IN T HE

N I N E T E E N T H C E N T U RY

JO S E P H L O U I S P E R R I E R ,
P H D .

3 d!)
fi n k
 N E
B Y T H E CO LUM BI A U I V R S IT Y
 P REFA CE

Th e p res en t work consists of two p a r t s t h e fi r st o f wh ic h m a y

,

be d e scrib e d a s d e fin ition a l ; t h e s e co n d a s histo r ic a l, .

Th e fi r st p a rt ( Ch a pt e rs I to V I II ) is not in t e n d e d to b e a
‘

co m pl et e co urse of Schol a stic phi losophy I li m i t m yself to a n .

e xposition a n d a d isc u ssio n of thos e p r i n cipl e s of Schol a sticis m ,

a kn owl edg e of which is i n di sp e n s a bl e to a n u n d erst a n di n g of

t h e Schol a stic re viv a l F or a n a d e q u a t e k n o wl edg e of Schol a s

.

tic phil osophy I wo uld re f e r m y rea d ers to t h e m a s t erly e x p os i

,

ti ons of Urrab uru M erci er a n d t h e J e s u its of S t o n y h u rst T h e

, ,
.

shorte r trea tis es of G i nebr a a n d Pecsi a re a l s o e x c e ll en t .

In th e hi s to r ic a l p a r t I h a v e divid e d t h e s pe c ul a tiv e wo rld

,

into r a c e s ra th er th a n into politic a l divisio n s I h a v e th u s in .

cl u d e d G e rm a n A u st r i a in th e ch a pt er on G e rm a ny a n d d e vot ed
a se p a ra t e s e ction to H u ng a ry I h a v e l ik e wis e s tu di e d S o uth
.

A m er ica n re p ubl ics in co nn e ctio n with th e n eo Schol a stic m ov e -

m e nt in Sp a i n It is i n to r a c es ra th e r t h a n i nto a rbitr a ry
.
,

t ra cts of l a nd th a t t h e wo rld is divi d ed I n s pit e of t h e r idic u

,
.

lou s p rincipl e we c a ll th e M o n roe doct r i n e S o u th Am er ic a n ,

n a tio n s a re a n d will a lw a ys b e e sse n ti a lly Sp a n ish W ith Sp a i n .

th ey sp ea k th ey thi n k a n d th ey p ra y Th ey reg a r d us a s s t ra n
,
.

ger s so m et im es a s b a rb a ri a n s Th ey e m ph a ti c a lly re f use to

, .

a cce pt th e p r o t ecti o n we wo u ld fo rc e u po n th e m .

I n com pl e ti ng th is s eco n d p a rt I h a v e d e r iv e d consid era bl e

,

h el p f ro m th e following wo rks :

B l a nc s
’
H!s t ai rs de la P h iIO S Op h ie et p a r tic u lié rem en t de la

B e sse s
’
D eux c en tr es da m m em en t t h om is te ,
 L a P h i los op h ie A m ér iq ue,
’
va n B ec ela er e s en

G a r ci a s Tom is m o y N eot om is m o
’
,

Va lv er d e T ell ez s histo r ic a l wo r ks
’
.

I t en d er m y si n c ere th a n ks to th e f r i en ds who a ssist e d

m e in t h e p r ep a ra tio n of this book In .

e dg e m y obliga tio n to P rofe sso r J oh n

U n iv er sity.

Y O R K Ap r il 1 9 0 8
, , .
 C O NT E N T S

CHAPT ER I
WHAT rs Sc n ou s r rc PH I LO S O P H Y ?

S EC T . 2 : N eo -
Sc h ol a s tic P h i l o s o p h y
CHAPTER I I

C HAP TE R III

S oirO L A s r rc
'
Mm u n r s rc s

Exi s t e n ce M e t a p h y s i cs
of

Sc h o l a s tic T h e o ry o f Act a n d P o t e n cy
S ECT . 3 : Sc h o l a s tic T h e o ry o f S ub s ta n ce
S t ar . 4

C HAPT ER IV

S onom s r rc Co s mo w o v
C h i f H yp t h
e o e se s as t o t he C
tit u ti on o f M a tt e r“
ons

a n d P ro pe r ti e s o f P r i m
,

Na t u re o r di a l Ma tt e r

N a t u re a nd P r o p e rti es o f t h e S u b s t a n ti a l F o r m

M o d e rn Sci en ce a nd t h e C ons ti tu ti on o f M a tte r

C HAP TER V
So n o m e r rc P s r c n o wo r
Theo ry of Ab s t ra cti on

C HAPT ER V I
R
S o n o m s r rc NA T U A L T n s o wo r
'
 TH E NEo S O H O L A S TI O
-
R EV I VA L I N S P AI N ,
P O RTU G A L AN D
S P A N I S H A M ER I C A
S E CT . l Th e N e o Sch o l a s ti c
-
R evi va l in Sp a i n
S E CT . 2: Th e Ne o Sch o l a s ti c
-
Re v i v a l i n P o r t ug a l
SE CT . 3 : Th e N ee Sch o l a s tic
-
Rev i va l i n M e xic o
S E CT . 4 Th e N e o Sch o l a s ti c
-
Re v i va l i n S o u t h A m e r ic a

C HAPT E R X I
THE N EO -
S C H O LA S T I C R E V I VA L I N G ER M A N Y AN D AU S T RI A

C HAPT ER X I I
TH E N E O S CH O L A S T I O
-
R EV I VA L I N F A R N CE
C HAPT E R XI I I
TH E NE O -
S C H O LA S T I C R EV I VA L I N B E LG I U M
C HAPTER X I V
T H E N E o S CH O LA S T I O
-
R EV IV A L I N O T H ER E U RO P E A N C O U N T R IE S
SECT . l : Th e Ne o Sc h o l a s tic R e v i va l i n H u nga ry B o h e m i a a n d
-
,

t h e N et h e r l a nds
SECT . 2: Th e N e o Sc h o l a s tic R e v i va l i n E ngl a n d
-

C HAPT ER
XV
T H E NE o S O H O L A S T I O R E VI VA L I N T HE U N IT E D S TAT E S
-

AN D C A N ADA
S E CT . l : T h e N e o Sc h o l a s tic R ev i va l i n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s
-

S E CT . 2 : Th e N e o Sc h o l a s tic R e v i va l i n C a n a d a
-

B I B LI O G R APH Y O F T HE N E O —SCH O LASTI C L I T ER ATU RE

 I NT RO DUCT I O N

O ne of t h e m ov em en ts th a t h a v e excit e d th e i n te rest of t h e
wo rld of tho u ght in t h e n i net eenth c e ntu ry h a s b ee n t h e r e viv a l
o f Schol a sticis m Th e philosophy of t h e M iddl e A ge s h a d b ee n
.
,

f or c ent u ri e s p a st b uri e d in d ee p est obl ivion

,
I t h a d b een c o n .

s ide re d inco n sist en t with t h e d e v el o p m e n t of n a t u ra l s ci e n c e ;

a n d a ll philosoph e rs a s w e ll a s sci en tists

, d eem e d it d ea d—a ,

m ost fi tt in g e n d It a pp ea re d to u s in t h e dim light of h is t o rV

.
, ,

a s a n ill sh a p e n m onst er which h a d w a n d ere d in t h e d a r kn e s s

-
,

of n ight a m id philt ers a n d m yst er iou s j u ic es d u ri n g th e a g e s

, ,

in w h ich m en s er io u sly co n sid er e d a lch e m y a n d t h e ph ilosoph e r s

’

sto n e B ut t h e m o n s t e r tho ught we h a d dis a pp ea re d f orev er

.
, ,

a t t h e light of m od ern di s cov e ri e s lik e th e ill o m e n e d bi rd of

,
-

night which c a nn ot a bid e t h e ra ys of th e m o rn i n g s u n

,
.

S u dd enly to t h e a sto n i s hm en t of a ll Schol a stici s m h a s

, ,

a w a k e d fro m its sl um b er I t h a s a pp ea re d a ga i n in t h e f a c e o f
.

t h e wo rld h a s b ee n a cc e pt e d by g re a t m i n d s h a s be e n e x po un d e d
, ,

a n d d e f e nd e d by pow e r f u l w r it er s a n d h a s giv en r is e to a gr ea t
,

n um b e r of int e re sti ng p h ilosophic a l wo rks Its a d m i rers h a ve .

e v e n t r i ed not o nly t o p rov e its co n g ru ity with m od ern s e i en

,

t ifi c re s ults b u t to show th a t it is t h e only sy s t e m c a p a bl e o f

,

e x pl a ining th em .

A s wa s to be e xpe ct e d s u ch a r e viv a l h a s m e t with t h e m ost

,

se ve re c riticis m F ri ed r ich P a ul se n i n th e introd uctio n to his

.
,

work I m ma nu el Kan t co m p a r i ng Schol a sticism with th e K a nt

,

ia n system exp re sse s hi m s el f th u s

,

I f Schol a stic ph ilo sophy is a t pre se nt exp eri encing a kind

of re viv a l in t h e school of C a tholicis m thi s is due not so m uch , ,

to its o wn i n n er vita lity a s to its s u ppo se d fitn e ss to se rv e a n

e ccl esi a stica l politi ca l syste m which through t h e f a vor o f cir
c um st a n ces —
, ,

a t ien ti D ei e t st u lti tia h om iwum n old L u th

p , a a ,

2 1
e ra n wo uld sa y —h a s a tt a i n e d a ga i n in our ti m e to u n exp ect ed
,

pow er M o re ov er th er e still r em a i n s t h e q u estio n wh eth er c on

.
,

t in u a nce of e x ist en c e is in gen er a l som ethi n g of which a p h ilo so

phy c a n boa st P er h a p s f ru itf ul n e ss is a b ett e r ch a ra ct eristic
.

a n d this t h e K a n ti a n philosophy shows ; it still giv e s r is e to n e w

sy s t em s of thou ght Tho m i sm on th e co n t ra ry tho ugh of.

, ,

co ur s e a g rea t a chi ev em ent f or its own ti m e yi elds to da y n oth ,

-

ing e x c ept u n f r u itf u l re p etitio n s It do e s not set f ree th e spirit .

,
”1
it en sl a v e s it which of cou r se is j u st its i n t en tion
,
.

’
In clo se co nn ect io n with P a u ls en s vi ew st a n ds t h e th e sis
r ec en tly d e f en d e d by M r P ica vet in hi s f a m o u s Es q uis s e d u n e
’
.

h is toir e g én ém le e t c om p a r ée des c ic ilis a tions m é di é va les F or

‘

- .

h im S chol a sti c philosophy a n d th e body of C h r isti a n dog m a s

,

a r e id en tic a l ; t h e e x ist e n c e of God a n d t h e i mm o r t a l ity of t h e

sou l a re t h e e ss en ti a l Schol a stic doctrin es A ccordi n gly h e .

,

s eem s dispos e d to wid en t h e fi eld of Schol a sticis m a n d to in ,

c lu de wi thi n its l i m its a c er t a i n n um b er of m en whom n eo

Schol a s tics will p r ob a bly b e lo a th to w elco m e a s bre thr en N ot .

only do es h e a d m it D e sc a rt e s a n d Lock e b ut a lso Rou ss ea u a n d

2
,

V olt a i re 3
He e v en f eel s i n cli n e d to a dd to his h et e rogene o u s
.

li st t h e n a m e of Rob espi erre ‘

B u t t h e m a n to who m h e dire cts.

ou r a tt en tio n with t h e g rea t e st i n sist e nc e W ho m h e r ega rds a s ,

a dir e ct o ffsp r i n g of t h e Middl e A g e s a s a m a n in t h e th eo ,

logic a l p er iod still a Ch r isti a n a Luth era n a p i etist a Schol a s

, , , ,

”
tic is I m m a n uel K a nt
,
5
.

W hy not ? K a n t q u ot es th e B ibl e ; h e d ev elops th e p roof of

th e ex i st en c e of God f ro m fi n a l c a u s e s a n d h e is fond of r ep ea t ,

ing t h e H eb r e w m ea n i n g—God w ith u s o f hi s n a m e I m -

m a n u el 6
I n r e li g io n K a nt is a s u ppo r t e r of t h e Christi a n
.
,

doct r i n e ; h e a dvoc a t e s t h e exist en c e of f ree will wh en h e un der -

‘
I m m a n ue l Ka n t p 1 1 , . .

z
E s q u is s e d u ne h i s t o i r e g é n é r a l e
’
et c om p a r ée de s ci v i li s a ti on s m e di e
l
va es, p . 239 .

‘
Ib di p .
, . 24 0 .

‘
I b id p .
, . 24 7 .

‘
I b id p .
, . 24 1 .

‘
I bid p .
, . 2 42 .
 3

ta k es h is C r i tiq ue of P ur e Reas on h e i s m o ra lly c erta in of t h e ,

e xi st en c e of God a n d of a n oth e r lif e

7
I t is in Christi a n t e rm s .

th a t h e e xp re ss e s t h e fin a l concl u si o n h e r ea ch e s d eno unc in g a s , ,

be li e v er s do th e in suffici en cy of s p ec ul a tiv e rea son a n d en ding

,

’
wi th a n a c t o f f a ith ‘3
I n on e wo r d K a nt s wo r k is a n a polo .
,

getic a n d m a y b e com p a re d to St Tho m a s s S umma con tra .

’

G en ti les Son oeuv re ra pp ell e ce ll e des a pologist es en p a r

.
,

t ic ulie r de s a i n t Tho m a s q u i d a n s la So m m e co n t re le s G en til s

‘

, ,

v eu t a m en er a u ca tholicis m e a v ec le seu l a pp u i de la ra iso n , ,

les m a ho m é ta n s le s j u if s le s h é r éti q ue s de to u t e s les n u a n c e s

, ,
.

D e m em e K a nt s a dress e a ux a th ée s e t a ux m a té r i a list e s a u x
’
,

p a n t h é ist e s et a ux f a ta list es a u x i n c réd ul e s e t a u x es p r its ,

Th e i m p ul se giv en to n eo Thom ism by Le o X II I i s f or P ic a ve t -

a s w e ll a s for P a u l se n p r i m a r ily a n d e ss en t i a lly a pol itic a l

,

a ff a i r . In his s u rv ey of t h e p r ogr ess of n eo Schol a sticis m in th e -

d iffe re nt c oun t ri es of E urop e a n d in Am eric a it i s n ot a sp een ,

l a tiv e b u t a politic a l poin t of V i ew th a t is i n v a r i a bly ta k en

, .

Th e a cc epta n c e of Tho m istic sp e c u l a tio n in B e lgi um is give n a s

one of t h e c a u s es of t h e politic a l s u cc e sse s obt a i n e d by C a tholics

s ince 1 8 8 4 Th e st rength of t h e C a thol ic p a rty in G er m a ny is

.

a lso insist e d u po n I n co nn ectio n with t h e Tho m i s tic re viv a l

.
,

Pica ve t q uot e s t h e f a ct th a t P r i n c e B is m a rck wa s co n str a i n e d to

a b a ndo n t h e K u lt urk a m pf th a t t h e C a tholic m i n o r ity givi ng , ,

toa st s to t h e pO p e a n d to t h e em p ero r b eco m e s m or e pow er f ul ,

e ve ry da y
10
.

Fina lly a p ropos of neo Schol a sticis m in th e U nit e d St a te s

,
-
,

P ica vet l im its h im se l f to co n sid e ra ti ons a bo u t th e growing polit

i ca l a nd soc i a l in fl uenc e of C a tholics in this co unt ry a nd sp ea ks ,

of B is hop Irel a nd a n d of t he co n d em na ti on of t h e p ropositions

,

kn own as Ame ri ca ni sm a nd conta in ed in t he “

L ife of Fa th e r
”
H e c k er .

‘
I b id .
,
p . 24 2 .

‘
i
Ib d .
, p . 246 .

‘
l bid .
, p . 24 6 .

”
l bid .
, p . 286 .

"
I bi d .
,
pp . 290 2 9 2 -
.
 4

In short P ic a vet a n d P a uls en a re u n a ni m ou s in r ega rdi n g

,

Schol a sticis m a s a r eligio u s a n d politic a l a fi a ir ; b ut wh erea s ,

P a u l s en r est r icts t h e d e n ot a tio n of t h e wo r d to Ro m a n Ca t h oli

c ism Pic a vet s e em s r ea dy t o en l a r g e its u s u a l a cc e pt a tio n so a s
, ,

to m a k e it em b ra c e a ll Ch r isti a n d eno m in a tion s P ic a vet how .

,

e v er wo u l d p r ob a bly disti n gu ish b e tw een P r ot e st a n t a n d G a tho

,

lic Schol a sticis m so th a t his vi e ws a s to t h e r eviv a l of Tho m is m

,

wo u ld clos ely re s em bl e P a u ls en s own vi ews ’

.

Th er e a re two poi n ts which both a u thor s cl ea rly disti n gu ish

a n d st r o n gly i n si st u po n

1 Th e e ss en t i a l a g re em e n t of th e Tho m istic philosophic a l

.

doct ri n e with t h e body of C a thol ic dogm a s .

2 Th e politic a l sig n ific a n c e of t h e Schol a stic r e viv a l

. .

We will p res ently e x a m i n e ea ch of th e se poi n ts s ep a ra t ely .

W ith reg a r d t o th e fi r st we m a y rea dily a d m it th a t th ere is

,

a gr ea t d e a l of t r u th in t h e fo r egoi n g th e o r i e s Th a t th e i mm e .

di a t e c a u s e o f th e r e viv a l of Tho m ism is its r ea l or a pp a r en t

h a rm o n y with t h e body of th eologic a l doct r i n e s o f t h e C a tholic
C hu r ch it wou ld b e v a i n to den y Th e followi n g co n sid era tio n s
,
.

will disp el a n y do ubt th a t m ight e x ist on this poi n t :

1 Th e g rea t er n u m b er of m od e rn philosophic a l syst em s h a v e
.

b een co n d em n e d by C a tholic th e ologi a n s a s oppos e d to r ev ea l e d

t ru t h a n d m a n y a m o n g t h e l ea d er s of m od ern tho ught h a v e s e en
,

th e i r wo rks pl a c e d on th e I n dex L ibror um P roh ibitorum We .

fi n d in t h e I n dex th e n a m e s of D esc a rt e s Ma l eb r a nch e L ock e

, , ,

C on dill a c H um e K a n t Rosm in i et c
, , , ,
.

2 T h e n eo Schol a stic m ov em e nt h a s b een en co u ra ge d si n c e

.
-
,

its v ery birth b y th e visibl e h ea d of t h e C a tholic Chur ch P op e

,
-
,

Le o X I II I n t h e en cyclic a l I ns c ru ta bile D ei Con s i lio p u b

.
,

lish e d i n 1 8 7 8 in th e en cyclic a l E t em i P a tric

, in b r i e fs
rel a ti ng to th e fo un d a tio n of t h e Rom a n A c a d em y of S t Tho m a s .

a n d of t h e I ns ti tu t S u ér ieu r de Pl h i low hi e of Lo u v a i n a s well

p p ,

a s in m a n y oth er w r iti n gs Le o X I I I h a s pro m ot e d t h e st u dy of

,

t h e gr e a t m ed iae v a l philosoph er s a n d in p a rticul a r of St Thom a s

,
.

A qu i na s .
 5

3 . A s will seen in t h e p a rt o f th is work d ea ling with th e

be
hi story of Dec Schol a sticism a ll th e g r ea t wri t ers of thi s sch ool
-
,

be long to t h e Rom a n C a tholic fa ith ; m ost of th em in f a ct a re , ,

C a tholic pri ests .

4 Mor eov e r St Thom a s A q u in a s who h a s a lw a ys b ee n re

.
, .
,

g a rd e d by C a tholics a s t h e gr ea t est the ologi a n whos e S umm a ,

Th eo log ica is a n d h a s a lw a ys b ee n wid ely stu di e d in eccl esi a s

.
, ,

t i ca l instit u tions is t h e ve ry philosoph e r to whom t h e n ew m ov e

,

m e nt un a ni m o u sly a dh ere s I t is his doc t r i n e th a t is e xpo un d ed

a n d co mm e nt e d u po n in a ll n eo—
.

Schol a stic tr ea tise s of ph ilos o

phy Th e two words Tho m ism a n d Schol a sticis m h a v e b e co m e
.

synonym o u s ; p e r iodic a l s fo und e d to fost e r t h e reviv a l of m edi

wva l tho ught h a v e b ee n c a ll e d D ivas Th om as a n d R evue Th om
is t e ; a n d in co u ntri e s in which n eo Schol a sticis m h a s b e en m ost
,
-

flo ur ishing St Thoma s is consid ere d a s t h e p a t ro n s a int of

, .

philosoph ers .

Th e e l em en t of t ru th we a r e a ct u a lly co n sid er i ng o ught not ,

howe v er to m a k e u s s uppos e th a t t h e C a thol ic f a ith a n d t h e

,

Thom istic p r in cipl e s a re n ec e s sa r ily bo un d togeth er T h e phi .

loso ph y of P l a to a n d St A ug u stin e h a s be en t h e offi ci a l p h ilo s o

.

p yh of t h e Ch u r ch f or m o r e th a n e ight h u n d re d y e a r s A n d .
,

a t t h e a pp ea ra n c e of St Tho m a s s wo rk s a s tro ng c u rre n t of

.
’
,

op pos itio n to his t ea chi n g a rose within th e C h urch n a y with in ,

h is own o rd er a n d g a v e bi r th to D un s S c o tu s s philo s ophy

’
, ,

which di ff e rs so wid ely f rom Thom i sm th a t it h a s b ee n s a id th a t

there is not a s i n gl e p roposition in t h e work s of t h e A n gelic
D octo r which h a s not b ee n co n t rov ert e d by hi s s ubtl e r iv a l .

A nd d es pite this f a ct Scotists p rofess to b e a s d ecid edly o rtho

,

dox a s th e ir O ppon e nts a n d q u ite re ce ntly Séc réta n h a s e v e n

, , ,

o n e so f r a s to d e fe n d th e th e s is th a t th e philosophy o f D un s
g a

Scotus is m ore in ha rmon y with th e sp irit of C hr istia n ity tha n

m
t h e tra dition a l Thom i s tic ph ilo sophy This seem s to be a l so .

t h e vi ew of Mr J oh n D ewey “
. .

”
Cf S c t
. e re a n, La Re s ta u ra ti on du Th om i s me , Revue P hi los op hiq a e ,
Vo l . 1 8, p . 64 II .

”
Cf . t he ar t icl e : Be l i e f a nd Re a l iti es , P h i lo s . Re a , Ma rc h , 160 6
.
 I n m od ern t im e s C a thol ic w r ite r s h a v e rep ea t edly form ul a te d
,

syst em s of thought wh ich c a n b e h a rm on i z e d witho u t t oo m u ch

d iffic u lty with C a thol ic dog m a s D es c a r t es M a l eb ra n ch e Ros
.
, ,

m i n i Cou si n La m e nn a is D e Ro n a ld h a v e h a d withi n t h e
, , , ,

Ch u rch its elf n um er o u s a n d ill u st r io u s discipl es C ou s in s .

’

e cl e cticis m h a s b een f or m a n y y e a r s t h e o ff ici a l philosophy of a

g rea t n um b er of C a tholic i n stitu tion s F i n a lly in our own da y

.
, ,

d espit e t h e reviv a l of Thom ism a n d t h e encycl ic a l of Leo X III ,

m a n y of t h e o r thodo x m a n y eccl e si a stics do n ot thi n k it a m iss

, ,

to a dh ere to philosop h ic a l syst em s which in th e i r p r i n cipl es a n d

,

in th e i r m ethods a r e wid ely div ergen t fro m th e Tho m istic doc

,

t r in e S uff ic e i t to m en tio n t h e a dh eren c e of so m a n y m em b er s

.

of t h e F ren ch cl er gy to t h e re viv a l of K a ntis m a n d th e s u th u ,

s ia sm with which so m e em i n en t C a tholics of t h e s a m e co u n t ry

h a v e w elco m e d t h e a pp ea ra n c e of P ra gm a tism .

P a ssi n g now to th e politic a l sign ific a n c e of t h e Schol a stic

r e vi v a l we will c er t a inly c o n c e d e th a t a ll t h e b el i e fs of a n a tion
,

h a v e a m or e or l ess di rect i n fl uen c e u po n its poli tic a l in st itu

t io n s A n a tion is a g rea t whol e a g rea t soci a l u n it whos e
.
, ,

spi r it i s gra d u a lly fo rm e d by t h e co nj oi n t i n fl uen c e of a ll th e

e l em e n ts a t wo r k a m o n g t h e r a c e is a t t h e s a m e ti m e t h e eff e ct
,

a n d t h e c a u s e of t h e e d u c a tio n a l syst em of t h e philosophy of

, ,

t h e l it era t u re of t h e n a tio n of a ll a n d ea ch on e of t h e ch a n n els

,

th ro ugh which h er v ery blood a n d li f e flows .

Th e politic a l i n fl u enc e of th e philosoph er sho uld not how ,

e v er
, b e e x a gge ra t e d It i s a t on c e obviou s th a t a m a n who
.

p r et en d s to r is e a bov e m e dioc r ity in a n y sp eci a l fi eld m u st c on

c en t ra t e th ereto t h e en ergi e s of his whol e lif e He who w a n ts .

to b eco m e a g rea t philosoph er m u st n ot b e a n ything el se A .

f e w n e o Schol a stics h a v e en t ere d th e pol itic a l a ren a ; b u t in so

-
,

doi n g th ey h a v e so l ittl e ob ey e d t h e spi r i t of n eo Schol a sticis m

,
-

th a t th ei r co ur s e of a ction h a s b ee n d e plo re d by th e Schol a stics

th em s elv e s A m a n who h a s b een s econ d to n o n e in his p er f ect
.

gr a s pi n g of t h e in t entio n s of Leo X I II C a rdi n a l Go n z a l ez , ,

e xpresse d hi s s in ce re regr e t when O rti y La ra a b a n do n e d t h e
“
fi eld of phil osophy to d e vot e h is ta l ent to p ublic a ff a i rs .

Th e fi tn e ss of Schol a stici sm to se rv e t h e C a tholic eccl es ia sti ca l

—
politica l syst em which p a tien tia D ei e t s tul t itia h om in/um
,
.

Pa uls en r eg a r ds as t h e only c a u s e of t h e re viv a l of Me di aava l

phi losophy ca nnot th u s b e its only c a u se n or th a t which pos
, ,

se sse s t h e gr ea t est sign ific a nce in t h e histo ry of h um a n tho ught .

Be sid e s t h e f a ct th a t t h e Ch u r ch c a n a cco m m od a t e its e lf to a ll

form s of gov ernm ent a n d th a t th ere is th erefo re n o C a tholic
,

e ccl e s i a sti a
c l politi c a l syst e m —a s wa s point e d ou t by Mr D o m et .

‘ 5—
de Vo rg e s in a n sw e r to Pic a ve t it m u st b e b o rn e in m i n d th a t
Schol a sticis m i s a bov e a ll a philosophy a n d m u st b e ch a ra ct er
, ,

iz ed a s a phil osophy .

Th e q u e stion of t h e c a u s e of t h e D ec Schol a stic r e viv a l l ea d s

-

a t once to th e re m a r k th a t it is n ot a lw a y s possibl e to fi n d in

t h e g en e ra l co n ditio n s of a ny giv en p er iod a d e fi n it e a n d n e c e s

sa ry c a u s e for a ll t h e e v e n ts which fo rm i ts histo ry H isto r ic a l .

f a cts a re oft en conn ec t ed with un i m po rt a n t e v en t r ivi a l occ ur ,

re nc e s so th a t it so m eti m es s eem s to t h e t ho ughtf u l m a n th a t

,

cha nc e gov e rn s th e wo rld W o uld Ch a rl e s I h a v e b een e x e c u t ed

.

i f yo ung Oliv er C ro m w ell h a d n o t b ee n p re v en t e d f r o m em b a rk

ing f or Am er ic a ? W o uld our civil wa r h a ve t a k en pl a c e i f
H enry Cl a y h a d d e fea t e d P olk in th e el ectio n s o f 1 8 4 4 ? W o u ld
th ere h a v e b ee n a n eo Schol a s tic re viv a l if S a n se v eri n o h a d di ed
-

wh en a yo un g m a n a n d Le o X II I h a d n o t b ee n el ec te d to suc
oecd P i u s I X in t h e p a p a l se e ? Th ese a re q ues tio n s to which
I wo ul d not d a re giv e a n a n sw e r .

Th e condi ti o n s of t h e po s sibil ity of a n e v en t m u st u n do u b t

edly e xist a t t h e m o m e n t in which t h e e v en t occ u r s ; b u t th e re

m u st a lso be foun d a n occ a s io na l c a u s e which m a y f a il t o a pp ea r ,

in which ca se t h e co n d itio n s of poss ibility m a y rem a i n in defi

n ite ly i n t h e sa m e st a t e witho u t a n y a ct u a l occ u rre n c e o f t h e
,

e v e nt .

“
C f G nza l z Hi to i
. o e ,
s r a de la F il os o fia Vol 4 p 4 6 2
, .
, . .

”
I n La p h i loso ph ic m ed i ev a l e d a p res M P ica ve t R ev P h i lo s
’
.
, . de
1 9 06 .
 8

I f we thu s u nd er st a nd by t h e c a u s e of th e r eviv a l of Schol a s

t ic i sm t h e condition s which m a d e it possibl e we will find it ,

bo un d with a p r i n cipl e which i s e ss enti a l to t h e C a tholic b eli e fs ,

a n d m o re disti n ctly th a n a n y oth e r s e p a r a te s t h e Rom a n Ch u rch

, ,

f ro m a ll P r ot est a nt sec ts : t h e principl e of th e u n ity a n d im m u

t a b ility of t ru th A b r i ef exposition of S t Thom a s s doctrin e
. .
’

o n this poi n t will n ot b e ou t of pl a c e h er e .

T ru th St Thom a s tea ch e s m a y b e co n sid ere d with r ega r d to

,
.
,

ou r m i n d or with r eg a rd to things W ith r ega r d to our m ind .

,

t ruth is in on e s en s e m u ltipl e b ec a u s e it consists i n t h e c on ,

fo rm ity of ou r knowl edge with t h e obj ect a n d th ere a re a s m a n y ,

con fo rm iti e s a s th ere a re obj ects W ith r ega r d to thi n gs t ruth .

,

is a l s o in on e s en s e m u ltipl e b ec a u s e th e truth of a thing is t h e

,

v ery e ss en c e of t h e thi n g a n d th ere a re a s m a ny e ss en c e s a s th ere

,

a r e thi n gs B u t t ru th is a l s o on e in so f a r a s t h e e ss en c e of a
.
,

thi n g is e t ern a l a n d n ec e ss a ry so th a t of on e thing th ere c a n

,

b e b u t on e t r u th .

A s r ega r ds t h e oth er p r op erty of t ru th its i m m u ta bility , ,

St Thom a s t ea ch es th a t t ru th co n sid ere d in thi ngs i s i mm u t a bl e

.

in s o f a r a s t h e e ss en ti a l ch a r a cte r istics a re conc ern ed a n d ,

m u t a bl e o n ly in t h e a cci d e nt a l el em en ts Tr u th consid er e d .
,

w ith r e ga r d to our m ind i s e ss enti a lly i m mut a bl e a n d a cci

,

d e n t a lly m u t a bl e I t is m ut a bl e o n ly in t h e s en s e th a t our m ind

.

m a y p a s s f r o m erro r to t ru th It is e ss enti a lly i m m u ta bl e

.
,

b ec a u s e it is regu l a t e d by t h e t ru th of th i n gs which is im m u ,

ta bl e W ith r ega r d to t h e D i vi n e M i n d t ru th i s e ss e nti a lly on e

.
,

a n d i m m u t a bl e
6 1
.

This th eo ry a s to th e n a tu re of tru th h a s b een a lw a ys st rongly

d e f en d e d by C a thol ic w r it er s Th ey h a v e b een un a ni m o u s in
.

r e g a r di n g i n t e rn a l ch a ng e in a bod y of doct r in e a s a n i n f a llibl e

sign of err o r I t i s u pon t h e v a r i a tion s th a t h a d t a k en pl a c e

.

in P r ot e s t a n t c ree ds th a t B oss u e t b a s e d hi s i mm ort a l His toir e

des Va r ia tion s Y ou ch a ng e s a id h e to P rot e st a nts th er e fore
.
, ,

y ou err .

C f Th om
. as A q u i na s S u m m a Th e ol Q
, .
, . 1 6, a rt . 5- 8 .
m od er n syst em s Corn oldi a pp ea l s to th e tw en ty c en t ur i es d u ring
,

which Schol a stici sm wa s ta ught to p r ov e th a t thi s syst em a n d

, ,

this syst em a lo n e c a n giv e a n a d eq ua t e expl a n a tio n of sci en tific

,

18
discover i e s .

N ow t ru th b e i n g on e a n d i mm ut a bl e ph ilosophy which m a y
, , ,

b e d e sc r ib e d a s a ra tio n a l e xp r e ssio n of t h e t ru th of thi ngs will ,

a lso b e o n e a n d i m m u t a bl e An d i f th ere a r ise sev era l philo

.

sophic a l syst em s on e of th em a t m ost will b e t ru e

,
.

T h e d iffic u lty n ow w ill e vid en tly lie in fi n di n g ou t t h e tr u e

philosophy W hy sho u ld th e C a thol ic C h ur ch f a vor S ch ola st i
.

c ism r a th e r th a n a n y oth er syst em ? To this q ue stion a ga in ,

t h e p r i n cipl e of t h e u n ity of t ru th will f urn ish a s a ti sf a ctory

a n sw er .

A s will b e s een in on e of t h e ch a pt er s of this wo r k C a tholics ,

a d m it philosophy a n d th e ology to b e disti n ct sci en c e s h a vi n g ,

diffe ren t obj ects a n d di ff eren t p r i n cipl e s Th ey h a v e different .

obj ects in so f a r a s philosophy is si m ply c onc ern e d with t h e

t ru ths a cc e s sibl e to t h e light of h um a n r ea so n wh erea s th eology ,

i s chi e fly co n c ern e d with t ruths of a s u p ern a tura l o rd er Th e y .

h a v e diff eren t p r i n cipl e s in so f a r a s philos ophy i s gu id e d by

,

h um a n rea so n a n d th e ology by th e a u tho r ity of God

,
.

A ltho ugh philosophy a n d th eology a re distinct sci enc es th ey ,

oft en t rea d on a co m m o n g ro un d M a ny p ri n cipl e s of f a ith .

,

m a n y t ru ths k n ow n f r o m r e v el a tion a re a lso a cc e ssibl e to rea

s on. Th e i m m o rt a l ity of t h e sou l a n d t h e exi st en c e of God m a y
b e disc u s s e d by t h e ph ilosoph er a s w ell a s by t h e th e ologi a n .

Th e p r i n cipl e of th e u n ity of t ru th b e i n g a d m itted we m u st ,

a lso a d m it th a t wh en e v er philosophy a n d th eology t rea d on a

,

co m m o n g ro un d th ey m u st b e in p er f ect a greem ent A s t ruth

, .

i s es s en ti a lly on e a concl u sio n of h um a n r ea so n c a n n ot con tra

,

dict a t ru th r e vea l e d by God W h en ev e r th ere is di s a gr eem ent

.
,

th ere is e rro r on on e sid e B ut a s th e error c a n not lie in th e

.
,

re v e a l e d t ru th i na s m u ch a s t h e a u tho r ity of re v el a tio n rest s

,

u po n t h e i n fi n it e s ci en c e a n d v era city of G od it follows th a t , ,

I bi d p
.
,
. 5 .
 11

in a ll cas e s of disa gr ee ment be tw ee n a philosophic a l p ri ncipl e

and a th eologic a l dogm a t h e p h ilosophic a l p rin c iple m us t be
,

Th e only t rue syst em of philosophy will th ere fo re be in per , ,

f eet h a rm o ny with t h e body of re v ea l e d t ru ths Th a t Schol a s tic .

phil osophy is n ot th e only syst em c a p a bl e of b e i n g h a rm o n i z ed

wi th re li gio u s dogm a s we h a v e a l rea dy shown Thi s is why
,
.
,

a fte r t h e sp ec u l a tiv e p rincipl es of t h e M iddl e A g e s w e re j u dge d

ina d eq ua t e to m ee t t h e req u i rem ents of m od ern s ci e n c e m os t ,

C a tholics em bra c e d oth er syst em s B ut th e s e s yst em s h a ve .

n ot p os s e sse d t h e ch a r a ct e r of i m m u t a bility which in t h e m i n d ,

of C a tholics n e c ess a rily be lo ngs to truth N ot o nly thi s T h e

,
. .

philosophic a l syst em s which h a v e b e en s ucc e s s iv ely a cc e pt e d in

E ur op ea n spe c ul a tio n h a v e d e p a rt e d—or h a v e b een b e li e v e d t o
d ep a rt which for t h e poi n t we a re n o w di sc u ssi ng a m o un ts to
t h e s a m e—m o re a n d m o re f r o m t h e es se n ti a l p r i n cipl e s of
, , ,

Chri sti a n ity A t t h e b egi n n i n g of t h e n in et ee n th c ent ury th e

.
,

m a te r ia l is m of t h e e n cycl o p e di s ts wa s th e o n ly philosophy still

r em a i n in g in F ra n c e I t wa s op en ly p r of ess e d by C a b a n i s
.
,

B rous sa is P i n e] a n d B ich a t
,
I t h a d di s pl a c e d C a rt e si a n i s m
.

its el f tho ugh a v ery li m ite d n um b e r o f eccl e si a stics s t ill a dh ere d

,

to th a t syste m A t t h e s a m e ti m e so m e of th e em ig r a n ts wh o m
.
,

t h e fe roc ity of t h e Re vol u tio n h a d co m p ell e d to s e e k a re f uge

a b r oa d w e re co m in g in co n t a ct with n e w bo r n K a n tis m
,
wh ich -
,

th ey w ere d e st in ed to in t r od uc e i n t o th e i r n a tiv e l a n d .

I t see m s a t fi rst bl u sh th a t t h e philos o phy th us g rowi ng in

, ,

G e rm a ny wa s m ore i n h a rm o ny with t h e gr ea t t ru th s of C h ri s
tia ni ty th a n th e im pio u s m a t e r i a lis m of t h e e ight e enth c e nt ur v .

Wh eth er t he phi losophic a l sy s tem s of K a nt a n d his s ucc es s o rs

m a y be inte rpret ed fro m a C hri s ti a n sta ndpoi nt is a q ue s tio n
which h a s bee n f req uently di sc us se d a nd doe s n ot a dm i t of a n
ea s y so l utio n I t is w ell kn own t ha t t h e m ode rn d e f en d e rs of
.

H egel ia n phil oso phy in A m er ica invok e S t Tho m a s s a uthori ty .

’

“
in s u pport o f th e i r p r i n cipl es F o r my p a rt I f ee l i n cl in ed
.
,

Cf . Ro yce , T he C n c p ti
o e o n of G od , p . 49 ; H
a rr s , i H ege l ’
s Lo gic ,
p . ix .
to a d m it th a t th e ir cl a i m i s n ot a ltoge th er d evoid of found a tion .

Altho ugh St Tho m a s a n d H egel p rese nt evid ent points of c on

.

tra st it m a y b e s er iou sly q ue stio n e d wh eth e r th ere ex ists b et ween

,

t h e sys tem s th ey h a v e b u ilt th a t a byss which neo Schol a stics a re -

wont to p oi n t out Wh a t ev er t h e t ru th m a y b e th ere is n o

.
,

do ubt th a t K a n t a n d H egel h a v e b een inv a ri a bly r ega r d e d by

C a tholics a s th e m ost d a n gero u s oppon e nts of t h e f u nd a m en t a l
Ch ri sti a n p r i n cipl e s M o re th a n a ny oth er philosophica l sys
.

t em sa ys J u l e s D idiot K a n tis m h a s b een a s er io u s m en a c e to

, ,

”2 0
f a ith a n d n a t u ra l vi r tu e s in C a thol ic co u n t r i e s Didiot is .

m or e s e v er e still with r eg a r d to H e g eli a n ism

If he( H e g e l ) h a s not i n t e n d e d to m ock a t his p u pils at ,

hi s r ea d ers a t his p re d ec e sso r s in s u bj ectivis m a n d m onism we

, ,

m u st a d m it th a t his m i n d wa s a t t i m e s in a st a t e of de liri um .

I t i s a s h a m e f or t h e n i n et een th c en tu ry n ot to h a v e r ej ect e d
s u ch a philosophy with i n di g n a tio n Th a t P rot e sta n t m in .

i s t er s in G erm a n y m a y h a v e end ea vo re d t o h a rm o n ize t h e doc

t r i n es of H egel a n d Sch elli n g of F icht e a n d K a n t with t h e , ,

d ogm a s a n d l a ws of Ch r i s ti a n ity c a n p erh a ps b e co n c eiv e d ; b ut ,

th a t C a tholic p r i ests s u ch a s H erm es B a a der G iin th er m a y

, , , ,

h a v e d a r e d i m it a t e th em e v en f r om a f a r a n d with a c ert a i n
,
”21
m od era tio n i s i n d ee d h a r d to u nd er st a n d
, .

This i n fl u en c e of H egel a m o n g G erm a n C a tholics so vividly ,

de plo re d by D idio t wa s i n d ee d a f a ct in th e first h a l f of t h e

,

n i n et e en th c en t u ry T h e H oly S ee wa s oblig e d to i n te rf ere

. .

H e rm e s s doct r i n e s w ere co n d em n e d in 1 8 35 a n d 1 8 36 G iinth

’

e r s in 1 8 5 7 a n d 1 8 60 F roh sch a mm e r s in 1 8 62 p a nth eism a n d

’ ’
, ,

a ll fo rm s of r a tio n a li s m by t h e Syll a b u s of 1 8 64 .

M ea n whil e so m e disti n gu ish e d F rench w r i ter s h a d end ea vor ed

,

to O ppos e t h e a n ti rel igio u s t end ency of t h e da y a n d to b u ild

-
,

syst em s of tho ught in h a rm o n y with t h e spirit ua listic d octrin e s

of t h e C a tholic Chur ch Jos eph de M a istr e Victor de Ro n a ld .
,

a n d F é lici t é de La m en n a is si n c e rely so u ght a n ew m e thod by

which Ch r i s ti a n b eli e fs m ight b e s a v e d a n d i m pi ety ch ecke d .

”
Un Si ec l e p , . 3 77 .

m
I b id .
, p . 3 89 .
 13

U nh a ppily th ey e n d ea vo red to b u ild a m on um ent to f a ith u po n

,

t h e ru ins of r ea so n Th e u lt im a t e c r it e ri on of c er tit u d e th ey
.

s o ught in a p r im itive r e v el a tion B u t a s t h e truth of this r e v e

.

l a tio n co uld not re st u pon our m ent a l f a c ulti e s which h a d b ee n ,

p r ocl a ime d im poten t i t h a d n o s ure b a sis a n d t h e b ra v e effort

,

of t h e t ra ditio na l ists wa s doom e d to b ecom e in th e en d a l a m en t

a bl e f a il ure T ra ditio n a lis m wa s fi n a lly co n d em n e d by t h e
.

C hurch a n d in 1 8 55 its l a st gr ea t rep res ent a tiv e B onne t ty

, , , , , ‘

wa s co m pe ll e d to s ubsc r ibe to fo u r p r opositio n s o ppos e d to t h e .

e r r o r s h e h a d m a int a i n e d .

It i s in s uch ci r c um sta n c e s th a t t h e C a tholic Ch u rch s er io u sly

thought o f r et urn i ng to th e old Schol a stic doc t r i ne A n ho n est .

e n d ea vor to s ee k t h e t ru e philosophy in m od e rn sy s t em s h a d b e en

m a d e f or s e v e r a l c en t u r i e s B u t f r o m a C a tholic st a n dpoi n t
.
, ,

thi s end ea vor h a d com pl ete ly f a il e d T h e syst e m s which h a d

.

a ri se n in t h e co u r s e of ti m e h a d b ee n g ra d u a lly a b a n d o n e d a n d

r epl a c e d by oth er s so th a t a s po i n t e d ou t by Co rn oldi th e re

, , ,

h a d be en a co n ti n u o u s ch a nge in t h e spe c u l a tiv e wo rld Th e .

m ost re c ent sy s t em s M a t e ri a li s m K a nti s m H eg eli a n i s m P o s i

, , , ,

t ivism w e re oppos e d to t h e C a thol ic f a ith

,
T h e i n fl ue n c e o f
.

th ese syst em s h a d le d m a ny C a tholics to a dv a n c e d a n g ero u s

theo ri e s A system bo rn of t h e l a u d a bl e i n t en tio n to p rotect
.

t h e religio u s id ea l s h a d b een a d e cid e d f a il u r e S uch b e i ng t h e .

c a se wa s i t n o t b e tt e r to ret u rn f ra nkly to t h e philosophy which

,

h a d r e ign e d f or c en tu r i e s in t h e schools to e n d e a vo r t o re co n cil e

,

it wit h m od e rn discov e ri es to fi n d ou t wh eth e r t h e o ld Schol a s

,

tic philosophy wa s n ot t h e tru e sy s tem which f or s o lo ng a ,

ti m e h a d bee n so ugh t in v a in ? S uch is in m y j udgm ent t h e

, , ,

f und a m enta l id ea whi ch in s pi re d th e neo Tho m ists -

.
 CHA PTE R I

W HAT IS S CH O LASTI C P H I L O SO P H Y ?

