d r e c o rd e r ,

t he z e ro o f which c o u ld n ot b e c on t i nu ou s ly a l te re d t o ca t ch t he
m i s s i ng c u rre nt s e xc e p t by a v e ry a rt fu l p e rs on who k ne w wh a t
428 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . I v.

c a bl e y e t t o h a v e t he giv e n l e a ka n c e I n a l u m p i s t h e w o rs t
,

a rra ng e m e n t a s r e g a rd s i t s a cc e l e r a t iv e e ffici e n cy The b e s t .

a rra ng e m e nt i s u n i fo rm ly s pr e a d l e a k a n c e a s m u ch a s p o s s ibl e
-
, ,

w i t h h o w e v e r a t h o r o u ghly u s e fu l r e s id u a l t e r m i na l c u rr e nt
, ,

t o wo rk w i t h w hich c u rre nt c o u ld b e v a ri e d fa r m or e r a pidly

,

t ha n i s p o ss i bl e w i t h a S i ngl e l e a k .

I s i t i m p os s ibl e t o find a n i ns u l a t or of c o m p a ra t i v ely lo w

r e s i s t a nc e which s h o u ld be s u i t a ble in o t h e r re s p ec ts ? T e le
gra ph c a bl e m a nu fa c tu r e rs wou ld prob a bly s a y N 0 Tha t ,
.
,

h o we v e r ne e d n ot be c ons id e re d c oncl u s iv e be c a u s e as i s w e ll
, , ,

k no wn wh e n a n i nd u s t ry or i ns t i t u t i o n i s o nc e es t a bl i he d i t
,
s ,

a l wa y s g e t s i nt o groo v e s a n d has t o b e m o v e d ou t o f t h e m by
,

e x t e rn a l a g e n cy i f a t a ll B u t s h o u ld s u ch a n i nsu la t o r be u n
, .

a t t a i na bl e t h e n t he o nly a l t e r na t iv e i s t o h a v e a rt ifici a l l e a k s
, ,

a s m a ny as p os s i bl e The t h e ory i s I t hi nk q u i t e pl a i n a nd
.
, , ,

I k no w th a t t he pra c t ic e i s a l s o u p t o a c e r ta i n p oi nt B u t ,
.

h e r e be gr oo v e s a g a in Fo r pe opl e w orki ng i n e s ta blis h e d

.

wa y s h a v e t h e ir o wn prop e r w ork t o d o a nd h a ve no t i m e t o ,

w as te u p on fa d s“
S o m u ch i s t hi s t h e c a s e t h a t i t o ft e n
.
”

h a pp e ns th a t t h e y h a ve e xc e e di ngly li tt l e kn o wl e dg e of hOw
t hi ng s w ou ld w o rk o u t i f t h e y d e p a r te d fr o m the ru t s t h e y a r e
a cc u s t o m e d t o r u n a l o ng Tha t i s t o s a y t he s piri t of s ci e nt ific
.
,

r e s ea rch which wa s t o s o m e e x t e n t pre s e n t i n t he i nd u s t ry i n

,

i t s e a rly s t a g e s ha s n e a rly a ll e v a p o r a t e d l e a v i n g b e hi nd
, ,

r eg u l a r r u l e s a nd a h a t re d of fa d s I a m n o wild e nt hu s i as t .
,

h a v i ng b e e n a pra c t ici a n m y s e l f bu t i t ha s c e r t a i nly b e e n a

.
,

m a t t e r o f s o m e wh a t m ild s u rpri s e t o m e t h a t c a bl e e l e c t rici a ns ,

w ho h a v e ha d s u ch u n e x a m pl e d o pp o r t u ni t i e s i n t he l as t 2 0 o r
3 0 y e a rs s a y s h o u ld h a v e d o ne no t hi ng i n t he m a tt e r o f l e a k s
, , .

P e rh a p s t h e r e m a y t u r n ou t t o be obj e c t i o ns a t pre s e n t u n
t h o u gh t o f The s a m e c ou ld be s a id o f a ny t hi ng u nt ri e d
. .

S e v e ra l c a s e s o f r e s i s t a n c e t o ch a ng e o f e s t a bli s h e d pra c t ic e ,

wh e re t he ch a ng e s u l t i m a t ely tu rne d o u t t o be of gre a t b e ne fi t ,

h a ve c o m e u nd e r my p e rs ona l o b s e rv a t i on The prop os e d .

ch a ng es w e re ( I b e li e v e q u i t e h on e s tl y ) firs t s c o u t e d as fa d s ,

a nd t he i n no v a t o r w a s s n u bb e d 3 n e x t u nd e r pre s s u r e t h e y , ,

w e re re l u c t a nt ly t rie d 3 t hirdly a d o p te d as a m a t t e r of c ou rs e
, ,

an d t he i nn o v a t o r s nu bb e d a g a i n B u t t hi s i s t h e n a t u r e o f
.

t hi ng s a nd c a n be see n e v e ry wh e re a r o u nd — v e ry no ta bly i n
,

t he p o li t ic a l wo rld .
 THEORY OF PLANE ELEC ROMAGNE T C WAVES T I . 4 29

§ 2 1 5 W .e ha vec o ns id e r i n wh a t w a y s e l f i nd u c
no w to -

ti on c o m e s i n t o i n fl u e nc e t he t ra ns m i s s i on of w a v e s a l o ng
,

wire s . The fi r s t s t e p i n t hi s dire c t i o n wa s m a d e by Kirchh o ff

as l o ng a go a s 1 8 5 8 bu t i t i s o nly i n r e c e n t y e a rs t h a t s e l f
,

i ndu c t i on has b e c o m e prom i ne nt a s a n a c t ive a g e n t a n d i t s ,

r e a l re s u l t a nt e ffe c t w o rk e d ou t a nd u nd e rs t ood more or ,

le s s Thi s e ffe ct i s on firs t a cq u a i nt a nc e a s om e wh a t s u r

; , ,

pri s ing a nd p a ra d ox ic a l o ne E v e ry on e k no w s t he i mp e di ng
.

e ffe c t o f s e l f i n d u c t i o n i n a pp a r a t u s
-
Ho w t h e n i n t he n a me
.
, ,

of Fa r a d a y c a n i t be b e n e fici a l i n a t e l e gr a ph o r t e l e ph one
,

circ u i t a nd ma k e s ig na l s bigge r a nd cl ea re r ? TO a ns we r t his

, ,

i t will be c onv e ni e nt t o m a k e u s e o f a n a na l ogy i n t he firs t

I

Th e re i s i n a grea t m e as u re a for ma l res e mbl a nc e b et w e en

, ,

t he pr obl e m of a t e l e ph one circ u i t a l on g which e le c t ro m a g n e t ic

di s t u rb a nc es a r e b e ing prop a g a t e d a nd t he m e ch a n ic al probl e m
,

o f t he t ra ns v e rs e m ot i o ns o f a s t r e t ch e d fl e x i bl e c ord B ut to .

m a k e t he fo r m a l r es e m bl a nc e be a l s o a pr a c t ic a l r e s embl a n c e ,

s e v e ra l li t tl e t hi ng s h a v e t o be a t t e nd e d t o a nd r e s e r v a t i ons ,

m ade . No w t he re are a gr ea t m any m e ch anica l probl ems co n

c e rning w a v e m ot i on s u bj e c t t o frict i on which m a k e b e t te r
-

a n a l ogi es fo r t he u s e o f t he m a t h e m a t ic a l i nqu ire r ; b u t t he

,

c as e of a fle xible c ord i s m o re or le ss fa mili a r t o e ve ryone a n d ,

i s u p t o a c e r t a i n p o i nt e a s ily r e a li s a bl e
, , .

The c o mm one s t kno wl e dg e of t he t ra ns v e rs e m ot i ons of a

s t r e t ch e d c o rd i s c onc e rni ng i t s no rm a l vib ra t i on s t he fu nd a
.

m e nt a l m o de a nd i t s har m oni cs B u t w e d o n o t w a nt t h e m i n
v

ou r a n a l ogy Fo r a l t h o u gh we m ay h a v e s o m e thi ng s i m il a r
.

wi t h s h ort w a v e s a nd e s p e ci ally H e r t zi a n wa v es i t w o u ld not

, ,.

m od es by r e fle c t i on a t t he en sd . Fo r t h e no rm a l vibra t i ons o f
43 0 ELEC TROMAGNE T IC T H EORY . CH . Iv .

to a nd qu ickly for pra c tic a l ob s e r va t io n Ta k e t h e n

fr o t oo .
, ,

a l o ng i ndi a r u bbe r c ord s u s p e n d e d fr o m a h e igh t as i s s om e

-

, ,

t i m e s d o ne by l e c t u re rs The s p e e d of t ra ns mi s s i on of p u l s e s
.

m a y be m a d e s ma ll e nou gh t o a llo w t he di s t u rb a nc e s t o b e
c onv e ni e nt ly w a t ch e d The n if t he c ord h a n g v e r tic a lly a t
.
,

r e s t t o b egi n wi t h a nd i t s l ow e r e nd he m om e nt ar ily j e rke d

, ,

bri ngi ng i t i mm e di a t ely b a ck t o i t s o rigi na l p os i t i on a b u m p is ,

g ene ra t ed which r u ns a l ong t o the fix e d e nd I t i s not m u ch

,
.

cha nge d i n t ran s i t a nd i s r e fl e c t e d b a ck a nd r e reflec t e d m a ny

, ,
-

t i m es . B u t we only w a nt t o c o ns id e r t he p as sa g e of a h u m p
o ne w a P r o p e rly s p e a ki n g t h e n w e s h o u ld h a v e so l on g a
y .
, ,

c ord t ha t r efl e c t i on i s ( by fric t i on a l l os s ) i ns ig nific a nt P e r .

h a p s a v e ry l ong c ord l a id u p o n a s u rfa c e o f i ce w ou ld be m or e

s u i ta bl e for t he p u rp ose B u t if t he .
“
fix e d e nd be m o va bl e ”

tr a ns v e rs e ly a nd i t s m o t io n be r es i s t e d by a fo rc e pr op or t i o na l
,

to i t s ve l o ci ty t h e ir c ons t a nt r a t i o m a y h a v e s u ch a v a l u e
,

gi v en t o i t ( d e p e ndi ng u p o n t he m a s s a nd t e ns i on o f t he c ord ) ,

t h a t t he a rrivi ng di s t u rb a nc e s d o not pro d u c e a ny r e fl e c t e d

wa v es bu t a re a bs orbe d by t he t e rm in a l re s i s ta n c e The c ord
,
v .

t h e n b eh a v e s a s i f i t w e r e i nfi ni t e ly l ong Thi s i s t h e o ry o f .
,

c ou rs e bu t I d a re s a y a s u ffi ci e nt ly good pra c t ic al i m i ta t i on

,

c o u ld be got by m e a ns o f a t e rm i na l blo ck slidi ng u p on a wire

wi t h fric t i on A n i m p e r fe c t c a nc ell a t ion of t he r e fl e c t i on i s
.

e as ily g o t .

D i s re ga rding t he s l o w ch a nge of typ e a nd the a t te nu a t i on ,

so t h a t t h e re i s u ndi s t o r te d pr o p a g a t i o n o f a h u m p or o f a ,

s u cc e ss i on o f h u m p s m a ki n g a t ra i n of w a v e s g oi n g o ne wa
y
o nly t hi s c as e i s a na l o g ou s t o t he t ra ns m i s s i o n o f w a v es a l on g
,

a u n i fo r m circ u i t o f n o r es i s t a nc e The t wo c ons t a nts L a nd

.

S in t he e l e c t ric a l c as e a re r e pl a c e d by a no t h e r t wo v iz t he , .
,

d e ns i ty ( li ne a r or m as s d ivid e d by l e ng t h) a nd t e ns ion o f t he
,

c ord Th u s l a rge p e r mi t t a nc e t h a t i s s mall e l as t a nc e m ea ns

.
, , , ,

s m a ll t e ns i on o r a s l a ck c o rd 3 a n d l a rg e i nd u c t a nc e m e a ns a
,

m a s s iv e c ord I f I s a id a
. h ea vy c ord i t m ight be t ho u ght ,

t h a t i t s w e igh t wa s c onc e rne d i n t he m a t t e r i n q u e s t i on bu t ,

i t i s no t s a v e a s a di s t u rbi ng fa c t o r
,
The t ra ns v e rs e di s pl a c e
.

m e nt o f t he c ord m a y b e c o m p a r e d wi t h t he t ra ns v e rs e v ol t a g e
in t he e l e c t ric a l circ u i t O th e r c om p a ri sons ( t h e o re t ica lly
.

be tt e r) may be m a d e bu t t his i s pe rh a p s t he most c onv eni e nt

,

i f t he mo t i on o f h u mp s be a c t u ally w a t ch e d .
4 32 ELE C TR OMAGNE T I C T H E ORY . CH . Iv .

U nd e r t h e s e circ u m s t a n c es w e c ou ld c on v e rt t he d i ffu s ive

wa ve s t o s o me thi ng l ik e e la s t ic w a v e s by givi n g m a s s t o t he
c ord Wi t h ou t ch a ngi ng e i t h e r i t s te ns i on or t he fri c t i on a li t y
.
,

w e c ou ld by a c on t i nu o u s i n cre a s e of d e ns i t y ca u s e t he n a t u r e
, ,

o f pro p a g a t i on t o p a ss c o nt i n u ou s ly fr o m t h e s l u ggi s h di ff u s iv e
.
,

ki nd t o t he e l a s t ic ki nd wi t h a ppro x i m a t e pre s e rv a t i on o f form

of w a ves W e m igh t a l s o d o t he s a m e by i nc re as ing t he ~ ~

t e ns i on a n d r e d u ci n g t h e fr i c t i o n a l i ty k e e pi ng t h e d e ns i t y,

s m a ll lik by r d u ci n g t he p e r m i t t a n c e a n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e
( e , e

i n a n e l e c t ric a l circ u i t bri ngi n g t he i nd u c t a n c e i nt o i m p o r

,

t a nce ) . Bu t t h e s e a r e n o t i mm e di a t e ly i n q u e s t i on By .

in cre a s ing t he m as s or e qu iv al e n tly t he i ne r t i a of t he c ord

, ,

w e i mp a rt m om e nt u m t o t he w a v e s w hi ch a ll o w s t h e m t o ,

be c a rri e d fo r wa rd i n Spi te o f t he li t t le t e ns i on a g a i ns t the

, ,

re s i s t a n ce o f t he s u rrou n di ng m e di u m .

S o i t i s i n t he e l e c t ric a l c a s e By i ncre a s i ng t he i n d u c ta nc e
.

w e i m p a rt m o m e nt u m t o t h e wa v e s a n d t h a t c a rri es t h e m o n, .