S E CTI O N I .
— S CH O LA STI C P H I LO SOP H Y

wo r d a xoxa a m cos wa s a lr ea dy in u se a m on g th e Gr eeks

'
Th e '

to d en ot e a m a n d e vot e d t o st u dy U eb erweg note s it in a l ett e r .

of Th e oph ra st u s to P h a n ia s 1
P e t ron i u s s eem s to h a v e i ntro
.

du c e d it a m o n g t h e Rom a n s U n d e r Q u i n tili a n it m ea nt a
.

r h eto r or p r of e sso r of e lo q u ence a n d we r ea d in St J e r o m e th a t

, .

it wa s gra nt e d a s a titl e of disti n ctio n to S era pio f or his u n u sua l

t a l e n t A t th e op en i n g of t h e M edi aev a l schools t h e term wa s
.
,

soo n rest r ict e d to a p u r ely did a ctic m ea n ing Th e s ch olas ticus .

b ec a m e th e i n st ru ctor a n d th e syst em of thought expoun

, d ed in w m

t h e c a th e d r a t h e Schol a s tic p h ilosOp

,
hy i
A disti ng uish e d Fren ch schol a r B a r th el em y Ha uréa u b a se d , ,

u p o n this e t ym ology a d e fi n itio n of Schol a sti c philosophy which

h a s b een g en er a lly a cc ept e d ; a n d on t h e whol e i s t h e b est we , ,

n o w poss es s : Schol a stic philosophy is t h e philosophy p rof esse d

in t h e schools of t h e Middl e A g e s f r o m t h e e st a blish m e nt of ,

t h es e schools to t h e da y in which t h e outsid e philosophy t h e ,

spi r it of n ov elty di sen g a ge d f rom th e bon ds of t ra dition c a m e ,

t o di s p u t e with it a n d withd ra w fro m its co n t rol th e m i n ds of

,

m en . La p h iI O S O p h ie scol a sti q u e e st la ph ilo sop h ic prof e ss ée

da n s les é col e s du m oy e n ag e d ep u is l é ta b lissem en t j u sq u a u
’ ’

d éclin de c es é col e s c e st a di re j usq u a u j o ur oh la philosophi e

,
’
- -
’

du d eho r s l e sp r it no u v ea u l esp r it m od e rn e se d é ga g ea nt des

’ ’
, , ,

li en s de la t r a ditio n vi end ront lu i di sp ut er et lui ra vir la con

,
~

”2
d u it e des in t elligen c e s .

U eb e rwe g , Hi t y
s or of P hi l o s o phy Vo l I p 3 56 ,
.
, . .

2
Ha u ré a u , Hi t i
s o re de la p h il o s o p h i e s c o l a s ti q u e t o m e l p , , . 36 .
 15

B e fore we p r oc ee d to
x a m in e t h e di ffi c ulti e s to whi ch this
e

de fin ition g iv es ri se it will n ot be a m iss to m a k e a f ew ob se rv a

,

ti on s in o r d er to dispe l a ll possibl e m is un d er sta n d in gs

,
.

F irst of a ll it seem s th a t th e e tym ologica l co n sid era tio n s

,

which lea d u s to id en ti fy Schol a sticis m with Me dize va l tho ught ,

ought to m a k e us s t ep b eyo n d t h e l im its of t h e M iddl e A ges ,

a n d e xt e n d our d e fi n it io n to m od ern school s a s w e ll I f it is .

t h e m e a ning of t h e wo rds th a t gu id e s u s th er e is n o rea so n why ,

t h e philosophy ta ught f rom t h e ca th e d r a of Ko e n igsb erg by t h e

a u t ho r of t h e C ri tiq ue of P u re R eas on sho u ld b e a ny l e s s scho

l a st ic th a n th e syst em s of Dun s Scotu s or Tho m a s A q u i n a s .

A nd i n d eed som e wr ite rs followi n g thi s co n c epti on s p ea k of

, , , ,

a n H e ge li a n a Co u s ini a n
, a Schop en h a u e ri a n Schol a stici s m
, .

The ridic ulo u s o u tco m e of thi s vi ew is obvio u s to e v ery eye It .

tra nsfo rm s into Schol a stics a ll ou r un iv ers ity tea ch ers It .

m a k es Schol a stic philosophy c o e x t e n s iv e n ot o nly with t h e doc -

,

t r in e s of K a nt H egel Co us in a nd Schop en h a ue r b u t with a ll

, , ,

m od e rn id e a listic syst em s ; n a y with th e whol e fi eld o f philo ,

sophic a l tho ught W h a t syste m h a s n ot be en expo u n d e d f rom

.

’
a prof e s s or s ch a ir ? W h a t philosoph e r h a s n ot s een h is doc
m
tri n es es p o use d in s o e c e t er of l e rni ng
n a ? A n d we wo uld
th u s be co m p ell e d to e nl a rge witho u t li m it t h e fi el d o f Schol a s
ti c ism to ope n its g a t e n ot o nly to H e gel or to W ill i a m J a m e s
, , ,

b ut a l so a n d with eq ua l r ight to De s ca r te s a n d t o B e rk el ey
, ,
.

An d y e t w e re etym ology o u r sol e gu id e we s ho uld a c ce pt thi s

, ,

vi e w st ra nge tho ugh it a pp ea r B ut t he o rigi n a l s ign ific a n c e

, .

of a wo r d doe s n ot s uffi ce to giv e u s t h e key to its a ct ua l m ea n

ing A cco rding to John Lock e m e n see m to h a v e b ee n gu id ed
.
,

by wit ra th er th a n by j udgme n t in t h e form a tio n of n a m e s ; a n d

a g re a t di s c re p a n c e h a s th us o ft e n c o m e to e xi s t b e tw ee n t h e

conn ota tio n of a t e rm a n d its e tym ology T h e G ree k wo rd .

nd a r ov wh ic h sign ifi es sh ee p is d e ri v ed f ro m t h e v e r b n oBa lvm

, , p ,

to w a lk fo rw a rd Still n o o ne wo uld think of a pplyi ng th e

.
,

w ord sh ee p to a ll be ings w a lk in g fo rw a rd to incl ud e und er th a t ,

n a m e not only a ll our do mestic a n i m a ls a ll den ize ns of t he

, ,
w a t er a n d t h e a ir s a v e c r a bs a n d cra wfi sh es b ut ou r own s elv e s
, ,
.

Schol a stic p h il osophy wa s o r igin a lly t h e p h i losophy o i t h e

.
. - -

sch oo ls ; a n d a s t h e n a m e wa s g iv en dur ing t h e M iddl e A g es it

, ,

of t h e m od ern e ra th ou ght wa s su dd enly en g a g ed in a n oth er

,

w
di r ectio n a n d co n t r oll e d b y flm erm h o di d n ot expou n d th ei r
,

p r i n cipl e s f r om a L ofessqr s chair a n ew philosophy a r ose

’
, ,

which wa s n ot schol a stic a n d which a ft er h a vi n g co n troll e d t h e

, ,

m i n ds of t h e n e w g en era tio n took poss ession of t h e schools

,

th em s elv e s a n d d eth r o n e d t h e old philosophy which for cen

, , ,

t u r ies p a st h a d ex er cis e d a n u n disp u t e d sov er e ign ty u pon t h e

,

i nt ellig en c e s Th e philosophy of t h e s ch ools thu s c ea s ed to b e

.

Schol a stic a n d t h e t erm a c qu i re d a d e fi n it e m ea n ing a n d wa s

, ,

h en c e fo rw a r d ex cl u siv ely a ppl i e d to d enot e Me di aev a l sp ecu

l a tio n
.

Schol a stic ph ilosophy th u s con fi n e d to a d efi n it e ti m e m u st

, ,

a lso b e li m it e d with r e g a r d to sp a c e It woul d b e a bs ur d to

.

e x t en d i t to a ll t h e syst em s which a r os e in a n y p o int of o u r

glob e b etw een th e si x th a n d t h e fift eenth c en t ury to m a k e it ,

em b ra c e n ot o n ly t h e ph ilosophic a l syst em s of t h e A r a bs a n d
,

t h e J e ws b u t a ls o thos e of t h e H i n doo s a n d of t h e Chin e s e

,
It .

m u st b e li m it e d to t h e sp ec u l a tio n of t h e w e st ern wo r ld which , ,

in sp it e of n um er o u s i n t ern a l div erg en c e s of m a n y disti n ct a n d ,

d e fi n it e c u rr en t s fo r m e d a si n gl e whol e of which P a r i s wa s th e
, ,

c en t er which soon fo u n d in A r istotl e a n i n spi rer a n d a p r oph et

, ,

a n d in t h e dogm a s of t h e C h u r ch a cy n os u re to di r e ct t h e h u m a n

m i n d in t h e p er il ou s a n d u n e x plo r e d r eg i ons I t h a d so r e sol ut el y

en t er e d .

O u r d efi n itio n m a y b e obj e ct e d to u pon t h e g ro u nd th a t i t

l ea v es u s in t ot a l ign o ra n c e a s to t h e i m po r t of th e syst em
we d e fi n e I t do es n ot th r ow a ny l ight u pon its ess enti a l ch a ra c
.

t er a n d m a y e v en b e r eg a rd e d as sim ply t a u tologic a l a s eq uiva

, ,

l en t to t h e st a t em en t th a t th e Me di aev a l philosophy is t h e p h i
losoph y of th e Middl e A ge s We r ea dily a dm it th a t in d e fini n g
.
,

Schol a stic philosophy a s t h e phi losophy of t h e M iddl e A g es we ,

 I f f or t h e s a k e of b revi ty we li m it our s elve s t o s a yi n g th a t
, ,

Schol a stic philosophy is a spi r it a m e thod a n d a syst em ou r

, ,

d e fini tion is not e ss en ti al b ec a u s e it l ea v e s u s in a com pl e t e

,

ign ora n c e a s to wh a t th a t spirit th a t m ethod a n d th a t syst em

,

a r e ; a n d i s a ls o worthl e ss b e c a u s e it c a n b e a ppli e d to a ll phi

,

losop h ie s i n a sm u ch a s th e y a ll poss e ss a spi r it follow a m ethod

, , ,

a n d co n stit u t e a d e finit e syst em I t is t ru e th a t Mr B l a n c

. .

e x pl a i n s wh a t t h e spi r it t h e m ethod a n d t h e syst em a r e

,
But .

t h e m e thod i s a n ext r insic a n d u n ess en ti a l ch a r a ct e r Th e .

S pi r it ,
c onsistin g in a j u st en d ea vo r to h a rm o n i ze r ea so n a n d
f aith i s e x tr insic a ls o It s im ply r e f er s to t h e r el a tion Sfiholas
, .

tic philosophy b ea r s to a n oth er sci en c e a n d ignore s th e f und a

~

m en t a l p r i n cipl e s of Schol a sticism a s a philosophy F i n a lly .

,

t h e d e s c r iptio n of t h e Schol a stic syst em a s a p er f e ctibl e syst em ,

whos e b a s e s a re fo u n d chi e fly in S t Thom a s e qu a lly f a ils to

.
,

giv e u s a n i n s ight i n to t h e con t en ts of Sch ol a stic philosoph y .

It do es not t ell u s wh a t th e syst em is wh a t disti n gu ish es it from

,

m od e rn tho u ght wh a t con st it u t e s i t a s a philosophy

,
Mr . .

B l a n c s d e fi n ition is no es sen ti a l d e fi n ition a t a ll

’
.

M o re ov er do e s Mediazva l philosophy poss ess a ny disti n ctiv e

,

ch a ra ct e r a ny i diosync ra sy which s ets i t a p a r t f r om a n ci en t a s

,

w ell a s f r o m m o dern thou ght ? We f ully r ea li z e th a t we h ere

a pp r o a ch a di ffi c u l t q u e stion which h a s b een a lrea dy st u di e d
,

f r o m di ff er en t p oi n ts of vi ew a n d not y et b een s a t isf a ctorily

,

a ns w er ed .

So m e writ er s h a v e thou ght th ey co u ld solv e th e d iffi c u lty by

si m ply s a yi n g th a t Schol a stic philosophy is no philosophy a t
a ll
. This vi e w wa s prof ess e d by t h e F ren ch encyclop e dists of
t h e e ight een th c en t u ry who n o do u bt h a d pow er f u l p er son a l
,

m otiv e s of disl ik e for M e di aev a l sp ec ul a tion Th ey piti e d a ll

.

who los e th e i r tim e in t h e st u dy of s u ch v a in s ubtl eti es a n d ,

D id er ot w e n t so f a r a s to sa y of D un s S cot u s th a t a m a n who
wo ul d k n o w a ll th a t h e h a s writt en wo u ld know nothi n g .

Thi s ki n d of sh a llow cont em pt soon sp rea d ov er a ll Europ e .

I t b ec a m e a point of f a shion to d er id e t h e C loist e rs a n d t h e

 19

m onks . glori e d in th e ki ck h e co ul d give to th e d ying

Th e a ss

li on I n t h e second h a l f of t h e eight ee nth c entu ry B riicker

.
,

spoke of t h e i n tr od ucti o n of A ristotl e s phil osophy in to E urO pe ’

as t h e sign a l of t h e m ost co m pl e te inte ll e ctu a l d eg e n e ra tion .

More r ec e n tly T a i n e h a s given t h e epoch of t h e gr ea t m a st e rs

,

of th e thi r teen th c en tu ry a s a n a g e of s t upidi ty : Thr ee c en

t ur ies a t t h e bott om of this bl a ck pit did not a dd a singl e id ea
”
to th e h um a n m i n d M r Penj on h a s d esc ribe d t he p er iod
. .

which e l a ps e d b etw ee n th e edict of Ju st ini a n ( 529 ) a n d t h e

Ren a is s a nce a s a sort of en tr a cte d ur i n g which th e re wa s n o
’

hi O hy H egel hi m se lf whos e syst em p re s en ts so striki n g

6
p los p .
,

a r me m b la n ce with those of t h e Schol a stics th a t on e m ight b e

t em pte d to beli e v e h e h a s bo rr ow ed di rectly f r om th em do e s ,

not h e sita t e to prof ess t h e s a m e co n tem pt Sp ea ki n g of Sch o .

l a stic philos ophy h e s a ys : I t i s not i n t ere sting by r ea son of

,

its m a tt er for we c a n n ot r em a in a t th e co n side ra tion of this ;

,

”
it is not a philosophy .

A ft er m od e rn e ru diti on h as h a d th e cou ra ge to go b a ck to t h e
m u ch d e spis e d era a n d to r em ov e t h e d ens e v e il of ign o ra n c e
-
,

which cov ered t h e wo rks of its think e rs ; a ft er su ch m en a s

Cousi n Ha uréa u a n d P ica vet h a v e di spl a y ed to th e wo rld t h e
,

tre a s ures of philosophic a l l ea rn in g which la y co n c ea l e d in tho se

du s ty fol ios th e s u pe r fici a l disd a i n of t h e p rec e d in g gen era tion
,

h a s di sa pp ea r ed cove re d with sh a m e Men h a v e re p udi a te d th e

, .

idea of a Me die v a l en tr a ct e a n d h a v e un d erstood th a t th e

’
,

“
da rk a g e s a re not d a rk in t h em selv e s b ut a re d a rk si m ply ,

for us on a cco unt of our i gn ora n c e .

Th ere be ing th us no wa da ys no possibility of a bidi ng by wh a t

th e G e rm a n s h a ve ca ll ed : der S p r un g fi b er das Mi t tela lter a n d ,

S ch olas h c ph il os ophy be in g e vi d en tly so m e th in g th e n eces s ity

'

of d e t e rm ini n g pre c i se l y wh a t it is im posm it se lf u po n us And .

h e re th e difi culty li es .

‘
Ta inc , Hi i
s t o re de la lit tera t u re an gl a i se t , . I, pp .
—
2 23 2 2 5 .

‘
Pe nj on , P reci s d h is to ire de la p h ilos o p h ic ,
’
pp . 1 65 . Cf . De Wi l l i ,

op . cit pp 1 1 if
, . .

H g l L ctu
e e ,
e re s o n t he Hi t y
s or of P h il o so phy ,
Vo l 3 , . p . 38 .
 20

It is n ec ess a ry to sa y th a t M e di aev a l philosophy i s not a

un

singl e syst em E m b ra ci n g a s it do es s e v er a l c ent ur i e s of

.
, ,

i n c r e dibl e i n t ell ectua l a ctivity it m u st n ee ds p r es en t th a t v a r i ety

,

of opi n io n s which is t h e inv a r i a bl e con com it a n t of a ll hum a n

sp e c u l a tion A r a pi d gl a nc e a t t h e wh ol e fi el d of M e di aev a l
.

thought w ill n ot b e ou t of pl a c e h er e a n d w ill f urn ish u s with ,

a n i n sight i n to t h e e ss en ti a l ch a r a ct er istics of Schol a stic p h ilo so

phy We sh a ll fi r st ex a m i n e t h e p r obl em which h a s often b een

.

r eg a r d e d a s com p r isi n g with in its li m its t h e whol e d r ift of

Schol a sti c d isc u ssion s : t h e p r obl em of u niv ers a ls Mr de Wu lf . .

h a s r ec en tly bl a m e d Ha u r éa u f or r eg a r ding it a s t h e sol e S cho

l a stic p r obl em A n d i n d ee d we a g ree with t h e disti n gu ish e d
.

p r of e sso r of L o u v a i n in a d mi tti n g th a t t h e Me di aev a l thi n k er s

di d n ot co n fi n e th ei r i n v e stiga tion s to a si n gl e p a rt ic u l a r q u e s
tio n b u t em b ra c e d t h e whol e fi el d of philos ophy Th e p r obl em
,
.

of u n iv er s a ls sho ul d n ot how e v er b e u n d er v a l u e d a s it cont a ins

, , ,

in g e rm n ot o n ly t h e M e di aev a l syst em s of tho u ght b u t l ik ewis e

, ,

t h e a n sw er s which in m od ern ti m e s h a v e b een giv en to a ll gr ea t

, ,

fl
p r obl em s of philosophy .

I f we st a r t f r o m n o m i n a listic p r incipl es if we a dm it with ,

R osc elin th a t t h e u n iv e r s a l i s a m er e n a m e a m er e a tus v o eis , ,

a n d th a t n othi n g b u t t h e i n divi d u a l i s r ea l th e o u tco m e of our ,

philosophy will b e m a t er i a l ism a n d ph en o m en a lism We w ill a t .

fi r st a d m i t with Joh n St u a rt M ill th a t a cl a ss a u n iv er s a l a , ,

g en u s or a sp eci e s i s n e ith er m o re n or l e ss th a n th e i n divid ua l

s ub st a n c e s th em s elv es which a re pl a c e d in t h e cl a ss ; a n d th a t
th er e is n othi n g r ea l in t h e m a tt er e x c ept thos e obj ects a c om ,

m on n a m e giv en to th em a n d co mm o n a tt r ib u t es indic a t e d by
,

the nam e
”8
We sh a ll n ext b e bou n d t o e xt en d our th eory to
.

—
t h e r el a tio n of t h e whol e a n d its p a r ts ; a d i n a s m u ch a s t h e
n

whol e b ea r s to th e p a r ts th e r el a tio n of a u n iv er s a l to a p a r tic u

la r—we sh a ll h a v e to m a i n t a i n th a t t h e p a r ts a lo n e pos s e ss
r ea lity a n d a re th em s elve s whol e s Wh en A b e l a r d in his l ett er .
,

to t h e bi s hop of P a r is a cc u s e d Rosc elin o f im plicitly holdi ng

,

‘
J S Mill Sy s te m
. .
, of L gic Bk
o , . 2, ch a p . 2, se ct . 2 .
 21

t h a t J es u s in st ea d of ea ting a s th e Gosp el s a ys a p a rt of a
, , ,

fish a t e a p a rt of a wo rd h e wa s un doubt e dly wrong Rosc e

, ,
.

l i n s a ss ertio n th a t t he u ni v er sa l wa s a m e re word di d n ot bind

’

h im to a dm it th a t t h e fish wa s a m e re word B ut it com p ell ed .

h im to p rofe ss th a t t h e fish a s su ch h a d no rea lity ; th a t it wa s

no t hing b ut a co m pl e x of ult im a te b e in gs or m ol ec ul es ; a n d ,

tha t J e s u s a te a c e rt a in n um be r of thos e m ol ec u l e s which co uld ,

b e c a ll e d p a r ts of a fish o n ly in vi r tu e of ou r m e n ta l p rop en sity

to b uild tho se u ni v e rs a ls which a re a bsol u t ely d e void o f rea li t y .

N o m ina l is m th u s l ea ds u s to m a t er ia lis m It is ra dic a lly .

oppos e d to t h e b eli e f th a t t h e u n iv ers e is a whol e a n d c a n n ot ,

a d m it a ny o t h e r a bsol u t e th a n t h e m ol e c u l e s t h e a to m s t h e , ,

u l t i m a t e divisions of m a tt er by wh a t e v er n a m e we m a y cho ose

,

to c a ll t hem .

A n d i f f rom t h e obj e ctiv e we p a s s to t h e s u bj e ctiv e fi e ld we

, , ,

sh a ll se e th a t n o m i n al i sm is lik ewis e t h e a n c es to r o f e m pi r ici sm

a n d ph en o m en a l is m I n t h e r e a l m of m i n d a s w e ll a s in t h e
.
,

r ea lm of m a tt er t h e in divid u a l will b e t h e u lti m a t e re a lity

, .

Th ere will b e n o so ul s ubst a n c e lyi n g b eyo n d o ur m e n t a l s t a t e s

-
,

b u t f ugitiv e im me ss ion s ea c h of which will p o ss e ss it s o wn i n d e

,

p en d e n t e x ist e n c e E x p e ri e n c e s o f m em o ry th em s e lve s will

.

ha v e n o v a l idi t y a p a rt f ro m t h e p re s en t i n s t a n t a n d we s h a ll ,

be bou nd to a d m it wh a t Mr Jo s i a h Royc e h a s d e sc r ib e d u n d er
.

t h e na m e of M ys t ici sm .

A s Ro sc e lin a ppli e d his doct ri n e to th e m y s t ery o f t h e H o ly

T r i n ity ; a n d in a g re em en t wi t h his p r i n cipl es c o n cl ud e d t h a t
, ,

t h e on en e ss o f t h e th ree divi n e p e r so n s is n ot r ea l ; th a t t h e
F a th er t h e S on a nd t h e H oly Ghost a re n ot on e G od b u t th ree
, ,

God s h e wa s fo rm a lly con d em n e d a t t h e C o uncil of Soisso n s in

, ,

1 0 9 2 a nd N o m ina lis m wa s th us k ill e d for m o re th a n two c e n

,

tu ries a n d di d n ot r ea pp ea r ti ll t h e d a ys of O ek a m
, .

Rea li s m in its m ost e x t re m e f o rm h a d bee n p rofe sse d by

, ,

Pl a to ; a nd a s t h e fi r st pe riod of Me dize va l sp ec ul a tion wa s

,

d ecid edly Pl a to n ic e xtrem e Rea li sm in spite of its p a nth e istic

, ,

t en d en ci es b e ca m e t h e o rthodo x be li e f It m ust b e obs e rv ed

, .
 22

h ere th a t M edi aev a l r ea l is m h a s nothin g in com m on with wh a t

we c a ll r ea lism to da y It i s t h e doctri n e th a t th e un iv er s a l is
-
.

not m er ely a m ent a l co n st ru ctio n b ut poss ess e s a n obj ectiv e ,

r ea l ity ; i s i n po in t of f a ct th e o n ly re a lity P l a to a s is w ell

, , .
,

kn ow n h a d ta ught th a t t h e r ea l wo rld is t h e wo r l d of id ea s a n d
, ,

th a t th e ph enom en a l wo rl d our own world poss ess e s r ea lity only

, ,

in so f a r a s it p a r ticip a t es in th e t ru th of t h e id ea l wo r ld This .

vi e w i f logic a lly follow e d out wi ll l ea d u s to t h e co n cl u sion

, ,

th a t rea l ity i s of a m en ta l n a t u re We sh a ll b e bou n d t o a dm it

.

“
with H eg el th a t W h a t i s r ea son a bl e is a ctu a l a n d wh a t is ,

a ct u a l i s r ea so n a bl e We sh a ll b e i n c a p a bl e of a voidi n g m on
.

i sm in its m ost e x tr em e fo rm I f t h e u n iver s a l poss ess es a n

.

obj e ctiv e r ea lity th e n be i n g is r ea l ; a n d a s th e u niv er s a l t erm

, ,

b ei n g c a n b e a ppl i e d to a ll thi n gs wh a tso e v er we sh a ll h a v e t o ,

a dm it th a t a b e in g e xists which co n t a i n s a ll r ea lity w ithin its e l f .

It i s to r ea l is m th ere fo re th a t m ost of th e p a n th e istic system s of

t h e M iddl e A ge s m u st b e t ra c e d b a ck .

P r io r to t h e form u l a tio n of th e probl em of u niv ers a ls Scot u s ,

Er ig en a h a d a l rea dy m a int a in e d th a t God is m ore th a n a crea tor ,

“
th a t h e i s in a ll things a s th ei r sol e s ubsta n c e : Cum e rg o
a u di m u s D eum o m ni a f a c e re n ihil a l iu d deb em u s in tellig ere
,

q u a m D eum in om n ib u s e ss e h oc est es sen t iam om ni um sub sis

, ,

t ere I ps e e nim sol us p er s e v e re est et o m n e q u od v ere in his

.
,

q u ae su n t dicit ur e sse ips e sol u s

I n spit e of th e inco n gru ity of this vi e w with t h e t ea ching of
h u r —
t e Ch ch e u i n co n g r ui ty w hi ch e v e nt u a lly le d to t h e c on dem
n a ti on o f E rig en a s work in 1 225 P a nth eis m a ga in d ev elop e d
’
,

u n d er t h e sh a dow of t h e t ra dition a l r e a listic d octrin e t h e a n ,

t iq ua doc trina a s A b el a r d h a d c a ll e d it displ a y e d its el f m or e

, ,

or l e ss ti m idly a cco r d in g to t h e propiti ou sn ess of t h e t im e s a n d

,

t h e bol dn ess of its s u pport ers a n d r ea ch e d a d e finit e form a n d

,

e xp r e ssion i n t h e t ea chi ngs of t h e gr ea t P a nth e istic school ,

which fl ou ri sh e d a t t h e en d of t h e tw elfth c entu ry a n d co unt ed ,

’
Sc ot u s Er i g e na , De D i v i s i o ne Na t u res , ca p . 72 .
 23

as d ist in gui sh e d m em be rs as Be rn a r d of To u rs Am a ury of B ene ,

a n d D a vi d o f D in a nt .

C lose ly conn ect e d with P l a to n ic re a lis m a re a lso t h e Medimva l

m yst ics .M ysticism or t h e doctrin e th a t t h e rea l is th e im m e
,

dia t ely f el t is a s we h a v e see n th e logica l o u tcom e of no m i n a l

, , ,

ism . It is in te re stin g to n ot ic e th a t Me dimva l m ysticis m was

rea ch e d by t h e opposit e wa y I f we st a rt f r om th e a s s um ptio n
.

th a t t h e un iv e rs a l a lone is rea l we will b e le d to t h e co n cl u sion

,

th a t God a l on e pos s esse s rea lity a n d th a t e v erythin g e l s e is m ere

,

worthl ess a ppea ra nce I n wh a t will m a n s p erf ection a n d fi n a l

.
’

en d th e n co n sist ? Si m ply in t h e i m m e di a te un io n with t h e

O n e t h e B e in g in who m a ll r ea lity is ce n t ere d ; in a s u p r em e
, ,
:

contem pt for a ll te rr estri a l thi n gs ; in th e r ej ectio n of a ll p ro

fa n e l ea rn ing of ph ilosophy itsel f A n d we h a ve th u s in a n ut
, .
,

sh e ll , t h e lin e of rea soning follow e d by Me dimva l m ystic s .

I t wa s out of th e t ea chin g of Wil li a m of Ch a m p ea u x a t t h e

a bbe y of S t V ictor th a t t h e m ysti c m ov em ent gr e w
. S t rengt h .

e n e d by t h e co n d em n a tion of A b el a r d ope n ly p r ot e ct e d
by St B ern a rd Mysticism fo un d rem a rk a bl e a dh eren ts in t h e
.
,

whol e V icto r in e school H um a n rea son wa s m ercil essly c on

.

dem ned di a l e ctic wa s ch a ra ct er i ze d a s th e d evil s a r t a n d A b e

’
, ,

la rd P e te r Lom b a rdus Gilb er t de la P o rr ee a n d P e t er o f Po i

fl
, ,

“
ti ers w e re d en ounce d a s t h e fo ur l a by r i n ths of
be c a use th ey h a d t rea t e d with schol a stic l evity of t h e ine a b le
'

”
T ri nity a nd th e Inca rn a tion .

P a n th e istic doc trin es h a vin g b ee n re p ea te dly a n a th em a ti z e d

by th e Church—a s in t h e Co un cil of Pa ri s in 1 21 0 in which , ,

t h e tea c hin g s of Da vi d a nd Am a u ry w e re conde m n e d a n d th e ir

—
works proscr i be d a nd Ar i stotl e h a ving s uppl a nt ed P l a to a s th e
in s pire r a nd th e gu ide of Medi e va l th in king th ere a pp ea red a ,

m odifi ed form of rea li sm which h a d been a lr ea dy fores ha do wed

,

by St Anse lm a nd p roba bl y a l s o by Abe l a rd a nd whi ch ha s

.
, ,

r em a i n e d sin c e t h e n t h e ofi c ia l S c h ola sti c do c tr ine A l bert of .

”
InWa l te r o f St V ict o r s I n Q ua t uor
.
’
I mb y r int h os F r a nc i ne . Cf .

T urne r Hi s to ry o f P hil os o p h y pp 3 02 if
, , . .
 24

B ollst a dt ,
s lly k n own a s A lb ert th e G rea t m u st b e c redit e d
u ua ,

with i t s fi rs t s a tisf a cto ry f or m u l a tio n He distingu ish e d th re e

.

ki n ds of u n iv er s a l s : F i r st t h e u n iversa ls a n t e rem existing in

, ,

t h e m i n d of God ; s e co n d t h e u n iversa le i n r e e x isti n g in t h e

, ,

e x t e r n a l obj e ct ; thi r d t h e un iv ers a le p os t r em

, e xi sti n g in t h e ,

k n ow n s u bj ect .

This n e w fo rm of rea li sm which esc a p es t h e e xt ra v a ga n t

,

i ss u e s of n o m i n a lis m a n d e x t r em e r ea l ism h a s b een too oft en

,

ign o r e d by m od er n w r it er s who h a v e r e p re s en t e d Schol a stics a s

,

a dh er i n g e n m as s e to t h e t e n ets of P l a to a n d W ill i a m of Ch a m

p ea u x Th e n e w th eo ry d en i e s th e e x ist en c e of t h e u n iv er s a l a s
.

s u c h ou tsid e t h e m i n d ; b u t it a d m its in t h e obj ect a pot en ti a l

u n iv er s a l which m a y b e r eg a r d e d a s t h e fo u n d a tio n f u n da m e n
, ,

t u m i n r e of t h e u n iv e r s a l co n c e pt of t h e m i n d
,
Th e re doe s .

n ot e x i s t a s P l a to m a i n t a i n e d a n id ea l m a n which co n t a i n s t h e
, ,

r e a lity sh a r e d in a g r ea t e r or l ess d eg r ee by a ll i n divid u a l m en ;

t h ere e x ist o n ly P et er J a m e s a n d Joh n ; b u t t h e re i s in P et er

, ,

a s w ell a s in Joh n a n d J a m e s a p e c u li a r n a t u r e a n e s s e n c e by
, ,

which t h ey a r e i n divid u a l s o f th ei r own— n o t of a n oth er—s p e

ci es Th e u n iv e r s a l c ea s es to b e a wo r d d e void of m ea n i ng ; it
.

d e sign a t e s t h e v er y e s s en c e o f th e thi n g its e lf .

T h e id ea l wo rl d of P l a to d id n ot how ev er co m pl e t ely v a n ish

, ,
.

It a pp ea r e d in a n ew fo rm which it h a d a l rea dy a ss um e d a t t h e
b egi n n i n g o f t h e Ch r i s ti a n er a Th e wo rl d of id ea s b e c a m e t h e
.

D ivi n e M i n d ; a n d t h e e s s en c es of a ll thi n gs w er e r eg a r d e d a s
p re ex i s ti n g in t h e e s s en c e of God a s re fl ecti n g m o re or l e ss
,

e x a ctly t h e divi n e p e r f e ctio n s G od s e ss en c e wa s th u s d esc r ib ed

.
’

a s t h e c a us a ex e m la ms
'

p ,t h e i n fi n it e p r ototyp e of a ll r e a l ity .

Thi s is t h e m ea n i n g of A lb er t s un iv ers a ls a n t e r em
’
.

B es id e s m od era t e r ea lism there a r os e b etw een P l a to n ic rea l

,

is m a n d n o m i n a lis m a n oth er i n t erm e di a t e th e o ry kn ow n a s c on ,

cep t u a lis m T h e co n c ept u a l ists w er e a t on e with t h e n o m i n a l

.

is t s in d en yi n g a ll obj e ctiv e r e a lity to t h e u n iv e r s a l ; b u t wh erea s ,

t h e n o m i n a l ists sa w n othi n g in t h e un iv e r s a l b u t a m ea n i n gl ess

nam e , t h e co n c e pt u a l ists re c ogn i z e d i ts v a li dity a s a co n c ept .
 26

a ny m od e of tho ught ch a ra ct er i z e d by e x c essive r efi nem ent a nd

s u btl e ty ; th e m a ki n g of fo rm a l disti n ctio n s withou t en d a nd

”1 1
witho u t sp eci a l poi n t .

Th es e vi ews a r e t ru e to a c er ta in e x t ent Syllogism wa s .

r eg a r d e d by Me di aev a l philosoph er s a n d is still r eg a r d e d by

,

som e of th e ir con t em po ra r y foll ow ers a s th e m ost effici ent fo rm ,

of a rg um ent a tion Th e syllogistic form how ev er is si m ply a

.
, ,

ga rb with which t h e sch ool m e n chos e to cloth e th e ir i d ea s a n d ,

which th ey m ight h a v e disc a r de d withou t a ny e ss enti a l ch a n g e

in th e ir philosophy It is a g a rb whi ch i s not p ec u l i a r t o th em
.

a lon e . B e si d e s th e f a ct th a t a ll m od er n syst em s of philosophy

cou l d b e p re s en te d in t h e syllogistic fo rm witho ut b ecomi n g
schol a stic i t m u st b e bo rn e in m i n d th a t Le ib n i z n ot only p ra i se d
,

t h e syllogism b u t u s e d it i n hi s disc u ssions ; th a t Spin oz a ex

,

po un d e d his philosophy in a fo rm s ur p a ssing in s trictly syllog is

tic m a them a tic a l ch a ra ct er a ll th a t h a d b een writt en d u ri n g
, ,

t h e M iddl e A g e s . A s f or v a in s ubtl ety it is ce rt a inly a m os t,

com m on bl em ish i n t h e works of t h e schoolm en a r ea l de f ect , ,

which oft en m a r s th e ir m ost b ea u tif ul p a ge s B ut th e st u d ent .

of post K a nti a n i dea lism who h a s b ee n com p ell e d to go ov er

-
,

t h e wo rks of F icht e H egel a n d B ra dl ey is l ittl e t em pt e d to

, ,

r eg a r d v a in s ubtl ety a s a ch a r a ct er p ecu li a r to Schol a stici sm .

He who h a s t r i e d to cl ea r t h e F icht ea n sta tem e nt th a t

th e cip r oc a l a ctivity a n d p a ssivity d e t erm i n es t h e indep en d

re

e nt a ctivity a n d th e i n d e p en d en t a ctivity d e t e rm i n e s t h e r ec i ro
p
ca l a ctivity a n d p a ssivity

its i m m edi a t e cons equ en c e n a m ely th a t ,

th e i n d ep en d en t a ctiviti es of th e Eg o a n d Non Eg o do n ot -

r ecip r oc a lly d et erm i n e ea ch oth er di re ctly b u t on ly indi rectly , ,

th r ough th e i r r ecip r oc a lly d e term i n e d a ctivity a n d p a ssivity

and th a t
InB a l dw i n s Di et o f
’
. P h il oso p h y a n d P s ych o l ogy ; a rt Sc h o l a s tici s m
. .

An ot h e r d e fi n iti on o f Mr . Dewe y s wi ll b e di s cus se d in thi s ch a pt e r

’
.
 27

t h e la w of recip r oc a l d et erm ina tion is v a li d o nly in so f a r a s

re la te d to t h e recip r oca l a ctivity a nd p a ssi vity a n d in dep en d ent
a c t i vity ; b ut is n o t v a lid a s re l a t e d to t h e ind e pe n d ent ac ti vity

a lo n e

who h a s follow e d t h e a u thor in th e int r ic a te a pplic a tions of hi s

prin cipl e s un de r th e co n c eptions of ca u sa lity a n d s ubst a n ti a lity
who h as lost hi m se l f in th a t b affling l a byri nth of disti n ctio n s
a n d su b di stin ctio n s which cov e r m o r e th a n six ty p a g es of t h e
-

Wis s ens cha fts leh r e ; who h a s fi n a lly got t h e con victi on th a t this
ec c entri c a n d r e p ul siv e show of a n a lysis a m o un ts to littl e m o re

th a n n othing c a n h a r dl y a ccu s e th e Schol as tics of m o n opoli z i ng

,

s ubtl ety A pplyi n g to Fi cht e a wo r d which D id erot s a i d of

.

D u n s Scot u s h e will a ss e rt with n o m o r e h esita tion a n d with

,

m or e j u stic e th a n t h e F ren ch encyclop e di st th a t h e who wo uld ,

kn o w th e whol e Wiss ens c ha f ts leh r e wo ul d kn ow nothi ng .

Anoth er th eo ry m ore wid e ly a cc epted h a s d e fi ne d Schol a stic

, ,

philosophy by its r el a tion to the ology A form ul a c urren t du r .

,

ing t h e M iddl e A ge s a n d reg a r ding philosophy a s a n ci lla th e o

,

logies h a s bee n p r od u c e d ; a n d Schol a stic philosophy h as b ee n

,

e ith er id en tifi e d with th e ology or ch a r a ct e r i z e d by its p rof e sse d

a gr ee m en t with t h e dogm a s of t h e Ch u r ch .

Th e co m pl et e ide n t ifi c a t ion th e o ry h a s b ee n O p e n ly p rof e ss ed

- -

by H ege l Th e Schol a stic ph ilo s ophy s a y s h e is th u s rea lly

.
, ,

”1 2
th e ology a n d this th eology is n othing b ut ph ilo s ophy
, The .

sa m e vi ew h a s be en a dopt e d in a slightly m odifi e d form by , ,

Victor Co u sin in hi s His toi r e g é n é ra le de la p h ilos Op h ie a n d t h e ,

f a ct tha t it h as be en rec en tly m a in ta in ed b y m en p rofe ssi ng so

di ve rgen t ph il osophic a l b el i e fs a s A lf re d W eb e r in G e rm a ny ,

G eo rge Tyrre ll in E ngl a n d a n d J ohn D ew ey in this co un t ry

, ,

shows t h a t i t is f a r fro m be in g a s ye t com pl e t ely d ea d

”
Th e Ch urch sa ys W e be r is t h e p redo m i na nt po w er of t he
, ,

Mi ddle A ge s O u tsid e of t he Ch urch th ere ca n b e no s a lv a tio n

.
,

a nd n o sc i en ce Th e dogma s fo rm ula ted by h er r ep re se nt t h e

.

tr u th . F rom t h e m ediaev a l po in t of vi e w to p h il osophiz e m ea n s ,

Hgl
e e , Le ct u re s on t he H i to y
s r of P h il os o p h y , Vo l 3
.
, p . 39 .
to expl a in t h e dogm a t o d ed u c e its co n s equ en c es a n d to d em on
,

st ra t e its t ru th H en c e philosophy is id entic a l with positiv e

.

”1 3
t h eo logy ; when i t f a il s to b e th a t it b eco m es h er et ic a l , .

”
B y Schol a sticism s a ys Ty r r ell we u n d ers t a n d t h e a pplic a
, ,

t io n of A r istotl e t o th e ology or t h e e x p r e ssio n o f t h e f a cts a n d

,
”1 !
r e a liti es of r ev el a tio n in t h e m i n d l a n gu a g e of t h e p er ip a t e tics
-
.

F i n a lly in B a l dwin s D iction a ry of P hilosophy

,
’
and P sychol
ogy Mr D ew ey d e fi n e s Schol a stici sm a s
,
.

th e p er iod of M edi aev a l tho u ght in which philosophy wa s p u r

s u e d u n d er t h e dom i n a tio n of th eol ogy h a vi n g f or its a im th e ,
”1 5
e x positio n of Ch r isti a n d o g m a in its r el a tio n to re a so n .

In o r d er to un d er st a n d wh a t a m o un t of t ru th thi s th eo r y c on
t a i n s it i s n ec e ss a ry to e x a m i n e b r i efly t h e e x a ct m ea n i ng giv en
,

t o t h e wo r d philos o phy in a n ci en t ti m e s a n d t h e wa y in which ,

t h e p a r ti cu l a r s ci en c e s h a v e a pp ea r e d a n d h a v e b e en a ssign e d a
de fi n it e fi e ld .

P hilosophy b u s i e d its elf a t fi r st with t h e whol e e x t en t of

h u m a n k n o wl e dge I n a n ci e n t G r eec e Th a l es A n a x i m a n d er
.
, ,

a nd A n a x i m en e s w er e p r i m a r ily sci ent ists Sh un n i n g th e .

m yth o logic a l e x pl a n a ti o n s of t h e u n iv e r s e giv en in p r e vio u s

t i m e th ey di re ct e d th e i r effo rts tow a r ds a co sm ic a l th e o ry m o re
,

in h a r m o n y with t h e f a cts of e xp er i en c e It is by a n ob s er v a
t io n of t h e ph en o m en a of n a t ur e—a s A r istotl e poi n ts ou t— th a t
.

Th a l e s wa s le d to th e a s s u m ptio n th a t a ll thi n gs a re m a d e ou t
o f w a t er A n a x i m en e s ex pl a i ne d th e g enera tio n of fi re wi n ds
.
, ,

cl ou d s w a t er a n d ea rth a s du e to a co n d en s a tio n of t h e fi r st
,

g r o u n d of a ll thi n g s a ir A n a x i m a n d er fo rm ul a t e d a th eo ry
, .

of e vol u tio n which b ea r s a st r iki ng si m il a r ity to th e co n c ept io n s

of ou r co nt em po r a ry n a tu r a lists A r istotl e hi m s elf did n ot .

r eg a r d a n
y b r a n ch of h um a n k n owl e dge a s lyi n g b eyo n d his
j ur isdictio n H is philosophy cove r s n ot o n ly l ogic m et a physic s
.
, ,

We b e r H i s t o ry o f P h il os o p h y Ne w Y o r k 1 9 0 4 pp 2 0 1 20 2
, , , , .
-
.

Ty r r e ll Th e F a it h o f t h e Mill i o n s l s t S e r i e s p 224
, , , . .

“
1
B a ldwi n s D ie t o f P h il os op h y a nd P s ych o l o gy a r t Sch ol a s tici s m
’
.
, . .
ethics a n d psychology b u t a lso physics cos m ology z oology p o l i
, , , ,

tics a n d rh et o r ic .

Wh en in t h e co urs e of h um a n histo ry th e fi eld of knowl edge

, ,

wa s gr a d ua lly exte nd e d ; wh en i t b e c a m e i m possibl e f or a s ingl e

m a n to a pply h i m sel f to a ll b ra nch es of l ea r n i ng p a rtic ul a r ,

sc i enc e s gr a d ua lly a c q u ire d a t echni q u e a n d th u s b ec a m e ind e ,

e nd e n t This m ov e m e n t tow a rds sp ecific a tio n wa s how ev er

p .
, ,

v ery sl o w E ven in m od ern tim e s B a con h a s h eld th a t t h e

.
,

obj ects of philosophy a r e God m a n a n d n a ture a n d h a s i n cl u d ed , ,

withi n its scop e logic physics a n d a st rono m y a n t h r opology

, , ,

ethics a n d poli tics ; a n d H erb e r t Sp en c e r h a s d e fi n e d philosoph y

as a co m pl e t e ly u n ifi e d kn o wl edg e a n d h a s p u bli sh e d a s e r i e s ,

of works of which t h e t itl es : P r in cip les of P s y c h olog y P rin c i

, ,

i in ci les of S oc io log y a r e s u ffi ci e n t t o
p le s o f B o logy P r
p ,
e t c ,
.
,

sh o w th a t t h e philos ophy of th e i r a u tho r is in k ee pi ng wi t h h is

d efi n iti on .

A t t h e b egi nn i ng of th e Ch r isti a n e ra t h e re s p e cti ve bo u nd ,

a r i e s of th e ology a n d philosophy w er e n o t dis t i n ctly d ra w n .

Th e two sci e n c e s w e re e v en g e n era lly id en tifi e d St A ug us ti n e . .

h a d sa i d

Non a li a m es e s p h ilo s 0 h ia m ,
p id es t s a pi e nt ize s t udi um ,
et

li a m relig ione m c um i i q u o ru m doe tr ina m n on ap ro b a m u s

a , p
”
n ee s a c r a m e n t a n ob is c um co m m u n i c a n t
16
.

T e rt ulli a n it i s t rue h a d rega rd ed phil o so phy a s t h e m o th e r

, ,

of h eresi es a n d h a d no t f ea re d to fo rm ul a t e his f a m o u s : C r edo

, ,

q u ia a b s u r du m Th e r e is
. how e v e r e v e ry r ea son to b el i e v e th a t
, ,

h e l im i te d hi s cond emn a tion to p a ga n l ea rn i ng ; for h e hi m sel f

did n ot f ea r to philosoph i ze a n d h e ga v e a syst em of ontology ,

o f whi ch a n id ea m a y h e h a d fro m th e following q u ot a tio n s

N ihi l en im si n o n co rp us O mn e q uod
,
. es t , co rp u s es t s ui

gen er is nihil es t i n corpo ra l e n i s i q uod n on , Q uis en im

“
De ve ra. re lig i ons , ca p . 5 . C f Tu . rne r, op . ci t ,
p . 248 .

De A ni ma , 7 ; De C a r ne Ch r .
,
2 .
n eg a veritde um e ss e corp u s e tsi deu s spi r it u s , est ? spiritu s en im
”1 8
corp u s sui g en eri s in su a efii g ie .

Th e fi rst p er iod of Schol a stic phi l osophy wa s a di rect off

sp r ing of th e p a t r istic era a n d i n h er ite d its b eli e fs Scotu s .

E r igen a r ega r d e d philosophy a n d th eology a s co m pl et ely

id en tic a l

Q u i d est a l i u s de phi losophi a t ra ct a r e nisi v era e relig ionis ,

u a s u m m a et p r i n cip a li s o m n i um r e rum c a u s a D eu s e t h um ili

q , ,

t e r c olitu r e t r a t ion a b ilit e r in vest ig a tur

,
re gu l a s ex p onere ? ,

Con fi c itu r i n d e ver a m e sse p hilos 0 p h ia m ver a m r elig ion em con ,

”1 9
vers im q u e ver a m r elig ion em e ss e vera m h ilo s0 h ia m
p
p .

We h a v e s een th a t Rosce lin did not h e sit a t e to a pply his specu

l a ti v e th eo r i e s t o t h e m yst ery of th e B l ess e d T r inity F or .

A b el a r d a s w ell a s f or E r igen a philosophy a n d th eolog y w ere

, ,

on e a n d t h e s a m e I t m u st h e r em a r k e d how ev er th a t in
.
, , ,

A b el a r d s e a s e th eology wa s not p r op erly id en tifi ed with b ut

’
, ,

r e d u c e d to philosophy I n oth er wo r ds th e ology si m ply disa p

.
,

p e a red A
. b e l a r d s positio n wa s v er y m u
’
ch si m il a r to th a t of
t h e m ode r n H eg eli a n school Re ligio u s m yst er i e s if n ot p r ov .
,

a bl e by h u m a n r ea so n w er e m er cil e ssly disc a rd e d , Th e wo r ds .

“
N e e q uia D eus i d dix em t credi ta r s ed q uid h oc sic ess e c on , .

which so d ee ply o ff en d e d St B er n a r d s
” 2°
c in c i tu r a c cip i tu r
’
.
,

o r thodo x y m a y b e t a k e n a s a p er f ect exp r ession of A b el a r d s

,
’

vi ew .

T h e r e sp e ctiv e bo und a r i e s of philosophy a n d th eology w ere

soo n how e v er d e fi n itely fix e d Th e syst em of principl e s a tt a i n
, , .

a bl e by r ea son a lon e wa s cl ea r ly disc r i m in a t e d f r o m t h e body of

I n A n s e l m s w r itings a ltho u gh f a ith a n d re a

’
r e v ea l e d t ru ths .
,

s on a r e h eld in clos e con n e ction th ey a re no lon ge r identifi e d ,

.

He s a ys

Rect u s o r do p r of un d a Ch r ist ia n a e fi dei c reda m us

e x ig it u t

p r iu s q u a m ea p ra e su m a m u s r a tion e disc ut ere Neg lig en t ia e .

”
A dv . P ra x .
, 7 .

”
Migne , Vo l . cxxi i , c ol . 5 57 .

2°
I n t r o d u ct io a d T h e ol og ia m ; M ign e Vo l, . cl xxv i i i , c ol . 1 0 50 .
 31

m ihi esse vid e tur si p ostq ua m con fi rm a t i s um u s in fi de, non

”21
st u dem u s q uod credim u s int ellig ere .

Th e grea t p hi losoph e rs o f t h e thirt eenth c e nt ury w ere a t t h e

sa m e tim e th eologi a n s ; a n d in the i r m ost im porta n t wo rks t h ey
, ,

trea t e d th eologic a l a s w ell a s philo sophica l q ue sti ons This f a ct .

m a y a cco un t f or t h e e rr o n eo us co n ce ption which r ega rds th em

a s id e n tifyi n g t h e two sci en c es Th e tru th how e ve r is th a t
.
, ,

th ey c a re f ully di stin gui sh e d th em a n d ga v e a n a ccount of th e ir ,

diff e renc e s a n d rel a tions whi ch wo uld not be s u rp a ss e d by a ny

th eologi a n in our own da y .

P hilosophy diff er s f r om the ology in its obj e ct a n d in its

m ea n s : in its obj ect be c a u s e wh er ea s philosophy is li m it e d to
, ,

t h e tru ths h u m a n r ea so n c a n gr a sp th eol o gy a l s o em b ra c e s thos e

,

whi ch lie b eyond t h e rea ch of our n a tu ra l f a c ulti es ; in it s

m ea n s in so f a r a s t h e instrum e n t of philosophic a l r es ea r ch e s
,

is h um a n rea so n wh erea s th eology is gu id e d by t h e light of

,

divin e rev el a tio n .

The se p r in cipl e s w ere recogni ze d by a ll g rea t m a st er s of M e di

asva l tho ught a n d h a ve b e e n so cl ea r ly e xpo un d e d by S t Tho m a s
, .

in t h e first ch a pter s of his S u m ma Th eolog ica th a t it i s s ur p r i s ,

ing th ey ha v e be en so oft en ov er look e d I n t h e v ery wo r ds by .

which t h e S u m ma op en s t h e re sp ective bo un d a ri es of philosophy

,

a n d th eology a re disti n ctly fix e d St Tho m a s p ropos e s th e f o l

. .

Vid e tu r q u od non sit n ec ess a r i um praet e r p h ilos ophica s dis

c ip lina s a l ia m doc t rin a m h a b e ri A d ea e n i m q usa sup ra ra
.

t ion em sun t , ho m o n on d e b e t co ma ri , s e c un d um illu d Eec le sia s t .

3 : A lt iora t e n e q ums ie r is S e d ea qua: ra t ioni s ubdu nt u r su f

.

fi c ien ter tr a dun tu r in p h ilos op h ic is disc ip lin is : supe rfi uum

igit ur vid etu r praet e r ph iIO S O ph ic a s disciplin a s a li a m doc tr ina m
”
ha be r i .

To which he give s th e fo ll owi ng a nswe r

Li ce t ea q u s unt a ltiora ho m inis c ogn it ione non s in t a b
a;

hom in e p e r ra ti on em in q u irenda : sunt ts m en a Deo re vel a t a

Cu r De us H omo ? 1 , 1- 2 .
s u sc ip ien da fi dem p U n d e e t ibid em
e r . su b dit u r : P l u ri m a
s u p ra s en sum h om in um ost en s a su n t tibi . E t in h u j u sm odi
”2 2
s a cra doct r i n a c on sist it .

W ith a f ar
st r o n g er fo un d a tion som e philosoph er s h a v e ,

tho u ght th a t a lthough Schol a stics cl ea rly distingu ish e d p h iloso

,

phy f r o m th eology a n d gra n t e d to t h e form er a prop er fi el d of

a ctio n it is in t h e p ec u l i a r r e l a tio n in which th e y r eg a rde d those
,

two sci en c es th a t t h e idiosy n c ra tic not e of th ei r philosophy m u st

b e fo u n d Th e g en er a l a cc ept a n c e this vi e w h a s r ec eiv e d f r om
.

a dh e r en ts a s w e ll a s f r om O ppo n en ts of Schol a sticis m c a n n ot ,

b u t l ea d u s to b e l i e v e th a t it co n t a i n s a good d ea l of t ru th It .

h a s b een a cc e pt e d a m o n g oth er s by Z ell er U eb er weg C a rr a de

, , , ,

Va u x E li e B la n e Z e f e r in o Go n z a l ez in E ur ope a n d by W illi a m
, , ,

T urn er in this co un t ry .

Schol a sticism s a ys U eb e rweg ,

wa s philosophy in t h e s er ,

vic e o f e s t a blish e d a n d a cc ept e d th eologic a l doct r i n e s or a t l ea st , , ,

in s u c h s u bo r di n a ti o n to th em th a t wh er e philosophy a n d th eolo g y ,

t rod on com m on g r oun d t h e l a tt er wa s r ec e ive d a s th e a bsol ut e

,

n o rm a n d c r it e r io n of t r u th M o re p a r ticu l a r ly Schol a sticism

.
,

wa s t h e re p ro d u cti o n of a n ci ent philosophy u n d er th e co n trol of

e ccl e si a stic a l d o ct r i n e with a n a cco m m od a tio n
,
in c a s e of dis ,
”23
c re p a n c y b e tw ee n th em of t h e fo rm er to t h e l a tt er
,
.

And W illi a m T u r n er in his His t ory of P h ilos ogyh y r ega r ds

, ,

t h e effo r t on t h e p a rt of t h e school m en to u n ify philosophy a n d

th eology a s t h e m ost disti n ctiv e t ra it of th e philosophy of t h e
scho ol s Th er e i n h e pl a c e s th e differen c e which di vide s Scho
.

la s t ic ism f r o m m od ern th ou ght :

M od ern philosophy s a y s h e post Re fo rm a tio n philosophy

,
-
,

a s it m a y b e c a ll e d— wa s bo rn of t h e r evolt of philosophy a ga i n st
th eology of r ea so n a g a i n st f a ith It a dopt e d a t t h e very ou ts e t
,
.

t h e A v err oistic p r i n cipl e th a t wh a t i s t ru e in th e ol ogy m a y b e

m
S u m m a Th e o log ic a ,
. Pa rs 1, Q . 1, a rt . 1, a d . 1 . Cf . l
a so : A rt . 2,
3 a nd wh ich t h e
5, i n n a t u re a nd t he l ti on s
re a of t h e t wo s ci e nce s a re

a cc u r a te ly di s c u s se d .

”
Ueb erwe g H i s t o r y , of P h il os o p h y , Vol . 1, p . 3 55 .
 34

thi r t een th c ent u ry ; a n d in th e h a n ds of Tho m as A q u in a s

, ,

b e c a m e a d efi n it e syst em which m ight b e d esc r ib e d a s Schol a stic

m o r e p r op er ly th a n a ll p r evio u s a tt em pts I t is to thi s syst em .

th a t n eo Schol a sticism un iv er s a lly a dh er es

-
.

S E CTI O N 2 .
—NE O S CH O L A STI C
-
PH I LO S OP H Y

Th e Schol a stic h a s b een oppos e d on m a n y gro un ds

wo r d n e e- .

So m e m en to who m Schol a stic philosophy a pp ea rs a s a b u g

,

b ea r h a v e b een u n a bl e to r eco n cil e th em s elv e s to th e id ea th a t

,

s u ch a philosophy m ight b e re viv e d B ehi n d t h e p ea c e f u l p r o .

f e s sor who disc u ss es t h e th e o r y of Ma tt e r a n d F orm th ey h a v e

, ,

s een t h e p a p a l pow er re sto re d t h e C h u rch of Ro m e d eth r o n i n g ,

sov er e ign s a n d i m p o si n g h er will u po n n a tio n s f un era l pil e s ,

e r e ct e d a n e w h et er odox thi n k er s b u rn e d a t t h e st a k e A s we
,
.

h a v e a l r ea dy spok en in our I n t r od u ctio n of t h e r el a tio n of Scho ,

l a stic phil o sophy to t h e dogm a s of t h e Ch ur ch a n d of t h e politi

c a l i n fl u e n c e o f t h e Tho m istic r e viv a l thi s fo r m of oppositio n to ,

n eo S chol a stici sm sh a ll n ot de t a i n u s a n y lo n g er
-
.

O th er w r it er s b el i evi n g th a t S chol a sti c philosophy is e ss en

,

t ia lly a thi n g of t h e p a st h a v e a ss er t e d th a t t h e word ne o ,

Schol a sticism its elf i n volv e s a co n t ra di ctio n Th ey h a v e d erid ed .

t h e ide a of cov er i n g ol d th e o r i e s with a n ew g a rb of givi n g a ,

m od er n form to a n ti q u a t e d doct r in e s The i r obj ection to th e .

Thom istic r e viv a l wo u l d b e p er f ectly w ell gro u nd ed i f th e his ,

t or ic a l e vol u tion of t h e wo r ld w ere s u ch a s m a n y w r it ers on

philosophy s ee m to p r of e ss B ut a c r itic a l st u dy of t h e v a ri ou s
.

syst em s o f tho ught which h a v e a pp ea re d on our pl a n e t d ur ing

t h e co u r s e of c en t u r i es will m ost lik e ly r en d er u s dist ru stfu l in
this re sp ect A s poi n t e d ou t by Mr W oodb r idge
.
“
A r istotl e .
,

r ea ds so m u ch like a m od ern th a t we c a n co n c e iv e his w r iting

”2 5
a ft e r H egel with n o grea t ch a n g e in his sys tem N eo .

Schol a stics b eli ev e th a t a m i d so m e a nti qu a t e d doct r i n e s which

,

m u st b e d isc a r d e d M e di aev a l philosophy cont a ins p er enn i a l ele

,

m‘
F . J . E . W oodb r idge , Th e P ro bl em of M e t a p h y s ic s P h i los
, . R ev .
,

1 9 0 3, p . 3 68 .
 35

m en ts of t ruth ; th a t th e fu nd a m en t a l principl es of th e P erip a

t e t ic a n d Tho m istic phi losophy c a n be f ully h a rm o n i z e d with
m od e rn sci e n t ific r es ults .

E v en a m o n g t h e sym p a thi ze rs of Schol as tic tho ught t h e wo r d ,

neo Schol a stic h a s fo un d oppo n e nts

-
So m e h a v e tho ught th a t .

th e m od e rn d e f e n d er s of t h e philosophy o f St Thom a s sho u ld .

not ca ll th em s e lve s n eo Schol a stics b u t si m ply Schol a stics a s

-
, ,

t h e p re fix n eo i m pli e s so m e m odifica tio n s in a syst em which

should rem a in i n ta ct St Tho m a s s philosophy h a ve th ey
. .
’
,

m a i n ta i n ed sho u ld b e a cc ept e d in its en ti r e ty or n ot b e a cc epte d

,

a t a ll This th esi s wa s d e f end e d by C M Sch ne id er in t h e

. . .

re vi e w S a in t Th om as b lci t t er It h a s be en d e f en d e d m o re re
’

-
.

c en tly by Fa th e r J a n v ier who wo u l d a dopt n o t o n ly t h e t e a ch

, ,

ings b ut t h e very m ethod a n d styl e of St Tho m a s

,
.
:

”
Le s m i e ux in s p ir es,
’
s a ys h e, p r i ren t l E n c y c liq u e de L éo n
e t s e ff or c é ren t
’ ’
X I I I a la l ett re d ex p liq u e r to u t e s le sp a rti e s de
la doct ri n e de sa i n t Tho m a s en u an s t de sa m ét hod e e t en
”26
a dopta n t s on styl e .

A s wa s to xp ec te d s uch vi ews h a v e n ot m e t wi t h a wel

be e ,

co me a cc e pta n c e So m e p a r ts of St Thom a s s t ea chi ng a re s o

. .
’

e vid e ntly obsol e t e th a t it wo u ld be ri dic u lo u s to re viv e th e m

to da y H i s doct r i n e of t h e fo u r el em en ts his bel i e f in t h e

-
.
,

i nfl uen ce of h ea venly bodi es u po n gen era tio n a n d m a ny si m il a r ,

th eo r ie s ca nnot b eco m e a ga in t h e obj ect of philosophic a l dis

,

en sa io u Th e m ethod a n d l a n gua ge of t h e Schol a stics m ust a lso

.

be m o difi ed I f t h e d e fend er s of St Thom a s s philosophy w a n t ’

. .

to co me in cont ac t wi th m od e rn tho ught i f th ey w a n t to see ,

th eir doctrin es disc usse d in ph ilosophic a l circl es they m u s t n ee ds ,

a dopt m od e rn m e thods a n d m ode rn form s of e xpression An .

opposi te co u rse of a cti on wo uld ostra ci ze th em f ro m th e think

ing wo rld a n d th e reby re n d e r th e ir wo rk n ul l
, .

I t h a s bee n fin a lly cl a im ed th a t t he n ew Schol a stic m ov ement,

 36

ta ke th e nam eof n eo Thom is m T o thi s obj ection a lso h a v e

-
.

n e o Schol a stics s u cc e ssf ully r epli e d

-
Th e Schol a stic r eviv a l fol .

lows chi e fly St Thom a s b e c a u s e St Thom a s h a s b r ought Scho

. .

l a stic philosophy to its pe r f ection He h a s b u ilt a co n c ret e .

syst em of thou ght which s ur p a ss e s in coh eren c e a n d g ra n d eu r

a ll oth er M e d iaev a l syst em s Th e a dh ere nc e to St Thom a s is
. .
,

how ev er n eith er s er vil e n or excl u sive Th e t en ets of th e oth er

,
.

Sch ol a stics a r e c a r e f u lly stu di e d a n d giv en t h e p re f eren c e wh en

e v er th e y p r ov e m o r e s a tisf a cto r y to h u m a n r e a so n I n point .

of f a ct t h e wo r ds n eo Thom ism a n d n eo Schol a sticis m a r e oft en

,
- -

r ega r d e d a s co n v ertibl e t erm s a ltho u gh st r ictly sp ea ki n g n eo

, , ,

Schol a sticism i s m or e p r op er
—
.

Th e fi r st t a sk n eo Schol a stics h a v e a ssu m e d h a s n a t u ra lly

“

b een a n a d eq ua t e a n d c r itic a l st u dy of t h e M e di aev a l p h iloso

p h e rs
. T h e w o r ks of St Tho m a s h a v e b e.e n e dit e d a n e w a n d

c a r e f u lly stu di e d Th e s a m e h a s b een don e with r eg a r d to a ll

.

gr ea t M e di aev al w r it er s L et u s m en tion t h e Leon i n e edition

.

of t h e wo r ks of Tho m a s A q u i n a s b egu n a t t h e ord er a n d u n d er ,

t h e p r ot ectio n of P o p e Le o X I I I a n d p u blish e d in R o m e in
'

1 8 8 2 ; t h e e ditio n of D un s S c otu s s wo rks p u blish e d in 1 8 9 1

’

, ,

a n d co m p r isi n g tw en ty six vol um e s q u a r to ; t h e e ditio n of St

-
.

B on a v en tu re s wo rks p ublish e d si n c e 1 8 8 2 by t h e F ra n cisc a n s

’
,

of Q u a r a c eh i n ea r F lo r en c e a n d com pl et e d a f e w y ea r s a go ; th e
, ,

coll ectio n : B eitrcig e zu r G es chi ch t e der P h ilos op h ie des Mi tte l

‘

a lt ers p u blish e d in M un st er si n c e 1 8 9 1
,
u n d er t h e di re ction of
, ,

Mr B a eu m ker ; t h e coll e ction : L es P hi los op h es da Moy en A g e

. .

b egu n q u it e r ec en tly a t t h e U n iv ersity of L o u v a i n .

Th e s e histo r ic a l wo rks a r e not how ev er t h e m ost ess en ti a l , ,

el em e n t of t h e n eo Schol a stic p r ogr a m

-
Th e d ea r e st a im of t h e .

n eo Schol a stics is n ot to stu dy M e di aev a l syst em s in th em s elv es

-
,

to diss ect th em a n d pr es en t th em t o t h e cu r io u s a s s t uff e d bi r ds ,

in a m u s eum . I t i s to giv e th em a n ew l ife to m a k e th em m ee t ,

t h e r e q u i r em en ts of ou r da y to r en d er th em a ct u a l ,
I n o r d er .

to b e su cc essf u l in this t a sk th ey st u dy t h e i n t r insic v a l u e of

,

t h e sol u tio n s p ropos e d by t h e M e di aev a l thi n k er s to th e g rea t

 37

p robl em s of t h e world th ey r ej ect thos e wh ich th e progr ess of

,

m od e rn sci ence h a s shown to b e e rron eo us th ey disc a rd u se l e ss

,

q uestions th ey a cco mm od a t e Schol a stic philosophy to t h e m od

,

e rn spirit . In so do ing th ey a c t in com pl et e h a rm ony with th e

,

instructio n s given by Leo X I II in t h e en cyclic a l E tem i P a tr is ,

who se co nt ents m ight b e s umm ed up in t h e fo rm ul a u n iv ers a lly

a dopte d by n eo Schol a stics a s t h e m otto of t h e i r school : v et era
-

no vis a ug er e .

T h e m odific a t io n s in trod u c e d by n eo Schol a stics on t h e p hi

-

lo so p h y of t h e M iddl e A ges m a y b e cl a s sifi e d und er th r ee h ea ds

T h e fi r st b ea r s u po n l a n gu a ge a n d m ethod D ist in gu ish e d
.

ne o Schol a stic s it i s tr u e cli n g to t h e L a ti n l a n gu a g e a n d to

-
, ,

t h e T hom istic m ethod of a rgu m e n t a t io n So m e of t h e m os t

.

im po r ta n t cont r ib u tions to th e Tho m isti c r evi va l a re w r itt en in

La t in a n d do n ot g rea tly d e p a rt f r o m St Tho m a s s m e t hod
’
. .

L et u s m en tion t h e coll e ctio n P h i los ozyh ia La c cns is a n d t h e

.

wo rks of th e c el eb ra te d Sp a n i sh J e s u i t U rr a b u ru Lik e St . .

Tho m a s in th e S u m m a T h eolog ica t h e a u tho rs of th es e wo rk s

,

b egi n with a n e x positio n of t h e v a r io u s opi n io n s a b o u t e a ch q ue s

tion giv e th ei r own sol ution a s t h e body of t h e ch a pt e r a n d
, ,

en d with a r e sol u tio n of t h e obj e cti o n s p r o po s e d by t h e a n t a g o n

is ti c schools . Th e gr ea t e r n um b e r of n e o Schol a stic s h o w e ve r

-
, ,

d ep a rt fro m thi s st rictly Schol a stic m ethod Th ey di s c a r d th e

.

syllogi sti c fo rm of a rgu m en t a tio n a n d w r ite th e ir wo rks in m od

fl
e rn l a n gua ge s T h e f a ct th a t t h e a u tho r s who h a v e th u s m o di
.

e d t h e Schol a stic m e thod h a v e s u cc e e d e d in a tt ra cti n g t h e

a tt e ntio n of t h e n on Schol a stic wo r ld wh er ea s th e l ea r n e d t rea t

-
,

ises wri tte n i n La tin h a v e b een co m p a ra tiv ely n egl e ct e d shows ,

th a t m od e rn la ngua ge s a n d m ethods a re now a d a ys m ore e tfi c a

c ious in stru m ents th a n La ti n for phi losophic a l disc u ss io n .

La tin is not known to da y ; a n d a s t h e y ea rs go on its i m por

-
, ,

ta nc e will sti ll d ecrease This is a n e vil no doubt b ut a n e vil

.
,

we m ust a c ce pt I f we p rese nt t o t h e world ph ilosophica l doc

.

trin e s ex pre sse d in a l a n gua ge which th e worl d i g no res our ,

 38

W ith rega r d to h istory n eo Schol a stics h a v e a lso som ewh a t

,
-

d ep a rt e d f rom t h e a ttitu d e O f th ei r M e di aev a l p r e d e ce sso r s H is .

t or ic a l i n v estiga tio n s w ere n ot n egl e ct e d d u r i n g t h e Middl e

A ges Th ey w er e howe v er m a d e fr om a poi n t of vi e w tota lly
.
, ,

diff er en t f rom ou r own W h en th e ol d Schol a st ics stu di e d t h e

.

philosophic a l O pi n io n s O f th e i r p r e d e c e sso r s th ei r a im wa s not ,

s o m u ch t h e k n owl e dg e O f t h e vi e ws O f s u ch or su ch a m a n a s

t h e k n owl e dg e of t r u th Th ey h a d n ot t h e i d ea th a t a m a n
.

co u l d st u dy histo ry f or histo ry s s a k e cou l d d e vot e his t i m e to’

,

a n u n d er st a n di n g of a n t a go n ist ic philosophic a l syst em s a n d ,

e x po u n d O pp o s it e th e o r i es witho u t p r ofe ssi n g a n y opi n io n of his

o wn . Th e st u dy of t h e t en e ts of t h e g r ea t thi n k er s O f th e p a st
i s n o d ou bt a m ost pow er f u l m ea n s of g e tti n g d efi n it e philosoph
ic a l co n victio n s A philosophic a l p r obl em c a n h a r dly b e solv e d
.

in a s a tisf a cto r y m a n n er wh en t h e sol u tio n s giv en to t h e s a m e

,

q u e sti on in p re viou s ti m e a r e ign o r e d Th e a im O f t h e Scho .

la st ics in th e i r st u dy O f histo ry wa s th u s m ost l a u d a bl e a n d , ,

t o a ce r t a i n e x t en t m u s t b ecom e ou r own a im
,
.

H i sto r ic a l s t u di e s h a v e how e v er a c q u i re d in ou r da y a n
, ,

i m po r t a n c e which t h e M e di aev a l philosoph er s did n ot i m a gin e .

T h e doct r i n e s of a thi nk er a r e now st u di e d in a n d f or th em

s e lv e s We t ry to u n d er st a n d a n d t o i m bibe t h e v e ry spi r it O f
.

t h e philo s oph er s . We a re sc ru p u lo u sly c a ref u l n ot to a tt r ibu t e

to th em opi n ions which th ey did not p rof e ss .

So m e of t h e ea rly n eo Thom ists h a v e b een lo a th to e n t er into

-

th is m od ern c urr en t Th e l a t e Sp a n ish p r of esso r O rt i y La r a

.

r eg a r d e d histo r ic a l st u di e s a s a v a i n b ibli om a n i a
27
This in ex .

e n s a bl e i n diffe r en c e h a s n ow wholly dis a pp e a r e d Mr de Wu lf . .

,

in a r e c en t wo r k : I n trod u c tion it la P h iI OS Op hie n éo S c olas tiq u e .

-
,

in which t h e p ro g ra m of t h e n e o Schol a stic m ov em en t is m ost -

d e fi n it e ly t ra c e d st r on gly i n sists u po n t h e i m port a n c e O f his

,

t or ic a l i n v estig a tio n s A si m il a r i n sist en ce i s fo und in t h e

.

n um er o u s a r ticl e s p a m phl ets et c p ublish e d by Mg r M er ci er

, ,
.
, .

d ur i n g th e l a st tw en ty y ea rs Th e im por t a n t histo r ic a l st u di e s
.

“
7
C f L u t l w k i K nt
. os a s , a in Sp a n ie n , K a /n t s t u d i e n , 1 8 9 7 , pp . 2 1 7 ff .
 39

p ublish ed by neo Schol a stics a n d O f which we h a v e a lr ea dy

-
,

spoken show th a t on this point th ey a c t in pe rfect conform ity

, , ,

with th ei r pri n cipl es N ot on ly h a v e th ey stu di e d th e M iddl e

.

A ges b u t th ey h a v e m a d e im po rta nt co nt r ib utio n s to th e s tudy

,

Of m ode rn philosophica l lit e ra tur e S uffi c e to m en tio n t h e

.

works of M e r ci er a n d S ent roul on K a nt Ha lleux s E volu tion ,

’

is m e en m ora le whi ch conta ins a rem a r k a bl e c riticis m on S p en

,

c e r s System of Ethics J a nss en s s t rea tis e on Ren ouvier s n eo

’
,
’ ’

cri ticis m Ric ka by s rec en t stu dy on H obbe s L ock e H u m e a n d

,
’
, ,

M ill .

NeO Schol a sticis m fi n a lly striv es t o k ee p a b rea s t with m od e rn

-

sci en tific p r og re ss I n so doi n g it do es n ot p reci s ely d e p a rt

.
,

fro m t h e a tt it u d e of t h e M e di aev a l philosoph e rs F or t oo lo n g .

a ti m e it h a s b ee n b e li e v e d th a t t h e m o n ks O f t h e M iddl e A g e s

w ere u n co n c ern e d with s ci e n c e a n d rega r dl e ss o f t h e d a t a of

, ,

e xp er i en c e b u ilt th e i r system s a p rior i Thi s vi e w c a n n ot b e

,
.

h eld to d a y I t i s w ell kn ow n th a t t h e gr ea t Sch ol a stic p h ilos o

.

h e r s w e r e e n th u si astic i n v e s tig a to r s O f n a t u r e ; th a t Tho m a s

p
A q ui na s A lber t t h e Gr ea t Rog e r B a co n e t c w e re t ru e sc ie n
, , ,
.
,

t i s ts
. T h e p r odigio u s d e v e lop m en t of sci e n c e in m od e rn t i m e s
h as m a d e it diffic u lt f or t h e ph ilosoph er to poss ess a d e e p s e i e n
t ifi c knowl edg e A lb ert t h e G rea t a n d Roger B a co n co uld bo as t
.

of h a ving m a st ered a ll sci en c es N ot only wo u ld t h e sa m e b e

.

i m possibl e t o da y b u t philosoph e rs a re O ft en a p t to b u ild th ei r

-
,

sp ec ula ti v e syst em s witho u t t a ki ng sc i e ntific d a t a i nto a c c o un t .

A n d th ere th u s re s ult thos e st ra ng e philosophic a l th e o ri e s which

provok e t h e l a ught er O f sc i e n tists a n d b r i n g disc re dit u po n
philoso phy i ts el f .

NeO Schol a stics h a v e n ot a lw a ys e sc a pe d thi s d a nge r

- A s we .

sh a ll see in our ch a pte r d ea ling with n eo Schol a stici s m in Ita ly -

,

t h e ea rly Ro m a n Tho m is t s rega r d ed sci e ntific i n v e stiga tions

with t h e ut m o s t cont em pt Th ei r i gnora n c e O f sci enc e O f ten
.

led th e m to ridi c ulo u s a sse rti ons Th us C a rdi n a l Ma z ell a

.
, ,

d e f e n ding in his D e D eo Creamte th e vi e w tha t t h e d a y s O f ,

 40

by t h e fossils which geology p rov e s t o h a v e exi s te d in t h e st r a ta

,

of t h e ea rth f or lo n g p er iods O f ti m e do e s n ot h e sit a t e to b eli ev e

,

th a t God c rea t e d th em in s ta tu p erfec t o j u st a s th ey a re fo un d

,

28
to da y by t h e g e ologist
-
I t is h a r dly n ec ess a ry to sa y th a t
.

s u ch is n ot t h e positio n of t h e n eo Schol a stics of t h e p res ent

-

da y .Th e wo rks O f F a r g e s U rra b u r u P e sch N ys M er ci er

, , , , ,

etc . e vi n c e a p r ofo u n d k n owl e dg e of a ll m od er n sci en tific dis

,

c over ie s . Th e I n stit u t e of P hilosophy of t h e U niv er sity O f

L o u v a i n in p a r ti c u l a r i s wo r thy of p r a is e in this r esp e ct As .

we sh a ll s ee in o n e O f th e foll owi n g ch a pt er s O f this t r ea tis e its ,

s ci en tific d e p a r t m en t a s r eg a r ds e q u ip m en t a n d re s u lts h a s got

, ,

t h e st a r t O f so m e of t h e m ost f a m o u s E u r op ea n i n stit u tions .

Schol a sticis m is n ot th u s a d ea d syst em st u di e d o n ly f or its

histo r ic a l i n t ere st I t i s a syst em en dow e d with a s vivi d a lif e
.

a s a n y m od er n c u rr en t O f tho u ght a s yst em which m u st b e

,

s t u di e d in co nn e ctio n with m od ern th e o r i e s a n d whos e a n sw er s,

to th e g re a t p r obl em s of philosophy c a n n o lon g er b e ign o red .

Th e followi n g ch a pt er s will b e d e vot ed to a n e x positio n a n d a

disc u ss io n of its ess en ti a l p r i n cipl e s .

2“
Ma zel l a De Deo C t
re a n e ,
pp . 1 50 ff .
 42

This vi ew due in grea t p a rt to th e p rogress O f physic a l

,

sci en c e h a s fou n d a n a bl e r ep res en t a tiv e a n d d ef en d er in John

,

St u a r t M ill Th e gr ea t sign ific a n c e O f h is S ys t em of L ogi c l i es

.

i n t h e en d ea vo r to r e v er s e t h e p r oc e ss which co n sid er e d t h e
syllogistic logic a s f un d a m ent a l a n d to s ubo r din a te t h e syllogis m
,

to t h e i n d u ctio n This s u p er io r ity a ssign e d to t h e in d u ction is

.

a n a t u r a l cons e q u en c e of t h e n o m i n a listic p r i n cipl e s I f we .

st a r t f ro m t h e a ss um ptio n th a t t h e i n divi d u a l is t h e o n ly r ea l ity ,

a n d th a t t h e u n iv er s a l is a m er e m ea n i n gl e ss n a m e t h e syllogis m ,

los e s its fo r c e a n d b e co m e s a m er e t a u tology .

T h e syllogis m in its m ost pe r f e ct fo rm st a rts f r o m a u n i

, ,

v er s a l s u bs um es a p a r tic ul a r un d er th a t un iv er s a l a n d r ea ch es
, ,

t h e concl u sio n th a t t h e a tt r ib u t e wh ich b elo n gs to t h e u n iv er s a l

b el o n gs to t h e p a rtic ul a r a lso N ow a s t h e u n iv er s a l do es n ot
.
,

poss e ss a n y v a lidity f or t h e n o m i n a lists th ey m u st r ega r d t h e ,

m a j o r p r e m is e a s co n t a i n i n g t h e co n cl u sion n ot o n ly fo rm a lly ,

b u t m a te r i a lly a n d h en c e t h e syllo gi s m as d e voi d O f a ll l ogic a l

,

v a l ue
.

I n t h e e x a m pl e
Ma n is m o rt a l ,

S o c r a t es is a m a n ,

th ere fo r e Soc ra t es is m o r t a l
, ,

t h e m a j or p r em is e : Ma n is m o r t a l is n ot f r om a no m in a l istic
, ,

poi n t O f vi e w a un iv er s a l p r oposit io n Th e t erm m a n i s only

,
.

a sh or th a n d r egist e r of i n divid u a l c a s e s I t m ea n s Joh n P et er .

, ,

Th om a s et c a n d t h e p r O p os it ion : Ma n is m o r t a l m a y b e r e
,
.
, ,

solv e d i nto p a r tic ul a r p r oposit io n s a n d for m ul a t e d a s : ,

Joh n P e t er Tho m a s et c a re m o r t a l
, , ,
.
,
.

N ow t h e s u bj e ct Soc ra t es O f our co n cl u sion eith er i s or is

,

n o t co n t a in e d in t h e u n iv er s a l t er m m a n I f it is th en our .
,

r ea so n i n g i s t a u tologic a l is e v en gu ilty O f t h e f a ll a cy c a ll e d
,

e t i t i o i n cip ii i n a s m u ch a s i t i m plicitly a ss u m e s t h e concl u

p p r ,

sio n i t p ret en ds to p r ov e I f on t h e oth er h a n d t h e t erm

.
, ,

Soc ra t es is n ot co n t a i n e d in t h e t erm m a n it i s by a p r oc e ss o f ,

in d u ctio n th a t we e x t en d th e m ea n i n g O f th e t erm m a n which ,

incl ud e d John P et e r a n d Tho m a s to S ocr a t es ; an d th e ind uc
, ,

ti o n be co m es t h e fo un da tio n of a ll tr uthf ul in v estiga tion t h e ,

b a sa l sto ne of th e syllogis m its elf .

Th a t this d ep reci a ti o n O f a ll syllogistic a r gum e nt a tio n is

ope nly p rofe ss e d by M ill is w e ll know n to a ll who h a v e r ea d
,

hi s S ys t em of L og ic .

“
I t m u st b e gra nt ed s a ys h e th a t in e v ery syll ogis m c o n s id
, , ,

e re d a s a n a r gum e nt to p r ov e t h e concl u sion th ere i s a p e titio

~

p ri n cipii Wh en we sa y
.
,

A ll m en a re m o rta l
Socr a t e s is a m a n
the re fo re
Socra t e s i s m orta l ;
it i s u n answ era bly u rged by t h e a dv ersa ri es o f t h e syllogistic
th eo ry th a t t h e p ropositio n Soc ra t e s is m or ta l is p re s u ppos e d
, , ,

i n t h e m ore ge n era l a ss um ptio n A ll m en a r e m ort a l : th a t we

,

c a nnot b e a ss ure d O f t h e m or ta l ity O f a ll m en u n l es s we w ere ,

p re vio u sly c e rt a in O f t h e m o rt a lity O f e v e ry i n divid u a l m a n ;

th a t i f it b e still dou btf u l wh eth er Socra t e s or a n y oth er i n di ,

vid ua l y ou choo s e to n a m e b e m o rta l or n ot t h e s a m e d eg ree

, ,

O f u n ce r ta i n ty m u st h a n g ov e r t h e a s s e rt io n A ll m en a re m o r ,

ta l : th a t t h e ge n era l p r i n cipl e i n s t ea d of b e in g gi v e n a s e vi
,

d enc e O f t h e p a rtic ul a r c a s e c a n not its elf b e ta k en f o r t r ue with

,

o ut e x c e ption u n til e v ery sh a dow O f do u bt which c o u ld a ffe ct

,

a ny ca s e co m p r i s e d wi th it is dis pe ll e d by e vi d en c e a li u n d e ;
,

a n d th en wh a t r em a in s f o r t h e syll ogi sm to p r ov e ? t h a t i n sho r t , ,

no rea sonin g f r om gen era ls to p a rt ic u l a rs c a n a s s uch p ro v e , ,

a nythi n g ; sin ce f r o m a g en era l p r i n cipl e y o u c a nn ot i n f e r a n

y
p a rti c ul a rs b ut those which t h e p ri n cipl e its el f a s s um e s a s
,
”1
foreknown .

Thi s vi ew pe rf ectly c o n cl usive f or t h e a dh eren ts of n o m i na l

,

ism lose s its v a l ue i f with t h e gr ea t Schol a stic m a st e rs we

, , ,

a d m it t h e v a li dity O f t h e u n iv e rs a l ; if we re ga rd t h e wo r d m a n

a s m e a n ing n o t si m ply Joh n P et e r a nd Tho m a s b u t a u n iv e r

, , ,

sa l e ss e nce co mm on to a ll p o ss ibl e m e n T h e e rror O f t h e n o m

.

ina lis t s li e s in t h e confu s i n g t h e d e n ot a ti o n O f a te rm with it s

 44

conn ot a ti on ; a n d i f M il l t r i e s to cl ea r h i m se lf from su ch a n
,
‘

a cc u s a tio n it i s on a ccoun t O f a n in con sist en cy which ru n s

,

th r ough t h e whol e O f his S y s tem of L og ic a n d a pp ea r s a s a con ,

t in u a l p u z z l e to t h e u n i n iti a t e d r ea d e r .

T h e co n cl u sio n O f a syllogism is cont a in e d form a lly in th e

m a j o r p rem is e b u t not m a t er i a lly ,
A s t h e un iv er sa l term m a n .

d en ot es t h e e ss en c e com m on to a ll hum a n b e i n gs it a lso d en ot es ,

t h e e ss en c e of t h e i n divid u a l Soc r a t e s ; a n d if m ort a l ity is one ,

o f t h e ch a r a ct er istics O f t h e h u m a n e s s en c e it w ill u n dou bt e dly ,

b e a ch a ra ct er i s tic O f S oc r a t es Th e co n cl u sio n Soc r a t e s i s .

,

m o r t a l i s h o w e v er co n t a i ne d in t h e m a j o r p re m is e i m plicitly
, , ,

o n ly We m a y b e co n vi n c e d O f t h e t r u th of t h e a ss e rt io n : Ma n
.

i s m o r t a l b e c a u s e we k n ow th a t h um a n n a t u re a s s u ch i n volv e s
,

t h e e l em en t O f m o r t a l ity ( t h e h u m a n body b e i n g a n o r g a n i sm ,

a n d a ll o rg a n ic b e i n gs b e i n g s u bj e ct to g r owth d e c a y a n d disso , ,

lu t ion ) a n d n ot h a v e r ea li z e d th a t t h e i n divid u a l Soc r a t e s is

m o rt a l a l s o Th e logic a l v a l u e O f t h e syllogistic r ea so n i n g c on
.

s ists th en i n m a ki n g e x plicitly k n ow n wh a t wa s k n o wn im p lic

i tly in en l a r gi n g i n d e fi n it e ly t h e fi el d O f our a p riori k n o wl e dg e

,
.

Un d er its do m i n io n lie a ll a p r io ri sc ien c es p ure m a th em a t ics ,

a s w e ll a s philosophy .

T h e i n d ucti v e p r oc es s wa s n ot u n k n ow n to t h e M edi ae v a l phi

lo s o p h e r s W ithou t m en tio n i n g Rog er B a co n wh o n ot o n ly in
.
,

s ist e d u po n t h e u s e of O bs er v a tio n a n d e x p e r i en c e b u t co n d em n e d ,

a ll d e d u ctiv e r ea so n in g we fi n d w ell co n d u ct e d ex a m pl e s O f
,

i n du ctio n in Tho m a s A q u i n a s D u n s Scot u s a n d A lb er t t h e ,

G r e a t A r em a rk a bl e p a s s a ge of t h e wor k D e m otibus a n im a l
.

iu m 2
in which A lb er t t h e G r ea t m a i n t a i n s t h e th e sis th a t t h e
,

o rigi n of a ll m otio n s of a n i m a l s is on t h e b a ck O f th e h ea d ,

m igh t h a v e b een w r itt en a ft er M ill s S y s t em of L og ic witho u t ’

a ny e ss en ti a l ch a n g e
3
.

Th es e e x a m pl es O f i n d u ction in t h e m od er n s ens e w ere how ,

2
L ib l t ct .
, ra . 2, ca p . 1 , 2, 3 .

3
Cf M n i n
. a s o ,
’
L i n du c t i o n c h e z A lb e r t ls G ra n d , Rev . N e e S e a l , 1 9 0 6,
-

pp . 24 6 fi
'

.
as of li ttl e i m porta nc e : Th e sci enc e O f n a tu re sa id A lbe rt t h e ,

G rea t m u st n ot sim ply ga th er f a ct s it m u st look f or t h e c a us es

, ,

“
of t h e n a tu r a l ph en o m en a .

Thi s un d e rv a l ua tion O f i n d uct ive r ea so n in g wa s du e to th e

f a ct th a t t h e p a rtic ul a r sci enc es h a d not y et a c q u i re d a fi eld of
th e i r own a n d w ere rega r d e d a s fo rm i ng p a rt o f philosophy
,
.

P ositiv e sci en c e s co n c ern e d with f a cts a n d l a w s w er e a s y e t

, ,
.

un know n .

T h e c a se be in g v e ry di ff erent now a d a ys n eo Schol a stic logic ,

-

is n ot s a tisfi e d with a rep etitio n O f t h e logic a l doct ri n es of t h e

Middl e A ges I n h a rm o n y with Leo X I I I s fo rm u l a : Ve t c ra
.
’

n ovis w ug er e i t m a k es a th or o ugh stu dy O f t h e i n d u ctiv e p r oc e s s

, .