Thi s s t a t e m e nt i s i nd e p e n d e nt o f t he p a r t i c u la r m e ch a nic al
a na l o gy t h a t m a b e e m pl o y e d fo r ill u s t ra t i o n I t i s pr o b a b ly
y .

r e pr e s ent a t iv e o f t he a c t u a l dy na m ic s o f t he m a t t e r a ss o ci a t i ng ,

L w i th i ne rt i a a nd LC wi t h m om e nt u m The s ou nd ne s s o f
,
.

t hi s dy n a m ic a l e x p la n a t i on ( m a d e by m e s o m e y e a rs s i n c e i n
a s s e r t i ng a nd pr o vi ng t he fa c t c o nc e r n e d ) w a s e nd o r s e d by L or d

K e lvi n A nd I a m prou d t o a dd for t he b e ne fi t o f t hos e w ho

.
,

m a y e xc u s e t h e m s e l ves fr o m u nd e rs t a ndi ng m e by t he p le a
t h a t I a m a S ch o p e nh a u e r t h a t L o rd K e lvi n e x pr e s s e d hi s
a ppre ci a t i o n o f t he v e ry pr a c t ic a l wa y i n which I ha d r e d u c e d

my t h eory t o pra c t ic e .

Ma ny ot h e r dy na m ic a l a rr a ng e m e nt s m igh t be a ll u d e d t o ,

e x e m pli fy i ng t h e p o we r o f i n e rt i a l m o m e nt u m t o o v e rc o m e

fric t i o na l re s i s t a nc e b u t i t i s n ot e a s y t o ge t a g oo d on e
,

e x hibi t i ng e l a s t ic w a v e s pl a i nly .

To ill u s t ra t e t he n a t u re a nd t o e m ph as i s e t he p oss ibl e

,

m a gni tu de o f t h e e ff e c t s u ppo s e we ha v e t he p o w e r o f
'

cont i nu ou s ly i ncr e a s i ng t h e i n d u c t a n c e o f a n A t l a n t ic c a b le

fr om a s m a ll q u a n t i t y u p t o a v e ry l a g e o ne wi t h o u t a l t e ri n g
r
,

i t s r es i s t a n ce o r p e r m i t ta n c e a nd w i t h o u t i nt ro d u ci n g a ny
,

o t h e r a c t i ons t h a n t h os e to b e c o n t r oll e d by r es i s ta n c e ,

pe r m i t t a n c e a nd i nd u c t a nc e S ta r t i ng wi t h L O a nd m a ki ng
, .
, ,

s ay ,
wa v e s p er s ec on d at one e nd t h e re will be ,
 THEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGN T C WAVES E I . 43 3

wa ve s p er se cond of wo rk a bl e ma gni t u d e only i n a s m all p a rt of

t he ca bl e ne ar t he s e n di ng e nd ; t h e a m pli t u d e w ill a t t e n u a t e
t o i ns ig ni fica nc e n ot e x a c t ly i n t he s h o r e e n d b u t b e fo r e 1 00
,
-
,

m il e s i s t ra v e rs e d B u t le t wa v e s o f t h e s a m e s iz e ( which will
.

n e e d gr e a t e r b a t t e ry p o w e r t o pr o d u c e e k ep t u
) b p a t t h e

s e n di ng e nd whil s t L i s c o nt i nu o u s ly i ncr e as e d a ll a l on g t he

c a bl e The r e gi on of pr a c tic a l wa v es will c ont i nuo u sly e x t e n d

.

i t s e l f ri ght t hrou gh t he c a bl e by a p a r ti a l c on v e rs i on t o el a s t ic
,

w a v e s wi t h lit t l e a tt e nu a t i on i n t ra ns i t Wit h v e ry big

,
.

i nd u c t anc e the w a ve s w o u ld re a ch t he di s t a nt e nd nea rly i n

fu ll s iz e E v e n t h e n t h e y c o u ld be d ou bl e d i n s ize by t he
.

re fle c t i on t h ou gh t h e re wou ld be no u se fu l p u rpos e s e rv e d by
,

th at . The a m ou n t of i nd u c t a nc e r e q u ire d h o w e v e r t o pr od u c e , ,

t h e s e r e s u l t s w o u ld be ou t of a ll r e a s o n Ne ve rt h el es s t he .
,

ill u s t ra t i on s e rve s i t s p u rpos e i n s h owi ng t he a c t i on of s el f

i nd u c ti on which i s as b e fore st a t e d wh olly b ene fi ci a l a s i t
, , , ,

i ncreas e s t he am pli t u d e a nd l es se ns t he di s to rt i on S ome .

re ma rk s o n i n cr ea s i ng i nd u ct a nce wi ll c om e l a te r .

S elf Ind uct i on

-
combi ne d wi t h L e a k s . Th e Bri dge S y s t em
of Mr A . . W . Hea v i s i de , a nd s u gge s t e d Dis t ort i onl e ss

216 . I n t he m e ant i m e, r e ma rks on s elf i nd u c t i on

s om e fe w -

c ombi ne d wi t h l e a ka ge s h ou ld c o me i n he re S e lf i nd u ct i on .
-

ca me i n Wi t h t he t e l e phone Th a t was origina lly a m e re .

, ,

h ou s e t o h ou s e a ffa ir A t any r at e li ne s w e re only a fe w m il e s

- -
.
, .

l ong S o cond e ns e r a c t i on w as ou t of pra c t ic al qu e st i on t h en

. .

O n t he ot h e r h a nd t h e fr e qu e ncy of t he c u rr e nt s c o nc e rn e d i s
,

ve ry gre a t and t hat m a k e s i ne rt i a imp ort ant S o t he t heo ry

, .

of t e l e ph ones i s a m a gn e t ic a ffa ir w he n t he li n e s a r e s h o r t

e n o u gh j u s t as i f t h e y w e r e li n es i n a l a b o ra t o ry
, .

Bu t t he t e l e ph one s oo n got b e y ond t h a t a n d i t b e c a me ,

gr o u n d li ne s , to e x a m i ne t he i nflu ence of t h e ir p e r m i t t a n c e in
4 34 ELECT RO MAGN ET I C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

go to g et h e r i n cons id e ri ng t el eph o ny a nd i f one of t he m is ,

i g nora bl e i t i s the p e rm i t t a nc e r a t h e r t h a n t he i nd u c ta n c e .

Foll o wi ng t he t e l e ph one c a m e e xch a ng e s B u t t h e re was a n .

e xch a ng e b e fo r e t e l e ph ones My brot h e r Mr A W H e a v i s id e

.
,
. . .
,

ha d a n i nt e rc o mm u nic a t i on e xch a ng e a t N e wc as tl e u s i ng ,

a lph a b e t ic a l i n dic a t o r s wh e re of the m anip u l a t i on rese m bl e d

,

t h a t o f t he bu rdy g u rdy The s e w e re b ea u t i fu l i ns t r u m e nt s

-
.

me ch a n ic a lly 3 bu t o f c o u rs e t he t el e ph one s oon s t opp e d t h e ir

, ,

man u fa c t u re The e xch a ng e r e fe rr e d t o was t h e n t u rn e d i nto

.

a t e l e ph one e xch a ng e N ow in c erta in c as e s i t wa s ne e d e d t o

.
,

h a ve m a ny i ns t r u me nt s in one circ u i t wi t h l oc a l i nt e r com m u ,

ni ca t i on 3 a sort of fam ily a rr a ng e m e nt s o t o s p ea k 3 for ,

e x a m pl e a nu mb e r of c oa l pi t s a n d c olli e ry offi c e s b e l o ngi n g

,

t o one fir m The cu s t om was t o s e t a ll t he i nt e rm e di a te s i n

.

s e q u e nc e ( ot h e r wi s e b u t p e rh a p s no t s o w e ll c a ll e d i n se ri e s )
, ,

i n t he circ u i t Why was t hi s d one ? S i mply b e c a u s e t h ey

.

kne w no b et t e r I t wa s t he c u st o m t o d o s o i n t he t el e gr a ph s
.

g e ne ra lly b e i ng a n ob v iou s a rra nge m ent — n ot so m u ch i n

,

E ngl a nd t h ou gh a s el se wh er e
, , B u t wh e n t hi s w as d o n e wi t h
.

t e l e ph ones or wit h c a ll i ns t r u m e nt s r e pl a ci ng t h e m i t w a s
,
-
,

fou nd t h a t t he i nt e r m e di a t e s ha d a v e ry d e l e te ri o u s i n fl u e nc e ,

which v e ry s oo n s et a li mit to t he a d m i s s ibl e n u mb er o f i n te r

m e di a t e s on a circ u i t a nd t o t he l e ng t h o f t he circ u it e s p e ci ally ,

wh en u nd e rgrou nd wir e s w e re i ncl u d e d My brot h e r who t ook .

,

u p t he t e l e ph one wi t h a rd ou r fro m t he fi rs t a ki ng t he fi rs t
( m
o ne m a d e i n E ngl a nd I be li e v e d by xp e ri m e nt t h a t i t
) fou n , e ,

wa s qu i t e u n ne c es s a ry t o p u t t he i ns t ru m e nts i n s eq u e nc e
a cc o rding t o old pra c t ic e a nd t h a t a n i m m e ns e i m pr o v e me nt
,

was m a d e by t a ki ng t h e m o u t of t he circ u i t a nd p u t t i ng t h e m ,

a cr o ss i t a s s h u n t s or bridg e s
, Lik e l a m ps in pa rallel i n fa c t
.
, .

I t s ee m s v e ry e as y a nd o b v i ou s no w B u t i t i s not s o e as y t o .

c onc e i v e t he s t a t e of m i n d o f old s t a g e r s A nyh o w t he p ro .

,

p os it i on t o p u t t he ins t r u m e nts i n bridge wa s p ooh p ooh e d a t -

fi rs t not be i ng u nd erstood A s ho we v e r it was d e m ons t ra bly

, .
, ,

a w ond e r fu l i m pr o v e me nt i t wa s a d o p t e d
. fi rst a t Ne wc a s tl e , ,

a nd t h e n el s e wh e r e a nd b e c a m e k n o w n as t he B ri dg e S y s t e m
,
.

Wh e n t hi s syst e m was brou gh t t o my k nowle d g e a nd I was ,

as k e d for t h eo re t ic a l e xp la n a t i o n i t pr e s e nt e d i t s e l f i n a d ou bl e,

a s pect . Firs t of a ll t h e re wa s t he c om pl e te r e mo va l from

,

t he circ u i t of i nt e r m e di a te i m p e d a nc e i n b i g l u m p s This was .

4 36 ELEC T RO MA G NET I C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

(
“
El e c t ric a l P a p e rs , II p Vo l . I t m a.
y b
, e o f i nt e r e s t
.

t o s t a t e ho w i t c a m e a b o u t s i nc e i t i s n ot pr e s e nt e d t o one by t he
,

a b o v e d e s crib e d e xp e ri e nc es wi t h t h e bridg e s y s t e m
-
The q u e s .

t i on w as Wh a t w a s t he e ff e c t o f a bridg e or o f a su cc e s s i o n o f
, ,

bridg e s w he n t he s e lf i nd u c ti o n of t he li ne was not ne gligibl e

,
-

N o w t he i nfl u e nc e o f t he bri d g e s c a n be ve ry re a d ily s t a t e d for

s t ea dy c u rr e n t s o f c ou r s e
,
Th e re i s n o d i fli c u lt y e i t he r i n
.
, ,

fi ndi ng t he fu ll for m u lae r e qu i re d t o e xpres s t he v ol ta ge a nd

c u rr ent a nd t h e ir v a ri a ti ons i n a ny p a rt o f t he sy s t e m wh e n
t he i nd u c t a n c e a nd p e r m i t t a n c e a r e o p e r a t i v e a s w e ll as a s e t ,

of l e ak s wh en one kn o ws ho w t o d o i t B u t t he g e ne ra l
, .

form u l ae t h u s o bt a i ne d are a l t o g e t h e r t o o c o m plic a t e d to be

re a dily i n te rpre t a bl e I w a s t h e re fore le d t o e x a mi ne t he
.
, ,

e ffe c t pro d u c e d by a l e a k o n a w a v e p a s s i ng i t o f t he e l as t ic

t yp e . Thi s i m pli e s t h a t t he r e s i s t a nc e o f t he li ne is s u ffici e nt ly

lo w for w a v e s o f t he fre q u e n cy c o nc e rne d t o r e t a in t h a t t yp e
a pproxi m at e ly L Sh o u ld be gr e a t e r t h a n R ) N o w t hi s w a s
( n. .

c omp a ra t i v ely a n e as y probl e m a nd the re s u l t was t o s h o w t h a t

,

a l e a k ( or c o n d u c t a n c e i n bridg e ) ha d t he o pp os i t e e ff e c t on a

w a ve p a ss i ng i t a l ong t he li ne t o t h a t o f a r es i s ta nc e i ns e rt e d
i n t he circ u i t a t t he s a m e pl a c e i n t h is s e n s e A r e s i s t a nc e i n
,
-

t he circ u i t r e fl e c t s t he ch a rg e p os i t iv e ly a nd t he c u rre nt
n e g a t i v e ly o r i ncr eas e s t he ch a rg e a nd r e d u c es t he c u rr e n t
,

b ehind t he re s i s t a nc e O n t he ot h e r h a nd a l ea k re fle c ts
.
,

t he c u rr ent p os i t i v ely a nd t he ch a rge ne g a t i v e ly or i n ,

creas e s t he c u rrent a nd r e d u c es t he ch a rge b e hi nd t he

l eak ( S ee a l s o
. 1 97 , A re s i s ta nce and a l e a k
t og e t h e r a t t he s a m e pl a c e t h e r e for e t e nd t o cou nt e r a c t one
a not h e r i n pr o d u ci ng a r e fl e c t e d w a v e l ea v ing only a n a t ,

t e nu a t i ng e ffe c t on t he t r a ns m i tt e d w a v e This le d t o t he .

di sto rt i onl e ss circ u i t For a l t hou gh t he co m pe ns a t i on of t he

.

res is t a nc e i n t he circ u i t a nd the c ond u cta nc e a cros s i t i s i m

p er fe c t wh e n t h ey a re fi ni t e i t b e c o mes p e rfe c t wh e n t h e y a re
,

i nfi ni t e ly s m all The y m ay t he n be a p a rt of the circ u i t i t s el f

.