De d u ctiv e rea so n i n g how e v er do e s n ot th e re by di s a pp e a r

, ,
.

I t posse ss e s a fi eld O f its own in which i n d u cti o n h a s n o thi ng ,

to do E nj oy ing a n u n disp ut e d sov ereign ty in t h e sci e nc e O f

.

n a ture ind u ction i s a bsol u t ely powerl e ss in t h e fi eld O f t h e

,

a p r io r i sci en c e s su ch a s m a th em a tics ; i n th e fi eld of a ll t hos e

,

sci enc es which our m i n d in a ce rt a i n s en se c rea t e s .

‘
De m ine ra lib us , l ib . 2, t ra ct . 2, ca p . 1 .
 C H A PT ER I I I

S CH O LASTI C M E TA P H Y S I C S

S E CTI O N 1 .
-
Ex 1 sr E N OE
'
OF META P H Y S I CS

Th e wo r d M et a physics wa s u n know n to A r istotl e It is p r ob .

a bly du e to A nd r o n ic u s of R hod e s a co m pil er of A ri stotl e s

’
,

wo r ks wh o wa s u n a bl e to r e du c e t h e fo u r teen books a ct ua lly

,

kn own a s M e t a physics e ith er to ethics logic or physics Th e , .

wo r d h a d th er e fo re o r igi n a lly n o i n t en d e d m ea n ing b eyond a

c la s s ifi c a t or y p ur pos e Very soo n how ev e r its co n n ota tion
.
, ,

u n d er w e n t a ch a n g e a n d wa s t a k e n to be n ot wh a t m e r e ly co m e s ,

a ft er b u t wh a t is e ss en ti a lly a bov e physics

,
S t Tho m a s b r i n gs . .

t h e two m e a n i n gs togeth er in th e followi n g wo r ds : This sci

en c e i s c a ll e d m e t a physics b ec a u s e its stu dy follows t h e st u dy

O f physics a s we a re n a t u r a lly i n cli n e d to p a ss fro m s en sibl e to

,

”1
s u p er s en sibl e thi n gs .

G en era l M et a physics a l so c a ll e d O ntology h a s O ft e n bee n

, ,

d efi n e d by n eo Sch ol a stics a s : t h e sci enc e O f B e in g in gen er a l

-
,

or O f B e i ng a s B e i n g This d efinitio n h a s b een oppose d by

.

M gr M erci er on t h e gr oun d th a t t h e n otio n O f b eing in gen era l

.

i s a n a logic a l a n d cove r s a m u ltitu d e of things with which

,

o n tology h a s n othi n g to do It em br a c e s O bj e cts of tota lly .

div ers e n a t ure s s u ch a s s ubsta n c e s a n d a ccid ents I t e v e n

,
.

e x t en ds to t h e logic a l b e i n g N ow th e logic a l b eing h a s it s

.
,

p r op er pl a c e in logic A s f or a ccid en t i t i s n ot stu di e d in

.
,

m e t a physics e xc ept in so f a r a s it i s re l a t e d to s u bst a n c e Th e .

p r op er O bj e ct O f m e t a physics a ccor ding t o Merci er is thu s rea l , ,

b e i n g or s u bst a n c e M et a physics i s n ot conc ern ed with wh a t

.

”
H egel c a lls P ur e B ei n g a n d shows to b e e qu a l to nothi n g ,
.

T h om a s A q u i na s In l ib B oe t u d e T r in it a t e , q 5, a 1 C f M ci er e r,

O n t o l ogi e pp 5—
. .
, . . .

, 6 . .
 47

Its vita l p robl em a s Mr W oodbridge poi n ts out i s t h e n a tu re

, .
,

or cha ra cter of rea l ity a n d a ccid ent a n d logi ca l be ing come

2
,

wi t hi n its fi eld only in so f a r a s th ey a re rega r d ed a s r ea l .

Schol a stic m et a physics h a s m et in m od e rn ti m es with pow er , ,

f ul a dv e rsa ri e s who h a v e tri ed n ot o nly to de priv e h er O f t h e

,

sov ere i g n ty which a s q uee n O f th e sci en c es s h e h a d so long

, ,

e x e r cise d b u t to b a n ish h er a ltog eth e r f r om t h e wo rl d O f

,

tho ught S he who for c ent ur i e s h a d s een t h e m ost pow er f ul

.
, ,

ge ni u se s p rost ra te a t h er f ee t h a s b ee n d r iv en ou t witho u t
, ,

m er cy f r o m t h e fi e ld O f h um a n sp e c u l a tio n
,
S h e h a s li nge r ed .

f or a lo n g ti m e a s a n o u tl a w in so m e O bsc u re co r ne r of h er
, ,

form er r ea lm a n d to d a y sh e r ea pp ea rs m or e respl en d ent t h a n

,

e v er a n d d a r e s m eet h er O ld fo e s f a ce to f a c e
,
.

Th e t wo grea t c urr en ts O f tho ught which h a v e r ej ect e d m e ta

physics a s v a in in its O bj e ct a n d er r o n e o us in its co n cl usio n s a re
P ositivism a nd K a n tism .

A cco r di ng to A uguste Co m te th e a tte m pt to g ra s p t h e e s,

sen ce s O f thi n gs is a f u til e e nd ea v o r We c a nn ot g o b eyo n d .

a c t ua l f a cts a n d l a ws O f f a cts I d en t ic a l a re th e vi e ws O f Her

.

be r t S pe n c e r For h im our k n owl edge is li m it e d to a pp ea r

.
,

a n ce s ,a n d t h e rea l ity lyi n g be hi n d thos e a pp e a ra n c e s is a n d

m us t b e unkn own 8
.

P ositivis m th us rej e ct s m e t a physics is e v en bo u n d to r ej e ct ,

it A ph i losophy which p rofe ss e s n ot to st e p b eyo n d th e f a cts

.

O f se ns ibl e e xp e ri e n c e c a nn ot rea ch t h e u n iv e rsa l na t u re which

i s t h e Obj ect O f a ll m e ta physic a l sp ec ul a tion I t sho uld e v e n .

a b a ndon a ll a tt e m pts a t e x p re ss in g t h e l a ws O f f a cts a nd be ,

“
co n t ented with t h e im m edi a t e with th e thi s which is th e , ,

only t h ing d e void O f a ll m e ta physica l e l eme nt .

K a n t whose a im wa s to c o m b a t H um e s sce pticis m a n d th us

,
’

to sa v e m e ta physi cs f ro m u tt e r d e st ruction h a s p erha ps d ea lt ,

h er th e m ost se v e re blows He h a s ta ught t h a t our k n owl edge

.

is co n ditio ne d by our na t ura l fa cu lties a nd th a t th e rea lity ,

’
W oo db r i dge Th e P ro bl e m O f M e t a p h y s ics P h i lo s
, , . Rev .
, 19 0 3 , p . 375 .

‘
C f Spe n ce r F i rs t P r i nci pl es C h a p 4
.
, , . .
 48

which we see th r o ugh th e fo rm s o f s en sib ility a n d th e c a t ego ri e s

O f u n d er st a n ding is n e c e ss a r ily distort e d by th e s e s u bj e ctiv e c o n

dit ion s a n d n e v er a pp ea r s to u s a s it i s in its elf I t is ph en om .

e n a th a t we k n ow Th e n ou m en o n t h e thing in its elf is a b so

.
,
- -
,

lu t ely u n k n ow a bl e A sci en c e pr of e ssin g to d ea l with r ea lity a s

.

it i s b ecom es th ere fo re m ea n i n gl e ss a n d a bs u r d .

B oth K a n ti a n s a n d P ositivi sts l a b or un d er t h e s a m e m isco n

c e p t i on . A ll f a cts O f ex p er i en c e h a v e co m e to b e divid e d i n to
two g r ea t cl a ss es So m e a re k n ow n a s rea l oth er s a s a pp a ren t
.
, .

We h a v e O bs er v e d th a t a stick wh ich looks st ra ight in o r di n a ry

co n ditio n s looks c r ook e d wh en i mm er s e d in w a t er A s ou r s en s e .

of t ou ch do e s n ot in this c a s e co rr obo r a t e th e co n cl u sio n s of ou r

vi su a l e x p er i en c e we co n cl u d e th a t no r ea l ch a n ge h a s t a k en
,

pl a c e in t h e stick its elf th a t it i s still r ea lly st ra ight b u t a pp ea r s

, ,

c r o ok e d .

Thi s divisio n is sw a llow e d up by a ll d e f en d er s O f t h e a bsol ute

r e l a tivity O f k n owl e dg e Th ey u n do a s it w er e t h e wo rk O f
.
, ,

e x p er i en c e a n d l ea v e u s a t ou r st a r ti n g poi n t wh er e we c a n n ot
,
-
,

e sc a p e t h e n e c e ssity of b egi n n i n g ou r wo r k ov er a g a i n If .

r ea lity li e s a ltoge th er b eyo n d ou r r ea ch it i s a s n on e x ist en t

,
-

f or u s a n d t h e a pp ea r a n c es t h e ph en o m en a w ith which a lo n e
, ,

we h a v e to d ea l b eco m e t h e o n ly possibl e O bj ect of r es ea r ch th e

, ,

o n ly r ea lity W ith th em a n ew m et a physics m u st n ee ds a r ise

.
,

which u po n cl o s e e x a m i n a tio n will b e fo u n d to b e ex a ctly th e

, ,

o n e we h a v e r e j e ct e d .

Th e positivi stic a n d t h e K a n ti a n positio n s a r e th u s un t en a bl e .

Th e y a re a lso illogic a l B oth positivists a n d K a n t i a n s r ea ch

.

co n cl u sio n s th a t a re m et a physic a l in th em s elv e s a n d un a tt a in

a bl e witho u t t h e h elp O f m e t a physics T h ey a ss ert for ex a m pl e
.
, ,

th a t a ll kn owl e dge i s r el a tiv e a n d th a t r ea lity is a bsol u t ely u n

k n ow a bl e This i s a con cl u sion a bo u t t h e n a tur e of r ea lity
.

its elf a con cl u s io n which in so f a r i s m et a physic a l A n d if we

,
.

go on s a yi n g with Sp en c er th a t t h e u n kn ow a bl e fo r c e lying
b eyo n d ou r exp er i en c e is t h e c a u s e O f ou r s en s e i m p ressio n s or -
, ,

w ith K a n t th a t t h e thi n g in its el f i s t h e n e c e ss a ry co n dition O f

,
- -
 50

to t h e doct r i n e of K a n t h im s elf He r ecogn iz e s th a t A ri stotl e s .

’

ph ilosophy a nsw er s p a rt icu l a rly to t h e sci en tific p r e occ u p a tion s

of ou r t im e ré pon d p a r t iculierem en t a ux préoccup a tion s sc ien
,

t ifi q u es de n ot r e

The xist en c e of m otio n or ch a nge wa s d eni e d by t h e O ld

e
" " w w
T' “ Q ’

E lea tl c schoo l t e m a n sw e r to c ert a l n

’ .

I t i s sa l a us .
,
M
“
W

soph i sts O f h l S t i m e who e n dea vo re d to r e v i v e Pa rm en l des s a n d

o
’
,

Z eriO s a rgum en ts S i m p l y Bega n t o w alk This a n swe rfi d t i ivial

’ '
.
,

in a pp e a ra n c e wa s a s p r o ou n a n i r re f u t a bl e a s cou ld b e
,
It .

m ea n t th a t m otio n i s a f a ct O f ou r e xp er i en c e a n d c a nnot b e ,

d en i e d b ec a us e i t i s t here a n d co n st a ntly f or c es its elf u po n u s

' '

.
,

fl—
Shou ld it e v en b e s a id th a t a ll m ov em ents a n d ch a n ge s a re
M N
m w “

d ec e i tfu l a ea ra n c es a n d t ha t rea l i ty 1 8 i mm u t a ble on e i s c om

r

ll e d to a d m it th a t thos e a pp e a r a n c e s a r e s 1 e re e e l
p e a r r a ,

A r istotl e
his P hy sics disti n gu ish e s three cl a ss e s O f m ov e
in
w
fl
, ,

m en t : a m ov em en t p u r ely loc a l or o f tr a fi slat l on ; a ci rang e n

‘ ' M - m -m
‘

M a M w " “
”
q u a lity which h e c a lls a lt era t i o n ; a cha nge 1 11 q u a n t i ty or
. m

, ,

w
Q

Mov em en t thu s u n d er stood 1 11 a b r o a d s ens e a n d c a nnot b e

is

id en tifi e d with loc a l m otio n Ch a n ge of pl a c e is r a th er a n eggqt .

-
W

of m otio n th a n m otio n itself Th e ess en c e of m otion r a ther c on .

sist s to u se F a rg es s wor ds in a t en d en cy a b eco m i n g a n in stru

,
’
, , ,

m en t of e vol u tio n f or t h e m a t er i a l fo r c e s of n a tur e u n e t end ,

u n inst rum en t d é vol u tion pou r les forc es

’
a n ce u n d e v en i r
, ,

”8
m a t é r i ell e s de la n a t u r e .

N ow t h e ch a n g e s we O bs erv e i n ou r u n iv ers e do not t a k e pl a ce

, “ m MM MMM M M _

M w

a t r a n dom b u t a cco r d i n g to defi n l t e l a ws

,
W h en e v e r a n O bj e ct .

d et erm i n a t e conditions i t begin s to a ct i n s u ch a ,

‘
G ra n de
cycl o pé di e a r t A r is t ot e
En , . .

P h y s I V c 2 s e ct 1 0
.
, , .
, . .

‘
F a rge s Act e et P u i s s a n c e Se ct V
, ,
. .
 51

wa y as to show th a t it poss es ses a p ec ul i a r n a ture th a t it is a ,

u ni q ue indi vid ua l I n oth e r words, we a re bo un d to a dm it th e

. .

e xi ste nc e O f p u rpos e in our world Th e word p ur pose h a s now

.

co m e to m ea n a con scio us sch em e It h a s be en id entifi e d with

.

d esign Th e O ld Schol a stics di d not h e sita te to u se it in a

.

b ro a d er se n se Th ey spok e of in t en tio na ture; or a p p e titus na t

.

“
u ra lis to d e sign a t e t h e uncon sc io u s t e nd e nci e s O f low er b e i n gs .

ot th e r e

th a t it i s d esigne d
to h is en ds who , ,

hidd en b ehi n d t h e sc ene s m ove s t h e whol e m ech a n is m O u r

,
.

wo rld m a y be thu s d e si ed i t is t r ue b ut thi s is not t h e q u es

, ,

tio n now We only m ea n th a t t h e i n divid ua ls O f our wo rld a re

.

de fifi i te We ma y th u s consid er in es éh i n divid ua l two

'

res ul t .

rea ch ed its fin a l oa l .

ti a y e Schol a stics t h e s e co n d a c t ua l A pote n ti a l b e i ng 1 8

,
.

thus a n i m p er fe ct b ut p e r fe ctibl e b e i n g A n a ct ua l b e i ng is a
,
.

be i n g a l rea dy p er f ecte d T h e a co rn is pote n ti a lly a n oa k

. .

N O m yst er iou s a s s um ptio n I b el i e v e is n ee d e d to rea ch th es e

, ,

co n cl u sio n s P gten tialit y is n ot a n occ u lt c a u se e x is t in g b ehi n d

.

t h e a corn a n d a cti ng upo n it in som e u nt h in k a bl e m a n n er ;

iti s
th e pe c ul i a r ch a ra ct e r which t h e

C f M ci
. er e r, Met a ph y s iq ue gé né l ra e o u O nt o l ogi e , p . 48 9 .
a co rn a n d t h e a corn a lo n e inv a r i a bly b ecom e s a n oa k co m p els
, , ,

u s to a d m it th a t t h e a co rn p oss e ss e s so m e individ u a l p r op e rti es

which a p ea do es n ot poss e ss th a t it cont a i n s pot en ti a lly a n oa k , ,

whil e t h e p ea do e s not N othing fu rth er th a n this do t h e S cho

.

la st ic s m a i n t a i n .

We a r e n ow in a positio n to u n d er st a n d A ristotl e s f a m ou s ’

“
d efi n ition O f m otio n a s th e a c t
”
pot en ti a l
m
.

t h e p u r ely pot en ti a l st a t e O f t h e b e i n g which is n ot

a s y et t en di n g tow a rds a n en d a n d its fin a l c onditio n a ft er t h e ,

en d i s r ea ch e d th er e a re i n t erm e di a t e st a ges Th e n ew born

, .
-

chil d is pot en ti a lly a K a n ti a n philosoph er a ltho ugh h e h a s not ,

e t do n e a n ythi n g tow a r d s a n i n sight O f t h e K a n ti a n th e ory

y .

B e tw een th e st a t e O f his m i n d th en a n d its fi na l con diti on wh en

t h e th r ee C r iti q u e s a r e a d eq u a t ely g ra s p e d a long p er iod O f ,

ti m e will p r ob a bly el a pse Th ere will b e t h e u n iv er sity st a g e .

,

in which t h e yo u n g st u d en t will l ea rn with a m a zem ent th a t

°

sp a c e i s in his m ind t h e followi n g y ea r s O f str u ggl e a ga i n st a

,

tho u ght st ra n ge in its elf a n d u n tow a r dly pr es en t e d e pochs O f ,

f a il u re a n d di s co u r a gem en t epochs of p a r ti a l s u cc ess ,

.

Th e n ew bo rn chil d poss e ss e s t h e K a n ti a n phil osophy pot e n

-

t ia lly ; t h e f ull g r ow n philosoph er who h a s m a st er e d t h e th re e

-

C r iti q u e s poss e ss e s i t a ctu a lly ; th e un iv er sity st u d ent is in a

st a t e O f m ov em en t .

M otio n is th u s a n a c t of th e pot en ti a l b eing ; a n a ct b ec a u se ,

t h e p Oten t l a l b e i n g which 1 s m er ely pot en ti a l do e s not y et t en d

M w
tow a r ds its en d 1 3 n ot y et l n m otion ; a n a c t O f th e pot enti a l
'
M ¢ D m -o
an
,

b ei n g b ec a u s e i f t h e b e i n g is a l re a dy a ct u a l z h a s co m pl e t e d it s
,

e volu 1 on a ry p r oc es s i t i s n ot in m otio n a n y long er

,
M otion is .

a n a ct Bu t a n 1 m per f e c t a c t ; a n a c t which h a s not y et r ea ch éd

,

its f u ll d egr ee O f a ctua l ity a n d 1 s now com pl eti n g 1i ts elf ,

.

S E CT I O N 3 .
— S CH O LA S TI C T H EO RY OF S U B ST A N CE
Th esi m pl e st O bs e rv a tion u po n th e O bj ects O f our e x p eri en c e
shows th a t th ey m a y be d ivid e d i nto two g rea t cl a ss es So m e .
,
‘
M —
h
 53

as a horse a tree a m a n we con ce iv e a s e xi st ing by th em s el ves

, , ,
.

Othe rs a s w a lking c a nnot ex is t b u t in so m e thin g el se Th e

, ,
.

form e r a re ca ll e d s ubsta n—
c e s by t h e Schol a stics t h e s econd a cci
F
,

d ents q ua liti es a tt r ib ut es Schol a stic ph ilosophy thu s d e fin es

, ,
.

W W W
”

VO I W S ,

it is tru e a diff erent meaning I t ék es t h e id ea of a ub

“
— ’

s
.
,

str a tu m o f so m e so r t of rec ipi ent in which t h e a tt rib ut e s i n h ere

, .

B ut a s we h a v e e ls ewh ere r em a r k e d t h e e tym ology O f a wo r d

, ,

do es not a lwa ys giv e us th e key to its a ct ua l m ea n i n g I n our .

e p och O f r eli g io u s libe rty a P r ote st a nt m a y sp en d his whol e l if e

,

witho ut a ct ua lly p ro testi n g a ga i n st a ny religi o u s do g m a He .

still c a lls him s el f a n d rea lly is a P rot e st a nt .

NO do ubt th e a ccid e nts b e i n g un a bl e to e x ist by th em s elv es

, ,

e xist in so m ethi n g els e ; a n d s u bst a n ce m a b e th u s co rre ctl

y y
d e scrib ed a s tha t which su pports accid ents This i s not how .
,

e ve r the p ri m a ry m ea m ng O f t he wo r d s u bst a n c e whi ch s t r ictly

, ,

s ign ifi e s th a t which e x ists by its el f .

B e fo re we p roc ee d to a m o re d et a ile d st u dy o f t h e co n c epts

o f s ubsta n c e a nd a ccid ent it will b e worth whil e t o e x a m in e
,

som e O f t h e m od er n th e o r i e s which h a v e rej ect e d th e te rm su b

sta n ce a ltogeth er or h a v e m odifi e d its m ea n i n g so a s to re n d er
,

it u nrecogniz a bl e .

O f th e a dv ers a ri e s O f s ubst a nc e John Lock e m u st h ea d t h e

,

m m Hfi e M
“

118
“

sh agfi e d with his b ellicos e a ttit u d e wo uld fa i n com e to a c om

,

pro mi se B ut a ll th e s ubs e q uen t a n d m ore re so l ut e a dv e rsa r i e s

.

ha v e been a t his sc hool I t i s hi s p ri n cipl es th ey follow ; it i s

.

in hi s wo rkshop th ey h a v e fo und th e i r mo st dr ea d f u l w ea pons .

L ik e m a ny m od e rn p h iIO SO p h e rs , b
It
t o a c e rta in ex t ent b e con ,

s ta n t ly m isse s t h e m a rk
 Th ey who fi rst ra n i n to th e notion O f a ccidents a s a sort o f
” “
r ea l b e i n gs th a t n eed e d so m ethi n g to i n h er e in s a ys h e w er e , ,

fo r c e d to fi n d ou t t h e w or d s u bst a n c e to s u pport th em Ha d t h e .

poo r Indi a n philosoph er ( who im a gi n e d th a t th e ea rth a lso

w a n t e d som ethi n g t o b ea r it u p ) bu t thou ght of this wo r d su b ,

st a n c e h e n ee d e d not to h a v e b een a t th e t r oubl e t o fi n d a n ele

,

ph a n t to su pp ort it a n d a to rtois e t o s u pport t h e el eph a n t : th e

,
”1 0
wor d s ub st a n c e wo u l d h a v e don e it eff ect u a lly .

He co n se qu en tly
‘ "
a ss erts th a t we h a v e no cl ea r id ea of su b
r
st an e c

We h a v e n o su ch cl e a r id ea a t a ll a n d th ere fo re sign ify ,

n othi n g by t h e wo r d s u bst a n c e b u t o nl y a n u nc ert a i n s u pposi ,

t io n of we k n ow n ot wh a t i e ( o f som ething wh er eof we h a ve , . .

n o p a r tic u l a r disti n ct positiv e ) i d ea which we t a k e t o b e t h e ,

”1
su bst r a t um or s u pport of thos e id ea s we k n ow
, ,
.
1

( et
L p a ren th etic a lly point ou t a so m e wh a t u n e x p ect e d
us

m et a m orphosi s We h a d b eli ev e d substa nc e to b e a su ppo r t O f

.

a ccid e nts We a re now tol d it i s a s u pport O f id ea s O ur

. .

a u th o r s eem s willin g to p r ov e by a ll possibl e m e a n s t h e t ru th

of hi s a ss e rtion th a t h e h a s n o cl ea r id ea O f s u bst a nc e ) .

Let u s n ot h ow e v e r m isun d er sta n d Lock e He wo u l d b no

y
.
, ,
“

m ea n s m a i n t a i n th a t we a re in a b solu t e 1i or a n ce a s to wh a t
W gn -“
W
I w .

s ubst a nc e s a re ; h e ev en positiv ely a ss ert s th a t we h a v e a r ea l

k n owl edg e do e s n ot go v ery f ar

H er ei n th ere fo re i s foun de d t h e r ea lity O f ou r kn owl e dge

co n c er n i n g su bsta n c es th a t a ll our com pl ex id ea s of th em m u st ,

b e s u ch a n d s u ch o n ly a s a r e m a d e u p of s u ch si m pl e o n e s a s
, ,

h a v e b een discov er e d to c o e xist in n a tu re A n d ou r i d ea s b eing -

.

th u s t ru e tho ugh n ot p erh a ps v ery e x a ct copi es a re y et t h e sub

, ,

j c e t O f r ea l ( a s f a r a s we h a v e a ny ) k n owl edg e O f th em ; whi ch

( a s h a s b e e n a l r ea dy shown ) w ill not b e f ou n d to r e a ch v e r y f a r ;
”1 2
b u t so f a r a s it do es it will still b e r ea l knowl e dg e ,
.

Lo ck e A n E s sa y , c on cern i ng H uma n Un d e r
s
t a n di ng B k , . 2, ch a p .

1 3, se ct . 19 .
3
11
I b id .
, Bk . 1, ch a p . 4, se ct . 18 .

‘z
I b id .
,
Bk . 4, ch a p . 4, s e ct . 12 .
 55

Our kn owl edge of s ubsta nc e whi ch h a d b een d e scribe d a s ,

n o thi n g b ut a n un ce rt a in s u ppositi on of we kn ow not wha t

”
,

is n ow conf ess e d to be a r ea l kn owl edg e a s rea l as a ny knowl ,

ed ge we m a y ha v e
’
a n d Lock e s oppo n ents m a y do ubt wh eth e r
,

hi s a tta cks w ere n o t m erely th e m ock fi g ht O f a st a ge pe rfo rm er -

.

He will p res ently th row his w ea po n s a w a y a n d we will h a r dly ,

be a bl e to r e p r e ss a s m il e on rea di n g t h e followin g t e rm s of
s u rre nd er :
It i s of t h e id ea a lo ne I sp ea k h ere a n d not O f t h e b e in g ,

O f s u bst a n c e A n d h a vi n g e v erywh e re a ffi r m e d a n d b u il t u po n

.

it th a t a m a n is a s ubsta n c e I c a n n o t b e su ppos e d to q ue s t io n
, ,

or do ubt O f t h e b e ing O f s ubsta n ce till I c a n q u e stio n o r do u bt ,

”1 3
O f my o w n b e ing .

Da vi d H um e is
t r i es to b e m o re con sisten t th a n his m a s
or

m
, ,

t eif c t ion O f s ubst a nc e s ee m s a t fi r st sight w e ll g ro u n d e d

a n d u n a n sw e r a bl e a n d h a s d e s er v e d h im t h e cre dit o f h a v in g
,

d eliv e red philosophy f r o m a c um b erso m e a n d u se l es s co n c e ptio n ,

of ha ving don e a wa y with th e so ul s ubst a nc e itse lf a s B erk el ey -

,

h a d don e with t h e bodily s u bst a n c e .

H um e s a tt a ck o n a n ci en t phil os ophy is a sh a rp a tt a ck i n d ee d
’
.

He is c a reful how e v er b e fo re e ng a gi ng in t h e st ru ggl e to te ll

, , ,

na—with a c e r t a i n n a i v e t e—th a t h e do e s n o t u n d e r st a n d a n ci e nt
‘

philosophy a t a ll Th e wh o l e syst em s a ys h e is e n ti rely in

.
, ,

N ow it is p erh a ps too m uch to sa y tha t a ,

syst em O f philosophy is n ot un d erstood u ntil i t is b el i e v e d ; b u t

i t ca nn ot be d en i ed th a t a s yst em O f philosophy i s not un d er st o od
un til b e li e f in it see m s a t l ea st pos s ibl e A r tis t ot le wa s a m a n .

who se m ent a l shre wd ne ss H um e c ert a inly di d not s urp a s s wh o ,

d ev ote d h is whol e li fe to st udy a s ea rn estly a s H um e did wh o ,

lived in a co un try no t i n fe rio r a s rega rds civiliza tio n to H um e s ’

O wn co u ntry who m ov e d in a m o re in tell ect u a l a t m osph e re wh o

, ,

br ea th ed a p urer a ir Th e syst em of philos ophy A ristotl e con

.

”
1M ,
Bk 2 . cha p , 2 3 se ct
, , . 1 , No te .

H ume
“
,
Tre a ti se on H uma n Na t ure , B k . 1, Pt . 4, Se ct . 3; Se lby
B i gg s cd p
e
’
.
, . 22 2 .
t rive d wa s dou bte dly pl a in in h is own m in d I f it a pp ea r s
un .

e n ti r ely inco m p r eh en sibl e to H u m e it si m ply m ea n s th a t H u m e ,

do es not un d er sta n d it a s A ristotl e did do es not in poi n t O f f a ct , , ,

un d er st a n d it a t a ll .

F o r H um e a s f or L ock e s ub st a n c e is
,
k i n d of,

In o r d er to r e concil e which con tra dictio n s th e i m a gi na tion

is a p t to f eign so m ethi n g un kn own a n d i n visibl e which it sup ,

pos e s to co nti n ue th e s a m e un d e r a ll th es e v a r i a tions ; a n d this

u n i n t elligibl e so m ethi n g it c a lls a s u bst a nc e or o r i g i n a l a n d ,
”1 5
fi r st m a tt er .

B ut a s, a cco r di n g to h im a ll q u a liti es s u ch a s th e colo r t a s te

, , ,

fig ur e ,
solidity e t c O f a m elo n ) m a y b e con c eiv e d a s disti n ct
,
.
,

a n d se a r a t e th ey do n ot n ee d a n y s u ppo r t a n d s ub a n e b e
st c ,

com es a n u n in t ellig l hle c h1m era :

E v er yqu a l ity b e i n g a disti n ct thing fro m a noth er m a y b e ,

co n ce iv e d to e x ist a p a r t a n d m a y e x ist a p a r t n ot o n ly fr o m
, ,

e v er y oth er q u a lity b ut f r o m th a t u n in t elligibl e chi m er a O f a

,
”1 6
s ubst a n c e .

H um e is d eci d edly a m ost i n t er esti n g m a n A ft er d e voti n g .

a ll his e n er gi e s to d r iv e a w a y t h e n otio n O f s u bst a n c e f r o m t h e

fi el d of philosophy h e r e d u c e s to n a ught by st r ok e O f p en h is
, , ,

e l a bo r a t e w or k a n d p r e s ents to his a m a z e d r ea d er t h e followi n g

,

st a t em en t

I f a ny on e sho uld e v a d e th e diffic u lty by s a yi n g th a t t h e

d efi n itio n of a s ubst a n c e i s so m ethi n g which m a y exist by its elf ;
a n d th a t this d e fi n itio n o u ght to s a tisfy u s : Sho uld thi s b e s a id
,

I sho u l d O bs er v e th a t this d e fi n itio n a gr ees to ev er ythi n g th a t

,

c a n possibly b e co n c e iv e d ; a n d n e v e r will s e rv e to disti n ui sh

g
s ubst a n c e f r o m a cci d en t or t h e so u l f ro m its ,

I bi d .
, Bk 1 P t 4 S e ct 3
.
, .
, . .

I b id .
, S e lby Bigge s cd p 222
-
’
.
, . .

17
I bid .
, Bk 1 P t 4 S e ct 5 ; Se lby Bigg e s
.
, .
, .
-
’
ed .
,
p . 22 3 .
whol e n e c e ssity is som ethi n g th a t e x ists in t h e m i n d n o t in
, ,
”2 1
O bj e cts . I m p r e ssion s a r e n a t u ra lly t h e m ost vivi d p er
”2 2 “
cep t ion s O f t h e m ind Th e m i n d f a ll s so ea sily f r o m
.

t h e on e p erc eptio n to t h e oth er th a t it sc a r c e pe r c e iv e s t h e ,

ch a n ge ”2 3
.
“
We m a y p r o n o unc e a ny qu a lity O f t h e m in d
”2 i
virt u ou s which c a u s es lov e or p r ide W h en I p er c e iv e .
‘

t h e c a u s e s O f a n y e m otio n m y m i n d i s co n v ey e d t o t h e eff e cts , ,

”25
a n d i s a ct u a t e d with a lik e e m otion It b ei n g a l m ost .

i m possibl e for th e m i n d to ch a nge its ch a ra ct e r i n a ny consid er

a bl e a rticl e O r c u r e its el f of a p a ssio n a t e or spl en etic t em p er
, ,
”2 6
wh e n th ey a re n a t u ra l to it ,

we f eel stra n gely p erpl ex e d to wh a t H um e s m ea ning r ea lly as

’

is It soun ds odd to sp ea k O f sta t e s O f m in d if ther e i s no m i n d

. .

T h e words I ou r u s th em s elv e s b e com e m ea n i n gl e ss i f p er c ep

, , ,

tio n s a lo n e a re a n d we a re not .

Th es e con si d era tion s m a y giv e u s som e su spici on a s to t h e

r ea l wo rth of H um e s f a m o u s r ej ection of su bst a nce Th ey will
’
.

not p erh a ps in d u c e u s t o p r ocl a i m with Rick a by th a t t h e a o

c e p t a n c e of H u m e s doct r i n e by so m a n y of t h e philosoph er s in
’

E ngl a n d i s a disg ra c e to th e so u n d s en s e O f t h e n a tion b ut

th ey will com p el u s to st u dy t h e co n c eptio n O f s ubst a n c e o n c e
m o re to e x a m i n e wh eth er t h e philosophy which a dvoc a t e s its
,

l egit im a cy i s n ot a ft er a ll t h e philosophy O f t ru th
, ,
.

I t wo u l d b e u s el ess to p a ss a r evi ew o f th e co n t em po ra ry phi

lo s0 p h ers who re j ect s u bst a n c e f r o m th e ir syst em Th ey do .

litt l e m o re th a n a dopti n g H um e s p r i n cipl e s a n d r ep ea ting his ’

a r g u m en ts Thos e a m o n g ou r u n iv er sity p r of esso r s who h a v e

.

n o t y e t co m e b a ck to A r istotl e s p o i n t of vi ew sim ply t ell u s in

’

th e i r own w or ds wh a t H um e s a i d lo n g a g o Th e Tr ea tis e on .

Hu m a n N a tu re is th e i r p r ofe ssion O f f a ith .

I bi d .
, S e lby Bigge s cd p-
’
.
,
. 1 65 .

I b id .
, p 20 8
. .

s
l bid , p . 20 8 .

I bi d , p. . 57 5 .

2°
I bid .
, p . 57 6 .

m‘
I bid .
, p . 60 8 .

21
R ick a by, G e n e ra l M e t a p h ys ic s p , . 23 8 .
 59
.

Th e re is one co nt em pora ry wr it er how ev er who d es er ves to , ,

be sin gl e d ou t f r o m th e th r o ng a n d whose philosophy w ill d e ta in ,

us f or a m o m en t I sp ea k of John Stu a r t Mi ll
. .

M i ll a cce pts t he co mm on di vis ion o f substa n c es into bodi es

W M M

or p e rc 1 1 e n t
p fi r st bl ush th 1 s s eem s v ery
of At th e ,

c lea r ; hu t u n like m a n y oth e r writ er s

,
M ill poss es s e s t h e p cc u ,

lia ri ty O f a pp ea r ing cl e a r a t a fi r st rea di n g a n d l e ss cl e a r wh e n

we r ea d h im a ga in ; a nd st ra nge t o sa y t h e m o re we re a d h im, , ,

t h e obsc ure r h e b eco m e s A t on e pl a c e h e t e lls us th a t

.
, ,

as we kn ow not a nd
c a n n ot kn ow a nythi n g of bodi e s b u t t h e
,

se nsa tion s whi ch they e xcit e in u s or in oth er s th es e s en s a t io n s ,

m u st b e a ll th a t we c a n a t botto m m ea n by th e ir a tt r ibu t es a n d ,

t h e disti n ction which we v erb a lly m a k e b e tw ee n t he p rop e rti e s

of things a n d t h e s en s a tio n s we rec e iv e f ro m th em m u st o rigi
n a t e in t h e conv en i en c e O f di sco u rse r a the r th a n in t h e n a t u re
O f wh a t is d en ot ed by t h e t e rm s
3°
;

at a noth er pl a c e tha t ,

a se nsa tion i s to b e c a re f ully disti n gu ish e d fro m t h e O bj ect

whi ch c a u se s t h e se n sa tio n ; our se ns a tio n O f white f r o m a whit e
O bj ect ; n or is it l e ss to b e disti ngu i s h e d f r o m t h e a tt r ib u t e

w h it en ess which we a s c rib e to t h e O bj e ct in co n s eq u en c e O f it s

,
”u
e xciting t h e s e ns a tion )

H er e a f ter e xpl a in in g th a t a c a us e do e s not a s s uch res em ble

,

its eff ects th a t a n ea st wind is n ot l ik e t h e f ee li ng of cold n o r

, ,

h ea t lik e th e st ea m of bo ilin g w a te r th a t ma tt er th ere fo re do es ,

not n ec essa rily re sem bl e our se n sa tio n s h e co n cl ud e s th a t ,

“
it m a y be s a f ely l a id down a s a tru th both O bvio u s in itse l f ,

a n d a dm i tt e d by a ll who m it is a t pr e se n t n e ce ssa ry to ta k e into

con sid era tion tha t of th e o utw a rd world we kn ow a n d c a n

, , ,

1'
J S Mill Sy s te m
. .
, Of Logi c , B k 1 .
, cha p . 3, se ct . 7 .

”
I bid B k 1 cha p
.
, .
, . 3, se ct . 8 .

”
I bi d Bk 1 c ha p
.
, . , . 3, se ct . 9 .

“
I b id B k 1 c ha p
.
, .
, . 3, se ct . 3 .
 60

k n ow a bsol ut ely n othi n g ,

e x c ept th e s en s a tio n s which we ex p eri

e n c e f r o m it
32
;

and a littl e f u rth er he c r itici z e s ,

L ock e f or a d m itting
r ea l e ss en c es or e s s en c e s O f i n divid u a l O bj ects which h e sup
, ,

pos e d to b e t h e c a u se s of t h e s en sibl e p rop ert i e s O f thos e

”3 3
O bj e cts .

M ill s co n c eptio n of subst a n c e is thu s

’
from b e i ng cl ea r f ar .

Th er e i s how e v er on e poi n t which h e h a s p er f e ctly g ra sp ed

, , .

He a d m its th a t s u bst a n c e is p r i m a r ily th a t which e xists by its elf

An tt r ib u t e s a ys h e mu st b e t h e a tt r ib u t e o f so m ethi n g
a , ,

colo r for e x a m pl e m u st b e t h e colo r O f som ethi n g ; a n d if this

, ,

s o m e thi n g sho u ld c e a s e to e x ist or sho u ld c ea s e to b e co n n e ct e d ,

with t h e a ttr ib u t e t h e e xi sten c e O f t h e a tt r ib u t e wou ld b e a t a n

,

en d . A s ubst a n c e o n t h e co n t r a r y is s elf ex ist en t : in sp ea ki n g

, ,
-

a bo u t it we n ee d n ot p u t of a ft er it s n a m e
, A sto n e is n ot t h e .

sto n e O f a n ythi n g ; t h e m oo n is not t h e m oo n O f a nythi n g b ut ,

”3 "
si m ply t h e m oo n .

I t is n ot ea sy to see why M ill c r itici z i n g this co n c eptio n fi n ds , ,

in it l esso n s O f E n glish G r eek La tin or G erm a n r a th er th a n

, , ,

O f m en t a l philosophy W h en we s a y th a t a colo r is t h e colo r

.

O f so m e thi n g a n d th a t t h e m oo n is n o t t h e m oon O f a n ythi n g ,

we do n ot a pp a ren tly u se m ea n i ngl ess wo r ds We sp ea k a bo u t .

t h e r ea l O bj e cts O f ou r wo r ld a n d d e sc r ib e th em j u st a s ou r ,

e x p er i en c e p r e s en ts th em to u s A s we n e v er fi n d in n a ture a .

c olo r e x i sti n g by its elf a n d we fi n d a m oo n e xisti n g by its elf

, ,

—
we f e el co m p ell e d n ot by th e n ec e ssity of our l a n gua g e b u t by ,

t h e n ec e ssity O f t h e ki n d O f r ea lity we h a v e got — to sp ea k of a

colo r a s a color O f so m ethi n g a n d to sp ea k O f th e m oo n a s sim ,

ply t h e m oo n I t i s r ea lity which oblige s u s to disti n gu ish a

.

s u bst a n c e f ro m a n a tt r ib u t e to a sc r ib e to th e form er a ch a ra ct er
,

which th e l a tt er do es n ot poss ess .

”
I bid .
,
Bk . 1, ch a p . 3, se ct . 7 .

Bk . 1, ch a p . 6, se ct . 3 .

“
I b id .
,
Bk . 1, ch a p . 3, s e ct . 6 .
 61

Mill how e v er tri es to corrobora te

, ,
his vi ews by th e followin g

As
f or t h e se lf-ex ist enc e of su bst a n c es, it is v e ry tr ue th a t
a s ubsta nce m a y b e co n c e iv ed to e xist witho u t a ny oth e r su b

sta nce , b ut so a l so m a y a n a ttrib ute b e co n c e iv e d to e xist with

out a ny othe r a tt r ib u t e ; a n d we c a n n o m o r e i m a gin e a s ubsta nc e

withou t a tt ribu t es th a n we ca n im a g i n e a ttrib ut e s withou t a

”35
s ubsta nc e .

Th is rea sonin g s ee m s O bvio u s en o ugh ; a n d wh en exp ress e d in ,

t h e a n tith e tic a l l a n gua ge u s e d by M ill m a y e v en a pp ea r c on ,

vin c ing A littl e con sid era tion how e v er shows th a t i t li es

.
, ,

u n d er a gr ea t co n f u sio n O f id ea s I f th e cl a u se a n a tt r ib u te .

m a y e x ist witho u t a ny oth er a tt r ib u t e si m ply m ea n s th a t a n

a greea bl e O dor m a y b e indiff e ren tly j oi n e d to a r e d or to a bl u e

colo r it i s un do ubt e dly t r ue b ut doe s not a m o u nt t o m u ch I f

, ,
.
,

o n th e contra ry it m ea ns th a t a n a tt r ib ut e m a y e x i s t by it s e lf
, ,

withou t a ny oth er conj o i n e d a tt r ib u t e it m u st si m ply b e d en i e d ,

on t h e gro un d th a t it in volv es a cont ra dictio n i na s m u ch a s t h e ,

be in g th u s d escrib e d wou ld n ot b e a n a tt r ib u t e b u t a s ubst a n c e ,

.

Th ere i s n o doubt th a t we c a n no m o re im a gin e a s ubst a nc e

mg . B ut t h e
self exist ence of a s ubsta nc e do es not a n d c a n n o t
-

m ea n th a t i t e xi sts witho u t a t t iih u te s W

i
ei s s .

b itse lf whil e th e a ttrib ut e doe s n ot ; a n d he re in l i e s t h e ess en

,
I “

t i al diff erenc e be tw ee n th em .

ce pt Of s ubsta n c e ha ve giv en m ore or l ess in a d eq ua te d efinit io n s

,

Of it De sca rt es id en ti fi e s s ubsta nc e with ex tension or

“
Ib d i .
, Bk . 1, cha p . 3, se ct . 6 .
s u bsta n c e is p erm an en t a n d t h e q ua n t um th ere of in n a ture is , O

”
n ei th er i n c rea s e d n or di m i n ish ed 6
This s eem s t o b e a lso th e .

vi e w which H egel t r i e s to co n v ey in his u su a l a ttr a ctiv e ,

l a n gu a g e
“
Th en ec ess a ry i s in its elf a n a bsol u t e correl a tio n of ele
m en ts i e t h e p r oc e ss d ev elop e d ( in th e p r ec e di n g p a r a gr a phs )
, . .
, ,

in which th e corre l a tio n a lso su sp en ds its elf to a bsol u t e id en tity .

I n its i mm e di a t e form it is t h e r el a tio n ship O f s u bst a n c e a n d ,

a ccid en t Th e a bsol u t e s elf id e ntity O f this r el a tion ship i s sub

.
-

st a nc e a s s u ch which a s n ec e ssity giv es t h e n ega tiv e to this form

,

of i n w a r dn e ss a n d th u s i n v e sts itse lf with a ct u a l ity b ut whi ch

, ,

a lso giv e s t h e n eg a tiv e to this o u tw a r d thi n g I n this n ega tiv .

ity t h e a ctua l a s i m m e di a t e is o n ly a n a ccid ent a l which th r o u gh

, , ,

thi s b a r e p ossibility p a sse s ov er i n to a n oth er a ct u a l ity This .

t ra n sitio n i s t h e id en tity of su b st a n c e r ega r d e d a s fo rm ,

”3 7
a ctivity .

F i n a lly ,
a f ew au tho r s h a ve b el i e v e d th a t s u bst a nc e is e ss en

a ccid en ts ,
and
h a v e th u s j u stifi e d to a c er t a i n ext en t t h e c on , ,
m
m
f um r om h ich t he thi n k er s who r ect s ub sta n c e a ltogeth er
a .‘ ” m

J m
” ~ ~n p m “ M an W
-

h a ve deri ye d th e i r ggea t est st r en gth N ot oth er wis e 1 s sub st a iice .

d efi n e d by t h e c el eb ra t e d Sp a n ish philosoph er J a m e s B a l m e s ,
.