'
,

na m e ly t h e r e s i s t a n c e a p a r t o f t he r es i s t a nc e o i t he li n e a n d
, ,

t he c on d u c t a nc e a p a r t o f t he l e a k a g e W e no w ha v e p e rfe c t .

c om p ens a t i on wi t h t his one or a ny nu m b e r o f s u cc es s iv e re s i s t

,

a n ces a n d l e a k s o f t he s a m e ki nd pr o vid e d t h e ir ra t i o i s p ro ,

p e rly chose n Thi s o cc u rs wh en R a nd K t he r e s i s t a nc e a nd

.
,

cond u c t a n c e p e r u ni t l e ngt h o f circ u i t o f t he l ine and of t he ,

 T H ORY OF PLANE ELEC T ROMAGNE T C WAV
E I ES . 4 37

le a kag e r es p e c t iv e ly a re t a k e n i n t he s a m e ra t i o a s t he t wo
,

o t h e r c o ns t a nt s L a nd S O r whe n ,
. i ndic a t i ng
,

e q u a li t y o f t he e l e c t ric a nd m a g ne t ic t i m e c o ns t a n t s Th e re i s -
.

no w a n u ndi s t o r t e d t ra n s m i s s i o n o f a ny ki n d o f s ig na l s A nd .

s i nc e e v e ry circ u i t h a s R L a n d S i t foll o ws t h a t i t c a n b e
, , ,

m a de di s t ort i onl e s s by t he a ddi t i o n o f l e a k a g e a l one o f a c e r ta i n

a m ou nt o r di s t o r t i o nl e s s t o t he e x t e n t p e r m i t t e d by t he a p
,

proxi ma t e c o ns t a ncy o f R L a n d S ( S ee Ele c t ric a l Pa pe rs

, ,
.
“
,
”

Vol II pp 1 1 9 t o 1 68 for d e t a il e d t h e ory o f t he di st o rt i onl e s s

. .
,
.
,

circ u i t ) .

I n 2 1 3 w e s a w t h a t e v e n i n t he e l e c t ros t a tic t h e o ry l e a k a g e
wo u ld a ll o w u s t o s ig na l a s fa s t a s w e lik e d prov id e d we c ou ld
do i t wi t h a n i nfi ni t e s i m a l c u rre nt Thi s wa s no t b e ca u s e t he .

circ u it w a s ma d e dis t o r t i o nl es s b u t on a cco u nt o f t he i nfi ni t ely

,

rapid ch a rg e a nd di s ch a rg e N o w t he i ncl u s i on o f t h e i n .

flu e nc e o f s el f i nd u c t i on s h o ws t h a t w e c a n d o t he s a m e wi t h a
-

fini t e l e a k a ge co nd u c ta nc e a nd ha ve fi ni t e di s t o rt i o nl e s s s ig
,

na ls d u e t o w a v e s o f t he p u r e ly e l a s t ic t yp e
,
G i v e n R a nd S .

t h e n i f L s h o u ld be s o s m a ll t h a t t he i nt r o d u c t i on of K of t he
,

pr op e r a m ou nt t o re a ch t he di s t o rt i o nl e s s c o ndit i on s h ou ld
prod u c e u nr e a s onabl e a t t e n u a t i on t h e n o ne wa y of c u ri ng t hi s ,

wo u ld be t o i ncrea s e L Fo r t h e n a s m all e r am o u nt of l e a k a ge
.

will s e rv e The bigge r L t he s m a ll e r ne e d K be a nd wh en i t

.
, ,

i s v e ry big t h e n v e ry li t t le K i s n e e d e d
,
Thi s bri ng s u s rou nd .

t o t he c as e a t t he e nd o f 2 1 5 wh e re we ha d e l a s t ic w a v e s ,

wi t h lit t l e a t t e nu a t i o n on a n A tla n t ic c a bl e got wi t h ou t any

l e a k age a nd s i nc e we see no w t h a t ve ry li t tl e l e a k a ge i s nee d e d
,

to bri ng a b ou t t he di s t o r t i onl e s s c ondi t i on we c on cl u d e t h a t i t ,

is a ppr oxi m a t e ly d i s t o r t i onl e ss wi t h o u t t he l e a k a g e .

Ev i d enc e i n Fav our of S e l f I nd u cti on C onditi on of Fi r s t C las s

-
.
-

Te l ep hony I mp ort a nc e of t h e M a gne t ic R ea c t a nc e

. .

21 7 . Le t u s now a s k wh a t is t he e v id nc
e e i n fa v r ou of t he
b ene fici a l a c t i on of s elf i nd u c t i on The re wa s pl ent y i n 1 8 8 7 3
o
.

it i s o v e r wh e l m i ng n o w B ut t h e re a re t wo s o r t s o f e v id e nc e
.
,

the t h e o r e t ic a l a n d t h e e xp e ri e nt i a l The t wo a re n o t fu n da .
~
4 38 E LE C TR O MA G R E H C T HEORY . CH . 1v .

t i ga t i o n , h e re i s no re as o n wh a t e v e r t o s u pp ose t h a t t h e y
a nd t
d o not h o ld g o o d ou t o f d oo rs as w e ll as i ns id e The i m p ort a nt .

t hi n g i s t o c o rre c t l y r e co g n i s e t he pr e v a ili n g c ondi t i o ns a nd

d e te rm i ne t h e ir r e s u l ts No w i f y ou c a n be pre t t y s u re t ha t
.
,

ou h a v e d o ne t hi s a nd h a v e c o nfi d e n c e i n y o u r i nv e s t ig a t i o ns
y , ,

t h e n y o u m a y co ns id e r t h a t y ou pr o ve a t hi ng e v e n t h ou gh ,

t h e r e m a y be no dire c t e vid e nc e D i s c o v e ri e s a re fre qu e ntly

.

m a d e i n t hi s wa y “
A fou nd a t i on of e xp e ri m e nt a l fa c t t h e re
.

m u s t be ; b u t u p on t hi s a gre at s t r u c t u re of t h e ore t ic a l d e
d u c t i on can be ba s e d a ll rigidly c onne c t e d t oge t h e r by p u re
,

re a s oni ng a nd a ll ne c e s s a rily a s t ru e a s t he pre m i s es pro v id e d

, ,

no m i s t a k e i s m a d e To g u a rd a ga i ns t t he p os s ibili t y o f m i s
.

t a ke a nd o v e rs igh t es p e ci a lly ov e r s igh t a ll c oncl u s i ons m u s t

, ,

s oo ne r o r l a t e r be br o u gh t t o t he t e s t o f e x p e ri m e n t ; a n d if

di s a gre e i ng t h e re wi t h t he t h eo ry i t s e l f mu st be re e x a m i ne d a nd
,
-

t he fla w di s c ov e r e d o r e l s e t he t h e ory m us t b e a b a nd o ne d
, .

( O liv e r L o dg e ) B u t t o c o n vi n c e o t h e r p e opl e i s q u i t e a n ot h e r
.

m a tt e r Th ey m ay not be co m p e t ent t o u nde rs t a nd t he

.

e v id en c e O r t h e y m a y be fu lly c o m p e t e nt b u t n o t h a v e s u ffi
.
,

ci ent a cqu a i nt a nc e wi t h t he s u bj e c t ; or not h a ve t i m e t o

e x a m i ne i t ; or n ot h a v e t he e ne rgy o r h a v e n o i nt e r es t i n i t
-

T he n a s EliJa h s a id t o t he pri e s t s of B a a l y o u m u s t C all hi m

, ,

l o u d er ! ”

N o w t he fo u nd a t i on o f fa c t i s t he e xp e ri m ent a l fa c t s o f e l e c
,

t r i ci ty a nd t he l a w s d e d u c e d t h e re fro m t h o u gh t h e s e l a w s a re ,

s om e t i m es m o r e c om pre h e ns i v e t h a n t he fa c t s u p o n which t h e y

ar e b as e d B u t t h e re was i n 1 8 8 7 a c e rt a i n a m o u nt o f dire c t
.
, ,

e v id e nc e a s w e ll q u i t e e no u gh t o m a k e t he t h e or e t ic a l c on
,

cl u s i o ns pr a c t ic a lly c e r t a i n by t he c o nfir m a t i o n t h e y a ffo rd e d

, .

A s s u m i ng t he e l e c t r os t a t ic t h e ory t o b e t r u e i n t e l e ph ony ( for

which h o we v e r t h ere was ne ve r a ny s u ffici ent w a rra nt) we c an
, ,

c a lc u l a t e i t s c on s e q u e nc e s Th e y i ndic a t e t h a t t he prod u c t
.

R S l o f t he t o t a l r e s i s ta n c e a nd t he t o t a l p e r m i tt a nc e li m i t s
2

t he di s t a nc e 1 t hr o u gh which t e l e ph ony i s p os s ibl e H o w big .

i t m a y be i s q u es t i o na bl e o n a cc o u nt o f t he v e ry c om plic a t e d
,

n a t u re o f t he pr obl e m wh e n t he h u m a n i s t a k e n i n a s a p a rt

o f t he m e ch a n i s m W e c a nnot s a y c e rt a i nly b e fore h a n d ho w

.

m u ch di s t ort i o n i s p e r m i ss ibl e b e fo r e t he h u m a n will fa il t o

r e c og ni s e c e r ta i n s o u nd s a s s p e e ch B u t t he e l e c t r os t a t ic
.

t h e o ry s h o ws s u ch v e ry c o ns id e ra bl e di s t o r t i on e ve n wh e n
 4 40 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . 1v .

At present ho w e ve r R a n d L ar e as b e fo re No w t he ra t i o
, , .

R/ Ln m a y be v e ry l a rg e I f so t he i nfl u e nc e of L i s s ma ll
.
, ,

a nd we s h a ll h a v e s o m e t hi ng lik e t he e l e c t ros ta t ic t h eo ry ,

provide d t he ra nge of n be s u ch a s t o m a k e t he ra t i o a lwa y s

la rge B u t t his s t a t e of t hi ng s i s q u i t e u ns u i t a bl e for l ong
.

di s t anc e t e l e ph ony The mos t s u i t a bl e s t a t e i s wh e n R/ Ln i s

.

a pr o p e r fr a c t i on t hro u gh o u t t he wh ol e ra ng e o f n ; t h a t i s ,

wh en R i s l e s s t h a n t he s m a ll es t v a l u e of Ln W e s h all t he n .

ha ve a pproxi mat e ly di s to rt i onl e ss prop a ga t i on o f the typ e

f ( )
w ( x W ),

as m ay be by e x a m i ni ng t he sol u t i on for s i m ply p e ri odic

seen

w a ves a nd ob s e rving t ha t when R/ Ln i s s mall we h a ve nea rly

,

t he s a m e a t t e n u a t i on i n a gi ve n di s t a n c e a t a ll fr eq u e nci e s ( not
t o o lo w) s o t h a t t he r e i s li t t l e di s t or t i on a nd t he e l e m e nt o f
, ,

fre qu e ncy t e nd s t o di s a pp e ar a l t og et h e r a nd we re d u c e t he ,

formu l a t o t h e a b o v e t yp e .

P ra c t ic e s h o ws h ow e v e r t h a t t hi s s ta t e o f t hi ng s i s u nne c e s
, ,

s a ri ly g o od for c om m e rci a l t el e ph ony whic h a d m i ts o f a ,

c ons id era bl e a m ou nt o f di s tor ti on The n R/ Ln i s not l e s s .

t h a n 1 t hro u gh ou t t he wh ol e ra ng e o f n bu t i s gr e a te r a t t he ,

lo w fre q u e nci es a nd l es s a t t he hig he r *

F or e x a m pl e if t he .
,

l o we s t va l u e of n be 6 2 5 a nd L 2 0 ( c e n ti m p er ce nt i m u s u a l
,
. .
,

u n i ts
) t h
, e l e as t v a l u e o f Ln i s I f a l s o t he r e s i s t a n c e

i s 5 oh m s p er kil om e t re t h e n R i s , The v a l u e o f
R/ Ln i s t h en 4 a t t he l o w e s t fre q u e ncy a nd 2 1 g i g a t , , , , ,

t he five s u cc e s s i ve o c t a v e s t he l a s t b e i ng a t n = , H e re
we h a ve a n e xc e ll e nt s t a t e o f t hi ng s from n ==2 5 00 u p t o ,

a nd only a t t he lo w fr e qu e nci e s d o e s R pre v a il o v e r

Ln . If R be h a l v e d o r L be d ou bl e d ( for i t i s i ndi ffe r e nt

,

which i s d one ) t h e n R/Ln i s l e s s t h a n 1 fro m n = 1 2 5 0

, ,

u pw a rd s .D ivide n by 2 t o ob ta i n the freq u e ncy This 2

7: . 71
'

has no thi ng t o d o wi t h t he ridic u l o u s 4 which t he R A 1: .

C o mm i t te e w a nt t o c ons e cra t e The s ig nific a nt p oi nt i n c a lc u

.

la t i ons of t hi s ki nd i s t he p os i t i on of n i n t he s c a l e of fre q u e ncy

whic h pro du ce s eq u ali t y o f R a nd Ln Wh en i t i s lo w we .

h a v e g ood q u a lit y ; wh e n high t h en re l a t i ve ly bad P e rh a p s , .

t h e A m e ric a n e l e c t rici a ns m a y be a bl e fr o m t h e ir e x t e n d e d

S ee m y “
E l e c tr ic a l Pa p e rs for d l
e ta i s e s p e c ia lly App . C, p . 55 9,
Vo l II
. .
 T HEORY OF PLANE ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C WAVES .

p oi nts c onc e rne d i n t e l e ph ony a nd c o ns tru c t a n e m p iric a l

,

fo r m u l a of a s o u nd ch a ra c t e r for d e t e r m ini ng t he li mi t i ng d is
t a nce r o u ghly i n t e r m s o f t he e l e c t ric a l d a t a wi t h gi v e n ki nd s
'
,

o f i ns t r u me nt s fo r t ra n s m i s s i o n a n d r e c e p t i o n I t s h ou ld be .

u nd e r s t oo d t h a t t h e a b o v e r e m a rks d o n o t a pply t o s h o r t li ne s ,

a t l e a s t i n g e n e ra l W e m a y i nd e ed s o a rra ng e m a t t e rs t h a t
.
, ,

t he a b o v e t yp e i s s t ill pre s e rv e d ( wi t h R / Ln l e s s t h a n 1 ) by
pr a ct ica l a nnihil a t i on of r efle c te d w a ves bu t o th e r wis e s e ri ou s
,

m o dific a t i o n m a y be n e e d e d A nd wi t h v e ry s h o rt li nes we
.

m a y a pply a p u re ly m a gne t ic t h e ory of c o u r s e

'
, .

Vari ou s W a y s , good and ba d , of i ncr ea s i ng t he I nd u c t a nc e

of Ci rc ui t s .

21 8 . S u pp os i ng , ha t pra c t ici a ns hav e c o me t o dis c a rd

no w, t

t he s u ppos e d li m i t a t i ons s o pe rs i s t e n t ly a s s e r te d by offi ci a l

e l e c t rici a ns i n E n gl a n d a nd t o o p e n t h e ir e y e s t o t he p a r t
,

pl ay e d by s el f i nd u c t i on t h ey wi ll na t u ra lly re c ogni s e t he wid e

-

p os s ibili t i es t ha t a re s u gg es te d i n fu t u re d e v e l opm e nt s a nd ,

wa nt t o kno w wh e t h e r s u ch p os s ibili t i e s c a n be c on ve rt e d i nt o
a c t u a li t i e s
,
a n d wh e t h e r t he c onv e rs i o n i s pra c t ic a bl e Fo r .

m y s e l f I a m no t m u ch c o n c e rne d i n t hi s p a r t o f t he q u e s t i on
,
.

I t i s fo r pr a c t ici a ns t o find o u t pra c t ic a l w ay s of d o i n g t hi ng s

t h a t t h e o ry pr ov e s t o be p os s ibl e or not t o find t h e m i f t h e y
,

s h o u ld be i m pra c t ic a bl e Ne verthel ess s i nc e I a m res pons ibl e

.
,

for t h ese v i e w s c onc e rni ng t he p a r ts pl a y e d by s e l f in du c t i on -

a nd l e a k a g e I a d d a fe w r e m a rk s o n t he a p p li ca t i o na l s id e
, .

The id e a l i s t he di s to r t i o nl e s s circ u i t re q u ir i ng bo t h s e l f
,

i nd u ct i on and l e ak a g e I f we u t ili se t he pres e nt e xi s t ent

.

i nd u ct a nce only t h e n t he n ee d e d l e a k a g e m ay be t o o gre a t by

,

fa r i n m a ny c a s e s O n t he o t h e r h a nd i f t he e xi s t e nt i nd u c t
.
,

a n c e i s big e n o u gh t o m a k e R/ Ln s m a ll i n t he s e nse d es cri be d

,

i n 2 1 7 we d o no t w a n t t he l e a k a ge p a r t ic u l ar ly or n ot a t a ll
, ,
442 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

p os s i bl e i n o rd e r t o pr e ve nt t he d el e te ri ou s a ct i on o f se l f
,

i nd u c t i on w ou ld prob a bly c a rry o u t his pri ncipl e s by p u t t i ng

,

u p a circ u i t s e v e r a l h u ndre d m il es l o n g c o ns i s t i ng o f a p a ir o f
, ,

fine wir es p u t q u i t e cl os e t o g e t h e r
,
Or if he was fre e fro m t he
.
,

e rro r as r e g a rd s R he w ou ld u s e l a rg e r wir es
,
B u t s t ill cl ose .

t og e t h e r fo r t h a t m a k es L t he s m a ll es t
,
Al s o he w o u ld no t .
,

c ons ide r t his to be ba d a s re g a rd s S t he p e rm i tt anc e b e i ng , ,

u n d e r t h e b e li e f t h a t t he p e r m i t t a n c e o f t he circ u i t o f t wo wires

was j u s t one h a l f t h a t of e i t h e r wi t h r e s p e c t t o t he e a rt h so ,

t h a t t h e ir pr o x i m i t y did no h a r m i n i ncr e as i ng c ond e ns e r a c t i on ,

whils t it d es troye d the d el e te ri ou s s e l f i nd u c t i on No w s u ch -

.
,

a circ u i t m igh t d o v e ry w e ll for l o c a l t e l e ph o ny bu t for t he ,

p u rp ose re qu ire d t h e re c ou ld not be a w ors e a rra nge ment .

The s u pp os e d c a se i s not a n e x t r a v a g a nt o ne s i nc e i t i nvo l v es ,

t he c a rryi ng o u t o f offici a l v i e w s t h o rou ghly The c u re w o u ld .

be q u it e e as y I ncr e as e t he i n du ct a nc e by s e p a r a t i ng t he wire s
.

a s wid e ly as p os s ibl e o r c on v e ni e nt If ne c e s s a ry r e d u c e R a s
.
,

w ell The p e r m i tt a n c e will al so be re du c e d in a bou t th e s a m e

.

ra t i o as t he i nd u c t a nce i s i nmem d By thi s s i m ple pro c e s s L

'
.

m a y be lar ge ly m u l t ipli e d s ay from 2 t o 2 0 ( c m p e r

,
a .

t e nfold m a g nific a t i on wi t h ou t s e p a ra t i ng t he wir e s s o m u ch as

,

t o r e qu ire a d o u bl e line o f p o l e s Thi s wa y o f d oi ng i t i s t he

.

s e cr e t of t he s u cc es s o f t he l o ng di s ta n ce t e l e ph o ny which a ro s e i n
-

A m e ric a wh e n iro n wa s di s c a rd e d L i s m a de i mp or ta nt a nd
.
,

R i s ke p t lo w B u t a l t h o u gh L i n cr ea s e s v e ry fa s t on i ni t i a l
.

s e p a ra t i o n o f wir e s i t d oe s n ot c ont i nu e t o i ncre a s e fa s t o n

,

fu r t h e r s e p a ra t i on s o t h a t pra c t ic a l l i m i t a t i ons a r e soon s e t t o

,

t he pr oc ess The a b ov e e x a m pl e s h o ws ho w a v e ry ba d li ne
.

ma y be t ur ne d i nto a v e ry g ood one by i ncreas ing t he i nd u c ta nc e .

A not h e r wa y i s s u gg e s t e d bu t o nl y t o be i mm e dia t e ly
,

rej e c t e d
. I t i s n e v e r t h e l e ss in s t r u c t i v e t o s t u dy fa il u re s
, , .

W e c a n increa s e L t o a ny e xt e nt by u s i ng fi ne r a nd fi ner wires .

Thi s wou ld be a d mira bl e if i t w e re a ll B u t u nfort u na t e ly .

, ,

t hi s proc e ss a l t e r s R and fas t e r s t ill ; s o t h a t R L i ncr e a s e s

, /
i ns te a d of di min i shing C ons id e r for s i mplici t y m e r e ly a wire
.
, ,

wi t h a c onc e nt ric t u be for r e tu rn Th en R/ L i s ne a rly prop or .

t i ona l t o R S No w L ord Ke l v i n ga v e a fo rm u l a l ong a go

.
,

s h o wi ng t h a t t hi s q u a nt i t y was m ad e a m i ni m u m whe n t he

ra dii o f t he t u b e a n d wire b or e a c e r t a i n ra t i o T he n L/R is .

a ma xi m u m a ppr o x i m a t e ly a nd o n d e cr e a s i ng t he ra d i u s o f
, ,
4 44 ELEC T ROMAGNET I C T HEORY . CH . IV
.

a ga ins t t he res i s t an c e of wire s t h ey m a y be r u nni ng a l ong B u t .

as re g a rd s t he pra c t ic a bili t y o f t hi s pl a n I s ay n ot hi ng e xc e p t ,

t ha t I h a v e ofte n s m il e d a t t hi s ir o nic i ns u l a t o r ( i n m ore

t ha n o ne s ense ir on ic ) a nd t he id e a o f t e l e ph o n i ng t hr o u gh a
,

c o re rese mbli ng a p oke r wi t h a c opp e r wire r u n t hro u gh t he

m iddl e .

The ot h e r wa y i s t o p u t t he di v ide d iron o u t s id e t he w o rki ng

diel e ct ric Th en i t had b e tt e r n ot be di vid e d i nt o p a rt icl e s
.
,

bu t i n t he way w e ll k no w n t o dy na m o a nd t ra ns fo rm e r p eo pl e ,

c u t u p s o as t o fa cili t a t e t he flu x o f i nd u c t i o n whil s t b e ing ,

e l e c t ric a lly n o n c o nd u c t i n g t r a ns v e rs e ly t h e r e t o
-
.

No w it m ay be s a id t ha t s u b m a ri ne c a ble s of the pres e nt typ e ,

h a vi ng c or es su rro u nd e d by a l a rge q u a nt ity o f iron ha ve l a rg e ,

i nd u c t a nc e a lre a dy B u t i t d oes not follo w I f t he ir on was i n

. .

a solid t u b e t h e n u nd o u bt e dly L w ou ld be m u ch m a g ni fi e d
,

wi t h s t ea dy c u rre nt s B u t i t i s not a s olid t u b e as i t c ons i s t s

.
,

of s pi r a lly l a id s e p a ra t e s t ou t iro n wir e s . The m a g ne t ic c on

t i nu i ty i s i nt e rr u p t e d a nd the p e rme a n c e i s m u ch r e d u c e d as
, ,

P r of H u gh es p o i nt e d ou t ( e q u iv a l e nt ly ) s ome y e a rs a go
. Bu t .

b es ide s t h a t wh en t he c u rre nt i s not s t e a dy we d o no t u t ilis e

, ,

t he ir on e v e n i n t he a b o v e i m p e rfe c t m a nne r Thi s i s p ar

.

t i c u la rly t h e c a s e wi t h t el e ph onic c u rr e nt s wh e n i mp e rfe c t

,

pe ne t ra t i on will s t ill fu r th e r re d u c e t he e ffe c t iv e i ndu c t a nc e .

S o t he i ncre a se d L d u e t o the s h e a t h m u s t be fa r l e s s th a n
la rge q u a nt i t y of iron m igh t s u gge s t A ga i n t he re is t he t he
.
,

i ncreas e d re s i s t a nc e d u e t o t he s h e a t h no t b e i ng pro p e rly

divid e d t o pre ve nt i t The c as e i s t h e re fore a c on s id e ra bly
.

m ixe d one Whil s t we c a n say wi t h c onfi de nc e t h a t wit h t he

.

ve ry s l o w s ig nalli ng which ob t a i ns t hrou gh a n A tl a nt ic c abl e

t he s h e a t h c a nnot m a k e mu ch di ffe r e nc e i t i s n ot e as y t o
,

de cid e wh e th e r i t s ac t ion i s be ne fi cia l wi t h t el e ph onic c u rre nts t o

an
y gr e a t e x t e nt t h ou gh i t w o u ld be i f t h e r e w e r e n o i ncr e as e d
,

re s i s ta n c e It i s not e v e n e as y t o s ay wh a t is t he L o f a s u b
.

m a ri ne c a bl e u n d e r t he circ u m s t a nc es A l ea s t v a l u e i s r e a dily
.

ob t a in e d bu t t he m a g ni t u d e o f t he i n cr e a s e d u e t o t he iron a nd
,

t he o u t s id e r e t u r n c u rr e nt i s r a t h e r s p e c u l a t i v e I t m a y be
.

w e ll d e s e r v i ng of at te nt i on to c ha ng e t he t yp e of t he iron
sh e a t hi n g s o a s t o i n cr e as e L a n d k ee p d o w n R
, R e m e mb e r
.

he re t ha t a lt ho u gh t h ere i s pl ent y of e vid enc e of t he bene fici a l

,

a nd v e ry i m p or ta nt ) i nfl u e nc e o f t hi s pri ncipl e w he n i t i s

(
 T H ORY OF PLANE ELE T OMAGNE T C WAV S
E C R I E . 4 45

c a rri e d ou t in a dire c t a nd n a t u ra l m a nne r t h e re i s s o fa r a s I , ,

a m a w a re n o e xp e ri m e n t a l e vid e n c e e t p u bli s h e d o f t he e q u i
, y
v a l e nt s u cc e ss o f i ndire c t w a y s i n v olvi ng t he u s e of iron .

A no t h e r i ndir e c t wa y i s t hi s I ns t e a d o f t ryi ng t o ge t l a rg e
.

u n i fo r m l
y s pr e a d i n d u c t a n c e t r
y t o g
,
e t a l a rg e a v e r a g e i n d u c
t a nc e. O r c o m bi n e t he t wo a n d h a v e l a rg e di s t ri bu t e d
, ,

ind u c t a n c e t og e t h e r wi t h i nd u c ta nc e i n i s ol a t e d l u m p s Thi s .

m e a n s t he i ns e r t i on o f i nd u c t a nc e c o il s a t i nt e rv a l s i n t he
ma i n circ u i t Th at i s t o s a y j u s t as t he e ffe c t of u ni fo rm
.
,

l e a k a ge m a y be i m i ta t e d by l e a k a ge c o nc e n t ra t e d a t di s t i n c t
p o int s s o we s h ou ld t ry t o i m i t a t e t he i ne r t i a l e ffe c t o f u ni form
,

i ndu c t a nc e by c onc e nt ra t i ng t he i nd u c ta nc e a t di s t in c t p o int s .

The m o r e p o i nt s t he b e t t e r o f c o u rs e ,
S a y m c o il s i n t he .

l e ngt h l or 2 m c o il s o f t he s a m e t ot a l i ndu c t a nc e a nd
, ,

t h e re fo re e a ch of h a l f t he i nd u c t a n c e 3 o r mn c o il s e a ch o f
t he i nd u c t a nc e o f t he firs t The e l e c t ric a l d i fli c u lt y
th
o ne n .

h e re i s t h a t i nd u c t a nc e c o il s h a v e r e s i s t a n c e as w ell a nd i f t h is ,

be t oo gre a t t he r e m e dy i s w o rs e t h a n t he di s e a s e B u t i t w o u ld .

s e e m t o be s u fli c i e nt if t he e ffe c t o f t h e e x t r a r e s i s t a n c e b e

o f m i n o r i m po r t a n c e c o m p a r e d wi t h t he e ffe c t o f t he i n cr e a s e d

i nd u c t an c e Thi s m ea ns u s i ng c oils of lo w r es i s ta nc e a nd t he
.

l arge st p os s ibl e t i m e c ons ta nt s For s u pp ose 4 oh m s p er k i lo m

-
. .

i s t he n a t u r a l r e s i s t a nc e a n d t h e re be o n e c o il p e r k il o m
,
.

h a v i ng a re s i s t a n c e o f 1 ohm Thi s will r a i s e the a ve ra g e .

r es i s t anc e t o 5 oh ms p er kil om ; a nd i f t he t i m e c ons ta nt be .

-

big eno u gh the e x t ra i n d u c ta n c e m a y fa r m ore t ha n nu lli fy

,

t he r es i s ta nc e e v il The s a m e re a s on i ng a ppli e s t o c o il s a t
.

gr e a t e r i nt e rv a l s onl y o f c ou rs e i n a m o re i m p e rfe c t ma nne r

, .