He rega r ds it a s a s u bst r a t um a thi n g which i s no col or b ut , ,

l en ds its elf to a ll colo r s ; which i s n on e O f th e q u a l iti e s which

we e x p er i e n c e b u t th e s u bj ect a n d c a u s e of th em a ll
, a p er

m a n en t subst ra t um
‘
ap e rm a n en t b e i n g in which occ u r t h e ch a n ge s which a re
p re

s en t e d t o u s in t h e s en sibl e ph en om en a ; 39 ’

a n un n k ow a bl e su bst ra t um
In va in m e, wh a t i s this be ing ? G iv e m e th e int u i
y ou as k
tio n O f th e e ss en c e O f co r po rea l thi n gs, a n d I will t ell y ou ; bu t
whil e I kn ow th em on ly by th ei r eff ects, th a t i s, th e i m pre ssio n s
which th ey p r odu c e in m e, I c a n not a n sw er
a"
Ka n t , C iti qu f P u R
r e O re ea s on , Me iklej oh n ’
s t ra n s l p
.
, . 1 36 .

3’
Th e L gi c f H g l W ll c
o o t r a n s l p p 2 7 3—2 74
e e ,
a a
’
e s .
, . .

3‘
B a l me s F u n d a m e nt a l P hi l o s op h y ; B rown s on s t r a n s l
,
’
.
, Vol 2 , . p . 338 .

”
I b id Vol 2 p 3 3 9
.
,
.
, . .
 63

St Tho m a s a n d th e Schol a stics , how e ver re ga rd s ubstan ce

.
,

p r im a r ily a s th a t which e xists b y itself ; a n d it i s a sto n ishin

g
th a t B a lm es who for fo ur y ea rs rea d n o oth er book th a n t h e
, , ,

S umma of St Tho m a s s a yin g tha t in it a ll tr uths a re conta i n e d

.
, ,

sho uld h a v e d ep a rt ed fro m his m a st e r in this im po rta nt poi n t .

St Tho m a s sa ys :
.

S u bsta nti a est res c uj u s n a t u rae deb etur e ss e non

,
in a lio ;
a ccid e ns v er o es t res c uj u s n a tum deb et u r e ss e in a lio
,

and furth e r

I llu d p r op r i e dic it u r s
e s e, q u od h a b e t ips um e ss e q ua si in suO ,

e s se s ub s is te n s U nd e solaa su b st a n t iae v e r e e t p r op r i e dic u n t u r

'

N ero Schol a stics univer s a lly a dh ere to this vi ew a n d a re so f a r

-
,

f r om rega r din g s u bsta n c e a s a su ppo r t O f a ccid ents th a t som e O f

t h em d e sc r ib e God a s a s u bst a n c e which e xists by its elf a n d to ,

‘3
which n o a ccid en ts a re n or c a n b e j oi ne d .

T h e Schol a stic th eo ry on thi s poi n t i s u n dou bt edly right We .

ca nn ot d eny th a t e xp er i en c e p res en ts u s with two distin ct cl a ss es

of obj ects : so m e O f which exi st by th em s elv e s whil e othe r s c a n ,

not exist b ut in so m e th in g els e A n O bj ect e x isting by its el f a s .

,

a l a m b a tr ee gold ,
m yse lf is c a ll ed a n i n divid u a l o r a su b
, , ,

sta nc e A n O bj ect e xisti n g only in som e thi ng els e a s w a lk ing

.
, ,

si ng i ng good h ea lth colo r is c a ll ed a n a ccid en t o r a n a ttrib u t e

, , , .

Th e words a ccid ent a n d a ttrib u te a ltho gh so m eti m es in di s

M 0 “
u ,

c rim in a tel u se d a re not s t r ic t l s ea ki n on ou s Th e .

“
T h oma s A q u i na s Q u olib 9 a 5 a d 2 , .
, .
, .

“
T h omas A q u i na s S umma Theo l P i Q , .
, .
, . 90 , a . 2 .

C f Co rno ldi Le co ns de P hi l os s co l p
.
, . .
, . 1 3 8 ; S c hi fii ni , P r i nci pia
P h il os p 520 ; G i ne b ra E l e me nt os do F il os
.
,
.
, .
, Vo l 1 ,
. p
1 74 ; R. icka by ,

G e ne ra l M e ta p h y s i cs p 2 54 , . .
s t it uen t e em en l ts Of
s u b st a n c e ta A s this
d is ti n ctio n i s n ot O f c a pit a l i m po rt a n c e for ou r p re s e nt stu dy ,

we sh a ll n ot i n sist u pon it a n y m o r e .

S u bst a n c e is thu s i d en tifi a bl e with i n divid ua l a n d m ea n s a ,

com pl et e O bj e ct It is n ot a n u n k n ow a bl e thi n g lyi n g b eyond

.

t h e a tt r ib u t e s ; it is t h e a tt r ib u t e s them s e lv es Th e e ss en c e a s .
,

H egel s a ys m u st a pp ea r or shi n e forth I t 1 3 n ot pr oper, h3w

,
.

fl
r
e v er to c a ll t h e s bsta n c e a h e a O f a tt r ib u t es b ec a u s e it i s t h e

s ub s
,
m u M
h e a tt r ib u t e s th a t poss e s s e s E di dll i lji) “
M

M — ‘
,
m

I n st ea d O f d efi n i n g t h e su bst a n c e in t erm s of t h e a ttrib u te s we ,

S u bst a n c e is th a t which e x ists by its el f H e re we m u st r et u rn .

f or a m o m en t to a n a ss u m ptio n O f D a vi d H um e O f which we ,

h a v e a l rea dy spok en We h a v e s een th a t t h e a u thor O f t h e

.

Tr ea tis e on Hu m a n N a t u r e a d m its ou r th eo r y in its e ssenti a l

p r i n cipl e B u t a s h e rega r ds e v erythi n g a s c a p a bl e of e x isting
.
,

by its elf a n d h en c e d en i e s t h e exist en c e of a ttr ib u t es t h e c on

, ,

c ep t ion O f s u bst a n c e b e co m e s m ea n i ngl e ss in his h a n ds j u st a s ,

”
t h e e x p r e ssio n r e l a t iv e k n owl e dg e b eco m e s m ea ni n gl ess in
t h e syst em of a bsol u t e r e l a tivity j u st a s t h e co n c eption O f sub
,

j ec t iv e f a ct b e co m e s m e a n i n gl e ss if we a dopt t h e position O f th e .

s ubj e ctivist .

A n a n a lysis O f t h e f a cts O f ou r wo r ld convi n c e s u s th a t sub

st a n c e i s n ot a s H um e m a i nt a i n s ea ch i n dividu a l i m pression or
, ,

q ua lity E x p er i enc e shows th a t th es e in divid u a l i m p re ssio n s do

.

not in poi n t O f f a ct e x ist a p a rt f rom ea ch oth er H um e s

, ,
.
’

c a pit a l f a ll a cy co n sists in a rg ui n g th a t wh a t we m a y co n c e iv e a s
e x isti n g a p a rt m a y a n d do es e xist a p a r t
,
I f colo r etc exist e d .
,
.
,

a p a r t f r o m a n y oth er s en sibl e q u a liti e s it wo u l d ind eed b e a , , ,

s ub s t a n c e A n d we do n ot d en y th a t i t m ight possibly exist in

.

this m a nn er B ut th e q u e stion is n ot wh eth e r it co uld b u t

.
,

wh eth er it do e s so e xi st A n d our co n st a n t exp eri enc e shows

.

th a t it do e s n ot E x p er i en c e m u st b e ou r gu id e a s to t h e n a t ure
.

O f r ea lity H um e ov erlooks this c a p ita l t r uth a n d th u s so r ely

.
,

co n f us es t h e possibl e with th e a ct u a l A ra il ro a d m a y b e con .

e x ist en c e Go d h a s c rea t e d th em a n d co n ti n u a lly p r es er v es
.

th em ; a n d this p r e s er v a tio n is a co n ti n u a l c r e a tio n so th a t if , ,

it sho ul d c ea s e a ll thi n gs wou l d b e r e d u c e d to nothi n g F init e

, .

b e i n gs a r e thu s e ss en ti a lly co n ti ng en t Th ey d ep en d u po n t h e .

k n owl edge a n d pow er O f God who is t h e o n ly b e ing r ea lly e xist ,

ing by its el f .

Thi s r em a r k wa s p a ss e d by D esc a rt e s who co n f ess e d th a t his ,

d e fi n itio n O f s ubst a n c e p r op er ly a ppli e d to God a lo n e U n .

willi n g how e v er to d e p a rt f ro m t h e o r di n a ry u se of l a ngua g e

, , ,

h e a d m itt e d two o r d e r s O f fi n it e su bsta n c e s : bodi e s a n d spi r its ,

a n d s u ppos e d th a t t h e e ss en c e O f body co n sists in e xt en sion t h e ,

’
e ss e n c e of spi r it in tho u ght Spino z a to ok u p D e sc a rt es s id ea
.
,

a n d wa s n ot dis m a y e d by its p a n th e istic i m pl ic a tio n s He de .

“
fi n e d s u bst a n ce a s th a t which i s in its elf a n d is co n c e iv e d
th r o u gh its elf ; in oth er wo r ds th a t O f which a c on c eptio n c a n ,

b e fo rm e d i n d e p en d en tly of a n y oth er a n d show e d

th a t God is th e o n ly s u bst a n c e Th e s a m e doctri n e h a s b een .

r e viv e d— with so m e im po r t a nt m o difi c a t ion s — b y H e gel a n d hi s

school A ll m o n i stic i d ea l ists m a i n t a i n th a t th ere is only on e
.

m ind .Th ey co n t en d th a t, a s a ll thi n gs a re i n ter r el a t ed th ey -

,

a r e p a r ts O f a si n gl e whol e which i s th e A bsol u t e a n d in which

, ,

e v e r ythi n g e lse h a s its r ea l ity its m ea n i n g its v ery b e i n g A , ,

.

th a t B ra dl ey wo u l d s a y i s n ot a m er e th a t : it a lso i n v
, ,
olv es a
wh a t A n d a s a ny th a t is r el a t e d to a ll t h e oth er th ats a n d
.
,

h en c e to a ll t h e oth er wh a ts a n d thu s com p r i se s t h e whol e s er i es

,

of th a ts a n d wh a ts withi n its own wh a t it cl ea rly follows th a t ,

t h e r e i s o n ly on e a ll em b ra ci n g wh a t which is th e A bsol ut e
-
,
.

Thi s vi e w which clos ely r es em bl es th e Ch r isti a n doctrin e O f

,

t h e D e ity m a y c e rt a i n ly co n t a in m u ch t ru th
,
I f th er e i s a c r ea .

t iv e m i n d who se k n owl edg e is t h e c a u s e O f a ll thi n gs a s St

, ,
.

Thom a s t e a ch e s a n d o f whom we a re a s it w ere th e d rea m s it

, , , ,

i s st r ictly t ru e th a t th ere is o n ly on e i n divid ua l o n e a ll em b ra c ,

-

ing s u bst a n c e B u t wh a tev e r goo d gr o u nds we m a y h a v e for

.
,

t h e e xist en c e O f a s u p rem e m i n d we do n ot kn ow it by i n t u ition , ,

Spi no za , E h t ic s , B oh n
’
s cd p.
, . 45 .
 a nd it is u po n o ur kn owl edge O f our own wo rld O f th e wo rld we ,

pos se ss h ere a n d now th a t we b u ild our philosophic a l co ncep

,

tio n s In th is wo rld we fi n d m a n y in di vi d ua ls which a ltho ugh

.
, ,

r el a t e d to oth er b e ing s a r e co m pl et e by th em s elv e s in t h e s e ns e

,

t h a t we ca n thi n k O f th em as ind e p en d e nt of a ny o t h er indi

vidu a l This l ea ds u s to th e p robl em O f i n divid ua lity
. .

F or the n th e re is o nly on e i n divid ua l A ll

,
.

no m ea n i n
g m s f ro m t h e re st
rt It is t.r u e th a t t h e sa m e ex

i which s t s u s wi th individ u a li t y obli s o

p e r e n c e p r e e n , g e s u
t _

rec o gn i ze cont i nu i ty We ought n ot how ev er to i n s i st u po n

.
, ,

OM O f o u r e xp er i en c e a n d u n d u ly dis re g a r d t h e

oth er C onti nu ity exists ; b u t be sid e s t h e f a ct th a t it f a il s to

.
,

p r ov e t h e e xi st ence O f a m i n d in which a ll things a re o n e t h e ,

doc t rin e O f t h e id en tity of a ll thi ngs in t h e A b s ol u t e c a nn ot h a v e

m u ch m ea nin g f or ou r p ra ctic a l lif e a n d a pp ea r s t o u s a s t h e
,

n ight i n which a ll cows a re bl a ck .

A) Th e re c o gn itio n O f a v a r i e ty of in divid u a l s o r s u bsta n c es ,

be come s t he re fo re a n e c e ssity B ut t h e q u e stio n a r is es a s t o

.

w h a t t h e indi vid ua l w ill b e ; a n d on this poi n t t h e g rea t e st

, ,

div ersity of O p i n i on still p re v a ils T h e m ost e x t rem e vi e w.

wo uld recogni z e a s individ ua ls n o t hi n g b ut th e u lti m a te s ub

di vis wns O f be ing : t he a to m s in t h e ino r a nic rea l m t e c ell
h
a m
m mn ofn a tu re O f rea lity m ight p erh a ps
the
r econc il e a ll oppo si te vi e ws Sci en tific inv e stiga tio n s see m to
.

ha v e est a b l is h ed tha t a ll m a te ri a l be i ng s a re m a d e u p O f id entic a l

ul tima te p a rts or e l e ctro ns
, It is lik ewi se a dm itte d tha t t he
.

inorga nic a nd orga nic rea l ms p rem nt no f und a m en ta l diffe r

e nc e a nd in s t ea d of di vid in g che m i s try into inorga ni c a nd or
, ,

g a n ic a s w
, a s don e be for e w e now , r eg a rd it a s es s e nti a lly o ne .

Th e con c l usi on to be d er i ve d fro m th e se sc i entific di sc ov e ri e s

is tha t t h e el ectr o n is th e u lti ma t e indi vid ua l not o nl y in the ,

m in e ra l b ut a l so in t h e org an i c rea lm
, .
 68

A whol e o rga nism how e v er is with e qua l p r opri ety

, , indi an

vid ua l b e c a u s e it i s a u n i qu e a n d c o m pl e t e b eing with its own

, ,

lif e i t s p rop er op era tio n s its p ec u l i a r a ctivity

, , .

F i n a lly t h e m ol ecul e a n d t h e a tom a r e a l so individ ua ls ; th e

,

fo rm er f or t h e physicist t h e l a tt er for t h e ch em ist Th e m ol e

, .

c u l e c a n n ot b e divid e d by physic a l m ea ns I t poss ess e s a u n ity .

O f its own a n d is t h e i n divid u a l a bo u t which t h e sci en c e of

physics is con c ern e d Ch em ist ry on t h e oth er h a nd Opera te s

.
, ,

u po n t h e a to m s th em s elv e s It is by com bi n i n g th em in diff e r

.

en t w a ys th a t it eff e cts t h e v a r io u s ch em ic a l t ra n sfo rm a ti o n s ,

th a t it p r od u c e s th e im m en s e v a r i e ty O f com po u n d s u bst a n c es .

We a r e thu s c om p ell e d to disti n gu i s h diff er en t cl a ss e s O f i n di

vi du a ls or s ubst a n c e s which do n ot e x cl u d e on e a n oth er b ut
, ,

e x ist in s u ch a wa y th a t t h e i n divi d u a l O f a l ow e r cl a ss is a t t h e

s a m e ti m e a n el em en t in t h e co n stit u tio n O f t h e i n divid u a ls O f

n cipl e we m u st h e r e O bs er v e
t h e high er cl as s ( This
. p r i ,
do e s ,

n ot u n q u a lifi e dly a pply to God a s will b e s e en in t h e s e q u e l )

,
.

We h a v e a cco r di n gly
,

1 Th e a bs ol u t e i n divid u a l or God
.
, .

2 Th e o rg a n ic i n divid u a l a s m a n
.
,
.

3 Th e physic a l i n divi d u a l o r t h e m ol e c u l e
.
,
.

4 T h e ch em ic a l i n divid u a l or t h e a tom
.
,
.

5 T h e u lti m a t e i n divi d u a l or t h e e l e ct r o n
.
,
.

O u r l ist p u r pos ely o m its fi n it e spi r its a s a n g e ls b e c a u s e a s , ,

th ey do n ot f a ll withi n ou r exp er i en c e a n d a k n owl e dge O f th em ,

c a n n ot b e r ea ch e d by r ea so n a lo n e philos ophy is not con c ern ed ,

with th em .

S E CTI O N 4.
— S CH O LA s r i C T H E O RY or CA US E
A cco r di n g to Schol a st ic philosophy c a u s e is ,
th e p r i n cipl e
u pon which a th in g d ep en s i n i ts ci n g or i ts b eco m i n g .

Ca us es di cu n tur ex ga Eus r es
“
dep endi i s e cu n du m es s e v el

“
'

fi emf
’

M e r ci e r M é t a p h y s i q u e gén é ra l e
, ou g
O n to l o i e, p . 52 9 .
 69

A ristotl e a nd th e Schol a stics di st in eh fou r kinds of au

'

c ses!
m a t eri a l form a l , eff ici e nt a n d fin al
, .

Th e m a t e ri a l a n d t h e form a l ca u se s a re t h e constit u tiv e

rin c i le s o f B e n s A s w e sh a ll d ea l wi th t he m a t gr ea t l e ngt h
p i
g .

m o ur ch a pt e r on cos m o logy we sh a ll a bst a i n f ro m t rea ti n g of

,

th em no w O ur pr es en t st u dy will th ere fo re b e li m it e d to t h e
.

effi ci en t a n d t h e fin a l c a us e s .

I n t h e opi nio n of t h e pl a in m a n a n effici en t c a u s e is th a t

,

which r ea lly p r od uc e s a n eff ect W h en t h e l a bo rer d r i n ks a

.

gla ss of wa t er a n d thus q uen c he s his thi rs t h e b e li e v e s th a t t h e

, ,

th irst q uen chi n g not o n ly occ urre d a ft er b ut wa s p r od uc e d by

-
,

t h e a ction of t h e w a t e r .

It h a s b eco m e a f a shio n in philosophy to d er id e t h e n otion s

o f t h e pl a in m a n A st ud en t no w a d a ys is oft en s m il e d a t f o r
.

h is na i v et e i f h e b eli e v e s th a t h is book is rea lly in his d esk wh e n

nobody p er c eiv e s it ; h e is look e d u po n a s ign o ra n t of t h e in
v a ri a bl e l a ws of na t ure i f h e rega rds his will a s f ree ; h e is
ri dic ul e d a s a fetich wo rshipp er i f h e f ee ls t h e slight e s t sy m
-

p a thy f or t h e old doct r i n e o f c a us a l pow e r F o r m y p a r t I ,

conf ess th a t I c a n h a r dly p a r t fro m th es e n a i ve b eli e fs ; a n d a t ,

t h e risk o f b e ing m ock e d f or n o t h a vi n g y e t b e st r idd e n th e

th reshold of philosophy I f ra nkly t a k e p a rt with t h e pl a in m a n
,

i n h is r ea li s m his lib ert a ri a n is m h is b eli ef in effi ci en cy

, ,
.

Th e Schol a stic doct r in e of eff ici e nt c a u s e h a s m et two cl a ss e s

of oppo nen ts : so me followi n g H u m e h a v e d ropp e d out t h e c on
, ,

e pt of effic i e ncy a l toget her a n d re d uced c a us a l ity to a m ere

.
'

i n v a ri a bl e a n t e c ede n c e ; oth e rs wi th M a l e bra nc he ha v e a cc e pt e d

, ,

a ve l im i e

m
t h e g e n u m e not i o n 0 c a u s e b ut ey
,
1 to th e

W
S
m Th ere
is a ctua lly l ittl e d a n ger of l im iti ng c a usa li ty to God a lon e I n .

c li ne d a s we a re to q uestion t h e v e ry e xi st e nc e of a s upr e me

m ind we f ee l l ittl e sym p a thy for a syst e m which consid e rs t h is

,

m ind a s t h e only effici e n t fa ctor in th e world .

 1 Ma leb ra n ch e s f un d a m ent a l p r i n cipl e th a t a ctivity is
.
’

p rop er t o God a lo n e a n d c a n not b e co mm un ic a t e d to c rea t ures ,

s d e vo id of fo un d a tion .

possibl e ; a n d th ere is not

M a smiéaam m a n if ests its elf in th e i n fi n it e v a r i ety of

’
‘ ‘

o rg a n is m s we obs er v e in t h e u n iv er s e F r o m t h e m ol ec ul e of .

t h e m i n er a l l bo r a t e body of m a n th er e is a wond er f u l
to th e e a ,

s er i es of o rga n i z e d b ei n gs poss ess ed of p a rt ic ul a r pot en ti a liti es ,

1

e n dow e d with a s u r p r isi n g a d a pt a tio n of m ea n s to e nds Th e .

p a w of t h e c a t f or e x a m pl ,
e so p e r f e ctly a d a pt e d to th e c a tching
,

of th e p r ey is a m a r v e l f or t h e n a t ura list N ow if fi n it e b e in gs
,
.
,

poss ess n o effi ci en cy ; i f wh en t h e c a t st r etch es its p a w it is

'

, ,

God th a t c a tch es t h e m o u s e—a s M a l eb ra n ch e woul d m a i n t a i n

t h e i n t r ic a t e o r ga n i z a tio n of c rea t e d thi n gs b eco m e s a u s e l ess
m a chi n e ry Th e e x t er n a l wo rl d its elf is a ltog e th er u nn e c e ss a r y ;
.

a n d sho u l d i t b e a n n ihil a t e d we wo u ld n ow a ys n otic e its disa

, , p
p e a r a n c e .

3 . O ur o wn co n scio u s n ess which h a s b een j u stly c a ll e d

,
the
u lti m a t e co urt of a pp ea l in t h e sci en c e of m i n d t estifi e s th a t , ,

wh en e v er we a ct o u r own co u rs e of a ction is in d e p en d en c e u pon

,

o u r will So littl e a re we convi n c e d th a t God a cts i n u s th a t

.
,

we f eel r em o r s e W h en ev er our a ctio n is n ot don e in a cco r d a n c e

with d u ty a n d do n ot do ubt th a t we c a n a c t oth erwis e in t h e
,

f ut ur e I t i s t r u e th a t M a l eb ra n ch e a dm its th e f ree dom of th e

.

will b ut in so doi n g h e ob eys his th eologic a l p rej u dic e s ra th er

, ,

th a n th e logic of his syst em .

L e t u s n ow p a ss to H um e s th eo ry of c a u s a tio n which is n o t
’
, ,

lik e Ma leb r a n ch e s a n obj e ct of i n t erest to th e a nti q ua r i a n a lo n e

’
, ,

b u t is still vivid a m o n g u s ; a n d d e sp it e its sho r tco m i n gs doe s , ,

not s eem a s y et doo m e d to a sp ee dy dis a pp ea r a nc e .

H u m e s a n a lysis of t h e id ea of c a u s a tio n is oft en hono re d a s

’
 71

d en i ed th a t it is a s upe rb pi ec e of wo rk th a t i t e vinc e s a r em a rk ,

a bl e po w e r o f a n a lysis in i ts a u tho r I f we gra n t t h e o r igin a l .

a ss um ptions from which H um e sta rts we a re i rr esistibly led , ,

st e p by s tep to his fi n a l co n cl usio n B ut si m il a r to a n a rch i

, .
,

t ee t who wo uld b u ild a st a t ely edific e u po n a sl en d e r fo un d a tio n ,

H um e h as fa il ed to p robe in a s uffici en t d eg ree t h e gro un d u po n

, ,

which h e h a s b ee n a t wo rk so th a t his el a bo ra t ely co n st r u cte d

,

m a nsio n in spite of t h e st udi ed a r ra nge m e nt of its p a rts a ffo r ds

, ,

no s a fe lodgi ng to th e t r a vel e r wh o feels co m p ell e d to sh un it ,

a s by a n a t u ra l insti n ct .

Th e f un d a m ent a l p r incipl e giv e n b H u m e a t t h e o uts e t a n d

y .

which h e k eeps co n st a n tly in m in d is th a t a ll o ur idea s a re ,

“
d er iv ed f r o m im pressio n s
W
.

h a t i m p ressio n ) r oduc es t h e id ea o f

v of th es e q ua liti es I pitch on I fi n d so m e obj ect th a t is n ot

e er ,

poss ess ed of it a n d y e t f a lls un d e r t h e d en o m i n a tio n of c a us e

,

”
a n d eff ect ? I t m ust th e re fo re b e a rel a tio n a m o n g o b je c t s
a nd H um e is led to e x a m i n e t h e di ff er e n t k in ds o f r e l a t io n f ro m

which t h e i d ea of c a u sa tio n m a y a ris e He a t fi rs t disc o ve rs

m
.

c h o w e ve r a t t a ch m uc h ,

i m po rt a n c e to this discov e ry ; a n d a ft er a w e a k a tt em pt to ,

e st a bl ish its t r uth by r ea so n i n g h e t e lls u s th a t i f h is a r g um e n t

, ,

a ppe a r s sa tisfa ctory it i s w ell ; i f n ot we a re b e gge d to s u ppo s e

, ,

50
i t s uch .

He soo n di scov er s how e v er a n e c e ss a ry co n n ectio n a s t h e

, ,

esse n t i a l el em e nt of ca u sa tio n ; b ut h e do e s n o t a t fi r st fi nd a ny
“
light a s to t h e rea l na t ure o f this co nn ectio n a n d resolv e s to ,

bea t t h e n eighbori ng fi elds witho ut a ny c er t a in vi e w or d esi gn

, ,

with t h e hope th a t h is goo d fort un e will a t l a st g uid e h im to

wh a t h e sea rch es
Hu me T rea ti se on H uma n Na t u re Se lby B i gge s cd p 4
, ,
-
’
.
, . .

"
I b id .p 75
,
. .

“
I b id .p 75
, . .

“
I b id .pp 7 5 76
, .
-
.

“
1 1nd p 76
, . .

"
I bi d .
, p . 78 .
 72

An x a m i na tio n of th e p r oposition th a t Wh a tev er h a s a b e

e
”
gi nn i n g h a s a lso a c a us e of exist en c e con v in c es h im th a t it .

e x p re ss e s a p r i n cipl e n e ith er i n t u itiv e ly n or d em o n st r a bly c er

t a i n a n d h e t r i um ph a ntly r ef ut e s it by th e followi n g a r gu
,

m en t

As disti n ct id ea s a r e s ep a ra bl e f r o m ea ch oth er a n d a s
a ll ,

t h e id e a s of c a u s e a n d eff ect a r e e vid ently di sti n ct it w ill b e ea sy ,

f or u s to co n c e iv e a n y obj e ct to b e non e xist en t this m o m en t -

,

a n d e x ist en t th e n e x t witho u t co n j oi n i n g to it t h e distinct id ea

,

of c a u s e o r p r od u ct iv e p r i n cipl e Th e s ep a r a tion th er efo re of

.
, ,

t h e i d e a of c a u s e f r o m th a t of a b egi nn i n g of e xist en c e i s pl a inly ,

possibl e f or t h e i m a gi n a tion ; a n d co n s eq uen tly t h e a c t u a l sep a ‘

ra tio n o f th e s e obj e cts is so f a r possibl e th a t it i m pl i e s n o c on ,

”52
t radict ion n or a bs u r dity .

Th e co n cl u sio n i s th a t o ur b el i e f in t h e n ec essity of a c a u s e
m u st b e d er iv e d f r o m e x p er i en c e a n d H u m e p r oc ee ds to e x a m i n e
,

t h e p a r tic u l a r n o t e of our e x p e r i en c e to which t h e id ea of c a u s a

t io n m a y b e due Wh en h e l ea st e x p e ct e d it h e discov er s a
.
,

n e w r el a tio n i n which h e e a g er ly h a ils t h e lo n g so u ght f or - -

a n sw er a n d we a re tol d th a t t h e n e c e ss a r y co nn ec tio n b etw e en

,

c a u s e a n d eff e ct i s th e i r co n st a n t co n j un ctio n 53
A t o n c e so m e .
,

i n t eresti n g co n cl u sio n s a r e d ra w n viz th a t we h a v e n o right ,

.
,

to a pply c a u s a tion to f u t u re e x p e r i en c e i n a s m u ch a s we ca n ,

co n c e iv e a ch a n ge in t h e co u r s e of n a t u re a n d th ere fo r e th a t ,

ch a n ge is possibl e ; a lso th a t c a u s a l n ec essity is so m ethi n g th a t

,

“
e x ists in t h e m i n d n ot in obj ects ,
.

H um e do e s not how ev er d en y a pow er in t h e c a u s e nor a

, , ,

r e a l p r od u ctio n :

We m a y re m a r k s a ys h e not o n ly th a t two obj ects a re

, ,

co nn e ct e d by th e rel a tion of c a us e a n d effect wh en t h e on e p r o

d u c es a m otio n or a n y a ctio n in t h e oth er b ut a lso wh e n it h a s ,

a pow er of p r od u ci n g it

pp 7 9—
”
I bid .
, . 80 .

“
d p
I bi .
, . 87 .

1“
I b id p .
, . 1 65 .

t'
p . 12 .
 74

Un fo r t un a t ely it oft en h a pp en s th a t a m yst ery is r epl a c ed

,

by a n oth er m yst ery grea t er th a n t h e fi r st ; th a t a m ost u n rea son

a bl e d em a n d o u o u r pow e r of f a ith is m a d e by t h e v ery m en who

a r e so m eti m e s so diff ic u lt t o s a tisfy in m a tt er of p r oof This is .

e x a ctly t h e c a s e with D a vi d H u m e M otio n s a n d ch a n ges w ere

.

s a tisf a cto r ily a cco un t e d for in t h e ol d c a u s a l th eo ry a n d b eco m e ,

a p er f e ct m yst er y in his Let u s s u ppos e th a t t h e e v en t A h a s

.

b een follow e d by t h e ev en t B A s a cco r di n g to H um e s a ssum p

.
,
’

tion t h e two e v en ts A a n d B m a y b e conc e iv e d a s un con n ect ed

, ,

we m a y n egl ect th e e l em en t A a n d re d u c e t h e s er i e s A B to
, , , ,

t h e s er i es n ot B B
-
,
I f we m a inta in t h e n ec essity of a n effi ci en t
.

p r in cipl e we will e x pl a i n t h e p rod uctio n of B by t h e a cti on of

,

A ; wh ich a s A ristotl e wo uld sa y co n ta i n s B pot en ti a lly I f we

, ,
.

d e n y e ff ici en t a ctio n we m u st m a i n t a i n e ith er th a t B com es f r o m

,

n othi n g o r th a t it co m e s f r o m n ot B
,
B u t a s o n t h e on e h a n d
-
.
, , ,

f r o m n othi n g n othi n g c a n co m e ; a n d as on t h e oth er h a nd

, ,

n o t B si m ply d e n ot e s b ei n gs in which B do es n ot en t e r a s a n
-

e l e m e n t n o sh a dow of re a so n is giv en f o r t h e p r o d u ctio n of B

, ,

a n d we fi n d o ur s e l v e s f a c e to f a c e with a r ea lity i n co m p a r a bly

m o r e m yst er io u s th a n t h e c a u s a l pri ncipl e which h a d b ee n dis

c a r d e d f or its m yst er io u s ch a r a ct er .

P a s s i n g to a clos er e x a m i n a tio n of H u m e s th eo ry we will a t

’
,

o n c e rem a r k th a t h is fi r st p r i n cipl e : a lLideas are d er iv e d f ro m , , ”

m

”
im r ession s n o t o n ly is n ot s e lf e vid en t b ut i b solu t ely
si
-
, ,

e r ron eous It i s t r u e th a t a ll k n owl edg e b egi n s with s ens e

of fo rm i n g p a st i m pr es
sions wo uld b e co m e i n ex plic a bl e a n d we coul d n ot a ttrib ut e a ny
,

re a l ity b u t to t h e p re s en t inst a nt O ur m en t a l f a c u lti es a re

.

o r igi n a lly a r o u s e d i n to ex er cis e by th e d a t a of th e s en s es ; b ut

th ey poss ess a n a ctivity of th ei r own which en a bl e s th em to
con n ect wh a t s en s e exp er i en c e p re s en ts a s un con n ect e d ; to rea so n
-

a bo u t giv e n d a t a ; to r ea ch co n cl u sio n s a bo u t n a t u re which a r e

 75

im pli ed in t h e na t u ra l f ac ts b ut a re not directly giv en a nd , ,

m ust be dra wn by t h e a ct iv e pow er of our m i n d .

H um e re pe a t e dly m a inta ins th a t th e id ea of ca us e i m pl i es a

“2
n ec e ssa ry conn ection .

N ow co n sta n t conj unction is un a bl e to giv e us th e id ea of

,

n e cessity Fo r wh a t do e s co n st a n t con j un ctio n m ea n ? Si m ply

.
,

th a t in a ll si n gu l a r p a st i n sta n c es we obs er v ed two e v e nts h a p ,

pe n e d to be co n nect ed E a ch i n st a n c e wa s a co n t i n gen t f a ct
.

ind e pe nd en t of a ll oth ers A s we c a nn ot st e p beyo n d t h e d a t a .

f urn ish e d by se ns e p e rc ep t io n we c a nn ot rea ch a ny la w of con

-
,

nec tio n b e tw ee n t h e i n divid ua l c a s e s wh ich re m a i n e ss en ti a lly ,

singul a r a n d un conn ect e d ; so th a t th e i r m ultit u d e how e v e r ,

gr ea t it m a y be i s un a bl e to a lt er t h e i r c o n t i n ge n t ch a ra c te r
,
.

H um e i t is t r ue gr a sp ed this co n s e q uen c e a n d t r i ed t o e xpl a i n

, , ,

o ur id ea of t h e n e c e s sa ry ch a r a ct e r of t h e c a u s e n o t fro m a n ,

a cc um u l a tion of i n divi d u a l c a s e s b ut f r o m a n a t u r a l p ro p e n s ity

,

of our m i n d to p a ss f ro m t h e id ea of one obj ect to t h e id ea of

"3
a n oth er I t wo u ld be i n t ere s t i n g t o kn o w wh eth e r this p ro
.

p e n s it y of t h e m i n d is d e r iv e d f ro m se n se im p r e ss io n s o r n ot .

I f it is we h a rdly see how i t c a n a ss u m e a ch a ra ct e r o f n e c essity

, .

It c a nn ot c erta i nly g et it f ro m t h e s ens e i m p re ssio n s t h e m selv es -

,

be ca us e e a ch i m p ressi o n is a co nti n gen t f a ct un co n n ect e d with

t h e rest I f on th e oth e r h a n d th is p r op e n sity is n ot d er iv e d
.
, ,

f ro m s en s e i m p re ss i o n s ; i f it is a n a t ura l a nd i nn a t e dispositio n
-
,

we h a v e an id ea n ot d e r iv e d f r o m i m p r essio n s a n d H um e s ,
’

f un da m en ta l p ri n cipl e fa lls to t h e gro un d .

Mo re ov e r t h e r esol ution of c a us e into co n st a nt co nj un ctio n

,

p res e nts th e c a pita l bl em ish of dis rega rd in g in t h e conc e ptio n ,

of c a u se th e c a usa l el e men t its elf H um e clos ely res e m bl es a

,
.

th ea tr ica l ma n a ge r who wo uld gi v e t h e pl a y of H a m l e t witho ut

t h e P rinc e of Den m a rk .

Consta nt c o n j unct i o n a n d eff ici en cy a re by no m ea n s id e ntica l

conce pts C ons t a nt co nj unctio n m ea ns th a t a n e v ent inv a ri a bly
.

”
i
Ib d pp 7 7 .
, .
, 7 8, e tc .

“
I bi d p 02 .
, . .
 76

com es a ffici en cy m ea n s th a t t h e s eco n d ev ent not only

f t er ; e

c om es a f t er b u t is du e t o t h e fi r st
, Th ere m a y b e effi ci en cy .

witho u t cons t a n t co n j un ctio n a n d co n st a nt co n j un ctio n witho u t

,

eff ici en cy .

C o n st a n t co n j u nctio n b etw een two e v en ts m ay t a k e pl a c e

witho u t a n y a ctio n of t h e on e u pon t h e oth er wh en both ev en ts
a r e du e to a si n gl e c a u s e I n n a tur e n ight is i nv a r i a bly fol
.
,

low e d by da y ; b u t is n ot on th a t a cco un t r eg a r d e d a s its c a u s e

, ,
.

Th e i r co n st a nt co n j un ctio n i s due to t h e f a ct th a t both n ight

a n d da y a r e p r od u c e d by t h e s u cc es siv e positio n s of t h e sun .

I n a m a th em a tic a l s er i es s u ch a s : ,

a d efi n it e t e rm ms is i n v a r i a bly follow e d by a n oth er d e fi n it e

, ,

t erm s
,
Th e i r co n st a n t co n j un ctio n is du e to th e n a tur e of
.

t h e e x p r e ssio n ( I a n d by n o m ea n s to a n ythi n g lik e

e ff ici en t a ctio n .

E ff ici en cy on t h e oth e r h a n d m a y a pp ea r witho u t co n st a n t

, ,

co n j un ctio n I t is t rue th a t i t c a n n ot th u s a pp ea r in t h e r ea l m
.

o f t h e n e c e ss a r y Obj ects of n a t ur e a r e d et erm in e d by th e ir

.

o wn pot en ti a liti e s to so m e d e fi n it e eff e cts ; a n d wh en e v er th ey ,

a r e pl a c e d in s u it a bl e co n ditio n s t h e r ea ctio n which occ u r s giv e s

,

r is e to th e s e e ff ects Th e lik e do e s n ot hold with r eg a r d to f r ee

.

a g en ts . H um a n b e in g s a re p er su a d e d of th e i r own eff ici en t

a ctio n in si n g u l a r i n sta n c e s e v en wh en si m il a r c a s e s h a v e n e v er
,

t a k en pl a c e in t h e p a st a n d a re n ot lik ely to t a k e pl a c e in th e
f ut u re . O n ly o n c e did L i n col n sign t h e E m a n cip a tion
P r ocl a m a tio n N obody do ubts t h e eff ici en cy of his w ill in th is
.

m o m en to u s c r isis of ou r histo ry a ltho u gh a si m il a r co n j un ct ur e

,

h a d n e v er occ ur r e d b e fo r e a n d wi ll n ev e r occ u r a g a i n L i n col n .

m ight th en h a v e a ct e d oth erwis e ; a n d sho ul d ou r co un t r y he ,

pl a c e d i n id entic a l ci r c um st a n c es o n c e m o re we cl ea rly conc e ive ,

th a t our p r es id en t m ight ta k e a di ff er en t co ur s e of a ction We .

wo ul d th u s h a v e i d en tic a l a n t ec e d en ts a n d differen t r es ults a n d , ,

wo ul d n ot h esit a t e how e v er to a tt r ib ut e th e r es ult in both c a s es

, , ,

to th e eff ici en t a ctio n of t h e h ea d of t h e n a ti o n .

 77

In physica l n a t ur e its el f we oft en a tt r ib ut e effi ci ent a ction

,

to obj ects which h a v e n ot bee n in v a ri a bly co n j oi n ed I n a ll our .

p a s t e xpe ri en c e we m ay h a v e obs er v e d th a t q u i nin e is a n ex

,

ce lle nt r em edy f o r f e v e r Th e nin e ty nin e p a ti en ts to who m we

.
-

a dm i n ist e re d it w ere in diff e r ent cir c um st a n c e s wi th r eg a r d to

a g e physic a l co nstitu tion a n d g en e ra l h ea lth ; b ut a ll p r e s e nte d

,

t h e id en tic a l ch a ra ct e r of b e i n g a ff ect e d with f ev er ; a n d a ll o n ,

t a ki n g q ui n ine w ere s udd enly r el i e v ed We th u s f eel n o do ub t

,
.

a s to t h e eff ici en t a ction of q u in in e a n d a n ew p a ti e n t h a vi n g

,

got th e s a m e dis ea s e we h a v e reco ur s e to o ur n ost rum a ga i n

,
.

U n fo rt una te ly a s soo n a s t h e sick m a n h a s sw a llowe d ou r

,

f a vo r it e rem edy h e feels wo r s e a n d di e s T h e re s ul t is un

,
.

e x p ect e d I t is co nt ra ry to th e p re vi o us co ur s e o f thi n gs
. .

Th e re is c ert a in ly n o const a n t co n j un ction Still we c a nn o t .

,

h elp a ttrib u ting to q ui n i n e th e d e plo ra bl e e v ent We f ee l s ur e .

th a t q u in in e h a s kill ed ou r si ck m a n .

E ffi ci ency a n d co n st a n t co n j u n cti o n go t o g e th e r in t h e phy s

ic a l wor ld wh en on e si n gl e a ge nt is a t wo r k B ut wh e n s e v e ra l .

c a us e s a re a c ti ng in di ff e re n t di recti o n s t h e y m a y i n c id ent a lly

,

m ee t a n d by th e i r co nj u n ctio n g i ve r is e to a n u n e x p e c t e d
, , ,

re s ul t which pres en ts n o n e c e s s a ry c o n n e ctio n with a ny o f t h e

,

p a rtic ul a r c a u s e s a n d is s i m ply a t t r ib u t e d to ch a n c e a ltho ugh

, ,

t h e c a u s es a t wo rk h a ve b ee n e ffici e n t f a c t o r s Thi s is e x a c t ly .

wh a t h a pp ens in t h e c a s e of o ur s ick m a n A c h e m i st c o ul d .

t ell us b eforeh a n d t h e res ult o f h is e x p e ri m e n t s b e c a us e h e h a s ,

to do wi th m a t eri a ls di rectly a cti ng u p o n o ne a n o th e r a n d ,

whose a ction i s n o t thw a rt e d b y a pp reci a bl e c o n t r a ry f o rc es .

B ut th e ch e m i ca l p rod ucts us e d by t h e phy s ici a n do n o t n ec es

sa r ily a c t in a cco rd a nc e with hi s e xp ect a ti o n be c a us e t h e i n n e r

na ture of t h e p a ti en t r ea cts a n d oft e n p rod uc es e ff ects which

h a d not b ee n a n ticip a t ed Ha d H um e b ee n i nt e rest e d in m edi
.

cin e h e m ight h a v e fe lt so m e s uspicio n a s to t h e v a l ue of his

,

id entific a tion of effi ci en cy with consta nt co n j un c t i o n .

Wh a t h e h as m isse d is t h e rea ct ion i ts e lf which t a k es p la c e a s

 78

t c d en t co n ditions t h e s ubs e q uen t r es u lt ; h e h a s ov erlook e d

an e e ,

t h e v e r y i ns t a n t in which t h e c a u s a l a ctio n occ u r s .

Th e philosophy of i n v a r i a bl e s e q u en c e th u s f a lls h ea vily to t h e

g r o un d u n d e r t h e w e ight O f its u nfo un d e d a ss um ptio n s a n d
a bs u r d co n s e q u en c e s witho u t a ny hop e of e v er b e i n g a bl e to ris e
,

a ga i n . Th e effici en t a ctio n of A r istotl e a n d t h e school m en ,

p r o u d of its d ecisiv e victo ry a pp ea r s on t h e fi eld a n e w a s th e

,

o n ly th e o ry c a p a bl e of givi n g a s a tisf a cto ry a cco un t o f ex p er i

en c e. I t shows u s th a t in a ll c a s es in which a r ea ction t a k es

pl a c e a r e s ul t n ot o n ly follows so m e d e fi n it e a n te c ed en ts b ut
, ,

i s due to th ei r n a t u r a l pot en ti a l iti es ; th a t th e q u e nchi n g O f fi re

follows t h e a ppl ic a tio n of w a t er p r ecis ely b ec a u s e w a t er is
e n dow e d with a c a p a city f or q u en chi n g fi r e ; a c a p a city which

oth er a gents s u ch a s cotto n do n ot poss e ss i n a s m u ch a s th es e

, , ,

a g en ts b e i n g pl a c e d in si m il a r co n ditio n s si m il a r r es ults do
, ,

not fo llow .

Th e m u ch r idic u l e d a n sw er th a t O pi um c a u s es sl eep b ec a u s e
it poss ess es a do rm itiv e v i rt u e is not only th e exp r essio n of
,

co m m o n s en s e b ut a highly philosophic t ruth It is th e b est

,
.
,

na y t h e o n ly a n sw e r th a t co u l d possibly b e giv e n S in c e .