To g e t l a rg e i nd u c ta nc e wi t h s m a ll r es i s t a n c e or m ore g e n e ra lly , , ,

t o m ak e c o il s h a v i ng l a rg e t i me c ons ta nt s r e q u ir e s t he u se of -
,

pl e nt y of c opp e r t o g et t he c ond u c t a nc e a nd pl ent y of iron t o ,

g e t t h e i n d u c t a n c e e m pl oyi ng a pr op e rly cl os e d m a g ne t ic circ u i t

,

prop e rly divid e d t o pre v e nt e x t ra r e s i s ta nc e a nd c a n c ell a t i on

o f t he i n cr e a s e d i nd u c t a n c e Thi s pl a n d o e s n ot b el ong t o t he
.

c a te go ry o f t h os e m ent i on e d b e fo r e which a m om ent s c on ,

’

s id e ra t i o n s h o w e d t o b e w o r s e t h a n u s e l es s I t i s a s t r a ight .

fo rw a rd wa y o f i ncre a s i ng L l a rg e ly wi t h ou t t oo m u ch i ncr e as e
o f r e s i s t a n c e a nd m a y be w o r t h w o rki ng o u t a nd d e v e l op m e nt
, .
 44 6 ELECTR OMAGNETI C T HEORY . CH . I V.

The bina t i on wi t h l e a k s d o e s not ne e d a ny p a rt ic u l a r

co m

m ent i on i n d e ta il a ft e r wh a t ha s b ee n a lre a dy s a id r e l a t in g
t o t he di s t o rt i onl e s s circ u i t which i s t h e t h eo r e t ic a l id e a l , ,

a ny a pproa ch t o whic h i s d e s ira bl e if i t b e d o n e wi t h o u t t oo

m u ch l oss 3 b e a ri ng i n m i nd t oo t h a t w e s h ou ld i n cre as e L , ,

firs t i n pre fe re nc e t o p u t t i ng o n l e a k s fir s t *
I h a v e c on fi n e d .

my se l f s o fa r e n t irely to m y t h e o ry of 1 88 6 8 7 a nd r es u l t s -

t h e re of I nd u c t i ve s h u nt s i nvol ve s om e o th e r c ons ide ra t i ons

.
,

a nd a m odifi e d t h e o ry .

Bfle ct i v e R e s i s t a n e a nd c I nd u c t a nc e of a. C omb i na t i on w hen

r e gard e d as a C o il , a nd Effe c t i v e C ond u c t a nc e a nd P er
mi tt a nc e w hen r egar d e d as a C ond e ns e r .

21 9 . Inl c t rom a g ne t ic c o m bin at i on t he e fle ct s of

a ny e e

e l e c t ric a n d m a gne t ic e n e rgy a re a n t a g on i s t ic i n s o m e r es p e c t s .

O r w e m ay s ay t h a t m a g ne t ic i nd u c t a n c es t e nd t o ne u t ra li s e
e l e c t ric p e r m i t t a n c e s O r m or e g e n e r a lly t h a t t h e e ffe c t s of
.
, ,

e l a s t ic c o m pli a n c e a n d o f i ne r t i a t e n d t o n e u t r a li s e o n e a n o t h e r .

Thu s wh e n a c oil i s u nd e r t he a c t i on of a n i m pr es s e d s i m ply

,

p e ri odic v ol t a g e t he c u rre nt l a g s o wi ng t o t he s e l f i nd u c t i o n
, ,
-
.

B u t if a c on d e ns e r be i nt r od u c e d i n s e q u e nc e wi t h t he c o il t he ,

la g i s di m i ni s h e d a nd m a y be r e v e rs e d or c on v e r t e d i nt o a l e a d
, .

The r e s u l t o n t he c u rr e nt i s t he s a m e a s if w e s u b s t i t u t e d fo r
t he c o il a no t h e r o f t he s a m e r e s i s t a nc e a n d o f r e d u c e d i n
d u c t a nce or e v e n o f ne g a t i v e i n d u c t a n c e
, Thu s t he res is t anc e .
,

o p e ra t o r o f t he c o il b e i ng R + Lp wh e re R a nd L a re i t s ,
'
re s i s t a nc e a nd i nd u c t a nc e a nd p i s t he d ifle re nt i a t or d/d t ; a nd
,

t ha o e c d e r b e i g ( Sp ) wh e re S i s i t s p e r mi t t a nc e —
t f t h o n e n s n 1
, ,

wh e n t he t wo a re in s e q u e nc e t he r e s i s t a nc e o p e ra t or of t he
c ombi na t i o n i s
Z R + 1 49 + ( )
1
which in a s i mply p e ri odic s t a t e o f fre q u e ncy n/ 2 ma ki ng
, 71

2 2 = m b e c ome s
°

p n o r
p , ,

1"
2 R Lp
2
Sn

( )
2

Bu t re m e m b er t he i n fl u e n c e of t h e fr e qu e n c y i n j
c on u nc t i on w i th t he
in d u c ta n ce . Lea k a ge c a n be v ery be n e fic ial w he n se lf i d
-
n u c t i on d o e s ne x t

t o no t hi ng, as be fo r e d e s c rib e d .
4 48 ELEC TROMAGNET I C T HEORY . CH . Iv .

p e rm i t ta nc e of one of t he e qu i va l ent c ond ens e rs I f i t be .

s h u nt e d by a c o il o f s u ch R a nd L t h a t S = L (R L n )
2 2 2 1
we
-

kno w by t he a bo v e t ha t t he s t a t e of t he ca bl e wh e n s i mply ,

p e riodic will be the s a m e as i f t he c ond e n se r a nd c o il w e re

,

re m o v e d a nd re pl a c e d by a s i m pl e l e a k of c ondu c t a nc e
R (R L n )
2 2 2 1 Thi s reas oni ng a ppli es t o e ve ry c ond e nse r i f
‘

.
,

i t h a v e i t s a ppr o pri a t e c o il or t o a ny s el e c te d gr ou p we pl ea s e
, .

B u t i f t he fr e q u e n cy be ch a ng e d t he p e rm i t t a nc e will c o m e int o
s igh t a g a i n o f t he r e a l or p os i t i v e ki n d or o f t he fi c t i t i o u s
, ,

n e g a ti v e ki nd a s t he c as e m a y be
, W e h a v e t h e re fore t he .
, ,

p owe r of r e d u cing t he e ffe c t i v e p e rm i t t a n c e of a ca bl e u nde r

s i m ply p e ri o dic fo rc e s by m ea ns o f n u m e r o u s a u xili a ry i n d u c
,

t i v e s h u nt s or l e a k s a nd o f pra c t ic a lly c a n c e lli n g i t a t a p ar

,

t i c u la r fr eq u e n cy Ho w will t hi s w ork ou t i n t he t ra ns m i s s i on
.

o f t el e ph o n ic c u rr e nts t hr o u gh t he c a bl e ?

Fr om t he p u r ely t h e or e t ic a l p oi nt of v i e w one m a y be som e

wh a t prej u dic e d a ga i ns t t he s y s t em a t firs t For ob v i ou s ly .
, ,

i t i s n ot a di s t o r t i onl es s a rra ng e me nt Th a t i s got by ba l a nci ng .

t he s el f i nd u c t i on of t he m a i n circ u i t a g a i ns t t he l a t e ra l p e r m i t
-

t a nc e which c a n s u bj e c t t o pra c t ic a l li m i t a t i ons b e d one p e r

, , ,

fec t ly . Tha t i s t h e re i s a b a l a nc e a t a ny fre qu e ncy or t he

, ,

ide a o f p eri odic fre q u e ncy d oes no t e nt e r a t a ll I d o u b t .

wh e th e r t he re ca n be a ny o t h e r di s t or t i o nl e ss circ u i t t h a n t ha t
which ( i n t he a b s e nc e o f a n o t h e r) I a lwa ys re fe r t o as the di s
t or t i onle s s circ u i t Wi t h i nd u c t i ve s h u nt s w e prod u c e a p a r
.

t i a l ne u t ra li s a t i on o f t he p e r m i t ta n c e t he a m ou nt o f which m a y ,

va ry v ery widely du ri ng t he t ra ns m i s s i on of t el e phonic cu rrents .

Re memb e r t oo t h at d u ri ng t he change from one fre q u ency

, ,

to a no th e r t h e r e a r e o t h e r ph e no m e na t h a n t h os e c on c e rne d
d u ri ng t he m a i nt e na nc e o f a s i m ply p e ri o dic s t a t e o f va ri a t i on .

Ne v e r th el e s s we s h o u ld be ca re fu l not t o be pre j u dic e d a ga ins t

,

a n i m p e r fe c t pl a n m e r e ly b e c a u s e i t i s s o m a ni fe s t ly i m p e r fe c t .

I t m ay p e rh a p s be m or e e a s ily a p d t h a n a t h eo r e t ic a lly
u .

p e rfe c t s y s t e m a nd m a y p os s e s s p r a c t i l a dv a nt a ge s of i m p ort
, t a

a nc e . N o w t hi s i s a m a t t e r for pra c t ic al e x p e ri me nt a nd e xp e
ri e nce B u t i t i s j u s t h e r e t h a t t h er e i s a n a l m os t c o mpl e t e
.

d ea r th o f i nform a t i on Fo r a l t h o u gh Pr df S il va nu s Tho m p s on*

.
’
.

has m e n t i o ne d t h a t h e ha s m a d e m a n ex l
r i m e nt s h h
g
p e y e t e a s ,
I

O c ea n Te l e
p ho ny , C hi ca go C o ngre s s , 1 89 5
 THEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNE T C WAVES I . 4 49

on ly d e s cri be d c a s e in which a n i nd u c t i ve s hu nt was fou nd

one

good It wa s a n a rt ifici al ca bl e of
. o h m s a nd 1 0 m icr o

fa ra d s P re s u m i ng t h a t t h e r e wa s a fa irly g oo d s pr e a di ng o f
.

t he p e rm i t t a n c e we s e e t h a t t he p e r mi t t a n c e i s t h a t of a b ou t
,
'

4 0 kil o m e t r e s o f a s u b m a ri ne c a bl e whil s t t h e r es i s t an c e i s ,
x

m o r e lik e t h a t of or kil om e t re s The i nd u c t a nc e .

w ou ld prob a bly be ve ry s m all W e s e e t h a t the ex a mpl e d oe s .

no t w e ll r e pr e s e n t a s u b m a ri ne ca bl e W e s h ou ld ra t h e r c om .

p a re i t wi t h a v e ry l ong o v erl a n d circ u i t o f v e ry m u ch s m a ll e r

p e rm it t a n c e p er kil om e t re t ha n t he ca bl e O nly s u ch a circ u i t .
, ,

if prop e rly p u t u p w o u ld h a v e a l a rg e i nd u c t a nc e s o t h a t t h e re
, ,

i s a fa il u r e h e r e How e ver it i s ment ione d t ha t one shu nt of

.
,

3 1 2 oh m s a nd a t i m e c onst a nt o f 0 005 sec r e nd e r e d t el e

-
.

ph onic t ra nsm i s s i on p oss ibl e e x c ep t for s hrill s ou nd s I c a nn ot .

h elp t hi nki ng t h a t P rof Th om p s on ha s b ee n m u ch t oo ret ic en t

.

on t he e xp e ri m e nt a l s id e H e will p e rh a p s fu rn i s h u s wi t h
.

fu ll e r i nform a t i on l a t e r on A t pr ese nt t h er e i s li t t l e t o
.

j u dg e by .

G ene ra l Th e ory of Tra ns mi s s i on of Wa v e s al ong a Ci rcui t

w i th or w i t hou t A u xi li a r y D e i c es
v .

§ 22 1 . I n t he m ea nt i m e t he foll owi ng t h e o ry a nd for m u l a

m ay pe rh a ps be u s e fu l to t h os e who m a y d e s ire t o go i nt o t he
m a tt e r I p u t t he t h e ory i nt o s u ch a form t h a t i t m a y be
.

a ppli e d t o v a ri o u s o th e r c a s e s o f a u xili a ry a rr a ng e m e nt s Le t .

V a nd C b e t he t ra n s v e rs e v ol t a g e a nd t he c u rrent a t dis ta nc e ,

x at t im e t
,
Le t t h e ir c onne c t i ons be
.

ll
i

wh e re Z i s a res i s t a nc e op er a t or a nd Y a c ond u c t a nce op e ra t or , ,

a s d es cri be d i n § 2 1 9 o nly n o w b e l o ngi ng t o u n i t l e ng t h o f

,

circ u i t In t he s i mpl e
. re d u c e s t o a re s ist a nc e a nd Y ,

t o a c ond u c t a nc e p e r ,

m ay h a v e v a ri o u s for ms i n u nli m i t e d nu m b e r b e i ng t h en
, ,

f u n c t i o ns o f e l e c t ric a l c ons t a nt s a nd of t h e t i m e d ifle r ent ia t or

‘

Wh e n t h e r e a r e n oa xi li a ry d e vic es a nd t he n a t u ra l r e s is t
r
p. ,

a n c e R i n d u c ta nc e L l e a k a n c e K a nd p e r m i t t a nce S ( all p e r
, , , .

u ni t l e ng t h ) a r e c ons t a nt s t ze n we h a v e ,
450 ELEC T ROMA G NE T I C T HEO RY . CH . Iv .

as be fore 2 0 1 4 B u t wh a te v e r t he fo rm s o f Y a nd Z m a y
,
— .

be i n fi n i t e t e rm s o r t ra n s c e nd e nt a l w e m a y re d u c e t h e m to t h e
, ,

s i m pl e s t a n d a rd fo r m s ( 6) wh e n t he Si m ply p e ri o dic s t a t e o f

vibra t i on i s m a int a i ne d by e m pl oy ing t he t ra ns for m a t ion

,

p = ni or, n
2
W e s e e fr o m t hi s t h a t we c a n pra c t ic a lly
— .

e xa m i ne c as e s of s i m pl e p e ri o dici t y which m igh t a t fi rs t s e e m

b eyond a ll b o u nd s of pra c t ic a bili ty N o t e h o w e v e r t ha t .

, ,

“
fo rc e s
”
a nd fl u x es s h ould be in co ns t a nt ra t i os s o t h a t
“
,

s u ch ph e no me na as hy s t e re s i s m a g n e t ic o r e l e c t ric a re e x
, ,

cl u d e d .

Fr o m e q u a t i ons ( 5 ) we s e e t h a t t he ch a ra c t e ri s t ic e q u a t i on
of V is
d v 2
YZ V V
2
9 , sa y ,
2
d a:

prov id e d Y a nd Z a r e i nd e p end ent of w Thi s r es tric tion i s not .

a ne c e ss a ry o n e b u t o f c ou r s e i t m a k e s a n i m p o r t a nt pr a c t ic a l
, , ,

s i mplific a t i on t o h a v e u n i fo r m i t y a l o ng t he circ u i t In ( 7 ) 9 2 .

re pre s ent s t he o p e ra t or YZ a nd i n p a s s i ng we m a y not ic e a n

,
.

i nt e re s t ing m a t t e r c onn e c t e d wi t h p a r t i a l diffe re nt i a l e q u a t i ons

o f t he typ e ( 7 o r of t he m o r e g e n e r a l t yp e

VV
2
9
2
V, ( )
8

a ppropri a t e t o t hr ee di m e ns ions i n s p a c e Thi s t yp e of e qu a .

t i on o cc u rs i n a ll s o rt s of phy s ic a l pr obl e m s V b e i n g s o m e ,

va ri a ble which is prop a ga t e d t hrou gh a m e di u m in a m anne r

d e p ending u p on t he na t u re of the o pe ra t o r q which i nv olv e s
z
,

I t i s u s u a lly a v e ry s i m pl e r a ti ona l
'
t he t i m e d ifle r e n t i a t or
-
.

fu n c t i on of p s u ch fo r ex a m pl e a s t o bri ng i n onl y t he firs t

, , ,

a n d s e c on d d e ri v a t i v es o f V wi t h r e s p e c t t o t he t i m e a nd s o , ,

fa r as I k no w no phy s ic al pr obl e m s h a v e pr e s e nt e d t h e m s e lv e s
,

which in v olv e a n irr a t i ona l p a rt i a l diffe re nt i a l eq u a t i on fo r

cha ra c te ris t ic a s for e x a m pl e
, , ,

( )
9

I t m igh t , i nd eed see m a t firs t s ight t h at a ch a ra c t e ri s t ic o f

,

t hi s fo r m w a s phy s ic a lly i m p os s ibl e b e ing m e a ni ngl e s s ,

. .

Ne ver thel ess i t i s q u i te eas y t o s ee by t he way e qu a t i on ( 7 wa s

,

c ons t r u c t e d o u t of t he c om p o nent s t h a t r e a l phy s ic a l

pr obl e m s m a y i nvolv e irra t i ona l ch a ra c te ri s tic e q u a t i ons s u c h ,

as a re e x e m lifi e d b F or i f e i the r Y or Z be ir ra t i o na l
p y ,
45 2 ELEC T ROMA G NE TI C T HEORY . CH . Iv.

e qu a ti o ns t o pro pe r alg e bra ic a l form by e x e c u t i on of the a n aly

t ic a l o p e ra t i ons i m pli e d i n g Y a nd Z Thi s we are not c on ‘

.
, ,

c e r ne d wi t h h e re e xc e p t as reg a rd s t he c a s e a ri s ing wh e n V0 i s
,

a s i m ply p e ri odic f u nc t i o n The n p u t p = ni a nd re d u c e Z to

.
,

R + Lp a nd Y t o K + Sp as b e fo r e s t a t e d e q u a t i ons
, , ,

m a ki ng ( 1 2 ) b e c om e
V= e —ax
vo, ( )
1 3

1’ — m
vo
e a
, ( )
1 4

w h e re q ( R Lp ) *K
( ( )
1 5

Th e s expr e s s i ons h a v e n ex t t o be r e d u c e d t o t he form

e

which i s a m a t te r o f c o mmon a lg e bra Wh e n .

do ne we s h a ll find t h a t i f
2 2 *
P o r Q ( A) [( R
5
( K
‘
2 2 2
L n S ( R K ( )
1 6
'

n )

t h e n t he V s ol u t i on i s

V= P"
s in
( nt Q ) ( )
1 7
‘

x
e
e -

d u e t o V0 :
6 s in nt a t t he o rigi n . Fro m t hi s , b y t he u s e of t he
firs t o f giv i ng
dv
dx R — Lp dv
C —

E + Lp 2 2 2
E +L n d
? ( )
1 8

we m a y d erive t he C l i
s o u t on . Or w e m a y d eri v e it by d e ve
Io pi ng The re s u l t is

P 3
2
6
C —
Qx) ( 1 9 )
,
2

wh er e the vl
a u e of P 2
Q 2 is gi ve n by
( )
2 0
I t m ay be only n e c e s s a ry t o c ons id e r t he a mpli t u d e s o f V
a nd C , a nd , o f c ou rs e , C i s m os t i m p or t a nt : Tha t of V is
.

ob v i o u sly 6 by Th a t of C m a y be go t fro m a nd

is e xpr ess e d by

The w ave s p e e d i s n/Q t he wa ve l engt h 2 / Q a nd ,

7r , t he
p e ri odici ty n/ 2 1r A not h e r c onv e ni e nt form of ( 2 1 ) is
.
 T HEORY OF PLANE ELECT ROMAGNE T I C WAVES . 45 3

my “
E l e c t ric a l Ppr
a
(
e s, Vol I I
. . p es p ci lly p
e a . 39 6 a nd .

when R L a re t he na t u ra l e ffe c t iv e re s i s t a nc e a nd i nd u c t a nc e
,
'
,

a n d K S t h e l e a k a n c e a nd p e r m i tt a n c e e r u n i t l e ng th t he
, p ,

l a t t e r pa ir b e i ng s u ppo s e d to be t he sa m e a t a ll fre qu e nci e s .

p a p e r by P r o f P e rry P hi l M a y m also
( A . A u gu s t
, 1.8 9 3 a
y , , ,

be c o ns u l te d bu t I d o n o t t h i nk he i s righ t i n s o m e o f h i s
,

con cl u s i o ns ) . B u t t he s a m e fo r m u lae a re a pplic a bl e wh e n

a u x ili a ry d e v ic e s a re e m pl o y e d if t h e y ar e n u m e ro u s e no u gh
, ,

by a pro c e s s a na l ogo u s t o t he obvi o u s one o f r e pre se nt i ng

l a rge nu m b e rs o f s e p a ra t e l e ak s by u ni form l e a k a nc e .

Th u s i n the c as e of in d u c t i ve s h u nt s i f we t re a t t h e m a s a
, ,

s e t o f s e p a r a t e ly l o c a t e d s h u n t s t he fu ll t h e o ry i s v e ry c o m
,

plic a te d be ca u s e i t re qu ires a s e pa ra t e for m u l a for e v e ry s e c t i o n

,

o f t he li ne The b e s t c ou rs e t o t a k e i s t o di s t ribu t e t he
.

i nd u c t iv e l e a ka nc e u ni form ly i n i m a gi n a t i o n o f cou rs e The

, ,
.

re s u l t will r epre s en t t he fu ll e s t p os s ibl e c a rryin g o u t o f t h e '

‘

pri ncipl e conc e rne d a nd m ore Th u s le t p be t he r e s i s t a n c e

, .
, ,

a n d A t he i nd u c t a n c e o f t he l e a k b e l o ngi n g t o t he u n i t l e ng t h

o f c a bl e . The r e cipr o ca l of p i s o f c o u rs e t he s t e a d y l e a k a n c e
r u n i t l e ngt h B u t i t d o e s no t o p e ra t e fu lly wh e n t he s t a t e
p e .

is ch a ng in g o wm g t o A
, W e s h a ll no w h a v e
.

1
( )
2 3
wh e re i s t he l ea k a nc e Op e r at or t a ki ng t he pl a c e Of
1
-

p
‘
l whil s t
,
i sat h e s t e a dy p e r m i t t a n c e p e r u n it l e n g t h W e .

ha v e t o u s e t his s p e ci a l Y i n t he a b ove formu l ae to re pre s e nt

t h e e ff e c t of i nd uc t i v e l e a k a g e I n t he s i m ply p e ri odic c as e
.

Y d e ve l ops t o
 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . CH . IV .

to su it t he i nd u c ti v e l e a ka g e w hil s t R a nd L re m a i n
c as e of ,

as b e fore t he e ffe c t iv e r e s i s t a nc e a n d i nd u c t a n c e p er u n i t
,

l e ng th of li ne The s olu t i ons s h ou ld be e x a m i ne d t hr ou gh a

.

wide ra ng e o f fre qu en cy i n o rd e r t o a rri ve a t a g ood k no w

l edge o f ho w t he circ u i t w ou ld b e h a ve t o t e l e phonic c u rre n ts ,

wi t h d iffe re n t v a l u es o f A a nd p I t i s of c ou rs e ne c es s a ry .
, ,

t ha t p s h ou ld not be s o s m a ll a s t o pr od u c e t oo gr e a t a l os s i n
t ra ns i t.

Not ic e th a t A and p a re i mmens ely big wh e n the u ni t l eng t h

i s a c e n t i m e t re Rem e m b er t h a t m e q u a l c oil s in p a ra ll e l
.

b e h a v e like one c oil of on e m the r e s i s t anc e a nd i nd u c ta n c e

n t

o f t he i ndi v id u a l c oil s Th u s wh e n t e n s h u nt s a t t he ra t e of
.
,

o n e p er kil o m e t re t a k e t he pl a c e o f on e s h u nt p e r t e n kil o

m e t r e s e a ch of t he t en s h ou ld h a v e t e n t i m e s t he r e s i s t a n c e a nd
,

i nd u ct a nce o f t he one Thi s l e a d s t o phys ic a lly m ons t rou s

.

r es u l t s wh en we d o a s wa s d on e a b ov e a nd m a k e t he a c t i on ,

u n i fo rm a s i t i m pli es i nfi n i t e ly l a rg e i n d u c t a n c e o f a n i nfi n i t e ly
,

s ma ll s e c t i on of t h e l e a k a n c e B u t t h a t n e e d not c a u s e a ny
.

a l a rm wh e n w e a r e e m pl oyi ng t he id ea l c a s e fo r c a lc u l a t i n g

p u rp ose s Wha t i s m ore i m p or t a nt i s t h a t a s t op w o u ld s oo n

.

be s e t t o t he m u l t iplic a t i o n o f t he s h u n t s .

A t t he p a r t ic u l a r fr e qu e ncy m a ki ng t he e ff e c t i v e p e rm i t t a n c e
va ni sh the s ol u t i on may be ob t a i ne d s i mply from t he fu nda
,

m e nt a l fo r m u l ae s i nc e Y r e d u c e s t o a c o ns t a n t v iz t he v a l u e
, , .
,

of K i n S b e i ng z e r o ; a n d o nly t he ra t i o na li s a t i o n o f Z
ha s t o b e a t t e nd e d t o I f f u rt h e r we a s s u m e t h a t L 0 t h en
.
, ,
:
,

Z is al s o c ons t a nt v iz R a nd t he s ol u t i ons a re Si mply

,
.
, ,

V : 6
“ ( R ID i
V0,

Th es e repr es e nt a v e ry re m a rk a ble s t a t e of a ffai rs t hr ou gh ou t

t he c a bl e B u t i t i s t h o ro u ghly d e c e p t i v e b e c a u s e e v e n i f t he
. ,

i nd u c t a nc e of t he lin e w e r e q u i t e u n i m p ort a nt u nd e r nor m a l ’

c ondi t i on s the e ffe c ti v e c a n c e ll a t i on of t he p erm i t t anc e w o u ld

,

m a k e i t i m p or t a nt u nd e r t h e pr es e nt circ u m s t a n c e s ; t h a t i s L ,

c a nnot be ne gl e c t ed I ncl u di ng i t wh e n S = 0 t he va l u e of P
.
, ,

r e d u c e s to
{R ( R 2
456 ELEC TROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . A PP . B .

nis e d by
prop e r ty o f i ne r t i a wh e r e by i t t e nd s t o p ers i s t i n
t he ,

t he s t a t e o f m o t i on i t p os se s s e s a n d a ny ch a n g e i n t he m ot i o n

i s as crib e d t o t h e a c t i o n o f forc e o f which t he pr o p e r m e as u re ,

i s t h e re fo re t he r a t e of ch a ng e o f q u a nt i t y o f m ot i on o r
, , ,

m om ent u m .

L e t p be t he d e ns i ty o f m a t t e r, a nd e t he i nt e n s i ty of forc e ,
o r t he forc e p e r u n i t m a t t e r , t h e n

P ep ( )
1

e xpr e s se s t he m o p which vi g
h nas i t s e forc e
q u i v a l e n t i
onn ,

i ncre a s e o f t he m o m ent u m Th e re a re so m a ny forc e s no wa .

d ay s of a g e ne ra l is e d n a t u r e t ha t p e rh a p s t he e xpr e s s io n ,

m o v i ng fo r c e m ay b e p e r m i t t e d fo r di s t i n c t n e s s a l t h o u gh i t
'

m a y h a v e b e e n for m e rly a b u s e d a nd a ft e rwa rd s t a b ooe d .

No w t he fo rc e F or t he i nt e ns i t y e m a y h a v e m a ny o rigi n s
, , ,

bu t t he o nly one we a r e c on c e r ne d wi t h h e re i s t he gra v i t a t i o n a l

fo rc e T hi s a pp e a rs t o d e p e n d s ole ly u p on t he di s t rib u t i on o f
.

t h e m a t t e r i nd e p e n d e nt ly o f o th e r circ u m s ta nc es a nd i t s o p e ra
, ,

t i on i s c o nci se ly e xpres s e d by N e w t on s la w t h a t t h e r e i s a
’
,

m u t u al a t t ra c t i on b e t we en a ny t wo p a r t icl e s o f m a t t e r wh ich ,

va rie s a s t he prod u c t o f t h e ir m a ss e s a nd i nve rs ely a s t he

s q u a re o f t h e ir di s t a n c e L e t e no w be t he i nt e n s i t y o f gra vi
.

t a t i o na l forc e a nd P t he r es u l t a n t m o vi ng fo rc e d u e t o a ll t he
, ,

m at te r T he n e s t he s p a c e va ri a t i on o f a p ot ent i a l s ay
.
-
, ,

e VP, ( )
2

a nd t he p ot e n t i a l i s fo u nd fro m t he di s trib u t ion of m a t t e r by *

wh e re c on st a nt Thi s i mpli e s t h a t t he s p e e d of p rop a

c is a .

t i f t h gr a vi ta t i v e i n fl u e n c e i s i n fi n i t e ly gr e a t 1
‘

g a o n o e .