M oli ere wr ot e his pl a y a n d t h e P a r isi a n th ea t re go er s st upidly

,
-

l a u gh e d a t wh a t t h e ta l en t of t h e po e t wa s a bl e to pr e s en t in so
com ic a l a light t h e b u r st of l a ught er h a s sp rea d a ll ov er th e
,

wo rld E v erybody h a s j eer e d a t t h e foolish r eply ; b ut f or

.
,

pow er f ul rea so n s n o o n e h a s e v e r b e en a bl e to corr ect it

, .

Th e p r obl em of fi n a l c a u s e s h a s b ee n so m eti m e s fo r m ul a t e d
in t h e followi n g pict u re s q u e form : Th e bi r d h a s wings a n d it ,

fli e s D o e s it fly b e c a u s e it h a s wi n gs or h a s it wings to fly ?
.
,

A s Mg r M er ci er r em a r ks
.
“
this fo rm u l a tio n of t h e p r obl em
,

i s u nfo rt un a t e I t s ee m s to i m ply th a t t h e effici e nt a n d th e

.

fi n a l c a u s e s e xcl u d e e a ch oth er ; a p r i n cipl e which a ll a dvoc a t es

o f fin a lity wo uld un do ubt edly r ej ect .

Th e fin a l c a u s e m a y b e d e fi n ed a s t h e good for t h e s a ke of
M
n

“
M e r ci e r Mé t a p h y s iq u e g énéra l e o u O n to l ogi e p 4 8 1
,
-

, . .
 79

h a s dici m us es s e fi ne m in q ua d

Th efin a l c a us e m a b e consid ere d in ra tion a l a n d irra tio na l . “

be in gs I n ra tion a l b ei n gs it is a know n a n d a cc e pt e d end

.
,

wh ich eterm rn es t ei r p res en a c s 11 1 m 10 . gs 1 1 8 ,

a eon t ro i n a cto r a n a u ra e nd to which th e i r r e sistibly

v
g z y
t end .

T ngs a ct f or a n end a n d it is this en d th a t d et e rm i n es

m
,

th e e n d,

it wo uld b e in diffe rent tow a rds a cti n g in this or th a t wa y a n d ,

co n s e q uently wo uld n ev er begi n to a c t .

Th e e xiste n c e of fi n a l c a u s es th u s d e m o n st ra bl e a p riori m a y
, ,

e q ua lly b e prov e d f ro m e xp e r i e n c e Th e re is lit t l e do ubt th a t

.

consc io us be i n gs a c t wi t h a n e n d in vi e w Th e yo un g m a n wh o .

w a nts to b eco m e a skilf ul physici a n b e gi n s by s t u dyi n g ch em

ist ry a n d a n a to m y ; a ft er w a r d s s ub m i t s t o a l o n g a n d p e rh a p s
wea riso m e co u rs e in a m e dic a l sch oo l ; vol unt a rily a b s t a i n s f ro m
n um b er l e ss en j oy m en ts tow a r ds whi c h h e f ee ls n a t ura lly in
c lin e d b u t which wo u ld div ert h is a t t e n ti o n f r o m t h e go a l h e
,

w a nts to r ea ch ; s p e n ds his d a ys a n d a goo d p a r t of his n ight s

pe r us ing b ulky vol um es which in oth er ci rc um st a n c e s h e wo uld
, ,

r e ga rd a s s o v e re ign ly t e di o us W hy d o es this yo un g m a n s ub m it
.

to s uch a n i rkso m e ta s k ? Wh a t en a bl es h im to th ro w off his

n a t ura l i n dol e nc e ? Si m ply th e e n d h e h a s in vi e w t h e goo d h e ,

p u rpo s es to obta in This good which by its a tt ra ction ex e rcis e s

.
, ,

s uch a pow e rf ul infl uenc e u p o n t h e a ctivity of t h e s t u d e nt is ,

e vi d e ntly a c a us e .

I n unconscio us b e ings th ere e xists a si m il a r d et er m in i n g

,

p rin cipl e Th e a co rn b uri ed in th e gro und t ends to a d e fi n it e

.

en d . I f pl ac e d in a f a vo ra bl e e n viron m e nt i t will not a c t a t ,

ra n do m b ut will inse n sibly a pp r oa ch t h e go a l it h a s b ee n a s

,

sign e d by n a t ure E ve ry s uccee di ng da y will witn e ss a mo re

.

co m pl e te a ct ua li za ti on O f th e oak which a t first ex iste d only in

,

a po te n ti a l form O nly wh en th is end is rea ch ed sh a ll t h e

.

“
Th o ma s A q u i na s Co nt ra G e ntil e s L ib
, , . 3, ca p . 2 .
 80

t en d en cy of th e a corn c ea s e ; o n ly th en sh a ll its fi n a l p u r pos e

b e rea li z e d .

Th es e con sid era tion s fo rcibly i m pose t h e fin a l c a u s e upo n

th e a tt en tio n of t h e philosoph er E v en a m o n g d e f en d er s of
.

m od e r n tho u ght t h e old Schol a stic p r obl em of fi n a l ity r ea p

,

p ea r s I n a r em a r k a bl e e ss a y p u blish e d in th e H ibb ert J o ur n a l

.
,

Mr G eo r ge Hen slow q u it e re c en tly d ev e lop e d a th eo r y a t botto m

.

id en tic a l with t h e t ea chi n g of th e school m en He ga v e to t h e .

”
a lis t h e n a m e of
O ld ca us a
fin di r e ctivity :

S u ppos e a kitt en a n d a yo un g h a wk a re b r o ught u p o n p re

c isely t h e s a m e a n i m a l food both b e i n g c a rn ivo ro u s on e de
, ,

ve lo p s i n to a c a t with f ur h a vi n g bo n es a n d m u scl e s et c of
, , ,
.
,

tot a lly diff eren t ch a ra ct er f r o m thos e of t h e a d u lt h a wk with ,

f ea th er s et c Th e s a m e m ol ec u l e s of food s u ppl i e d t h e m a
,
.

t er ia ls f or t h e b u ildi n g u p of th e i r bodi e s : why a r e t h e r e s u lts

so tot a lly diff eren t ? S O too in a ll a n i m a l s a n d v e get a bl es : why
, ,

sho u l d c er t a i n s ubst a n c es b e gu i d e d to c ert a i n pl a c es— s a lts O f

l i m e to bo n e s silic a to t eeth a n d cl a ws phosph a t e to b r a i n et c
, , ,
.

T h e m ol e c u l e s a r e fi r st driv en a bo u t m e ch a n ic a lly in t h e blood

by c er t a i n fo r c es ; v a r io u s ch em ic a l co m bi n a tion s a r e m a d e un d e r
t h e a cti o n of oth er fo r c e s ; b ut wh a t d i r ects a ll t h e fo r c e s which
fi n a lly i m p el t h e n ew m a d e m ol ec u l es to t a k e up c ert a i n posi
-

tio n s a n d n o oth er s in t h e b u ildi n g u p of a body ? D i r ectivity

i s a u s e f ul wo r d to e x p r e ss t h e f a ct I t co m m its on e to n othi n g .

a s to its so u r c e ; b ut i t a t l ea st s u ppli e s a t er m to e x p r e ss t h e

a n a logy b e tw e en t h e Ch e m ist s m in d a n d N a t u r e s
’
— wh a t ? ” 66 ’

Sci en tists it m a y b e obs er v ed l ea v e fi n a l c a u s es en ti rel y out

, ,

of a cc o un t a n d f ee l littl e m o r e sym p a thy f or effi ci en t c a u s es

, .

I t is th e sci en tific d e v elop m en t of m od ern t i m e s th a t h a s c on

t r ib ut ed m or e th a n a n ythi n g els e to th e a pp a r en t disc r edit of t h e
c a u s a l th eo ry It m ight e v en be a dd e d th a t t h e wilf ul n egl ect
.

of c a u s a l a ctio n h a s b een a m ost effi ci en t f a cto r in t h e d ev elop

m en t o f sci en c e W h y th en sho ul d t h e m et a physici a n cli n g t o
.
, ,

a th e o r y whos e down f a ll h a s b een s u ch a bl e ssi n g to m a n ki n d ?

“
He n s low, D i re cti v ity ; Hi b b er t J o u r na l, Vo l . 6 ( O ct o b e r ,

pp . 1 50 1 5 1
-
.
 C H A P T ER IV

S CHO L AST I C C O SM O LO G Y

S E CTI O N 1 .
—CrI I E E H Y P O TH E S E S a s TO T H E C O N STI TUTI O N OF

MA TTE R

Th e q u estion of t h e con stit u tion of m a tt e r i s on e O f thos e

f und a m ent a l p r obl em s which in t h e co u r se O f h um a n i n v estiga
,

tion h a v e b een m ost wi d ely discu ss e d a n d of which a n a d e q ua t e

, ,

s ol u tion will p er h a ps n ev er b e a tt a in e d I t is on e of thos e q u es

.

tion s b e fore which a ccording to H e rb ert Sp en c er hum a n r ea son

, ,

m u st h um bly con f e ss its pow er l e ss n e ss ; a q u e stion which s eem s

to p r ov e a m yst er y for t h e hum a n m in d a n d to poi n t to t h e
e xist en c e of t h e u n know a bl e in n a t u r e .

A ll a tt em pts a t a sol u tion of thi s g rea t probl em m a y b e cl a ssi

fi e d u n d er two h e a ds : th ey a r e a ll in so m e wa y, c on nect ed j ith
,

t h e two th e o r i e s O f A tom is m a n d Dy n a m ism .

Th e a f om ist l c th e o r y sp r u n g o r igin a lly fro m a nci e nt Gr e ec e .

A ccordi n g to A r i sf otle a n d Theop hf a sf u s I f is to Leucip pfis tlia t

v

we m u st a tt r ib u t e th e hono r of its discov ery B ut a s we k n ow .

,

so l ittl e of L eu cipp u s a n d a s his v er y e x ist enc e h a s e v e n b een

,

c a ll ed i n to dou bt weg enerally c o id

s W ri tu s his ill u s
1
,
n ,

t r iou s discipl e a s t h e fo un d e r of t h e s yst em

,
.

T h e loss of a ll t h e wr i t l n g s O f D em ocrit u s is i n d ee d on e O f
t h e m ost d e plo r a bl e f a cts in t h e hi s to ry of h um a n inv e stig a ti on .

With wh a t b u rn i n g i n te re st wou ld we n ot follow t h e efforts of

his gen i u s to g et r id of t h e u nt en a bl e hypoth es e s of his co n t em
o ie a n d to r ch a s a tisf a ctory e xposition of t h e int rinsic
p ra r s ea

n a t ur e of thin gs ! A n d still d eplo r a bl e tho ugh it b e s u c h a

, ,

loss is u n h a ppily a f a ct ; a n d ou r only s ubsti t ut e for a stu dy of

t h e philosophy of D em ocr it u s i s to tu rn to its p o e tic a l e x p osi
‘
Cf . J oh n B u r n e t , Ea r ly G re e k P h il os op h y p , . 3 50 .

82
 83

ti on ,
as g iv e n by Luc reti us in hi s j ustly a dmi red poem D e
Rer um N a ture .

Th e tom istic th eory h as u nd ergon e in t h e course of tim e

a , ,

m a ny p r ofo und m odi fi ca ti o n s H a rd a tom s a n d a bsol ut e void

.

w ere th e o nl y e l em ents which D em ocritu s su ppo se d to e xist in

na tu r e In re c en t tim e s th ere h a s a risen th e id ea of a u niv er
.
,

sa l m e di um of a fl u i d e v e rywh er e p r e s en t pe n etr a ting a ll b odi e s

, , ,

a n d s e rv ing a s a con n ec tin g link b etw ee n t h e a to m s

-
.

Th e e xi st enc e of t h e e th er is ind ee d o nly a hypoth e sis b ut it

°

is a hypoth esis th a t h a s b een rend er e d ve ry p r ob a bl e by sci en tific

discoveri es ; a n d now it m a y a lm ost b e co n sid ered a s a n est a b
,

lish ed fa ct A t p res en t we will not disc u ss th e p rob a biliti e s in

.

fa vor of ea ch of t h e p a rticu l a r eth er th e o ri e s th a t h a ve b e en

bro ught forw a rd This them e w il l b e f ully t r ea t e d in on e of
.

t h e e ns u ing se ctions O f thi s ch a pte r S uffi c e it to sa y th a t

.
,

a ltho u gh a ll physicists do not a gr ee as to t h e i n h e re n t c on st it u

ti on of eth er they a ll u na ni m o u sly a ffir m its e x ist en c e

,
.

W ig fi ive e m otio n in n a t ure

Sti a m a j o ri ty of thi nk er s did n ot d ee m th ese two e l em en ts
suff icien t to ac co un t f or th e a ctivity which our e ve ryd a y e x p eri
.

e nc e shows u s to e xist in t he un iv e r s e a n d th ere fo re th ey tho ught

,

it indi sp e ns a bl e to i n trod uc e i nto n a tu re t h e e l em en t of fo rc e .

And th us th e theo ry of Dyna m is m ori g in a te d .

We sh a ll re f ra in f ro m p res en ting t h e v a r io u s theo r i e s h eld by

th e a nci ent Gr ee ks which m ight b e t e rm e d dyn a m ic
,
We sh a ll .

not e ven to uch u pon Le ib n i z s f a m o u s doct r in e of m on a ds b u t

’
,

we sh a ll co n sid e r a s t h e true rep rese nta tiv e of Dyn a m is m th e

J es u it Boscovich I . a to m s ,
 84

Schol a stic cosm ology m ight b e d e scr ib e d a s a n i n t erm edi a t e

pos i t i o n b etw een t h e two system s j u st o u tl i n e d Its d e f end er s.

t
'

r epr o a c h a t om l s f s f or d eny i n g a c ti vr y I o n a t u r e a n d co n t e n d
,

o y of e r

Ma tt er a n d F o rm th a t u n re s er v ed sy m p a th etic f eeling wh ere

with I h a v e su bsc r ib e d to so m a n y Schol a stic doct r i n e s I ca n .

not h elp r ega r di n g th e Tho m isti c cosm ology a s a r bit r a ry , a ss a il

a bl e in m a n y po ints , i n co n sist en t with our a dv a n c e d sci en tific
discov er i e s Th e fa ct th a t physics a n d ch em istry u n a ni m ou sly
.

a dh er e to som e for m O f a to m is m is of g rea t sign ific a nc e Scho .

l a stics a re p er fe ctly j u stifi e d in insisti n g on t h e shortcom i n gs

of A tom ism a n d D y n a m ism Th ey a r e r ight wh en th ey a ss ert
.

th a t a ctivity a s w ell a s p a ssivity m u st be a dm itt e d in th e c om

, ,

position of our world U nh a ppily t h e th eory th ey p r opos e do es

.
,

n o t r e st u pon cog en t re a so n s a n d th er e fo re it sho u l d b e fr a n kly

,

r ej e ct e d or m a d e to u n d e r go im po r ta n t m odific a tio n s ‘
,
.

T h e m ost c u r so ry obs er v a tion S chol a stics wo u l d sa y suffice s

, ,

t o show in a ll m a tt er t h e el em en t of q ua n tity A soli d m a y .

b e com e a li q u id a n d a li qu i d a g a s A bo dy m a y b e m a d e to
.

a ss u m e a n i n fin it e n u m b er of fo rm s : its vol u m e m a y b e in

c r ea s e d or d ec rea s e d ; it m a y by ch em ic a l co m bi n a tion a c qu i r e
, ,

a n a t u r e u tt er ly diff er en t f r o m t h e on e it f o rm er ly poss e ss e d ;

b ut in a ll th e s e t r a n sfo rm a tio n s in a ll th e s e f un d a m en ta l
,

On th eoth er h a n we c a nn ot ep 0 in g t h e ea e t st
div er sity in n a t ur e We fi n d in e v ery 0
.
j cet an i mm en se num
 85

be r of p ec ul i a r sp ecific p r ope rti e s We h a v e b e fore ou r eye s

, .

'
t h e g rea t di v is ion of bodi e s into in o rga nic a n d o rga n ic In th e .

in orga n ic rea l m we h a v e solids l i q u ids a n d gas es m eta lloids

, , ,

a n d m e t a ls t h e si m pl e e l em e nts which ch em istry h a s fo un d to

,

e x ist a n d who se n um b e r is d a ily incr ea s e d by sci e n tific re s ea rch

,
.

We h a v e t h e inn um era bl e com bin a tio n s of th ose e l em en ts a n d ,

t h e a pp ea ra n c e in co m po u nd bodi e s of prop e rti e s e ss en ti a lly di f

f eren t f r o m those of th e ir sim pl e constitu en ts .

A n d if we tu rn ou r ey e s to t h e sph ere of lif e i f we co n sid er ,

°

t h e infi n ite ch a in O f liv in g b e in gs f rom th e a m oeb a swi mm i n g

,

in our bl ood to t h e m ore highly d e v e lop e d body of m a n—sub

- - a
,
j e ct s of in e xh a u stibl e r e s ea rch t o t h e sci e n tific m i n d — a r e we

not stru ck with wo n d er a n d a m a z em en t ?

I t i s this oppositio n th a t
s u ch p r op erti e s m us t b e t h e
r es u lt of di ff eren t p r incipl e s .

A noth er a rgum e nt in f a vo r of th e e x ist en c e o f M a tt er a nd

F orm a t l eas t a s stro ngly i n siste d u po n a s t h e o ne we h a v e j u st
,

e xpl a in ed is d e rived f ro m th e s u ppos ed es sen ti a l t ra n s f orm a

,

tions tha t ta k e pl a c e in ch em ic a l co m bin a tio n s : Da n s c c f a it

bi en com pris et sa gem en t i n t erpré t é s a ys Mr N ys e st co n t en ue , .
,

co mm e en germe to ut e la th éo r i e de l Ec ole s ur la n a tu re dcs ’

”2
co r ps .

I n a ch em ic a l co m bin a t ion Schol a stics a re p r o n e

,

is p rov ed beyond a ny do ub t b t h e f a ct tha t th e physic al p rop er

ti es 0 e co m po un d di ff er e ss en tia lly f ro m t hose of th ei r c On
st it u en t e l em ents I t is n o le ss f rue
. ili s f so met hi ng r ema m e ,

z
Ny s , C o s mo ol gi e p , . 170 .
m en t is a lso a s ubsta nt i a l p a r t Of th e co m pound . I t is th e

F r a n cisco Gi n ebra following Thom a s A qu i n a s giv es

, ,
Of Ma t
t er a n d F orm t h e foll owi n g d e fi n itions

M a tter i s th en i n Schol a sti c system t h emassim element

, th e y

of O bj ects It i s th e s a m e in a ll m a t er i a l things which a c q u ire

.
,
W
U “

th ei r d i v er si ty by m ea ns of t h e s ubst a n t i a l fo rm B ut p ri m or d

fl
.

u nit e d to th e substa n ti a l form a n d t h e i n finite v a r i e ty of th e se

m
,

f m e c a u se of a ll th é di f ers1 t we b ehold in n a t ure

" ' "

S E CTI O N 2 ,
—N A TURE A ND P RO PERTI E S OE P RI M O RDI A L MA TTE R
TO h a v e a f a i r i d ea of wh a t Pr im ordi a l Ma tter i s or to -
,

m
sp ea k o e d e fi it ely
r n O f m ,
—
wh a t is ea nt by th a t t erm i s ind eed
a m o s t a r d u o u s t a sk on e whos e diffi c u lty i s e n h a n c e d still f ur
,

th er by t h e u n s ubsta nti a l a n d ind e fi n it e ch a ra ct e r of th e c on c ep

tio n its elf .

This diffi cu lty i s r eco gn iz e d by a ll Schol a stic philosoph ers a n d

f ra n kly a d m itt e d by on e of th e m ost a r d ent sy m p a thi z er s of
p er ip a t eti c philosophy B a r th el em y S a i n t H il a i re :
,
-

As th es e a b s t r a ction s s a ys h e in t h e P ref a c e to his P hys

to ,
“
ic s , t h e m ost diff ic u lt poi n t is to un d er st a n d th em ; b u t o n c e ,

u n d er stood th ey a p pea r n e ith er f a ls e n or u s el ess Th erefo re

,
.
,

i n st ea d of r ej e ctin g this form u l a on e m u st end ea vor to know ,

”4
wh a t it sig n ifi es .

A lbe rt F a rges in his , m ost v a l u a bl e work on th e s ubj ect ,

l’
G in eb r a , E l e m e n t o s de F ilos o fi a , Vo l . 1, p . 2 00 .

S a i n t H il a i re P h y s i qu e P r efa c e p
-
, , , . 38 .
 87
.

d eem s it h elpfu l to giv e us a t fi rst a n ega tiv e d efin ition To

83 w
ha t Pr im o r dia l M “ m e s sy
thing 5
. He th en proc eeds to S how tha t it is nei th e r a sub
’’

sta nc e m
N
m d f h a t for this rea son it c a n n ot fa ll
’ ’

, ,

wi thi n ! re gro up of A ristotl e s c a t egori es ’

.

C an prim o rdi a l m a tte r be

cl sse d c t go i a a s on e O f t he a e r es ?

I t is cl ea r th a t it c a nn ot ; a s it i s n e ith e r a n a tt r ib u te n or a
com pl e te su bsta n c e a n d c a tegori e s do not com p r is e b ut th es e
,

two so rts o f
This p a ss a ge i s of t h e u t m ost im po rt a n c e f or A r istotl e h im ,

se l f un d ers t ood by c a t ego ri e s t h e su p rem e gene ra to which th e

id ea s O f a ll things co uld b e red u c e d a n d t h e s a m e vi e w i s still ,

h eld by Schola stic philo soph er s We a r e th u s led to th e vi ew .

th a t p rim o r di a l m a tt er is not a rea l ity .

a dd uc ed to show how s l en de r wa s t h e foun d a tio n wh ereo n Sch o

,

l a stic cos m ology wa s rea red St Tho m a s A q u i n a s in hi s O p u s. .

,

c ul e entitl e d D e p rin cipals na tur a m a k e s t h e followi n g s ign ifi ’

,

c a nt a sse rtion :
Ma t e ri a dic itu r q uod h a b et e ss e e x eO q uod sib i a dven it q ui a ,
”7
de s e e ss e in com p le t um i mm o null um ,
e s se h a b e t .

I t is h er e cl ea rly st a t e d th a t pri m ordi a l m a tte r not oul h a s

-"
.
c nl D

a n inco m l e te be ing b u t h a s no be in a t a ll
p g , .

In t h e S umm a c o n tra G en tiles th e A nge lic Docto r sp ea ks ,

a g a i n in a lm ost t h e sa m e wa y :

”
Ipsum esse sa ys h e n on es t p rop ri u s a ct u s ma t e r izs
, , sed ,

s u bsta nti ae t otius ; ej us en im a ctu s es t e sse de q ue poss um us ,

di ce re q u od s it E sse a ut em no n d ic itur de m a te ri a se d de
.

Fa rges M a ti ere e t Fo rms p 1 3 8

, , . .

‘
I b id p 1 39
.
, . .

'
Th o ma s A q u i na s De p ri nci pi i s na t urw xx xi in i n it
, , , .

‘
Th oma s A q u ina s S umma co nt ra Ge nti l es lib 2 ca p
, , .
, . 54 .
 88

Oth er si m il a r st a t em en ts a re q u ot e d a n d disc u sse d by D un s

Sco tus I n his t rea tis e D e R eru m P rin cipi o ( Qu aestio VI I ) h e
.
,

w a rn s u s a ga i n st t h e t ea chi n g of a f ew a u tho r s who s eem to

re g a r d p r im o r di a l m a tt er a s a m er e pot en ti a lity witho u t a n

a ct u a l e xist en c e Am o ng t h e philosoph er s h e thu s m entio n s

.
,

we fi n d th e n a m e s of P l a to A r istotl e a n d St A u gu sti n e B ut
, , . .

th e s e wr it er s do n ot a cco r di n g t o Scotu s r ea lly te a ch th a t

, ,

p r im o r di a l m a tt er do es n ot e x i st Th ey sim ply h a v e in m i n d .

t h e f a ct th a t of a ll e x isting thi n gs i t h a s t h e sm a ll e st d egree

, ,

of a ct ua lity .

Scotu s th en p a s s e s to a di re ct p r oof O f t h e exist en c e O f pri

m or dia l m a tt er a n d b r ings two cl a ss es of a r gu m en ts : th e first
,

f r o m a u tho r ity t h e s e con d f r om t h e light of r ea so n

, .

Th e p r oofs t a k e n by h im f r o m r ea so n a re fou r in n u m b er a n d
r ea d th u s :

1 . Si m a t er i a n on e ss e t a liq u a res a ct u ej us en t it a s n on
,

dist in g u er e t u r a b en t it a t e e t a c t u a lit a t e fo rm ae e t sic n ulla m

,
”
r e a l em c om p o s it ion em f a c er et c um ea .

2 .I n te r en s a ctu et n ihil n on est m e di um ; ergo S i m a ter i a

,

p raet er fo r m a m n on h a b et a liq u em a ct um es sen di erit n ihil ; ,

”
e r go a g en s c r ea t um a g er e t de nihilo c u m a g a t de m a t er i a , .

3 .S ec u n d um Ph ilO S Op h os m a te r i a est in pot en ti a a d a l i a ;

,

s e d s e c u n d u m eos n ihil a d n ihil es t in pot en ti a : er go m a t er i a

, ,

u t m a t er i a n on est n ihil ; er go h a b e t a liq u e m a c t um de s e e t si

, ,
”
n on s u b s is t e n t iae, t a m en e x ist en t iae .

“
4 . It em poss e p a ti a d m a t e ria m r edu c it u r si eu t a g er e a d
, ,

fo rm a m ; se d q u od n on es t a li qu id a ct u n on es t p r i n cipi um ,
.

p a t ie n d i n ec,
f u n d a m en t u m ; er go n e c e ss a r io m a t e r i a h a b e t
a c t u a lit a t em a li a m a b a c t u a lit a t e fo r m ae in q u a a ct u a lit a t e ,
”9
f o rm ae f u n da n t u r e t s t a b iliu n t u r , .

Th es e fo u r p r oofs a re sim ply i n t en d e d to d em on str a t e th a t i f ,

we a d m it th e th eory of m a tt er a n d fo rm we m u st r ega r d p ri ,

m or dia l m a tt er a s som ethi n g a ctu a l Th ere is how ev er a n oth er .

, ,

a l t er n a tiv e : t h e r ej e ctio n of t h e th eo r y O f m a tt e r a n d fo rm .

Thi s a lt ern a tiv e unh a ppily D un s Scot u s do e s n ot consid er

, ,
.

‘
Du n s Sc ot us , D e R e ru m P r i n cipi o Q ,
. 7, a rt . 1 .
 90

m a tt er ct ua lly exists c a nn ot fa il t o r ecogn i z e th a t its a ctu a l ity

a ,

i s i n d ee d v ery w ea k a n d e v e n to d r op h e re a n d th ere a word

,

t en di n g to show th a t it h a s rea lly n o a ctu a lity a t a ll .

L et u s now p a ss to a positiv e e xpositio n of t h e n a t u r e a n d

I n th efo regoi n g s e ction of this ch a pt e r we h a v e giv en th e

follow in g d e fi n ition which wo uld b e a cc ept e d by a ll Sch ol a stics
,

Ma tt er i s th e i n co m pl et e m a t er i a l s ubsta nc e which a ct ua te d by ,

~ |M ¢W

is the c a u s e of th e in fi n it e v a ri ety thi n gs : O m n i u m Of m a t er i a l

m i i m m m M
'
f
g eh h r afiih u e t co rr u p t i b l u e st e a d e a t e ri a a tt e r .

a n d f orm on a g u n t of th e i r un isol a bl e ch a r a ct er a r e in c om
, c q ,

l t e s u bsta n c e s a n d i t is f r o m th ei r m u t u a l u n i on a om
p e
fl
,
“ v p o ‘ fl la w n “ o n “
c
c n o m -m

p f é f e co r po r e a l s u b st a n c e s a r is e .

M
W

of which e x per i en c e e vid en c e s t h e a pp ea ra n c e .

Th e f a ct of ch em ic a l co m bi n a tion pl a ys a n i m porta nt p a rt in
Schol a stic cos m ology ; a n d a ltho ugh a f ew M edi aev a l p h ilos o ,

p h e rs s u
, ch a s A lb e rt t h e Gr e a t t a u ght th a t t h e e l em ents re ,

m a i n e d in th e com po u n d a n d on e of t h e gr ea te st a m o n g t h e
,

n e o Schol a stics
-
L ib er a to r e h olds th a t th e th eory of e ss enti a l
, ,

ch a n ge s in ch em ic a l p r oc ess e s i s not n ec e ss a r ily co nn ect e d with

t h e Schol a stic syst em it i s n e v er th el e ss incont r ov ertibl e th a t t h e
,

grea t m a j o r ity O f S chol a stics a d m it in ch em ic a l co m bi n a tions an ‘

e ss enti a l t ra n sfo rm a ti o n a n d we h a v e s ee n h ow Mr N ys b a se s
, .

Th om a s A q u i na s S u mm a Th e o l P
, .
, . 1, Q . 56 .
 91

on this v ery tr a nsfo rm a tion hi s str ongest a rgum ent for th e

e xi st ence of m a tte r a n d form .

A cco rdin g to thi s vi ew oxygen a nd hydrogen do not rea lly

,

exi st in w a te r a s th ere t a k e s pl a c e in t h e a c t of co m b in a tion a

, , ,

rea l ch an ge of n a tu r e Th e o n ly m ea n s of knowi ng t h e tru th

.

in thi s m a tte r is exp eri enc e ; b ut th e m ost pow er f ul m ic r oscop es

show u s in th e p a r ti cl e s O f a co m poun d t h e m ost pe r f ect h ofn o
, ,

g e n e ity a,
n d t h e di ssolv e nts of its si m pl e e l em e n ts h a v e u po n it
no effect wh a tsoe ver Th e a to m istic vi ew th a t a n a to m of w a t er
.

is a m e re j u xta posi t ion of two a to m s of hydrog en a n d on e o f

oxygen i s con se qu ently prono unc e d to b e a r bit ra ry a n d u n sci en
t ifi c a n d u n a bl e to a cco u n t for t h e e ss en ti a l d i ff e ren c e which
,

ex ists be tw ee n a s im pl e m ixt u r e a n d a co m bi n a tio n .

And h ere Fa rges b r ings fo r th th e e x a m pl e of g un powd e r in ,

which th e three el em en ts O f s a ltp et er s ulph u r a n d c a r b o n a re ,

so intim a t ely in t e rm i n gl e d th a t no m ic r o scop e e n a bl e s u s to dis

c e rn th eir pre se n c e Still t h e h et er oge n ei t y of th e c om po u n d

.
,

a n d its ch a r a ct e r of m i x tu re c a n b e s how n by m ea n s O f dis s o l

v ents W a te r disso l v e s sa ltp et er a n d h a s n o eff ect wh a t e v e r

.

u pon s u lph u r a n d c a rbo n ; th en a n oth e r ch em ic a l p r od u ct m a y

e li m in a te su lph u r l e a vi n g c a r b o n in a st a t e of isol a tio n

,
.

On t h e oth er h a n d no di ssolv en t of t h e el e m en t s of a ch em ic a l
,

c o m b in a tion h a s a ny eff e ct u po n t h e co m po un d Its ho m oge ne .

o us cha ra cte r rem a in s u na lt ere d a n d t h e o n ly m ea n s of s e p a

,

ra ting its el em ents i s a n oth e r chemi c a l O p era tio n .

Mr Fa rges e ndows p r i m o rd ia l m a tte r wi th t h e followi ng

.

prope rti es : ind estructibi lity s im plicity of e sse n c e id entity in

, ,

a ll m a t e ri a l s u bsta nc es p a ssivity q ua ntita tiv eness im p enetra

, , ,

b ili ty n ee d of a s ubst a ntia l form

,
12
.

s ee to e xi s t

‘3
C f F rges M ti e
. a , a re e t Fo r me , 2 . P a rti e p
, . 1 43 H
.
 92

I t is id e ntic a l in a ll m a t er i a l s u bst a n c es which a s we h a v e , ,

s een a re di st in gui sh e d f r om one anoth er B

, y m ea n s of t h e sub
s t a n t ia l fo rm P ri m ordi a l m a tt e r is th e r e for e t h e pri n cipl e of
.

a ll th a t wh i c h i s co mm o n t o a ll m a t er i a l su bs ta nc e s n a melj ,
W
e x t e n sio n divis ib ilit i n r a b ilit q ua n tit et
, c .

I n a ll O b j e cts i t co n stit u t e s th e p a ssiv e p r i n ci l e , t h e p ri n

,
p
p r t ia rm is th e p r i n cipl e
ci p ic of i e , fo
O f a ctivity .

Fi n a ll y, p r im o r di a l m a tt er not b e ing a bl e to e x ist in a st a t e

,

of i sol a tion st a n ds
, , W
t h e s a m e Tacit I n nee d of a su bsta n f i al ,

Th e m o re l v t d in t h e hi er a r chy of b e ings t h e form is

e e a e ,
“
s a ys F a rg e s t h e m o re m u st m a tt er b e p r ep a re d by a s er ie s of
,

i n t erm e di a t e fo rm s which gr a d u a lly dispos e a n d el e v a t e it

A n d this is t ru e in t h e o r d er of physic o—
, .

ch emi c a l ph en om en a a s
w ell a s in t h e biologic a l o r d er A n d in n o ca s e co u ld disp ro .

or t ion a t e e l e m e n ts b e u n it e d a s f or e x a m pl e a h u m a n so u l
p , , ,
” 3
with t h e o r g a n i sm of a n a p e .
1

Th u s f a r we h a v e spok en of p r i m o r di a l m a tt er in a g en er a l
wa y witho u t t a ki n g i n to a cco un t th e v a r io u s divi sio n s gi v en by
,

Schol a stic philosoph er s both in th e M iddl e A g e s a n d in our own

,

da y . We do n ot thin k th e s e divisio n s i n disp ens a bl e to a thor

o ugh co m p rehe n s io n O f t h e th eo ry a n d n eo Schol a stics a re ,
-

u n a n i m o u s in co n sid er i n g m a n y of th em a s u s el e ss s u btl eti e s .

We c a nn ot how e v er a bst a i n f r o m en um era ti n g th e m ost i m po r

, ,

t a n t a m o n g th em a n d we fee l co n fid en t th a t s u ch a n en um era
,
-

tio n will giv e a m o re co m p reh en siv e vi e w of Schol a stic tho ught ,

a n d ea sily m a k e u s u n d er st a n d t h e d r ift of th a t t ea chi n g .

Th e fi r st divi s io n wh ich su gge sts its el f i s th a t of p r i m o r di a l

a n d s e co n d a r y m a tt er .

1“
F a rge s M a ti ere
, et F o rm e p
, . 1 47 .
 94

B ut t h e division s of m a tt er which show M edi aev a l s ubtl ety a t

its b est a re to b e fo un d in Dun s Sc otu s .

A sin g ul a r vi ew on this subj e ct h a d a l rea dy a pp ea re d in th e

el e v en th c en tury Th e c el e b ra t ed J ewish philosoph er I b n
.
,

G a b ir ol h a d a dv a n c e d in hi s p r i n cip a l wo r k F ons Vi t ae a st a r t
, , ,

li n g th e o ry O f u n iv er s a l m a tt er a cco r di n g to which a ll sub ,

st a n c e s spi r it ual a s w ell a s m a t eri a l w ere to b e rega r d e d a s

, ,

com pos e d of m a tt er a n d form 16

Thi s st ra nge doct r i n e wa s .

l a t er on a d opt e d by som e C h r isti a n writ er s a n d b ec a m e on e of

th e l ea di n g ch a ra ct er i stics of t h e F ra n cisc a n school .

A lm ost two cen tur i e s a ft er th e d ea th of I b n G a b irol th e first ,

F ra nci sc a n t ea ch er of th eology in th e U n iv er sity O f P a ris ,

A l ex a nd e r of H a l es ex p ressedly t a ught in his S u m m a T h eolog ice

,

th a t spi r it ua l su bst a n c e s a re com pos e d of m a tt er q uae n ec est

”1 7
su b j e c t a m ot u i n e c c on t ra r ie ta t i Th e s a m e vi e w wa s m a i n .

t a in ed by St B o n a v e n t u r e 18
. a n d a lso by D u n s S cot u s ,

Eg o t a d p o sit i on em A vic em b r on i r e d e o ; e t p r i m a m
a u em

p a rt em scilic et q u od in om n ib u s crea t is p er se sub sist en t ib u s

,

t a m c or p or a lib u s q ua m s p ir it u a lib u s sit u n a m a t er i a t en o sicu t

q , ,

oste n si in p rwc eden t i q uaest ion e ” 9

.
1

W ith th a t disti n gui shi n g s u btl ety which fo rm s t h e ess enti a l

ch a ra ct er i s tic of his philosophy D un s Scot u s i n t rod u c es a n ew ,

divisi on of t h e m a teria p r im e ; He divid e s it i n to m a t er ia

r im o- r im a , m a t eria s ecu nd o- p r ima , a nd m a t er ia t er ti o-p ri ma
p p .

Th e m a t eria p r im o p r im a -
,
or m a t eria m eta p h y s ica ,
s eem s to
be id entic a l with t h e u n iv er s a l m a tt er of I b n G a b ir ol a nd Of th e
F ra n cisc a n t ea ch er s I t is a bsol u t ely ind e t erm i n a t e
. a nd e xists
in a ll b e i n gs i n corpo r ea l a s w ell a s corpor ea l
,
.

Th e m a t eria s ecu n do-

p r im a , or m a teria m a th ema tica , is de
fin e d as th e s u bj e ct of gen era tion a nd corr u ption
1°
F on s Vi t m V 2 1 , , .

C f Tu r n e r H i s t o ry o f P hil o s o p h y p 3 2 7
.
, , . .

I n 2 S e n t D is 3 P 1 a rt 1
. .
, .
, .
, . .

D uns Sc o t u s D e Re rum P r i n ci p i o Q 8 a rt
, , .
, . 4; O p e ra , Vol 4 ,
. p . 37 8 .
 95

Es t j
su b ec tu m g en era t ion is et c orr up t ion is, q ua m m u ta nt
”2°
a g enti a crea ta ,
se u A n geli se u a gentia c orr up t ib ilia .

Th e ma teria t er t io pr ima is -
d e fi n ed as th e m a tte r of a ny p a r

t ic ula r n a t ur a l a ge nt :

“
Dic it ur t a u em
ma te ri a te rtio pri m a m a te ri a c uj usc um q ue -

a rtis et m a t e r i a c uj u slib e t a g en t is n a tu r a l is p a rt ic u la r is
, qu i a ,

omn e ta l e a git velut i de a liq u o se m in e q u od q ua m vis m a t e ri a ,

p r im a sit respec t u o m ni um q uae p er a r te m p rodu cun tur sup , ,

ponit ta m en m a teriam q ues e st sub j ec t um g en era t ion is et ul t e

, ,

r i u s a li q ua m fo rm a m pe r n a tu ra m prod u cts m a lit er n u ll a a rs ,

”2 1
q u i dq u a m ope ra tu r .

To sum u p in a f ew wo r ds :

Th e m a t eria p rim a-p r im a , or m eta physic a l m a tt er co n stit u t e s ,

t h e p a ssiv e pr incipl e of a ll finit e b e ing s s pi r it ua l a s w ell a s

,

m a t e ri a l
—
.

Th e m a ter ia is t h e p a ssiv e principl e of c or

s ec u nd o p i
rm a

re a l s ubsta nce s o n ly a n d is c a ll e d m a t h em a tic a l b e c a u s e i t

p o ,

is t h e b a s e of e xt en sio n a n d q ua n tity .

Th e m a t eria t ert io p r ima i s t h e m a tt er of t h e pl a in m a n a n d

-
,

doe s not diff er f rom wh a t we h a ve el sewh e re t erm e d se co n d a ry

m a tte r .

S E CTI O N 3 ,
—N A TURE A ND P RO P ERT I ES or THE S UB S T A NT I A L

r m f —L /
fi W rW Eyyyh e re b u t is
,
f oun d with a rea e r
g t
or l e ss d eg ree of p erf ection ac cord in g to th e exc ell enc e of th e
be ing i t constitu tes There i s th e re fore a co untl ess m ultitu d e
.

an
Duns Sco tus , De Re ru m P r i n ci p i o Q , . 8, a rt . 3 .

I bid .
, i bid .
 96

I n org a n ic bodi e s poss ess fo rm s of th e low est o r d er a n d we ,

r ea é m o re p er ec o rm s a s we a s een m e sea e of b e i n s .

I n t h e v eget a bl e kin dom th e form i s t h e ve eta t ive so u l a lso ,

c a ll e d t h e p r i n ci le of l if e in a n i ma ls it i s th e s en sitiv e soul
:

f a r m o r e p er f e ct m a t er i a l how e v er a n d doo m e d to p er ish w

,
ith
t h e a n im a l f ra m e t o which it i s j oi n e d I n m a n t h e s u bst a n ti al
.
,

o u gh ch a n gea bl e in its O p era tion s a n d c a p a bl e

of d ev elop m en t it i s a s to its e s se n c e a b sol u t ely i mm u t a bl e a n d
, , , ,

by cons e q uen c e d e sti n e d to co nti n u e in e x ist en c e th r ou ghou t a ll

,

e t ern ity .

B e sid es t h e su bsta n ti a l form Schol a stics a d m it a ccid enta l

,

th e com pl et e s ubst a nc e .

I n t h e fo r egoi n g s e ction we h a v e a l r ea dy hi n t e d a t so m e of
,

t h e p r op er ti e s O f t h e s u bst a nti a l form We h a v e spok en of th e .

h i era r chy of form s co rre spon di n g t o th e v a r i ou s d eg re e s of p er

,

f e ct ion in p r i m o r di a l m a tt er We h a v e a lso s een th a t wh erea s

.
,

m a tt er i s in a ll thi ngs th e p a ssiv e p r i n cipl e t h e s ubst a n ti a l ,

W
fo r m is th e p r i n ci pl e of a ctivity :

Th e fi r st e ss en ti a l a ttr ib u t e O f t h e fo rm is to b e th e p r i n ci
l n d t h e so u r c e of t h e a ctivity or e n er gy which we fi n d in
p e a
”2 2
co r po r ea l su bst a n c es n ow in pot en cy n ow in a ctu a l op era tio n
, ,
.

es O f the su bsta nti a l fo rm , th dm ost

i n fer re d from th e e xpositio n

giv en in t h e p r ec e din g s e ctio n Lik e pri m o r di a l m a tte r th e
.
,

s ubst a n ti a l fo rm do e s n ot a n d c a n n ot ex ist by its elf in n a t u r e :

Th e m a t er i a lfo rm h a s a n i nn a t e n ee d a n d if su ch a fi g ure , ,

b e a llow e d a n a t u r a l d es i re
, a pp et it u s n a t u ra lis
, f or m a tt er
’
,

b ec a u s e a cco r di n g to t h e will of th e C r ea to r i t c a nn ot e x ist

, ,

”
F a rg e s M a ti ere
, et F orm e p
, . 1 26 .
 98

a d c orp us which will b e s uffi ci ent to distingu ish th em fro m oth er

so uls .

Th e i i g prop er ty of t h e s ubsta nti a l form i s its s im

r em a n n

li it I t h a s b e en r em a r k e d th a t pri m ordi a l m a t te r a ltho u gh

p c y .
,

i t i s t h e p r fn c ip le of qu a ntity a n d divisib il ity poss e ss es a c ert a i n ,

si m pl icity It is si m pl e i n its e ss enc e a n d e ss enti a lly m u ltipl e

.

in its p a rts Th e s ubsta n ti a l fo rm i s lik ewi s e si m pl e i n its

.

e ss e nc e b u t , ,

O n thi s poi n t a n e x pl a n a tio n s eem s how e v e r i n dispe n s a bl e , , .

A ll m a t er i a l b e i n gs f a ll u nd er two grea t cl a ss es : th ey a re e ithe r

org a n ic or i n o rg a n ic A n o rga n i c b ei n g is a d m itt e d by a ll Scho
.

la st ics to b e r ea lly on e ; h en c e it poss e ss es b u t on e form ; b ut

i n orga n ic b eings a re n ot en dow e d with t h e s a m e ch a ra ct er o f
u nity Th ey a re m er ely a gg rega t es of si m pl e p a r ts c a ll e d m ol e
.
,

c ul e s or a t om s ea ch of which h a s its own in di vi d ua l e xist en c e

, .

It is th ere fo re to t h e m ol ec u l e or to th e a to m th a t th e si m plicity
O f form b e lo n gs .

S i m plicity of fo rm u n d er st oo d in this m a n n er h a s been u na ni

m ou sly a cc e pt e d in th e school ; b u t a c erta in n u m b er of ph iloso
h e s h a v e tho u ght it n e c e ss a ry to a d m it in o r g a n i c b e ings som e
p r

su bo r di n a t e fo rm s d e stin ed n ot to d estroy t h e si m plicity which

,

th e s u bsta nti a l fo rm poss e ss e s b u t to giv e m o r e co n si st ency to,

so m e poi n ts which in th e o r di n a ry Schol a stic doct r in e s eem ed

, ,

to b e i n co n si ste nt .