No w wh en m a t t e r i s a ll o we d t o fa ll t og e t h e r fr o m a ny c on
figu ra t i on t o a cl os e r o ne t he wo rk d one by t he gra v i t a t i ona l ,

fo rciv e i s e x pre s s e d by t he i ncre a s e m a d e i n t he q u a n t i t y

E gP p Thi s i s id e nt ic a lly t he s a m e a s t he qu a nt i t y
.

s u m m e d t hr o u g h a ll s p a c e I f f or e x a m pl e t he m a tt e r b e giv e n
.
, ,

S ee § 1 33 .

l The
‘ ‘
d e ns i t
y s i e xp r e ss e d i n t e rms of t he i n te n s i ty fo rc e by
of

p = c o nv c e T hi s i s a sol t he ca s e i n t he e x te n dde a n a l o gy l a te r , w h e n

l l i gh t l y d
.

t he i ne s o f e ar e s s hif te .
 GRAV ITA T I ONAL ANALOGY . 45 7

i ni t ia lly i n a s ta t e of i nfi ni te ly fine di vi s i o n i nfi ni t ely wid e ly ,

s e p a ra t e d t h e n t he w o rk d o ne by t he gra vi t a t i o n a l fo rc i v e l n
,

p a s s ing t o a ny ot he r c onfig u ra t i on i s 2 3m or E § ce which 2

. ,

t h e r e fo r e e x pr e s s e s t he e x ha u s t i o n o f p ot e nt i a l

W e m a y t h e re fo re a s s u m e t h a t § ce e xpr e s s e s t he e x h a u s t i o n o f
2
~

p o te nt i a l e ne rgy p e r u n i t v ol u me of t he m e di u m The e qu i v a .

l e nt of t he e xha u s t i on of p ot e nt i a l e ne rgy i s of c ou rs e t he ga i n , ,

o f ki ne t ic e ne rgy if n o o t h e r fo rc e s h a v e b e e n i n a c t i o n
,
.

W e c a n n o w e x pre s s t he flu x o f e n e rgy W e m a y c o m p a r e .

t h e pr e s e n t pr o bl e m wi t h t h a t o f t h e m o t i o n o f e l e c t rific a t i on .

I f m o e d a b o u t s l o wly i n a d iel e c t ric t h e e l e c t ric fo rc e i s

v ,

a ppr e c i a bly t h e s t a t ic di s t ri bu t i o n N e v e rt h e l e s s t he fl u x
.
,

o f e n e rgy d e p e nd s u p o n t he m a g n e t ic fo rc e a s w e ll It m ay .
,

i nd e e d be repre s e n t e d i n a n o th e r wa y wi th ou t i nt rod u ci ng t he
, ,

m a g ne t ic forc e b u t t h e n t he fo r m u l a w o u ld n ot b e s u ffici e nt ly
,

c o mpre he ns iv e t o s u i t o t h e r c a s e s No w wh a t i s t h e r e a na l )
. .

ou s t o m a g n e t ic fo rc e i n t he gra vi t a t i o n a l c as e ? A n d if i t
g
h a ve i t s a n a l og u e wha t i s t h e re t o c orr e s p on d wi t h e l e ct ric
,

c u rre nt ? A t firs t gl a nc e i t m igh t s e e m t ha t t he wh ol e of t he

m a g n e t ic s id e o f e l e c t r o m a g ne t i s m w a s a b s e nt i n t he gr a vi t a
t i o n a l a na l o gy . B u t t hi s i s not t r u e .

T hu s i f u i s t he vel ocit y o f p t h en p ii is t he d e ns i t y of a
, ,,

c u rrent ( or flux) of m a tt e r It i s a n a l og ou s to a c on v e c t i ve
.

c u rre nt of e l e c t rific a t i on A l s o wh e n t he m a tte r p e nte rs a ny

.
,

re gi on t hro u gh i t s b o u n da ry t h e re i s a s i m u lt a ne ou s c on v e r
,

ge nc e o f gra vi t a t i o na l fo rc e i n t o t h a t re g i o n prop ort i o na l t o p .

This i s e xpre s s e d by s ayi ng t h a t if j '

C = pu — c é, ( )
4

th e n C i s a circu i t a l flu x I t i s t he a n a l og u e of M a xw ell s t r u e
.
’

c u rre nt ; fo r a l t ho u g h Ma x we ll did not i n cl u d e t he c on v e c t iv e

t e r m p u y e t i t w o u ld be a g a i ns t hi s pr i n cipl e s t o ig no re i t
, .

Be i ng a circ u i t a l flu x i t i s t he c u rl of a ve c t o r s ay
, ,

c u rl h p u cé .

This d e fi ne s h e xc e p t a s r e ga rd s i ts di v e rg e nc e which i s a rbi ,

t ra ry a nd m a y be m a d e z e r o
, Th e n h i s t he a na l og u e of m a g
.
. 45 8 ELEC TROMAGN E T I C T HEORY . AP P . B

ne tic fo rc e fo r i t b e a rs t he s a m e re la t i on
, t o flu x of m a t te r as .

m a g ne t ic fo rc e d oe s t o c o n v e c t iv e c u rr e n t . W e hav e *

h c u rl p o t C,

c u rl A,

h e r e i nv o l v e d
.

if A = p o t C B u t s i n c e i n s t a n t a ne o u s a c t i o n
.
, is ,

we may e q u a lly w e ll t a k e

A p o t p 11 , ( )
7

an d i ts c u rl will b e h T hu s wh il s t t he o rdi na ry p ot e nt i a l P
.
,

i s t he p ot e nt i a l of t he m a t t e r t he n e w p ot e nt i a l A i s t h a t of ,

its flux .

No w i f we m u l tiply ( 5 ) by e, we o b ta i n
e c u rl h ep u e cé ,

o r, which i s t he sam e, 1
L

c o nv Ve h Pu U , ( )
9

r e pre s ent s t he r a t e o f e x h a u s t i o n o f p o t e nt i a l
t
‘
z
if U oe . But U
'
e n e rgy s o , U r e pr e s e nts i t s ra t e o f i ncr e a se whil s t Eu r e p re ,

s e nt s t he a c t i v i t y o f t he fo rc e o n p I nc r e a s m i t s ki n e t ic
g ,

e n e rgy C o nse q u e n t ly t he v e c t o r Ve h e x pre s s e s t he flu x o f

.
,

gra vi ta t i onal e ne rgy More s t ric t ly a ny circ u i ta l flu x wh a t

.
,

e v e r m a y be a dd e d Thi s Ve h i s a na l og ou s t o t he elec t ro m a g
.

ne t ic VEH fo u n d by P o yn t i n g a n d m y s e l f 1 B u t t h ere i s a .

re v e rsa l o f dire c ti on Th u s c om p a ri ng a s i ngl e m o v i ng p a rt icl e

.
,

o f m a t t e r wi t h a s i m il a rly m o vi ng e l e c t ric ch a rg e d e s cri be a

-

s ph e r e r o u n d e a ch L e t t h e dir e c t i o n o f m o t i o n be t he a xi s
.
,

t he p os i t i v e p ol e b e i n g a t t he fo r wa rd e nd Th en i n t he .

e l e c t ric a l c a s e t he m a g n e t ic fo rc e fo ll o w s t he li n e s o f l a t i t u d e

wi t h p os i t iv e r ot a t i on a b ou t t he a x i s a nd t he flu x o f e ne rgy ,

c oi ncid e s wi t h t he li nes of l o ngit u d e from t he ne ga t iv e p ol e to

the p os i t iv e B u t i n t he gra vi t a t i on a l c a s e a l t h o u gh h s t ill
.
,

foll o ws t he li ne s o f l a t i t u d e p os i t iv e ly y e t s i nc e t h e r a di a l e i s ,

dire c t e d to i ns t e a d of fro m t he c e nt r e t he flu x of e ne rgy is ,

a l o n g t he li n e s o f lo n i t u d e fro m t he p os i t iv e p o l e t o t he
g ,

S ec § 1 34 p a ge 2 08
, .

l B y th e t ra ns f o r m a t i o n § 1 32
'‘

k
.

I S ee § 7 0, e qu a t i o n Ta e eo = 0 = ho .
4 60 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY . APP . B .

O r, i f pt i s a ne w cons ta nt ,
su ch t h a t
M W =L

the n 1 5 ) ma y b e wri t t e n i n t he fo r m

c u rl e u
,
h .

To su m u p , t he fir t s circ u it a l la w or

e u rl h p u cé , ( )
5 bi s .

l ea d s t o a s e c ond o ne na m e ly ,
i f we i ntr o d u c e t he hyp o
th es i s o f pro p a g a t i o n a t fi ni t e Sp e e d Thi s of c ou rs e m ight
*
.
, ,

be i n fe rre d fro m t he e l e c t rom a g ne t ic c as e .

I n o rd e r t h a t t he s p ee d a s h ou ld be no t l e s s t h a n a ny v a l u e
t h a t m a y be s e t t l e d u p on as t he l e a s t p os s ibl e we h a v e m e r e ly ,

t o m a k e p be o f t he n e c e ss a ry s m a ll n e s s
. The eq u a t i on of .

a c t ivi ty b e c om e s i ns t e a d o f
,

conv Veh P u U T ( )
1 8 ,

if T 3a h
:
?
The ne g a t i v e s ig n b e fo re t he t i m e i ncr e as e of t hi s -

q u a nt i t y p oi nt s t o e xh a u s t i on o f e ne rgy as b e fore I f s o we ,
.
,

s h ou ld s t i ll re pre s e nt t he fl u x o f e ne rgy by Veh B u t of .

,

c o u rs e T i s a n al mos t v a ni s hi ng q u a nt i ty whe n
,
i s s m a ll u
,

e n ou g h o r a big e no u gh
,
N ote t h a t h i s no t a n egligible
.

qu a nt i t y th o u gh t he prod u c t h i s Th u s r es u l ts will be
,
u
,
.

s e n s i bly as i n t he c o m m o n t h e o ry o f i ns t a nt a neou s a c t i on ,

a l t h o u gh e x pr e s s e d i n t e r ms o f w a v e pro p a ga t i on Res u l t s -
.

s h o w i ng s ig ns o f w a v e pro p a g a t i on w o u ld r e q u ire a n i no r di
-

n a t e ly l a rg e v e l o ci t y o f m a t t e r t hr o u gh t he e t h e r I t m a y be .

w or th whil e t o p oi nt ou t t h a t t he line s of gra v it a t i ona l forc e

c onne c t e d wi th a p a rt icl e of m a t t e r will no l onge r c onv e rge t o
i t u ni fo r m ly fro m a ll dir e c t i o ns wh e n t he v e l o ci t y v i s fi n it e bu t ,

will s ho w a t e nd e ncy t o l a t e ra l c onc e nt ra t i on t h o u gh o nly t o a ,

se ns i bl e e x t e n t wh e n t he v e l o ci t y o f t he m a t t e r i s no t a n i n

s en s ibl e fra c t i o n o f v
'
.

The gra v i t a t i on a l e 1e c t rom a gn e t i c a na l ogy m ay be fu r t h e r

-

e x t e nd e d i f we a ll o w t h a t t he e t h e r whic h s u pp or t s a n d
p ro

a a t e s t he gr a vi t a t i o na l i nfl u e n c e c a n h a v e a t ra n s l a t i o n a l
p g :
Thes e l
e qu a t i o ns a r e a na o go u s to (4 ) and § 35 .

I
''
Thi s i s l
a n a o g ou s to § 7 0, w i th t he i m p r e ss e df o rc es ma d e z e ro

d ld
.

I Thi s o es n o t e x c u e r o ta t i o na l m o tio n w hi c h i s , in fac t, a di ffere nti al

l ki d f t l lm
,

e ffec t in a sp e cia n o r a ns a t i o n a o ti o n.
 GRAV IT AT I ONAL A NALOGY . 46 1

m o t i on of i ts h u s c a rryi ng a b ou t a nd di s t ort i ng t he lines

o w n, t
of fo rc e . Ma ki n g a ll o w a nc e fo r t hi s c o nv e c t i on o f e by t he
m e di u m, wi t h t he c oncom i ta nt c on v e c t i on of h req u ires u s t o ,

r
t u n t he circ u i ta l l a w s ( )
1 8 t o

c u rl ( e q h) u
,
h,

c u rl ( h cVe q) pu c é,

Whe req is’

t he v e l oci t y di u m i ts el f
of t he m e .
*

I t i s n e e dl es s t o go i nt o d e t a i l b e c a u s e t he m a t t e r m a y be
,

re ga rd e d as a s p e ci al a nd s i m pl i fi e d c a s e of m y i n v e s t ig a t i o n o f
t he forc e s i n t he e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic fi e ld w i t h c ha ng e d m e a n i ngs ,

o f t he s y m b o l s I t i s s u ffici e nt t o p o i nt o u t t h a t t he s t re s s i n
.

t he fi e ld n o w b e c o m es pro m i ne n t a s a wo rki ng a g e n t I t is o f .

t wo s or t s one d e p e ndi n g u p on e a nd t he o t h e r u p o n h a na l o
, ,

gou s t o t he e l e c tric a n d m a gne t ic s t res s e s The one d e pe ndi ng .

u p on h i s of c o u r s e
, i ns ig nific a nt The o t he r c ons i s ts of a
, .

pr es s u re p ar a ll e l t o e c o mbi ne d wi t h a l a t e ra l t e ns i on a ll ro u nd
i t b o t h o f ma gn i t u d e § cc
,
2
Thi s wa s e q u i va l e n tly s u gg es t e d
.

by M a xwell Thu s t wo bodi es which a pp ea r t o a tt ra c t a re

.

p u s he d t oge t he r The ca s e o f t wo l a rge p a ra ll e l m a t e ri a l

.

pl a nes exhibi ts t hi s i n a m a rk e d m a n ne r for e i s v e ry s m a ll ,

be t we e n t h e m a nd re l a t i ve ly l a rge on t h e ir f u r the r S id e s
, .

Bu t the a b o v e a n a l o gy t h o u gh i nt e res t i ng i n i t s wa y a nd
, ,

s e rvi ng t o e m ph as i s e t he n o n n e c e ss i t y o f t he as s u m pt i on of
-

i ns t a nt a neou s or dire c t a c t ion o f m a t te r u p on m a t t e r does n ot ,

e nligh t e n u s i n t h e l eas t a bo u t t he u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f gra v i

ta t i ona l e ne rgy I t se r v e s i n fa c t t o fu r t h e r ill u s t ra te t he

.
, ,

my s t e ry . For i t m u s t he c o n fe s s e d t h a t t he e x h a u s t i on of
pot e nt i al e ne rgy from a u ni ve rs a l me di u m i s a v e ry u n int e lligi
ble a nd m y s t e ri ou s ma t t e r W h e n m a t t e r is i nfi ni t e ly wid ely
.

s e p a r a t e d a n d t he force s a re l eas t t he p o t e nt i a l e n e rgy i s a t i ts

, ,

gre a t es t a nd whe n t he p o t e nt ia l e ne rgy is m ost ex ha u s t e d t he

, ,

fo rc e s a re m os t e ne rg e t ic l
N ow t h e re i s a m a g ne t ic probl em i n which we h a ve a kind of
s i m il a ri t y o f b e h a vi o u r v iz wh e n c u rr e n ts i n m
,
.
,

a r e a ll o w e d t o a t t ra c t one a not h e r .
4 62 ELECT ROMAGNET I C T HE O RY . APP . B .

s ma ll fil a m e nt a ry cu rr e n t s in cl o s e d circu i t s Th e n on con .
,

c e nt ra t i o n t o a ny o th e r s t a te t he work d one by t he a t t ra c t iv e
,

fo rc e s i s r e pr e s e nt e d by E a l 1 2
wh e r e p is t he i nd u c t ivi t y
r
-

,
.

a n d H t he m a g n e t ic fo rc e Thi s ha s i t s equ iv a l e nt i n t he
.

e ne rgy o f m o t i o n of t he circ u i t s o r m a y b e i ma gi n e d t o b e s o
,

c on ve rt e d or e ls e was te d by fric t i on if we lik e B u t o v e r a nd

, , .
,

a b ov e t hi s e n e rgy r pr
2 %n H 2
t he s a m e a m ou n t
, e e s e n t s the , ,

e ne rgy o f t he m a g n e t ic fi e ld which c a n b e g o t o u t o f i t i n w o rk
, .