Th e doct r in e of t h e pl u ra lity of fo rm s wa s m a int a in e d by

H en ry of Gh en t He a dm itte d in m a n b e sid e s th e ra tion a l
.
,

soul a su bo r di n a t e fo rm which h e n a m e d for ma c orp or eita tis

, ,

or m ix tionis a n d to which h e a tt r ib u t e d t h e f u nction of ca usi n g

,

t h e gr ea t v a r i ety of our o rga n s a n d t h e s ub sta nti a l orga n iz a tion

of m a tte r He prov e d its e xist enc e by th e follow ing a rg um ent :
.

A li ter eni m n ihil hom o in gen era tio ns hom in is g en e ra r et

sub st a n ti a le, se d t a n tu m m odo

”
Q uodl ibe t , 1 1 1, 1 6 . Of . Tu rne r H i s t o ry
, of P hi l os o p hy , p . 385 .
 99

Th is for ma c orp or ei ta tis was sa i d to e xist in th e em bryo be

fore t h e a ppea ra nc e o f t h e spirit ua l soul a n d to cont in ue to ,

e xist in th e body a ft e r d ea th un til d eco m positio n ta k e s pl a ce

,
.

N ot long a ft e rw a rds th e sa m e doctr in e wa s ren d ere d f am ou s

by Dun s Scot u s Th is s u btl e th ink er m a inta i n ed th a t t h e sub
.

s ta n ti a l fo rm d e t e rm in e s m a tt er to a m ode of b e i ng b u t doe s ,

n ot d ete rmi n e it pe r fectly a n d l ea v e s in it a ce rta in pot en ti a lity

, ,

or a ptitu de for a hi gh er form A n d wh en m a tt er a rr iv e s a t th e .

po sse ssio n of thi s higher form t h e i n fe ri o r fo r m con ti n u e s to ,

be p re se n t ; so th a t th e m o r e p er fe ct t h e m a tte r is t h e gr ea te r
, ,

”
th e pl ur a li ty of form s w ith which it is en dow ed .

Th e sa m e vie w a p pe a re d in a m o re or l ess m od ifi e d form in

, ,

l a t er Schol a sti c tho ught Les s ius Con ni n ck M a yr a n d oth ers

.
, ,

a d m itt e d in a n i m a ls a c e rta i n n um b er O f p a r ti a l fo r m s which ,

th ey ca ll e d fo rm s o f t h e bon e s of t h e fl es h of t h e e y e s et c , , ,
.

They si m ila rly spok e of th e f orm s O f l ea v es a n d roots in pl a nt s .

H ow e v e r th e gr ea t m a j or ity of Schol a stic s followin g S t

, ,
.

Tho m a s t ea ch th a t livi n g o rg a n is m s c a nn ot po s s e s s m ore th a n

,

on e s ubsta n ti a l form Th ey a sse r t th a t t h e for ma c orp or c i ta tis

.

is im possibl e a n d u n n ece ssa ry .

I t i s im possibl e b ec a u se if it w e r e a s ubst a n ti a l fo rm a n im a t
ing th e body b e fo re t h e a pp ea ra n ce of t h e sp irit u a l so ul a s its ,

s upporte rs m a inta in th e spi r itu a l so ul in a s m u ch a s it wo uld

, ,

th us be unite d to a s ubst a nc e a l rea dy co m pl et e could n ot be a ,

s ubsta nti a l b ut only a n a ccid en ta l fo rm

, .

It is un n ece ssa ry be ca u se a ccordi ng to Schol a stic philosophy

, , ,

a form o f a hi gh e r o r d er gives t o th e m a tt e r to which it i s j o in e d

not onl y t h e ch a ra c te ri s ti c prop e rti es it posses ses by its n a tu re ,

b ut a l so a ll prope rti es be longin g to t h e fo rm s o f a low e r ord e r .

O ur sp iri t ua l so ul for in sta n ce g ive s us n ot o nly spiri tua l f ac ul

, ,

ti es b ut a lso the sen siti ve f a c ul ti es of th e brute a nd th e v eget a

,

"
ti v e li fe O f t h e pl a n t .

Th is e xpos iti on of th e th eory of th e s ub st a ntia l form d em an d s

C f Dun Sc t u D Re um p i nci pi Q 8 rt 4
fl
”
. s o s, e r r o, .
, a . .

C f U b u u Co m pe ndi um P hi l oso p hi Sc h ol t icm

. rra r , c as , Vo l 4,
. pp . 29 .
 1 00

as a com pl em ent a f ew words a bo u t a form u l a often m et with

in Schol a stic trea tis e s : F orm a e duci tu r e p o t en tia m a t er ia

fl
.

W ith t h e e xc eption Of t h e h um a n so ul a ll subst a nti a l form s ,

a r e i trin SI c a lly d e p en d en t on m a t t er, a n d f or ! hi s r ea so n a re

'
‘

, ,

s u bsta n ti a l T h es e fo rm s a r e not c rea t e d in a sm u ch a s c r ea tion

W m
.

” — -'
,

tiOI I of a b ei n g fro m nothing a n d su bst a nti a l fo rm s

‘

i s th e p r oduC
' ' I

a r e p r o d u c e d ou t of p r e exist i n g m a tt e r N ow obs er vi n g wh a t .
,

occ ur s in subst a n ti a l ch a n ge s we see th a t in o r d er th a t t h e, ,

ch a n ge m a y t a k e pl a c e it m u st b e a ccom p a n i e d by som e d e t er
,

m i n a t e co n ditions O n t h e a pp ea ra n c e of th e s e conditions a
.

n ew s u bst a n c e is p r od u c e d This m od e o f p r odu ctio n is wh a t

.

S chol a stics c a ll e d u ctio n ou t of t h e pot en cy of m a tt er 28

Th e .

S pi r it u a l so u l a lo n e is n ot e d u c e d in this m a nn er B e i n g by its .

n a tu re Spi r itu a l it i s i n t r i n sic a lly ind ep en d en t O f th e body a n d

,

i s c rea t e d i m m e di a t ely by God .

S E CTI O N 4 ,
—M O DERN S CI E N CE A ND THE C O N S TI TUTI O N OF

MA TTE R
I t is o n ly with t h e gr ea t est r es er v e th a t on e c a n en t er on dis
c u ssi n g th e con stitu tio n of m a tt er S o m a n y b r ill i a n t m i n ds .

h a v e g ra ppl e d with this st u p en dou s p r obl em o n ly to giv e u p its ,

sol u tio n in d e sp a i r th a t m a n y think it a m ere w a st e of ti m e to

,

t ry to d ra g N a t u r e s s ec r e t from h er p en t u p boso m
’
-
.

S u ch a p roc e e di n g how e v er is b u t th e position of d esp a i r

, ,

a n d c a n h a r dly b e j u stifi e d .

A n y e x isti n g thi n g c a n b e u n d er stood b e c a u s e t o u nd er sta nd ,

( i n t us leg ere
) is to kn ow a th i n g a s it is to r e a d its m ost inti ,
~

m a te n a t ur e I t is not m ea n t by thi s a ss er tion th a t in our

.
,

a ct u a l co n ditio n we ca n b e o m nisci en t
,
T hi n gs which do n ot .

f a ll with in t h e sph ere of our e xp er i en c e will fo re v er r em a in

u n kn ow n to u s ; b u t i n t h e constit ut ion of th is m a t er i a l wo rld
, ,

C f Th
. oma s A qu i na s ,
De P ot e nti a Q , . 3, a rt . 8 .
 1 02

n othi n g th e i r sum will a l so b e no t hing a n d no ill u sion O f con

, ,
“

t in u o u s l ett er s will b e possibl e This is p recis ely wh a t t a k es

.

pl a c e in B oscovich s s y st em H is c ent ers O f fo r c e e ith er a re in

’
.

c on t a ct with on e a n oth er or th ey a re not : I f th ey a re they ,

c o pe n e t r a t e on e a n oth er
-
a n d th er e i s no e xt en sion
,
I f th ey .

a r e not — b e side s t h e f a ct th a t th e so c a ll e d h eresy of di st a nc e

-

a ctio n n n —
is th e i volv e d we h a v e a s eri e s O f points non e of ,

whi ch h a s ext en sion ; a n d a s ea ch on e in so f a r a s ext en sion is

,

c on c ern e d is th u s n othing ; a s b etw een them th er e is only void

,

S p a c e which is e qu a lly n oth in g we c a nn ot co n c eiv e how fro m

, ,

t h e u n ion O f thos e co u ntl e ss nothi n gs a so m ethi n g—e v en a s a n

ill u sio n — c a n a r is e .

Th e a to m istic th e o r y pr e s en ts lik ewis e a l a rg e n um b er O f dif

fi c u lt ies th a t b a ff l e ou r pow er s of O bs er v a tion a n d r ea so n i n g a n d
l ea v e u s f a c e to f a c e with th e d rea df u l sight of ou r u tt er in s ig
n ifi c a n c e . Me re a tom s in t h e un iv er se O f m a tt er we took prid e ,

in ou r i n t ell ect u a l o m n ipot en c e We look e d on t h e town s we

.

h a d b u ilt t h e r iv e rs we h a d sp a n n e d t h e oc ea n s we h a d c r o sse d
, ,
.

We sa w with d elight th un der a n d lightn i n g yi eld to ou r c a p r ic e .

We th en c a ll e d o ur s elv e s t h e ki n gs a n d lor ds o f N a ture Un .

d ece ive thys elf 0 m a n ! thy body i s b u t a n a tom a n d thy m i n d

,

is pow erl ess T h e lowli e st f a ct O f n a t u re i s f or th ee a m yst ery

.
,

a n d t h e m o r e tho u sh a l t st u dy t h e m o re cl ea r ly sh a lt tho u s ee
,

th a t ign o ra n c e is thy d e sti n e d l ot .

A n ci en t A to m ism a d m itte d nothi n g b ut a to m s a n d void sp a c e .

I n o r d er to a void t h e a ss um ption of dista n c e a ctio n th e hyp o ,

th e sis O f a fl u i d c a ll e d eth er wa s s ubs eq uen tly introd u c e d A .

m er e hypoth esi s a t fi r st wh en invok e d to e xpl a i n onl y t h e p h e

,

n om e n a of light t h e th e o ry o f e th er wa s st r en gth en e d a l m ost

,

i n d e fi n it ely wh en Cl er k M a xw ell sh ow e d th a t t h e ph en om e n a O f
t h e el ect r om a gn etic fi el d c a n b e expl a i n e d b y a n e th er iden tic a l
in n a t ure with t h e l um in if er o u s m edi um .

Th e g rea t discov e ry of t h e E n glish sci en tist wa s Still f u r t h er

co n fi rm e d by t h e ex p erim en ts of H ert z who d et ec te d t h e exist ,

en c e a n d m e a s u r e d t h e sp ee d of t h e e l e c t ro m a gn e tic w a v e s th u s
-
,
 1 03

la ying foun da tion u pon which t h e ed ifi c e of w ir el ess tel eg

th e
”
ra p h y h a s r ecently bee n e rec ted .

Th e re seem s th us n ot to be th e sli ght est do ubt a s to th e e xist

en c e of e th e r B ut i f we a dv a n c e one ste p f u rth e r a n d try to
.
,

inv es ti ga te its i nh er ent con stitu tion we will fi n d o urs elves in ,

vol ve d in d a rkn e ss a n d cond em n ed to n es ci e nc e .

So m e physicists h a v e re ga rded e th er a s co m pos e d of m in u te

p a rticl es of a so rt of a tom s in fi nit esima l in co m p a r i so n with
, ,

those of o rdin a ry m a tter b ut still a tom s This vi e w was h eld ,

.

by Lord K elvin by Wh eth a m a n d ta k en a s t h e c u rr en t e th e r

al
, ,

th eo ry by H e rb ert Sp en ce r who ga ve it a s a p r oof of t h e n u ,

k n ow a bl e ch a ra ct er of th e rea li t y which s urr o un ds us in n a t u re 32

.

T h e sa m e vie w h a s b e e n d e fen d e d in F e b ru a ry 1 9 0 7 by Mr , ,
.

Véro nn et in t h e Revu e de P h i los op h ie

,
T hes e a re Mr Vé ro n . .

’
n e t s words :

T h e e l ectr ica l th e o ryoblige s u s to redu c e m a tte r a n d i t s

phe no m en a to a syst em of a tt ra ctiv e a n d re p u l s iv e c e n t r a l forc e s ,

ca ll e d e l ectrons Th ese fo rc e s a re oblig ed to a c t a t d ista n c e

.
,

in as m u ch a s th ey a re fo un d in th e a to m ic or g r a n u lo u s sta te .

Th e y fo rm disco n ti nu ou s c en t er s a n d e th e r itse lf i s co n stitut e d ,

by

I t is cl ea r th a t a s a n e x pl a n a tio n O f di s ta n c e a ctio n eth er

, , ,

th us u n d e rstood si m ply shifts t h e q ue stio n I f i t is co m pos e d

, .

of m i n u t e p a rticl e s th e s e e ith er m u st b e se p a ra te d b y a b sol u t e

,

void a nd we a re th us b ro ught b a ck to ou r s ta rti ng poi n t or th ey

,
-
,

dem a nd a s ec o n d eth er to e xpl a i n t he first a n d we m u st a dm it ,

a n i nfi n ity of s im i l a r fl u ids O f which ea ch a n d a ll a re a bsol u te ly

,

va l ue l e ss a s a n inte rpr e ta tion of dista n ce ac tio n .

Th e op pos ite vi e w m o re ge n e ra lly m a in ta i ne d n ow a d a y s is

, ,

th a t eth er is not comm ed of a tom s sep a ra te d by void s p a ce ,

b ut is itse l f a b s ol u t ely c ontin uo us Thi s conc e ption is re pea t .

”
Cf . W het ha m , Rece nt De ve l o p me nt of Phy s i ca l Sc ie nce , p . 2 70 .

” I bid .
, p . 292 .

."
Cf . S pe n ce r F i rs t P r i ncipl es P t 1
, , .
, Ch a p . 3, se ct . 18 .

”
La ma ti ere le s i o ns les ele ct ro ns ;
, , Re v . dc P h i los .
, 1 90 7 , p . 1 56 .
 1 04

e dly xp re sse d by J oseph

e La rm or, in hi s f a m ou s work : E th er
an d Ma tter

A ll th a t i s k nown ( or p erh a ps n ee dkn ow n ) of th e aeth er be

itse l f m a y b e fo rm u l a t e d a s a sch em e of di ff er enti a l e q ua tion s
de fi ni n g t h e p r op ertie s of a contin uum in sp a c e which it wou ld ,

b e g ra t u itou s to fu rth er expl a in by a n y c om pl i ca tion of stru e

”3 4
tu r e .

Th es a m e conc e ption i s a l so en t e rt a in e d by Sir Oliv er Lodge ,

who s um s u p in th e followi n g words his own vi e w on th e su bj e ct

As f ar as we k n ow
it ( e th er ) a pp ea rs to b e a p erf ectly
,

hom ogen e o u s i n com pre ssibl e contin u ou s body i n c a p a bl e of b eing ,

r e solv e d i n to si m pl e r e l em en ts or a to m s ; it is in f a ct co n tin u
, , ,
”3 5
ou s n ot m ol e c u l a r
, .

N ow is thi s s eco n d vi ew in a n y wa y m o re s a ti sf a cto ry th a n

,

t h e fi r st ? O u r k n owl edg e o f n a t u re sh ows u s th a t th e e ss en ti a l

diff er enc e ex isti n g b etw ee n solid s l i qu ids a n d ga s es i s due to
, ,

t h e g rea t e r or l ess d egr ee of cont in u ity of th e i r stru ctu r a l p a r

t ic les I n t h e ga s eo u s st a t e a m ol ecu l e f ree ly p a ss e s f r o m on e
.

m ol ec u l a r syst em i n to a noth er A di m in u tio n of t em p era t ur e

.

l e ss en s th e vib ra to ry m otion of t h e m ol ec u l es which a re th en ,

r e d u c e d to a d e fi n it e syst em a n d a r e li m it e d in th e ir m otion by
,

t h e m ol e c u l e s s ur r o un di n g th em Th e r e su lt is th e l i q u id st a t e
. .

A f u rth er d e c rea s e of t em p era t u re d ra ws t h e m ol e c u l e s still

n e a re r to on e a n oth e r E a ch on e e n t er s t h e sph ere of a ctio n of
.

t h e oth e r s losi n g th ereby t h e possibility of t ra n sl a to r y m ov e

,

m en t a n d b e co m i n g li m it e d to o r bit a l m otio n
, A m a t eri a l .

obj e ct b e co m e s th ere fore m or e a n d m o re sol id in proportion a s

its co nti n u ity i n c rea s e s I f eth er b e p er f ectly conti n u ou s it
.
,

m u s t b e i n com p a ra bly m o r e soli d th a n a ny oth e r obj ect Th a t .

thi s is n ot th e c a s e is a l m ost a n e vid en t tru th in a sm u ch a s i f ,

e th er w er e en dow e d with s u ch a d eg r ee of sol idity it i s inc on ,

c e iva b le how m ov em en t in i t wo uld b e p ossibl e .

“
L a r m o r , ZE t h e r a nd M a tt er p 7 8
, . .

Lo d ge , M o d e rn V i ews o f E l e ct r icity p , . 39 6 .
p u s c les w ere show n to b e id e ntic a l wh a t e v er m ight be t h e n a t ure
of th e t u b e or o f th e g a s it c ont a i n e d Va st wa s t h e fie l d op en ed
.

to sci en c e by thi s a sto u ndi n g r ev el a tio n Th e n ewly discov ere d .

-

corp u scl e s w ere fo un d to b e a to m s of el ectri city w e re c a ll e d el ec ,

t r o n s a n d r ecogn i z e d a s t h e long sought for u lti m a t e b a sis of

,
- -

m a tte r a s t h e sub a to m s which g r ou p e d in v a r io u s w a ys giv e

,
-
, ,

r is e to t h e ch em ic a l a to m s of a ll m a t e ri a l obj e cts .

T h e e xist en c e of t h e e l ect r o n s h a s b een r ep ea t e dly e vid en c e d

by e x p er i en c e a n d it h a s rec e ive d a st r o n g co n firm a tio n by th e
,

r ec en t discov ery of r a dio a ctiv e s ubsta n c e s-

.

Th e fi rs t obs er v a tio n s on ra dio a ctivity w e r e m a d e by B ec

-

q uerel who in
, ,
discov er e d th a t c om po un ds of u ra n i um
a ff e ct photog ra phic pl a t e s th r o u gh a n op a q u e cov er i n g Th e .

l a bo r s of Mr a n d Mrs C u r i e of Mr Ruth er fo r d a n d oth er dis

. .
,
.
,

t in g u ish ed m en of sci en c e h a v e th r own t h e d e si r e d light on t h e

,

s u bj ect .

I t i s n ow w ell k n ow n th a t u ra n i u m ra di um tho r i u m a n d a
, , ,

f e w oth er m et a ls co n st a n tly e m it th r ee typ e s of r a ys k n own a s ,

t h e a B a n d y ra y s
, ,
Th e B r a ys h a v e b ee n m ost su cc e ssf u lly
.

s t u di e d a n d a r e k n ow n to co n si st of n eg a tiv e corp u scl e s

,
or ,

e l e ct r o n s p r oj ect e d with t h e v elocity of light

,
Th e a r a ys h a v e . .

b ee n show n to co n sist of positiv ely ch a r ged bodi e s p r oj e ct e d ,

wi th a v elocity of a bo u t on e t enth of th e v e locity of light Th e .

y r a ys a re th e o n ly o n es whos e n a t ur e is n ot y e t f u lly k n own .

T h e r e su lts of e x p er i e n c e i n cli n e u s to b e li e v e th a t th ey a r e
a n a logo u s t o Ro n tg en r a ys a n d co n sist of w a v e p u ls e s t r a v el ing -

th r o ugh e th e r with i n c re dibl e v elocity .

Th e stu dy of r a dio a ctiv e s ub st a nc e s h a s a lso m a d e know n th e

-

f a ct th a t n ot o n ly a to m s a re divisibl e a n d com pos e d of el e ct r o n s ,

b u t th a t r ea l ch a n g e s t a k e pl a c e in t h e a tom s th em s el v e s by a ,

p r oc ess of disin tegr a tion follow e d by a re gro u pi n g of th e el ec

,

t r on s a n d th a t n ew s ubst a n c e s thu s a ri se from e l em ents ch em

,

ic a lly si m pl e .

Fr o m ura n i um a n d tho r i um prod u cts h a v e b een obta in ed ,

co n sid era bly m ore a ctiv e th a n thos e m et a l s them s el v es To th es e .

 1 07

ne w su bsta nce s th e s of ura ni um X a nd thori um X h a ve

na m e - -

been given B ut fu rth er obse rv a tion h a s sho wn tha t th ese

.

highly a ctiv e products littl e by li ttl e lose th eir a ctivity a n d th a t ,

t h e m e ta ls fr o m which th ey w e re obta in e d rega in a t t h e sa m e

ti m e th e en ergy th ey h a d tem po ra rily lost .

Th ese in te r esting phen om en a ha ve bee n expl a in ed by th e fa c t

th a t a ll ra dio a ct iv e su bsta nc es h a v e high a tom ic w e ights a re
-
,

there fo re of a grea t c om pl exity a n d th us v e ry i n sta bl e They

, .

con stan tly und ergo a proc ess of disi n t eg ra tion of whi ch th e i r
r a dio a ctivity is th e res ult O ne or m o re p a rticl es a re d e ta ched
-
.

from th e a to m a n d t h e a to mi c e q u ilib r i um is thu s m o m en ta r ily

,

lost Fin a lly th e e l ectron s a rra n ge th em s elv e s diff e re n tly

.
, ,

a t t a in a n ew t em po ra ry e q uilib r i um a n d giv e r i s e to t h e s u b
,

sta nc e s know n a s thori um X a n d u ra n i um X

- -
.

N o do ubt is th ere fo re t o b e en te rt a i n ed a s to th e rea l ch a ng es

th a t ta k e pl a c e in t h e a tom s t he m se lve s A n d th e se c h a nge s
.

b r in g to ou r m i n ds t h e p o ssibl e rea l iz a tio n o f t h e d rea m s of t h e

Medimva l a lche mi s ts a t whi ch f o r s o l o ng a ti m e we h a v e bee n
, , ,

won t to s m il e I f t h e a to m is a co m pl e x s t ruct u re which o n

.
,

t h e occ u rre n ce o f c e r ta i n co n ditio ns is di s i n te g ra bl e th e re is

, ,

nothi ng a b sol u tely i m pos s ibl e in th e t ra n sm u ta tio n of o ne me t a l

into a n othe r. Th e o n ly q uestio n is to b ri ng a bo u t th e co n di
ti on s w h ich t h e a to m ic disi n t e gr a tio n ne c ess ita t e s Do s uch .

condit io n s e xi st f or a ll ch e m ic a l el em e n ts ? We a re n ot in
c lin ed to be li e v e it b u t th e i r e xist e n c e is n o t a n i m po ss ibility
, ,

a n d t h e hope of t h e Me die v a l a lch e m ist wa s n ot so p re po s te r o us

as we h a v e bee n ta ught to b eli e ve .

Th e fa c ts whi c h m od ern sci ence ma y l ook u pon a s es ta bli s h ed

tru ths a re the follow ing
y co n s id e red a re co m p o s ed o f m ol e
,

ts con ta i n one or m o re
,

ch em ica l a toms a n d by the ir incesmnt motion g i ve ri se to hea t

, , ,

a n d oth e r physi ca l phe no me n a .

Th e m ol ec ul es a re co m pos ed o f a to m s or ch em ica l u ni t s , ,
va r iou s co m pou nd subst a n c e s a n d a re indivisibl e by ch em i ca l
proc e sse s .

F in a lly th e s e a tom s a r e nothing b ut grou ps of u l tim a t e u n its

, ,

or el ect r on s which a re t h e s a m e f or a ll su bst a nc e s a n d by th eir

, , ,

a rr a ng em en t in di ff er en t w a ys form t h e si m pl e el em e n ts which
, ,

u ntil r e c ently h a d b ee n b e li ev e d u lti m a t e

, .

Th e r ec ent vi ews a s to t he stru ct ur e of t h e a to m s wh ich we ,

h a v e bri e fly d esc r ib e d p re s en t a c er t a i n lik en e ss to th e Schol a s

,

tic th eory of m a tt er a n d form This th e ory by m ea ns of som e

.
,

m odific a tio n s m ight e ve n b e b r o ught in to p er f e ct h a rm ony w ith

,

th e s e sci en tific r es u lts .

Th e m odific a t ions I h a v e in V i ew a r e t h e followin g

Let u s c a ll pri m ordi a l m a tt er t h e m a ss o f el ect r ic a l u nits o r ,

el e ct r ons ,
which h a v e b een shown t o be th e u lti m a t e grou nd
wo rk ou t of which a ll m a t er i a l el em en ts a re b u ilt .

Let u s c a ll su bst a nti a l form th e di ff e r en t a rr a ng em e nts of

th e s e u lti m a t e un its to which t h e v a rie ty of m a t er i a l s ubst a nc e s
,

i s due .

P r i m o r di a l M a tt er will th u s b e t h e s a m e i n a ll thi n gs Th e .

div e rsi ty of n a t ure of t h e v a r iou s su bst a n c es will b e due to t h e

sub st a n ti a l fo rm .

O u r th e o r y will b e m or e in h a rm o n y with th e spirit of A ris

t ot le who in e xpl a i n i n g m a tt e r a n d fo rm by m ea n s of bra ss
, ,

a n d a st a t u e i m pli e s th a t it is a r ea l en tity a n d not a n a bstr a e

, ,

t ion th a t h e h a s in vi e w
,
.

A ll t h e f a cts u po n which th e Schol a stic doctr ine of m a tte r

a n d fo rm i s b a s e d will b e sa tisf a ctorily e xpl a i ne d . Th e st a bility
of q u a n ti ty u n d er a ll m odific a tion s of bodily s ubst a nc es will b e
a cco u n t e d for by t h e f a ct th a t t h e u lti m a t e u n its a ltho u gh
,

a r r a n g e d in di ff er ent w a ys a r e still pr es e nt in t h e s a m e n u m b er
,
.

A s f or t h e hypothes is of substa n ti a l ch a n ge s in ch em ic a l c om
h i ma tions it m u st b e fra nk ly a b a n don e d
,
. Th e a to m of w a t er
m u st n o t b e rega r d e d a s a ho m ogen eo u s s ubst a nc e b ut a s a m er e
,

j uxt a position of two a to m s of hydrogen a n d on e o f oxygen Th e .

p erm a n enc e of th e e l em ents in t h e com poun d is u niv ers a lly

 C H A P T ER V

S CH O L AST I C P S Y CHO L O G Y

S E CTI O N 1 .
—TH EO RY or A B S TRACTI O N

E xp er i m en t a l Ps ych ology i s a new bo r n sci en c e still s eeking

-

its d efi n it e p a th A ft e r n um e ro u s h esit a tio n s a n d p a rti a l

.

f a il ur es it h a s co m e to t h e convictio n th a t its t ru e a im i s not

,

to s u ppl a n t th e ol d m e t a physic a l psychology b ut to w a lk sid e ,

by sid e i n t h e m o st p ea c ea bl e m a n n er E xp er i m enta l p sy ch olo

.

gists k n ow f ull w ell to da y th a t t h e wo r th of t h e r e sults th ey

-

will obt a i n will b e i n v er s ely p r opo r tio n a l to t h e m et a physic a l

p reocc u p a tio n s th ey ch erish W is er th a n th ei r old er b reth ren
.
,

th ey l i m it th em s elv es to m ea s ur i n g on th e skin of t h e fo reh ea d

t h e d eg r ee of f a tigue p r od u c e d by a n int ell ect ua l wo r k a n d ,

a bst a i n f r o m a ll hypoth e s e s co n c erni ng t h e m a t e r i a lity or t h e

spi rit u a lity of t h e m ind .

M e ta physic a l psychology en j oys th erefore a n i n d ep end ent

e xist en c e . It r em a i n s a b ra nch o f philosophy wh erea s its ,

younger sist er is a posit iv e sci en c e .

S chol a stic psychologists a dh ere t o A r istotl e s d efi n ition of th e ’

“
so ul : A n im a es t a c tus p rim us c orp oris p h ysi ci org a nic i ,

”
p o t en t,ia vi t a m h a b en tis r e
,
g a rd t h e so u l a s t h e s ubst a nti a l for m
of th e body a n d m a int a in th a t it is e ss enti a lly s im pl e spirit ua l
, ,

a n d imm o rt a l .

Th e i r p r oofs of th e S pirit ua lity a n d of th e i mm ort a lity of th e

sou l will find th e ir pl a c e a t th e en d o f th e pr es ent ch a pt e r
.
.

B e fore we e xp o un d th em i t i s n ec e ss a ry to disc u ss a q uestion

,

which m a y b e s a i d to lie a t t h e v er y fo und a tion of Schol a stic

psycholo gy : t h e q uestion of a b str a ction .

Th e th eo ry w hi ch r eg a rds t h e m ind a s c a p a b l e of a bstr a c t ing

fro m a ll p a rtic ul a r de te rm in a tio n s a nd of form ing gen era l id ea s
110
 111

ha s rece iv e d in m od e rn ti mes ma ny se ve re blows Th e cel e .

bra ted B rit ish ph iloso ph e r G eo rge Berk el ey re ga rds t h e ov er

, ,

throw of th a t th eory as a n eces sa ry pre s uppo si tion of h is system .

In th e Introd uction to h is P rin cip les of Hu ma n Knowledg e h e ,

gives in a so me wh a t j ocose fas hion a m i nut e a cco unt of wha t

, ,

h e und e rsta nds by a b st ra ction He tells u s for ex a m pl e th a t .

, , ,

“
by th e a bst ra ct id ea of body is m ea nt b ody witho ut a ny p a r
t icula r sh a p e or fi g ur e w itho ut cov e ring e ith e r of h a ir or
, , ,

fea th ers or sc a l es et c nor y et n a k e d : h a i r f ea th e rs sca l es a nd

, ,
.
, , ,

n a k edn ess be ing t h e distin guishing prope rt i e s of p a rtic ul a r

”1
a n im a ls a n d f or tha t r e a son l e ft ou t of t h e a bst ra ct id ea
, ,
He .

th ereu po n co n fess es th a t h e c a n not by a ny effo r t of tho ught , ,

conc e iv e t h e a bst ra ct id ea th us d esc ri b ed H is concl usio n is .

th a t a n a bstrac t gen e ra l id ea is a n a bs ur dity a n d th a t t h e o nly

id eas we a re e nt itl e d to r ega rd a s ge n era l a re p a r tic ul a r id ea s
whi ch a re m a d e to re present or sta n d f o r a ll oth er p a rtic ul a r
id eas of th e s a m e so rt 2
.

B erk el ey s re j ec tion of a bstra ction re sts upon a l a me nt a bl e

’

conf usio n which h a s o ri gi n a t ed in Lock e a n d p e rv a d e d th e whol e

b ody of m od e rn philosophy : th e conf usio n of t h e two t e rm s
Ph a ntas m a nd I d ea .

A write r who feels littl e sym p a thy for t h e school men John ,

S tu a rt Mill confess es th a t th ey w e re unriva ll ed in t h e co n

,

stru ct ion o f t echnica l l a ng ua ge a n d th a t th ei r d e finitions h a ve ,

seldo m bee n a l te re d but to be spo il ed 3

N owh e re pe rh a ps does .

his r ema rk a pply m ore j us tly th a n in t h e pr ese nt cas e .

A ph a nta s m i s th e im a gi na ry re pres enta tion o f a p a rtic ul a r

obj ect pre vio us ly pe rc e ived I t is a kind of menta l pict u re .

which reprod uces m ore or l ess f a ithf ully wh a t we ha v e e xperi

s n ee d in t h e pa st Be sid es th e powe r of re production we
.
,

po ssess th e fa c ulty of co m bining th e obj ects of o ur pre vio us

e xpe ri e nc e in a n in fi ni te v a ri ety o f form s Now a n i m pos ing .

‘
F ras e r s Se l ect i ons f ro m
’
Be rke l ey , p . 13 .

‘
I bid .
, p . 17 .

‘
J . 8 . Mi ll Sy stem
, of Logic B k 1 ,
, . h p
c a . 2, sec t . 4 .
 1 12

stru ct ur e we h a v e a d m i re d d urin g t h e da y i s pres ent to our

m ind . We e n d ea vo r to r ep r od uc e it f a ithfully to re constru ct ,

on e by on e its m in ut est d et a ils O n e m o m e nt h a s el a ps e d a n d

.

ou r i m a gi n a t io n is w a n d er i n g i n t h e m ost c a p r icio u s f a shio n .

H ora c e s m o n ster sits t r ium ph ing ly on t h e ru ins of t h e m o n u

’

m e n t so c a r e f ully co n st r uct e d in t h e pr e vio u s inst a nt a n d which ,

h a s n ow c r um bl e d to p i ec e s a n d dis a pp ea r e d fo re v e r with t h e
i n st a n t of ti m e which bro u ght i t forth Th e r a nge of our .

i m a gi n i n g power is th u s u nl i m it e d E a ch on e of our m ent a l

.

pict u r es how ev er r ep res en ts on e singl e p a r tic u l a r obj ect H ow

, , .

e v er bl u r r e d m a y b e t h e i m a ge how e v e r i n d e fi n it e its f ea t ur es
, ,

it is a lw a ys sing ul a r I c a nnot fo rm a m ent a l pict u r e o f a

.

t r i a n gl e w itho u t givi n g it a d efi nit e si ze a n d sh a p e by which ,

it b eco m e s one i n divid ua l disti n gu ish a bl e f ro m a ll oth er pos

,

sibl e t r i a ngl es .

I t is to t h e ph a n t a s m th us d esc r ib ed a n d i m prop erly c a ll e d

,

i d ea th a t B er k el ey s c r iticis m s a pply Th a t id eas of this sort

,
’
.

c a nnot b e a bstra ct goe s witho u t s a ying N o tri a n gl e c a n b e .

i m a gi n e d th a t is n ot e ith er sc a l e n e isosc el es or e q u il a t era l ; no

,

body th a t i s not e ith er cov ere d or n a k ed B ut i t is n ot a n id ea .

of this so r t th a t t h e gr ea t m a st e r s of Schol a sticis m co n sid ere d

a s t h e p r od u ct of a bst ra ct ion .

B esid es t h e powe r of r ep r od u ci n g a n d co mbini n g our p a st

s en s a tio n s —a powe r we poss ess in co mm o n with th e low e r
a ni m a ls— th er e e x ists i n u s a f a c ul ty of conc e iving th e univ e rs a l
a s s u ch of fo r m i n g t r ue id e a s
,
.

Th e id ea which to a voi d a ll conf u sion it wo u l d p erh a ps

, , ,

b e b ett e r to c a ll co n c e pt is n o m ent a l pict ur e wh a te v er

,
I t is a .

notion of o ur m ind t h e knowl edge of wh a t som e thi n g is We

,
.

kn ow th a t a tri a ngl e is a g eo m etric a l fi gur e consisting of three

sid e s a n d th ree a n gl es This k n owl e dge is th e id ea o f t h e
.

t r i a n gl e It is cl ea r a n d distinct a n d is a lso u niv e rs a l in a s

.
, ,

m uch a s it a ppli es t o a ll t r i a ngl es we m a y h a pp e n to conc e iv e .

I t is a n a bst ra ct i dea b ec a u s e it is not li m it e d lik e t h e ph a n

, ,

t a s m to one p a rt ic ul a r obj ect b u t m a y b e tr uly predic a t e d of a

, ,
 114

his th eo ry of i d ea s h e tho ught ,

he could s a v e his position by
u sing t h e wo r d notion

“
So f a r a s I c a n see s a id h e will so ul spi r it do n ot sta n d
, , , , ,

f or diff er en t id ea s o r in t r uth for a ny ide a a t a ll but f or so m e

, ,

thi n g which is v e ry di ff er ent fro m i dea s a n d which b e ing a n , ,

A gen t c a nn ot b e lik e u nto or repr e s ent ed by a ny i d ea wh a tso

, , ,

e ver . Tho u gh it m u st be own e d a t t h e s a m e ti m e th a t we h a v e

som e n otion of soul spi r it a n d t h e O p era tions of th e m ind s u ch
, , ,

a s will i n g loving h a ti n g in a s m u ch a s we know or u nd er st a nd

, , ,
”5
t h e m ea n ing o f th e s e words .

We m u stco n fess th a t in th ese f ew lin e s t h e a utho r of th e

P r in cip les u tt er ly ov er throws th e e l a bor a t e co n t r ov e rsy of his
I n t r o ductio n Let h im c a ll his id ea ph a n t a sm a n d h is notio n
.

i d ea a n d h is a g reem en t with u s will b e a bsol ut ely p e rf ect He

,
.

h a s th u s p r ov e d th a t a n a bst ra ct ph a nt a s m is a n im possibil ity ,

which we r ea dily gr a nt h im He h a s p rov e d nothing a ga inst .

t h e Schol a st ic doct r i n e of a bst r a ctio n a n d wo u l d e v en p r ob a bly ,

.

a d m it with u s th a t his n otions of so u l a n d spirit a re tr uly

gen er a l a n d th a t th ey a pply to a ll existi n g spi r its or souls

,
.

Close ly r el a t e d to t h e th eo ry of ph a n ta s m s a n d id ea s is th e ,

di visio n of our m en t a l f a c ulti e s into orga nic a n d ino r ga n ic .

Orga ni c f a c u lti es a re thos e we poss ess in co m m on with t h e

low er a n i m a ls In th ei r n a t ure a n d O p era tions th ey d ep end
.
,

u po n o u r bodily o r ga ns S uch a re t h e i m a gin a tion a n d th e

.

s en sit iv e m e m o ry I n o rga n ic f a c ulti es on t h e oth e r h a nd de

.
, ,

p en d u po n th e so ul a lon e Th ey a re e ss en ti a lly spiritua l a n d .

,

wo ul d co n ti nue to e xist a n d to op era t e if our m i n d w er e s ep a

r a t e d f ro m its bodily f ra m e .

U po n this cl a ssi fic a tion of ou r m ent a l pow e rs is b as ed th e

e ss en ti a l distinctio n m a int a in e d by Schol a stics b e tw ee n m en a n d

b ru t e s L ow e r a ni m a l s poss ess only orga nic f a c u lti e s Th ey

. .

c a n fo rm ph a nt a s m s b u t n o id ea s Th ey n ev e r rea ch t h e un i
,
.

v er s a l b e c a u s e th ey l a ck i n t elligenc e by which a lon e th e uni ,

v er s a l is r ea ch e d .

‘
Be r kel e y
’
, op . c it .
, p . 53 .
 1 15

S ECTI O N 2 .
—e uns or TH E H UMAN S o ur .

Schol as ti c phi los Oph ers re ga rd th e so ul as th e s ubsta nti a l form

of th e body fr o m which it is int rinsica lly i n d e pe n d en t tho ugh
, ,

uni te d with it in a m a nn e r ch a r a ct erize d a s s ubsta n ti a l a nd

By int r i n sica l ind epe nd ence of th e body is mea nt th a t th e

the
so ul is a n a ctivity by i t se lf th a t it is not d ete rm in e d by m a
,

te ris l co n d itio n s a n d h enc e th a t it will contin ue to e xi s t a n d

,

to e x e rcis e its ope ra tions a fte r t h e d ea th of t h e body .

By t h e s u bsta n ti a l a n d p e rso n a l union is m ea n t : ( a ) th a t t h e

h um a n co m po und i s a s ubsta n c e by its elf ; a n d ( b ) th a t m a n
is t he co m po und a n d not t h e so ul a lo ne Th e n a t u re of this
,
.

union is v e ry cl ea r ly e xp ress e d by St Tho m a s in th e followi ng .

“
form ul a : In ea ch on e of u s by t h e so ul a n d body is c on , ,

” “
sti tu te d a do ubl e unity of n a t u r e a n d of p e r so n
,
ea: a n i ma ,

et corp or e, c ons ti tu i tur in u no q uo q u e n os t r um dup lex u n i tas ,

“
na ture: a t p ers on s .

Th e doctrin e of int r in sic a l i n d e pe n d en c e s e p a ra te s Schol a stic

philosophy f ro m m a te ri a lis m T h e doct ri ne of s ubs ta nti a l a n d
.

pe rso na l union sets it a p a r t f ro m th e d ua listic syst e m s of Pl a to

an d Desca rt es which r e ga r ds m a n a s a spi rit a ccid e n t a lly u n it e d
,

wi th t h e body a nd gove rn in g i t a s t h e p ilot gov e rn s h is v e s se l

,
.

Th e h um a n so ul is f u rth er d e scrib ed a s p osse s s i ng t h e t h ree

ch a ra c te ristics of si m pl icity spi rit ua l ity a nd im m orta lity
,
.

Th e proo fs of th e sim pl icity of t h e h u m a n so u l m a y be con

d e nes d in th e follo wing form : Th e na t ure of a be ing is kno wn
fro m its ope ra ti ons Th e O pe ra ti ons of t h e so ul a re esse nti a lly
.

s im pl e H e nc e th e so ul itse l f is by na t ure e sse ntia lly s im pl e

. .

E x a m pl es of s im pl e o pe ra tions of t h e so ul ma y be a dd uce d
a n d m u ltipli e d a t wil l Th ere a re t h e s im pl e id eas of be ing
.
,

tr u th virt ue a n d t h e lik e which ca nnot by a ny effo rt of

, , ,

tho ugh t be con ceiv ed as di vi sibl e Th e re a re th e in tell ec tua l

,
.

a cts of j udgm ent which pres uppose a sim pl e subj ect a nd ca n

,

h a rdly be e xpl a in ed in a n y ot h e r hypoth esi s I f th e m ind .

‘
Tho ma s A q ui na s S umma Th eo l P
, .
, . 3, q . 2, a rt . 1, ad 2 .
 116

which a pp r eh en ds t h e s ubj ect a n d t h e pr e dic a t e is not on e a n d

i n divisibl e we h a v e no j u dgm en t wh a t ev e r b ut m er ely t wo
, ,

diff erent im p r e ssio n s withou t a n y possibl e conn ection K a n t .

wa s p er f e ctly a w a r e of this tr uth wh en h e form ul a t e d a t t h e

b a sis of his ph ilO SO Pll y th e p r incipl e th a t e xp er i enc e by its elf
f urn ish e s on ly d et a ch e d a n d un co nn ecte d f a cts a n d th a t n o ,

j u dgm en t is possibl e witho ut a m en t a l sy n th esis .

T h e doct r i n e of t h e si m plicity of t h e so u l h a s b een a tt a ck e d

by D a vid H um e in a m ost ing en iou s m a n n e r He d e sc r ib e s it .

a s a t r u e a th e is m c a p a bl e of j u stifyi n g a ll thos e s en ti m en ts for

,

which Spi n oz a is so un iv er s a lly infa m o u s .