I t w a s z e ro a t t he b egi nni ng No w as L ord K e lvi n s h o w e d

.
, ,

t hi s d o u bl e w o rk i s a cc ou nt e d for by e x t ra w o rk i n t he b a t t e ri es
o r o t h e r s o u rc e s r e q u ir e d t o m a i nt a i n t h e c u rr e nt s c ons t a nt .

I h a v e o m i t t e d r e fe re n c e t o t he w a s t e o f e n e rgy d u e t o e l ec
(
t r i ca l r e s i s t a n c e t o a v o id c o m plic a t i on s )
,
I n t he gra v i t a t i ona l .

c a s e t h ere i s a p a r t ia l a na l ogy bu t t he m a t t e r i s a ll a l o ng
,

as s u m e d t o be i nc a p a bl e o f v a ri a t i on a nd n o t t o r e q u ir e a ny ,

s u pply o f e ne rgy t o k e e p i t c on s ta n t If we a ss e r t e d t h a t .

a s s t o r e d e n e rgy t h e n i t s d o u bl e w o u ld b e t he w o rk d one
A
2
re w ,

e r u n i t v ol u m e by l e t t i ng b o di e s a t t r a c t fr o m i n fi n i t y wi t h
p ,

o u t a ny a pp r e n t s o u rc e B u t i t i s m e r e ly th e e x h a u s t i o n o f
a . .

p o te n ti a l e n e rgy of u nk no w n a m ou nt a n d di s t rib u t i o n *
.

P ot e nt i a l e n e rgy wh e n r e g a rd e d m e r e ly a s e xpr e s s iv e of t h e
,

w ork t h a t c a n be d on e by forc e s d e p e ndi ng u p on c o nfig u ra t i on ,

d oe s n ot a d mi t of m u c h a rg u m e nt I t i s li t t l e m ore t ha n a .

m a t h e m a t ic a l id e a fo r t h e r e i s s c a rc ely a ny phy s ic s i n i t
, It .

e x pl a i n s n o t hi ng B u t i n t he c ons id e ra t i o n of phy s ic s i n
.

g e ne ra l i t i s s c a rc e ly p oss ibl e t o a v oid t he id e a t h a t p ote nt i a l

,

e ne rgy s ho u ld b e c a p a bl e o f l o c a li s a t i o n e q u a lly as w e ll as

ki ne t ic Th a t t he p o tent i a l e ne rgy m ay be i t s el f u l t i ma t ely

.

ki ne t ic i s a s e p a r a t e q u e s t ion P erh a p s t he b es t d efi ni t i on of
.

t he fo rm e r i s c ont a i n e d in t h e se w ord s z— P o t e nt i a l e ne rgy i s

e ne rgy t h a t i s n o t k n o w n t o b e ki n e t ic B u t h o w e v e r t hi s .
,

be t h e re i s a pra c t i c a l di s t i n c ti o n b e t wee n t h e m which i t i s

,

fou n d u se fu l t o c a rry o u t N o w wh en e ne rgy ca n be di s t i nc tly

.
,

l oc a li s e d i t s flu x c a n a l s o be t ra ce d ( s u bj e c t t o circu i t a l i nd e
,

t e r m i na t e ne s s h o we v e r)
, A l s o t hi s fl u x o f e ne rgy fo rm s a
.
,

u se fu l w o rki n g id e a wh e n a c t i o n a t a di s t a n c e i s d e n i e d ev e n
(
t h ou gh t h e s p e e d o f t r a n s m i s s i o n b e i nfi ni t e ly gr e a t o r be ,

I t w ou ld a p pear t ha t w e m u s t go t o t he e t he r t o find t he s o u r ce o f a ll

e ne rgy .
4 64 ELEC T ROMAGNET I C T HEORY . A PP . B .

m od ifi e d fo rc e wh e n t he S u n i s i n m o t i o n at s peed it t hro u gh
t he et he r . Th e n *

1 s

l 2
6) §
( ) 9
H

( s s in

wh e re s is t he s ma ll q u a nt i ty u / v a nd 6 i s t he a ngl e b e t w e e n
Z 2
,

r a nd t he li ne o f m ot i on ( E l e c t ric a l P a p e rs
.
“
Vo l II pp ,
”
. .
,
.

The re fore i f t he S u n i s a t r e s t t h e re i s n o di s t u rba nc e o f t he

, ,

Ne wt onia n la w b e c a u s e i t s fi eld o f forc e i s s t a t i ona ry B u t

,
”
.

i f i t ha s a m o t i o n t hro u gh s p a c e t h e r e i s a s ligh t w e a k e n i ng o f ,

the fo rc e i n t he li ne o f m o t i o n a nd a s ligh t s t r e ng t h e ni ng ,

e q u a t ori a lly The dir e c t i on i s s t ill r a di a l

. .

To s h o w t he s ize o f t he e ff e c t le t ,

7
x 1 0 c e nt i m
u :
3 .
p e r s e c .

3
3

Thi s val u e of u i s no t v e ry di ffe r e nt fr om t h e s p e e d a t tr i

b u t ed t o fa s t s t a rs a nd t he v a l u e of a i s t he s p e e d o f ligh t i ts elf
,
.

S o we h a v e

i . a. , o ne -
m illi o nt h
p e rt u rbing fo rc es of t he firs t ord er a r e
. All ,

th e re fo r e o f t he o rd e r o f m a g ni t u d e of only one m illi o nt h of

,
-

t he f u ll fo rc e e v e n wh e n t he s p e e d o f pr o p a g a t i on i s as s m all
,

a s t h a t o f l igh t .

The s i m pl e s t c as e i s wh e n t he c o mm on m ot i o n o f t he S u n
a nd E a r t h i s p e rp e ndic u l a r t o t h e pl a ne of t he o rbi t Th e n .

0 = § a ll ro u n d t he o rbi t a nd
7r ,

F =f ( 1 f) 3 . ( )
5

sh owing a n i ncre a s e in t he fo rc e of a t t ra c t ion o f S on E o f on e

t wo m illi o n t h p a r t wi t h ou t a l t e r a t i on o f dir e c t i o n o r v a ri a t i o n
-

in t he orbi t i
‘

This i s t he ca s e o f s te a dy m ot i o n . The r e is l f m l wh
n o s im p e or u a en

t he m o t i o n is dy E q t i u ns te a . ua on a b v
o i i mm di t ly d i bl
e, s e a e er va e

f m q ti
ro e 1 63
ua on .

1 B t P f L d g t ll m t h t t i l S i i d d t
'
u row . o e e s e a ou r O n p ar cu a r un s c o ns ere o

m v ly 1 0 9 m i l p
o e on d Thi i es er s e con . s s s t pu d ] y l w Th i f
en ou s S o . e s ze o

si d dt b t
s re uce p t f th t i o a ou ar o a n th t e t d h
ex m p p li
,
an t e sa e a es

t th o ti d p di g p i t
e c orr e c o ns e en n u on .
 B u t wh e n t he c o m m on m ot i on o f t he S u n a n d E a r th is i n
t h e i r p la ne 6 v a ri e s fro m 0 t o 2
,
i n a r e v ol u t i on s o t h a t t he 2: ,

a t t ra c t i o n o n E w h il s t t o wa rd s t he S u n s c e nt r e a l wa y s u n d e r
’
, ,

o e s a p e r i o dic v a ri a t i o n fro m
g
F =f (1 s
)
wh e n to F =f ( 1

wh e n 6= § m The x t re m e v a ri a t i o n i s t h e re fo re gsfi a cc ord

e , ,

i ng t o t h e d a t a u sed The r e s u l t i s a s ligh t c ha ng e i n t he

.

s ha pe of t he o r bi t

B u t , t o be c ons i s t e n t h a vi ng m a d e a fi n i t e by c e r t a i n s u pp o s i
,

t i o ns w e s h o u ld c a r ry o u t t he c o n s e q u e n c e s m o r e f u lly a nd a ll o w
, ,

n o t m e re ly fo r t he ch a ng e i n t he N e w t o n i a n l a w a s a b o v e bu t , ,

for t he fo rc e b r o u gh t i n by t he fi n i t e ne s s o f a whi c h i s a n a l o g o u s
t o t he “
e l e c t r o m a g ne t ic fo rc e T hi s i s v e ry s m a ll t r u ly bu t
. ,

s o i s t he a b o v e ch a n g e i n t he N e wt o n i a n la w a n d s i nc e t h e y ,

a r e o f t h e s a m e o rd e r o f m a g ni t u d e w e s h o u ld a l s o c o u nt t he ,

a u x ili a ry fo rce C a l l it G Th e n *
. .

G F x x Vq l Vr l u l ,

w h e re F i s a s be fore i n ( 2 ) abo v e 9 i s t he a c t u a l s p e e d o f t he
, ,

E a rt h ( n o t t h e s a m e a s u ) a n d i n t he t hird v e c to ri a l fa c t o r
, ,

q , 11 1 a n d r 1 a r e u n i t v e c t o rs dra w n p a r a ll e l t o t he dir e c t i o n o f
, ,

t he E a rt h s m o t i o n o f t h e S u n s m o t i o n a nd fro m t he S u n t o
’ ’
, ,

t he E a r t h W e s e e a t o n c e t ha t t he o rd e r o f m a g n i t u d e c a nno t
.

be gr e a t e r t h a n t ha t o f t h e d e p a r t u re o f F fro m f b e fore c on ,

s id e re d b e c a u s e a a nd q w ill be o f t he s a m e o rd e r a t le a s t
, ,

w h e n n i s b ig A s fo r x i t i s s i m ply a n u m e ric a l fa c t o r wh i ch
.
, ,

c a nn ot e x c e e d 1 a nd i s proba bl y g,
.

The s i m pl e s t c a s e i s w h e n t he m o t i o n o f t he S u n i s p e r
!

p e n d i c u la r t o t h e o rb i t o f t h e E a r t h Th e n .

G = F x m

g i ve s t h e te n s o r or s iz e of t he au x il i ry a fo rce . I t is r a di a l
,

bu t o u t wa rd s , so t ha t t he re s u l t i s m e rel y t o re d u c e t he Siz e o f

l
e ec t r i c fo r c e is ta k e n re v e r se d .
4 66 ELEC T ROMAGNE T I C T HEORY ~

.. APP . B .

t he pre vi ou s c orre c t i on viz t h e d i ffe re nc e of F fro m f i n the

,
.
,

s a m e m o t i o n a l ci rc u m s t a nc e s

B u t w h e n t he l i n e o f m o t i on o f t h e S u n i s i n t he pl a ne o f
t he o r bi t t h e c a s e i s m u ch m o r e c o m plic a t e d
,
The fo rc e G i s .

n e i t h e r c o n s t a n t ( fo r t he s a m e di s t a n c e ) n o r r a di a l e x c e p t i n ,

fou r p o s i t i o ns v iz t w o i n t he li ne o f m o t i on o f t h e S u n w h e n
.

.
, , ,

t he a u x il ia ry fo rc e v a n i s h e s a n d t wo wh e n 6 :1: $ 3 wh e n i t i s
,
: 2

gre a t e s t B u t t hi s fo rc e i s s t ill i n t he pl a ne o f t he o rbi t w hich

.
,

i s a n i m p o r ta n t t hi ng a nd i s m o r e o v e r p e ri o dic s o t h a t t h e
, , , ,

t a ng e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t i s a s m u ch o n e w a y a s t he o t h e r i n a
p e ri od
A ll w e n e e d e x p e c t t h e n s o fa r a s I c a n s e e fr o m t he a b o v e
, ,

c ons id e ra t i ons a r e s m a ll p e rt u rba t i on s du e t o t he v a ri a t i on of

,
.

t he fo rc e o f gr a vi t y i n d i ffe re n t dir e c t i o n s a n d t o t he a u x ili a ry ,

forc e . O f c o u rs e t h e r e w ill b e n u m e ro u s m i n o r p e r t u rb a t i o ns
,
*
.

I f v a ri a t i ons o f t h e fo rc e o f t he s iz e c on s id e r e d a b o v e a r e t o o
s m a ll t o l e a d t o o b s e rv a bl e p e r t u rb a t i o n s o f m o t io n t h e n t h e ,

s t riki n g c o n cl u s i o n i s t h a t t h e s p e e d o f gr a vi t y m a e v e n b e t he
y
s a m e a s t h a t o f ligh t I f t h e y a r e o b s e rv a bl e t h e n i f e x i s t e n t
.
, , ,

t h e y s h ou ld t u rn u p b u t i f n on e x i s t e n t t h e n t he Sp e e d o f
,
-

gra vi ty s h o u ld be gre a t e r Eu r the r m o r e i t i s t o be obs e rv e d .

,

t h a t t h e r e m a y be o t h e r w a y s o f e x pr e s s i ng t he pro p a g a t i o n

o f g ra vi t y .

B u t I a m m i nd fu l o f t h e g oo d o ld a d a g e a b ou t t h e s h o e m a k e r
a nd h i s l a s t a n d a m ,
t h e r e fo r e r e l u c t a n t t o m a k e a ny m o r e
, ,

re m a rk s a b ou t p e r t u rba t i o n s The q u e s t i o n o f t he e th e r i n i ts .

gra vi t a t i ona l a s p e c t m u s t b e fa c e d h o we v e r a nd s olv e d , ,

or l a t e r i f i t b e p o s s ibl e
, P e rh a p s t h e r e fo re m y s u gg
.
, ,

m ay n o t b e w h olly u s el e s s .

Th e l
s o u t io n fo r s t ea d y r e c t i li near m o t i o n h as b e e n l de m p oy e .

j u s t i fica t i o n t h e r e o f i s t he sma ll ne s s of n a a nd/ t he l g p i di

ar e er o c

If w e a ll ow for t he sm a ll c u r v a tu r e of p at h o f a n a t tr a c t i g b dy w
n o ,
e

i nt r o d u ce c or r e c t i on s o f t he s ec o n d d or er Of s m a ll q u a n ti tie s .

EN D OF VOLUME I.