”
T h er e a r e in m y e x p er i en c e s a ys h e t wo differ en t syst em s
, ,

of b eing to which I s u ppos e m ys e lf un d er a n ec essity of a ssig n

,

in g so m e s u bst a n c e o r g ro un d of inh esion

,
I obs e rv e first t h e .

u n iv e r s e of obj e cts or of body : t h e su n m oo n a n d st a r s ; th e ,

e a r th s ea s
,
pl a n ts a n i m a ls m en ships ho u s es a n d oth e r p r o
, , , , , ,

du c t ion s e ith er of a r t or n a t ur e H ere Spi n o z a a pp ea r s a n d

.
,

t e lls m e th a t th es e a r e o n ly m odific a tions ; a n d th a t th e sub

j c e t in which th ey i nh er e is si m pl e in com p oun ded a n d in
, , , ,

divisibl e A ft er this I con si d er t h e oth er syst em of b ei n gs viz

.
,
.
,

t h e u n iv er s e of tho u ght or m y i m p r essions a n d id ea s

,
Th ere I .

obs er v e a n oth er s un m oo n a n d st a r s ; a n ea rth a n d s ea s cov er e d

, , ,

a n d i n h a bit e d by pl a n ts a n d a n im a ls ; towns ho u s e s m o u nta i n s , , ,

riv er s ; a n d in sho r t e v erythi n g I c a n discov er o r conc e iv e in t h e

fi r st syst em Up o n m y e n q u i ry co n c ern i n g th es e Th eologi a n s
.
,

p r es en t th em s elv es a n d t ell m e th a t th es e a re a lso m o difi ca

, ,

ti ons a n d m odific a tio n s of on e si m pl e u ncom pou nd e d a n d in

, , ,

di vis ibl e s u bst a nc e I mm e di a t ely u po n which I e m d ea f en e d

.

with t h e n ois e of a h un d re d voic es th a t tr ea t t h e first hypoth esis

,

wi th d et est a tio n a n d sco rn a n d th e s eco n d with a ppl a u s e a n d

, ,

v en era tio n I t ur n m y a tt ent ion to th es e hypo th es es to see

.

wh a t m a y b e t h e r ea so n of so g rea t a p a rt i a l ity a n d fin d th a t ,

th ey h a v e th e s a m e f a u lt o f b eing u nint elligibl e a n d th a t a s ,

f a r a s we c a n u nd er st a n d th em th ey a r e so m u ch a lik e th a t it
, ,

is i m possibl e to di scov er a ny a bs ur dity in on e which is not c om ,

m on to both o f th em We h a v e no i de a o f a ny q u a l ity in a n
.

o bj ec t which do e s not a gr ee to a n d m a y n ot r e p r es en t a q ua l ity

, ,

in a n i m p r ession ; a n d th a t b ec a u se a ll our i dea s a re d er iv ed

fro m our i m pr e ssions We c a n n e v e r th er e fore fi n d a ny r ep ug
.
, ,
m a n, f or x a m pl e m ay b e r esolve d i n to th e el em ents of a n im a l
e ,

a n d r a tio n a l This sort of division is how ev er qu it e diff er en t

.
, ,

f r o m th a t o f m a t er i a l b e i n gs o r of th e i r r eproduction in our
,

m in d . Th e r e d s ur fa c e I s ee o r i m ag i n e m a y b e divid e d into
two r e d s ur f a c es i den tic a l in n a t ure with t h e fi r st a n d difi e r
, ,

i n g f r o m it o n ly in q ua n tity Th e el em e n ts of t h e co n c e pt of
.

m a n a r e of a n e n ti rely div e rs e o r de r The y a re n ot m erely two

.

h a lv e s of a whol e Th ey diff e r f r o m ea ch oth er a n d f r o m th e

.

whol e in q ua l ity a n d t h e e nti re p r oc ess of divisio n r ests u po n

,

th ei r sp e cific differ en c es B ut a s q ua l it a tiv e di vision c a n not

.
,

lik e q u a n tit a tiv e divisio n b e con tin ue d a d infin itum we m u st

, ,

fi n a lly a rr iv e a t e ss en ti a lly si m pl e conc epts a n d concl u d e th a t ,

th e y a r e p r odu c e d by a n e ss en ti a lly si m pl e b e in g .

Th e q u es tio n s of t h e si m plicity a n d of th e spi r it ua lity of

t h e sou l a ltho u gh clos ely co nn ect e d m u st b e c a re f u lly di s
, ,

t in g ui sh e d E v e ry spi r it u a l b e ing is si m pl e ; b u t a sim pl e be i n g

.

i s n ot n ece ss a r ily spi r it u a l Schol a stic t ex t books giv e a s a n

.
-

i n st a n c e of a si m pl e non spiritu a l b e ing t h e so u l of t h e low e r

,
-

a n i m a ls
,
which de p en ds u po n t h e bo dy in a ll its op era tions ,

com e s i n to e x ist en c e with th e body a n d c ea s es to b e a s soon ,

a s t h e body die s .

Th e spi r it u a lity of th e h um a n so u l m a y b e d e fin e d a s its

i n t ri n sic a l i n de p en d en c e of m a tte r I n vi rt u e of th a t ind e .

e n d e n ce it i s n ot a ffe ct e d by t h e d ea th of ou r o r g a ni s m it do es
p , ,

not dis a pp ea r with ou r l a st b rea th W h en this m ort a l life of .

o ur s co m e s to a n en d o ur spirit sp r ings for th ; a n d f ree f ro m

, ,

m a t er i a l bo n ds st a r ts a n ew a n d p u r er lif e a l if e th a t sh a ll
, ,

k n ow n o de a th .

Th e spi rit u a l ity of th e so u l is prov e d fro m th e n a t u r e of

its f a cu lti e s : t h e i n tellig en c e a n d t h e will Th es e f a c ulti es .

h a v e f or obj ects th e u n iv ers a l a n d t h e n ec ess a ry It i s to t h e .

un iv s
er a l as s u ch to a n a t
,
u r e co n c e iv e d with a n a bsol u t e—not
an in divid ua l —ch a r a ct er th a t our i n t elligenc e t en ds
,
It .

st u di es t h e ess en ce of t h e obj ect a bstra cting f ro m t h e indi ,

vid ua l ch a r a ct eristics of th is obj ect A pe c uli a r a sp ect of

“ ”
.
th e n iv e rsa l is its n ec ess ity Thi s n ec ess ity h um a n in t elli
u .
,

genc e does not fa il to g ra sp I t directs its efforts to t h e im

.

m uta bl e a s pe cts of t h ings a nd a bst r a cts fro m t h e conting e nt

,

cha ra ct e r th ey posse ss as in di vi d ua ls .

O ur will lik e wise t ends to th e u niv e rsa l m a n if es te d in th e

form of t h e a bsol ut e good N o li m i te d a n d rel a tiv e good ca n
.

s a tisfy us I t is in t h e un io n with a n a bsol ute p er fec t io n t ha t

.

o ut w ill wo uld re st t h a t it wo uld fi n d its p e rf ec t h a pp iness

,
.

N ow th ese ch a ra c te rs of un iv e rs a lity a nd nec essi ty nu

,

e q ui voca lly s ep a ra te our m e nta l fa c ulti e s f ro m t h e p u re fo r c es

of m a tt er M a tte r is e ss enti a lly i n di vi d ua l a n d en ve lo pe in

.
,

i n divi d ua l conditions a ll obj ects of which i t is a n e ss e n t i a l con

s ti tuent O ur m e nt a l fa c ulti es a r e th u s ind e p e nd e n t of m a t t er
.
,

a n d t h e so ul t h e s ubst a n c e th ey co n stit ut e is n e c ess a r ily c n

, ,

”
dowe d with t h e s a m e i n d ep en d enc e .

S ev e ra l oth e r a rgum e nts of l esse r i m po rt a n c e a re a dd uc ed to

confi rm t h e s a m e vi ew Th e a c t of s elf c o n scio us ne ss f o r
.
-
,

e xa m pl e is s a i d to se p a ra t e t h e so ul f ro m a ll m a te r i a l a g e n t s ;
,

fo r wh erea s m a tt e r c a n a c t upon it self o nly in t h e s e ns e t h a t

,

a c erta in p a r ticl e c a n a c t u po n a no th e r p a r ticl e th e h um a n ,

m i nd ca n a n d doe s re fl ect u po n its e lf in s uch a m a nne r th a t t h e

Eg o re fl ecting a nd t h e Eg o refl ec te d upo n a re o ne a n d t h e

A thi r d proof v e ry m uch

in siste d upo n is d educ e d f ro m t he
contra st be tw ee n t h e effec ts p r od uc ed upon t he i n te ll ect a n d t h e
se nse s by th e ir respec tiv e obj ects Wh e n t h e e xcell e n c e of t he
.

obj ect of se nse increa ses beyond a c erta in l im it t h e organ ,

un d ergoes co r ruption a n d is e v e nt ua lly de s troy e d

,
A vivi d .

li g h t im pa i rs our ey e sight ; a p rolo ng ed conte m pl a tion of t he

-

s un m a y r es ult in bl indn ess O ur i n te ll ect on t h e co nt ra ry be

.
, ,

co mes k ee n er a nd m ore pen etra t ing wh en th e obj ect it pond e rs

bec o mes mo re s ublim e .

Th e ch a ra ct e ris tics whi ch se pa ra te se nse fro m int ell ect a re

red uce d by Urra bu ru to th e fo llo wing six :
 a n d th e roo t of t h e oth ers
1 (.W hich is e ss e nti a l ) I nt e ll e ct .

i s a n i n orga nic or spirit ua l f a c ulty ; s ens e i s orga nic an d

2 .S ense is fo un d in a ll a ni m a ls ; int ell ec t only i n ra tion a l

a n im a ls or m en .

3 S ens e k nows only t h e s ingu l a r ; int ell ect k nows t h e

.

u ni v e rs a l .

4 S en s e e xt e nds only t o m a t er i a l obj ects ; int ell ect to im

.

m a te r i a l obj e cts a s w e ll .

5 N o s e ns e knows its elf or i ts own op er a tion ; t h e int ell ect

.

k nows its elf a n d its op era tio n .

6 Th e s ens es a re corru pt e d by t h e e xc ell e nc e of t h e s e nsib l e

.

obj ect ; th e i n t ell ect r em a ins u nco r ru pted how e v e r e xc ell ent ,

its obj ect m a y b e 10

.

Th e r e m a i n ing p r op e r ty of th e so u l its i mm o r t a l ity follows , ,

f ro m t h e p r e vio u s two a s a logic a l co n s e q uenc e Th e so u l b e ing .

,

e ss enti a lly si m pl e c a nn ot lik e t h e body p er ish by d issol u tion

, , ,

of p a rts ; a n d on t h e oth e r h a n d b e in g spi rit u a l h a vi n g its

, , ,

p e c ul i a r i n dep end en t l ife not b eing co n ditio ne d in its e xiste nc e

, ,

a n d op e r a tio n s by t h e bodily o r g a n is m it c a nn ot c ea s e to e x ist ,

si m ply b ec a us e t h e o r g a nis m is d est r oy e d Th e the olo g ic a l .

b eli e f in a n oth er lif e i s th us n ot only shown to h a rm oni z e with

r ea so n b ut is d ed u c e d f r o m t h e f und a m ent a l principl es of
,

philosophy W h e th er h um a n r ea son c a n lik ewis e p r ov e th e

.

e ter n ity of thi s n e w l if e is co n sid ere d a d eb a ta bl e q u estion ,

.

M a h er in his P sy ch ology a n s w er s it n ega t iv ely A s a th eo

, , .

log ia n h e b el i ev e s in e t er n a l lif e ; a s a philosoph er a ltho u gh h e

, ,

s ees n o rea so n why t h e so ul sho uld e v er p e rish h e a d m its th a t ,

“
l ea vi n g Re v el a tion a sid e a n d a r guing sol ely f r o m r ea son h e ,

do es not se e a n y p e rf ectly d em o n st ra bl e p r oo f of th e eve rl a sti n g

” ”
exist enc e of h um a n so uls A l m ighty God a dds h e could .
, ,
.

by a n e x er cis e of H is a bsol ut e po w er a nn ihil a t e t h e hum a n so ul ,

a s w e ll a s a ny oth e r obj e ct which He h a s cr ea t e d

”1 1
.

1°
Cf . U r r a b u ru, C om p en di um P h iI O S O p h i ae S c h o la s t i caz, Vo l 4 , . p . 240 .

n
Ma h e r , op . c it .
, p . 48 6 . Th e sa me v e i w is a sol m a i nt a i ne d by
M eu r i n ,
E h t ic s p , . 1 61 .
 1 22

h a v e em b ra c e d a philosophy of contra dictions a n d rej o ic e i n th e ,

a bs ur dity of t h e co n cl u sio n s to which th e ir r ea sonin gs co n d uc t

th em .

Th e wo r ds I h a v e j u st q uote d a re fro m M r F ull er to n In a . .

ch a pt er of h is S ys tem of Meta p h ys ics en titl e d Th e A to m ic

“
,

”
S elf h e e x pos es t h e s em i m a t er i a l istic opinio n of t h e pl a in
,
-

m a n a bo u t m i n d a n d t r a c e s it b a ck to th e philosophi e s of t h e
,

m ost a n ci en t ti m e s He holds th a t t h e t ea chi n gs of thos e ol d

.

syst em s ha v e b eco m e i n co r po ra t e d into th eology a n d e thics h a v e ,

l e ft th ei r t ra ce s u po n l a n gua ge a n d l it er a t u r e h a v e b eco m e a ,

p a rt of t h e co mm o n tho ught of t h e h um a n r a c e a n d a r e n ow ,

a cc e p t e d by t h e g rea t m a ss of m en a s s el f e vid en t tr uths -

.

A nci e nt phi losoph e rs b eli e v e d to be m a t er i a l a n d the m in d

u n e q u ivoc a lly in t h e body I t wa s co m pos e d of fi ne r o un d
.

a to m s highly m ova bl e a to m s et c I t co uld b e i n h a l e d a n d

, ,
.

e x h a l ed a n d m ight e sc a pe th r o u gh a ga pin g wo un d
,
a s wi n e ,

spou ts th r o u gh t h e r en t wi n e ski n I t wa s a k in d of m a tt e r -
.

a n d n othing m o re h a vi n g t h e s a m e right to occ u py sp a c e th a t

,

h as a n y oth er fo rm of m a tter A ft er w a r d it wa s f or ce n t ur i e s
.

still in t h e body b ut in a m u ch m o re i n definite a n d i n co n siste n t

,

f a shio n It wa s wholly in th e whol e body a n d wholly in e v er y

.
,
”1 3
p a rt.

Th e Schol a stic fo rm u l a is th u s r ega r d e d by F ull erton a s th e

di rect offsp r i n g of ol d m a t er i a l is m I t is m a t er i a lis m still .
,

a l tho u gh so m e wh a t t r a n s fi u r e d
g It i s m a t e ri a lis m a w a.re o f i ts
in ner i n co n g r u ity a n d t ryi n g t o s a v e its own l ife by m ea ns
,

of v a gu e s ubt e rf uges Th e m i n d is still loc a te d i n t h e body

.
,

b ut i ts p res en c e th e r e is r eg a rd e d a s i mm a t er i a l D esc a r t es who .

e m pha si ze d t h e p r e s e n c e b u t n egl e cte d i ts i mm a t e r i a l ch a r a ct e r

, ,

loc a t e d t h e so ul in t h e p in ea l gl a n d Th e schol a stics em ph a siz e .

“
both sid es of t h e i n consistent doct r i n e Th ey sti r u p t h e .

co n t r a diction a n d m a ke it gr owl str iki n g fea r to t h e he a rt of ,

”
t h e b ehold er .

’
F ull erto n s doct r in e on t h e loc u s of th e soul is i d entic a l with
H um e s A l tho ugh we di ff er f ro m t h e a u tho r of t h e Tr ea t ise
’
.

”
G S F ul l t
. . e r on , Sy s te m of M e t a p h y s i cs p , . 2 67 .
 1 23

on Huma n Na ture in ma ny s nti a l po ints we ca nn ot b ut

es e ,

f ully a g ree with h im h e re a nd e v e n re ga r d his tea ch ing as

,

i rr e futa bl e Loca tion in a d et e rm in a te pl a c e is a p ro pe rty of

.

m a te ri a l be ings a n d h as no s e nse e xce pt i f a ppli e d to s uch

, .

Th e ch a ir u pon which I a m sitti n g i s sa id to b e loca t e d be twee n

t h e w a lls of m y roo m in so f a r as it ca n giv e ris e to t a ct ua l a n d
vi s ua l im p re ss ions sp a tia lly rel a t ed to t h e im p res sio ns c a us ed
by th e w a lls the m selv es Wh en we a ss e rt th a t t h e p o in t A is
.

bet wee n B a n d C we mea n th a t a lin e go ing fro m B to 0 wo u ld

,

p a ss th ro ugh A Loc a tion in sp a c e th u s a ppli ed to m a t eri a l

.
,

b e ings is pe rf ectly i n t ell igibl e ; b ut as H um e a n d F ull e rto n

, ,

m a i n ta in it lose s a ll m ea n ing i f pre dic a t ed of m i n d

,
I t s o un ds .

nonsensic a l to a ss e rt th a t a tho ught is pl a c ed be tw een a de sk

a n d a bla ckbo a r d th a t t en di ff e r en t volitio n s a re a c t ua lly c ro s s
,

ing th e str ee t ; b ut i f we e x p re ss t h e s a m e id ea in di ff e ren t wo rds ,

if we sa y th a t t h e h um a n m i n d is pl a c e d in a c e rt a i n p o r tio n
of our o rg a n is m or in o ur whol e body t h e a bs ur di ty o f t h e ,

a sse rtion b e co m e s l e ss a pp a re n t a n d m a y b e e a sily ov e r look e d .

I t exists n ev e rth el ess a n d to sa y th a t o ur m i n d is loc a t ed in o ur

, ,

body or th a t God is l oc a te d e v e rywh ere —if we ta k e t h e wo rd

,

loca ted in its p r op e r m ea nin g— is no l e ss preposter o u s th a n to

sa y th a t a b e n e vol e nt d e sire took t h e fe rry bo a t a n d wa s slowly -
,

ca rri ed f ro m Ne w Y o rk to B rookly n .

Whe re is our m ind th e n ? A n d wh e re is God ? S uch q ues

ti o n s ca nn ot b e a n sw ere d b ut in t he followi ng wa y : O ur m i n d
i s nowh e re a n d G od is n owh er e Th e wh ere i m plyi ng p a rt s
,
.

o uts id e of p a rts a nd be i n g a proper ty o f m a tt e r a lon e c a nn o t

, ,

be p red ica te d of i m m a t e ri a l th i ngs A nd i f i t so un ds o dd to

.

sa y tha t sp iri t s a re nowh e re i t is be c a use we a re so im m e rse d

,

in m a t e ri a l th in kin g th a t we ca n n ot be li e v e th a t a thi ng c a n
e xis t witho u t m a t e ria l re la tio ns T he e xiste nc e of o ur m ind is
.

a n im m e di a t e f a ct o f co nscio us ne ss It is a n ultim a te fac t upo n

.

which a ll o ur kn owl edge is gro und ed a nd which i t sel f n eeds no ,

proo f I t is t h e ce nt e r f ro m whi ch we ha v e to sta rt in ou r

.

in v estiga tions co nce rn i ng rea lity B ut th e rel a tions which o ur

.
m ind b ea r s to t h e r est of t h e un iv ers e c a nnot b e a ssi m il a t e d to
t h e r e l a tio n s of p a r ticl e s of m a tt e r We f ully a gr ee wi t h H um e
.

a n d F ull er ton th a t a philosophic a l syst em t e ndi n g to loc a li ze

m i n d in a d e fi n it e po rt io n of sp a c e m u st b e r ej e ct e d a s a bs u rd .

W h a t b eco m es of t h e Schol a stic for m ul a th en ? Mu st we ,

withou t m ore a do r ega rd it a s t h e o utco m e of a n illogic a l

,

m a t er i a listic co n c e ption of a n im m a t eri a l thing ? So m e pow e r

f ul m ot iv es a t once co m e forth a n d giv e to this v i e w th e g r ea t e s t
u nc e rta i n ty
. St Tho m a s s doctri n e of t h e so u l inspir ed by
.
’
,

Ch r isti a n th eology is m o re d e cid e dly i m m a t er i a listic th a n t h e

,

th e ori es of L ock e H um e a n d th e whol e B r itish em piric a l school

, ,
.

F or wh er ea s s en sis m r e solv e s id ea s into s en s e i m p r e ssions a n d -

a dm its o n ly a diff er en c e of d e gr e e b etw ee n se n s e a n d int ell e ct ,

S t Thom a s a n d th e school m en m a int a i n th a t th e di ff erenc e i s

.

n o t of d e gr ee b u t of kind th a t b etw e en t h e s e ns u o u s i m p re ssio n

,

a n d t h e i n t ell e ct u a l tho u ght th er e i s a n i m p a ss a bl e ch a s m H ow .

st ra n ge woul d i t soun d th en th a t h e who m ight b e d escrib e d a s

t h e fo r em ost a dv er s a r y of m a te ri a l is m sho u ld h i m s el f f a ll int o
,

t h e v er y e r rors h e const a ntly oppos e s !

A c a re ful st u dy of t h e doctrin es of St Tho m a s s uff ic e s to .

a bsolv e h im f r o m a ll ch a r ges of m a t eri a lis m Th e A n gelic .

D octo r not o n ly did n ot i n te nd to loc a l i z e t h e m i n d in a d e fi n ite

port ion of sp a c e b ut h e wa s a s f ully a wa re a s H um e of th e
,

e vid en t t ru th th a t position in sp a c e is a p r op er ty of m a tt e r a n d

of m a tt e r a lon e .

I n th e S u mm a c on t ra G en tiles St Tho m a s e x a m i n e s how a n

,
.

i n t ell ect u a l s ubst a n c e c a n b e un it e d to t h e body a n d t ea ch e s th a t

,

t h ere a r e two ki n ds of conta ct : a cont a ct thro ugh q ua ntity ,

which is p r ope r to m a t er i a l b e ings a lo n e a n d a conta ct th r o u gh

,

vi rt u e which m a y b elo n g to i m m a t er i a l b e in gs a s w ell This

, .

l a tte r ki n d is h ow e v er d esc r ib ed a s cont a c t o n ly m et a pho r ic a lly .

A spi rit i s s a id to to u ch only in so f a r a s it a cts only in th e ,

s ens e in which we a re ent itl ed to sa y th a t a sa d n ews to u ch es us

S i igit u r sint a li q ue ta n g ent ia q u es in q u a n t ita t is u lt im is
 C H A P T E R VI

S CH O L ASTI C N ATUR A L TH E O L O G Y

S ECTI O N 1 .
—NA TURA L A ND REVEA LED T H EO LO G Y

Th e v ery titl e N a t ur a l Th e ology s uggests th a t so m e oth er

, ,

ki n d of th eology exists A n d i n deed S chol a stics h a v e a lw a ys

.
, ,

c a re f ully disti n gu ish e d b etw een n a t u ra l a n d r ev ea l e d th eolo g y .

Thi s i s on e of t h e poi n ts which u n m ist a k a bly s ep a r a te th e

Schol a stic syst em f r o m t h e philosophy of th e H e geli a n school .

A ccor din g to H ege l a n d his di scipl e s n o t r uth l i es b eyond th e

,

r ea ch of t h e h um a n m ind God is a n obj ect of exp e ri enc e a s

.

cl ea rly p re s e nt to o ur n a t ura l f a c u lti es a s t a bl es a n d ch a irs A n .

a d eq u a t e knowl e dg e o f t h e A bsol ut e is th u s p er fe ctly possibl e ,

a n d th e ol ogy b eco m e s a br a n ch of philosophy .

St Thom a s a n d t h e S chol a stics on t h e oth e r h a n d b el i ev e

.
, ,

th a t th e D ivi n e E sse n c e c a nnot b e k n own b y our fi n it e m i n ds .

O ur n a t ur a l f a c u lti e s m a y l ea d u s to t h e knowl e dge of God s

’

e x ist en c e ; th e y m a y e v en en a bl e u s to r ea ch a tr ue k n owl e dge

of his n a tur e ; but a s this kn owl e dge is not rea ch e d by dir ect
,

i n t u ition b ut by t h e co n sid era tio n of t h e finit e worl d in which

,

we l iv e it c a nn ot b e a d e q u a t e
,
.

A s t h e i m pe r f ect kn owl edge of God our m ind ca n a t ta in m a y

be su ppl em en te d by t h e D ivi n e Rev el a tion t h e sci enc e of t h e,

olo g y is e vid en tly twofol d : N a t u r a l Th eology d ea ls with th e

knowl e dge of G od h um a n r ea son c a n a tt a i n by its n a tur a l fo rc es ;
Rev ea l e d Th eolo gy d ea ls with t h e knowl edge of God which l i e s
b eyo n d th e r ea ch of our n a t u ra l f a c ulti es a n d i s a tt a in a bl e o n ly
by r e v el a tion Th e philo soph e r is th u s conc e rn e d with n a t ur a l
.

th e ology ; h e h a s nothing to do with re v ea l ed th eology .

1 26
 1 27

S ECTI O N 2 —PROO FS
. or Gon s ’
Ex I e N oE

All po ssi b l e proofs o f t h e e xistence of th e D iv in e Min d m a y

be cl a ssi fi ed und e r thr ee h ea ds :
1 Th e a pr ior i proo f d e riv ed fro m t h e v e ry conc ept of G od
.
, ,

a nd usua lly kn o wn a s ontolog ica l a r gum e nt .

2 Th e a p ost eM r i proofs by w h ich we a sc end f ro m t h e

.
,

kn owl e dge of th e fini te wo rld to t h e kn owl edg e of th e infin ite .

3 Th e m o ra l ar gum en ts dra wn f ro m t h e na t ure a nd a s pi ra

.
,

tions o f t h e h um a n hea rt ; a lso from t h e comm on co n se n t of ,

m a n kind .

T h e o n tologica l a rgu m ent h a s n ev er e njoy e d m u ch f a vo r

a m ong S chol a stic philosoph ers F irst p ropos ed by A n s e l m of
.

C a n terbu ry a nd a t o n ce a ma iled by G a un ilo th e m o nk it h as ,

bee n di sc u ss e d a n d fi n a lly r ej ecte d by Thom a s A q u in a s A o .

cep ted in a slightly m odifi e d fo rm by De sca rt es a n d Le ib n i z i t ,

h as bee n r ej ec t ed a ga in by K a nt a n d rea dm itt e d by H egel who ,

beh a v e d th a t si n ce its fi r st fo rm u l a tio n u ntil t h e tim e of K a nt

it h a d bee n un a n im o u sly a cc e pt ed a m ong philosoph e rs ‘
.

These re pea t e d a tt em pts to reh a bil it a te th e fa ll en a rgum e nt

ha ve be en a d ecid e d fa il ure N eo S c hol a stic s to da y rega r d t he
.
- -

ontologi ca l proo f a s worthl ess a n d in so doi ng a re pe r fectly , , ,

j us ti fi e d Th e w ea k po in t of t h e a rgum e n t h a s b ee n c lea rlv

.

po in ted out by Tho m a s A q u in a s 2

A n se l m s rea so n in g un d uly
.
’

p a s se s fro m t h e id ea l to t h e r ea l o r d e r Th e conce p t ion of t h e .

mos t per fec t be ing m ust inc l ud e t h e e l em e nt of e xist e nce a s ,

An se lm be li e v ed ; b ut this e xi s te nce m u st be id ea l li m i te d to t he ,

con ce pt of our m ind a n d ca nnot l eg itim a te ly be p re di ca te d o f

,

th e o bj ec t i ve wo rld .

Th e a rg um en t f ro m th e m ora l la w ha s bee n re pea tedl y f orm u

la ted and def ended A ll men it ha s been sa id be lie ve in t he
.
, ,

exi s tence of a m ora l la w T hey a ll rega rd some ac t i on s as

.

p ra i se w ort h y o th e rs a s ,c o nd em n a b le N o w w i t h ou t G od a .
, ,

Cf H . eg e l Hi s tory of Phil osop h y p p

, , . 62 a nd 64 .

"
l h o ma s
’
A q ui na s S umma Theo l P
, .
, . 1, Q . 2, a rt . 1; C G . .
, Bib . 1.
ca p . 11 .
m o ra l la w wo uld be b su rdity b ec a u se t h e v ery notion of a
an a ,

la w i m pli e s t h e e x ist en ce of a l egisl a to r e n dow e d with a suffi

,

ci en t a u thority to i m pose it a n d giv e i t a sa n ctio n .

I s th is li n e of r ea soni n g d e fen sibl e ? We a r e n ot i n clin e d to

b eli e v e i t Th e f a ct tha t so m e a cts a re u n iv er s a lly p ra ise d a s
.

good whil e oth er s a re un iv er s a lly co n d em n e d m a y b e suffici ently

, ,

expl a i n e d f r o m th e n a t u r e of th e a cts th em s elv e s witho u t a n

y
n e c e s s ity of a r e co u r se to a s u pr em e La wgiv er Th er e is n o
.

do u bt th a t if God e xists h e i s t h e fou n d a tion a n d t h e sou rc e

,

of a ll t r uth a n d th ere fo re th e u lti m a te gro un d of t h e m ora l

,

la w; b u t a s his e x ist en c e i s p r ecis ely in q u e stion it i s f r om t h e

, ,

h um a n a cts th em s elv e s th a t we m u st st a r t A s no m a th em a
.

t ic ia n n e eds to post u l a t e a D ivi n e B e i n g in o r d er to u n d e rst a n d

th a t t h e sum of t h e a ngl e s of a tr i a n gl e h a s b een u niv ers a lly
b eli e v ed to b e e q ua l to two r ight a n gl e s so th e m o ra l ist n eeds
,

n o God to a cco un t f or t h e f a ct th a t i n co n tin enc e is un iv er s a ll y

r eg a r d e d a s d eg r a di n g a n d co u r a g e a s p ra is e worthy Th e v e ry .

re s u lts of ou r a cts giv e u s t h e cl u e a s to th e ir m or a l ch a ra ct er .

Schol a stic ph ilosoph er s a re thu s r ight wh en th ey ref u s e to a ssign

to t h e a r gum en t f r om th e m o ra l la w a p r im a ry i m po rt a nce .

A n oth er m o ra l a rgum ent a ltogeth er diff eren t f ro m t h e one

,

we h a v e pre s en tly co n sidered i s d er iv e d fro m t h e com m o n con

,

sen t of m a n ki n d L ik e a ll m ora l a rgum e nts t h e a rgum en t

.
,

f r om u n iv er sa l cons ent i s r eg a r d e d by S chol a stics a s of se cond

a ry im po r t a nc e I t i s how ev e r d e f end e d as l egiti m a t e a n d
.
, , ,

i n v a r i a bly fi n ds a pl a c e in t r ea tis e s on n a tu ra l th e ology Th e .

f a ct its elf th a t a ll p eopl e s h a v e b eli ev e d in a S u pr eme B e ing

’
s eem s to a dm i t of n o rea son a bl e dou bt T o Sp en c er s obj ection
.

’
th a t t h e s a v a ge s conc epts of God h a v e b ee n e volv e d out of ghosts
or a nc e stor spirits a n d with th e e vol ution of h um a n id ea s h a ve
-
, , ,

gra d ua lly a c qu i re d a nobl er form Schol a stics a nsw er th a t t h e

,

conc eption s of Go d fou n d a m ong sa va ge or s em i c ivil iz e d n a -

tio n s a r e corru ptio n s of a p u re r a nd old e r form a n d th a t th e ,

t en d en cy of m a nk ind is thu s to f a ll a w a y from a pri m i tive

sho u l d h a v e b een p r od u c e d by a c a s ua l shock of a tom s j ust a s ,

i t is m o ra lly im possibl e th a t p r i n ting typ es throw n a t r a n dom , ,

shou ld giv e th e pl a y of H a m l et B u t i f we a dopt t h e th eo ry

.
,

of n a t u r a l s el ection ; i f we a dm it th a t t h e typ es which h a pp en

to f a ll in t h e de fi n it e pl a c e th ey h a v e in th e pl a y sh a ll p er s ist
in e x ist en c e whil e th e oth er s sh a ll dis a pp ea r t h e pl a y of H a m l et ,

will f a t a lly b e p r od u c e d .

We sho u l d b e c a u tio u s how e v er n ot to a ss ert too h a stily t h a t

, ,

t h e a rg um e n t f r o m des ig n h a s b ee n a bsol u t ely kill e d Th e .

hypoth esis of na t ura l s el ection e xpl a i n s t h e o r d er of th e world

witho u t t a ki n g a s u p r em e D es ign er i n to a ccoun t B u t wh a t of .

n a t ura l s el ectio n its elf ? H ow a re we to expl a i n t h e t en den c v

of t h e a to m s tow a r ds d e fi n it e a r ra n gem en ts th e f a ct th a t so m e ,

a rr a n g e m en t s p e r s i s t i n e x ist e n c e whil e oth er s a e

r d e st r oy e d ?

I n st ea d of t h e i n n a t e t en d en cy of th e a tom s tow a r ds d efi n ite

gr ou ps why wa s th er e n ot a t en d en cy tow a r ds a p er pe tu a l ch a os ?
,

A ch a otic cos m os s eem s i n d ee d t h e o n ly possibl e o utco m e of a

m ere shock of a tom s a n d t h e hypoth e sis of n a t u ra l s e l ection is
,

a no n s en se if we do n o t a d m it fi n a l ity A ll t h e p erf ections of

.

t h e f u t u re wo r l d m u st th u s b e s u ppos e d to e x ist pot e n t i a lly in

t h e o r igi n a ry ch a os a n d t h e n e c e ssity of a d e sign er by n o m ea ns
,

dis a pp ea r s .

Th e m et a physic a l a r gum en t is b a s e d u po n th e p r i n cipl e of

c a u s a li ty T h e f a ct th a t n o b egi n n i n g of e xist enc e ca n h a pp en
.

withou t a c a u s e h a s b een p rov e d in our ch a pt er on m eta physics

a n d n ee ds n o t he i n sist e d u po n I n th e m e t a physic a l a rg um ent
.
,

t h e fo rm of th e p r i n cipl e of c a u s a lity is som ewh a t m odifi ed .

Wh a t e v er do es n ot ex ist of a b sol u te n ec e ssity it is cont end ed , ,

”4
c a n not e xist withou t a p r oportio n a t e ca use W hich m ea n s .

th a t t h e c a u s e co n sid ere d in its tota li ty m u st co n ta in a p erf ec

, ,

tio n a t l ea st e q u a l to tha t of t h e e ff ect Th e v a lidity of this .

fo rm of th e p r incipl e of c a u sa l ity m ight p erh a p s b e q uestion e d .

I t is st r o n gly d e f en d e d by n eo Schol a stics wh o con ten d th a t if

-
,

t h e c a u s e f a il e d to b e p r oporti on a t e th e e xc e ss of th e effe ct
,

‘
B oe dde r , Na t u r a l Th e o l ogy p
, . 33 .
 1 31

wo uld rea lly be withou t ca u se a nd th e gen e ra l la w of ca u sa l i ty ,

“
would be th ereby viola te d .

T he n ece ssity of a propo rtiona te ca use be ing a dm i tt ed th e ,

ex ist ence of a S upr em e Mi n d follows a s a n ec essa ry co n se q ue nce .

A cl ea r id ea of th e Schol a sti c l in e o f rea son ing m a y be ga th e re d

fro m t he following t hree proposi tions in which th e a rg um ent
ma y be s umm e d u p
1 . Th ere a re c ha ng es in ou r wor ld , and t h es e c ha ng es p re

sup p os e a ca us e . Th e truth of thi s first p roposition has bee n

cl ea rly sho wn in our cha pte r on m e ta physics .

2 . Th es e c ha n g es p r es upp I f th e
ose a s el f -
exis t ing ca us e .

ca u se of t h e cha nges is not se l f existi ng it m u st b e c a u se d by -

,

so m eth in g else This so m et h in g el se if n ot s el f e xisti ng m u s t

.
,
-
,

a lso be c a u se d a n d we m u st fin a lly a r riv e a t a se lf e xi sti ng

,
-

be in g ; oth erwise we wo uld h a v e a n i n fi n it e proc e ss a n d n o ,

ch a nge wo uld be possibl e i na s m u ch a s a s uffi ci ent ca use of th e

,

cha nge coul d n e ve r be fo un d Th u s f a r th ere is n othi n g in our .

a rgum e nt which a m a t e r i a list w o uld f a il to a d m it A s el f .

e xis ting b e ing ex ists h e wo u ld sa y b u t we n ee d n ot go b eyo n d

, ,

t h e m ol e c ul e t h e a tom t h e m a te ri a l wo rld
,
T he followi ng
,
.

propo sition se p a ra t es t he Schol a stic sy ste m f ro m a ll m a te ria lis

ti c hypoth e se s
3 . Th is s el f
-
ex is ting b eing m us t b e
f
an i mma ter ia l a nd f ree
b ei ng . ltim a te ca u s e of th e world m u st n ot si m ply b e a
Th e u

ca u se ; it m u st be a p roportion a t e c a u se The world conta in s .

imm a teri a l a n d free b eings s uch a s t h e h um a n so ul Th e re fo re

,
.

t h e ca use of t h e world m us t be a n i mm a t e ria l a nd free be in g ,

tha t is to sa y a pe rso na l God ,

.

S s cr rox 3 .
—A rr a l a ur xs or G on

Th e Di vi n e Be ing of th e Schol as tics possesse s three fund a

me nta l a ttri bu te s : h e is in fi nite one a nd sim pl e , .

Th e doctrin e of an infinite G od is n o t wi t ho ut diffi culty .

So m e C a tholic philosO ph ers ha v e thought th a t a l tho ugh fa ith ,

‘
l bid .
, p . 34 .
 1 32

obliges u s to b eli ev e in t h e i n fi n ity of th e S uprem e Be ing this ,

in fi nity c a n n ot str ictly b e prov e d by rea son a lon e I n a re cent .

a r ticl e of t h e R evu e de P h i los oz i hi e Mr D essoula vy .

e x p re ss e d his sym p a thy f or Schill er s th e sis on this s u bj ect

’
.

Th e m od e rn followe rs of S t Thom a s how e v er st ro n gly insist.

, ,

u po n t h e c a p a city of phil osophy to r ea ch a knowl e dg e o f t h e

i n fi n ity of God Th ey a dopt t h e l i n e o f rea soning which led

.

Aristotl e a n d Thom a s A qu in a s to t h e conc ept of p u re a ctu a lity

( a c tus p u m a ) .

E v er y fi n it e b ei n g the y a r gu e con si sts of a ctu a lity a n d p o

, ,

t en cy : of a ct u a l ity in so f a r a s it poss ess e s som e p er f e ctions ;

of pot en cy in so f a r a s it is c a p a bl e of a c qu i r i n g t h e p erf ections
,

it do e s n ot poss e ss N ow t h e a ct ua l i s logic a lly a n t e ri o r to t h e

.

poten ti a l b e c a u s e a pot en ti a l b eing c a nn ot b ecom e a ct ua l u nl ess

,

i t b e a ct e d u pon by a n a ct ua l b ei n g Th e u lti m a t e c a u s e of .

r ea l ity m u st n ot th er e fo r e co n t a i n a n y pot en ti a lity ; oth er wis e it

wo u ld p r es u ppos e a n oth er c a u s e a n d wou l d n ot b e u ltim a t e It .

m u st b e p u r e a ct u a l ity a n d a ccor di n gly poss e ss a ll p e rf ections

,

6
in a n i n finit e d egr ee .

F r om t h e i n fi nity of God follows his u n ity a s a logic a l c on se

u en ce I f th er e w er e s e v era l Gods th ey sho u l d diff er in so m e
q .
,

ch a r a ct er istics E a ch of th em wo ul d thu s l a ck t h e p ec ul i a r
.

p er f ectio n s which ch a ra cter i z e t h e oth er s a n d no n e cou l d b e ,

"
i n fi n it e
T h e p r oof of God s si m pl icity re sts u pon hi s self e xi st enc e
’
-
.

Wh a t e v er is co m p o u n d de p en ds u po n its constit u en t el em ent s

a n d u po n t h e c a u s e of th e i r u n io n A s God is t h e u lti m a te .

gr oun d of a ll r ea lity h e c a n not d ep en d u pon a n ythi n g els e a n d

,

m u st b e a bsol u t ely si m pl e 8
.

F r om th e se th r ee f un da m enta l a ttrib ut e s a ll a tt r ib ut e s of t h e ,

°
Cf .T h om a s A qu i na s C G l ib , . .
, . 1, ca p . 16 ; a so l G a r r ig o u -
Lg
a g
ra n e ,

Le D i e u fi n i d u P r a gm a ti s m e R ev , . d es s ci .
p h i los . ct t h eo l 1 90 7, pp .

2 52 fi .

7
C f Th
. A qu i n a s S u m ma T h eo l P 1 Q 1 1 a rt 3
om a s ,
.
, .
,
.
, . .

‘
C f Th
om a s A q u i n a s
. S um m a Th eo l P 1 Q 3 a rt
, . .
, .
, .
, . 7; B oe dde r,
N a t u ra l T h e ol o gy p 9 3 , . .
 Th e positiv e a tt r ib u t e s of t h e D ivin e B e ing a re hi s knowl e dge ,

his will a n d hi s o m n ipot enc e

,
.

God h a s a co m p r eh ensiv e knowl e dg e of his e ss enc e a n d in his ,

own ess enc e h e s ee s t h e e ss en ces of a ll r ea l a n d po ssi b l e things .

H is kn owldg e ext en ds to th e conti ngen t a s w ell a s to th e n ec es

s a ry ; a n d i n a sm u ch a s h e is e t ern a l to th e f ut ur e a s w ell a s
, ,

to th e p a st .

Th e f a c u lty of will co n sisti n g in t h e lov e of t h e obj ect p r e

s en t e d by t h e int ell ect a s good i n volv e s no i m p er f e ctio n a n d
,

m u st b e fo u n d in t h e S u p r em e B e i n g Go d lov e s his own es

.

s en c e n ec e ss a r ily b e c a u se hi s e ss en c e is t h e s u p rem e a n d i n fi n ite

,

good a n d is th ere fo re wo rthy of a n i n finite lov e H i s lov e for

,
.

c r ea tur es i s a n o u tcom e of t h e lov e h e b ea r s to hi m s elf I t is .

in his own e ss enc e th a t h e k n ows a ll finite b e i n gs of which his ,

e ss en ce is t h e p r ototyp e It is in his own e ssen c e th a t h e lov es

.

a ll fi n it e b e ings t h e p erf e ctio n s a n d t h e goodn e ss of which a r e

,

fo u n d in his e ss en c e in a n infinit e deg r ee .

God i s a lso o m nipot en t He c a n do by a singl e a ct of will

.

wh a t e v er is n ot i n t r i n sic a lly im possibl e A s for th i ngs whos e .

co n c ept i n volv es a co n t ra dictio n— s u ch a s a s q ua re ci r cl e or a ,

ma n b e i n g a n a ss— it i s o n ly a n i m p r op er u se of th e t erm s th a t
l ea ds u s to a ss ert th a t God c a n not do th em : it wou ld b e m o re
co rr ect to sa y th a t th e thi n gs th em s elv e s c a nnot b e do n e Th ey .

i n volv e a co n t ra diction a n d t h e Infinit e B e i n g m u st a bove a ll

,

b e s el f co n siste n t
-
It is th e s a m e s el f consist en cy th a t expl a ins
.
-

how Go d c a n no t possibly comm it si n fu l a cts Th e e ss en c e of .

s in co n sisti n g n o t p r e cis e ly in t h e p r od u ctio n of a n e ff e ct b ut

, ,

in th e oppositio n of ou r f r ee wil l to th e et ern a l la w of God its ,

p res ence in th e D ivi n e B eing wo uld involv e t h e d e ni a l of hi s

own s elf .

Th e p r e c e di n g cl a ssific a tion of t h e a ttrib ut e s of God sho u ld

n ot how e v er l ea d u s to b eli e v e th a t t h e D ivin e E ss en c e i s c on
, ,

sidere d b y Tho m ists a s di vid e d i n to s ep a ra t e a n d u n con n e ct e d

co m p a r tm ents H egel s rep r o a ch a ga inst t h e ol d M eta physics
.
’
,
physica l sim plicity of t h e D i vin e Be ing f We a ssign a tt rib u tes

in God G od is on e .

h is e ss ence or his ,
his e sse nce is his o wn bei ng ; “
his
int ell ect his own be ing his will i s a l so h is own be i ng 13
If .

we a re co m p ell ed to stu dy his a ttr ib ut e s se p a ra t ely i t is o n ,

a c c o un t of t h e i m p e rfe ction of o ur m ind which be in g e s s e n ti a lly , ,

“
finit e ca nnot gra sp th e In fi n ite : Bal bu t iend o a t p oss u m us
, , ,

ex c els a .
D ei
’
H ge l L gic W l l ce
e , o , a a
’
s cd .pp 6 0 H
, . .

”
T h oma s A q u i na s S umm a , Th o l P 1 Q
e .
, . . . 3, a rt . 3 .

"
I b id P 1 Q 3 a rt 4
.
, .
, .
,
. .

”
I bid P 1 Q 1 4 a rt 4
.
, .
, . , . .

”
I bid P 1 Q 1 9 a rt 1
.
, .
, .
, . .

"
I bi d P 1 Q 4 a r t 1 a d
.
, .
, .
, .
,
1 .
 C H AP T ER VI I

SCH O L ASTI C M O R A L P HI LO SO P H Y

A cco r ding to M r . De Wulf, th e e ss en ti a l ch a ra ct eri st ics of

th e Schol a stic syst em of ethics m a y b e re d u c e d to two h ea ds : it
i s eu d em onistic a n d l ib e rt a ri a n .

I n ord er to form a cl ea r conc e pt io n of th e n a t u r e of thi s

eu d em onis m a f ew con sid er a tio n s a bo u t t h e n e c e ss a r y conditio n s
,

u n de r lying t h e a ctivity of a ll b e i n gs will n ot b e ou t of pl a c e

h ere .

W a i ving a ll oth er co n sid era tion s it m u st b e a d m itt e d th a t a ll

,

a g en t s a c t f or a d efi n it e en d This i s tru e n ot only of c onscio u s

.

b ei ngs b ut lik ew is e of i n a ni m a t e obj ects I t follows a s a u s ee s

,
.

s a ry con se que nc e f r o m th e f a ct th a t our cosm os pres ents u s with

disti n ct i n divid ua ls ea ch of which i s en dowe d with a p ec u li a r
,

n a t ur e W h en dyn a m it e blows u p a n e dific e i t a cts tow a r ds

.
,

a n e n d a s w ell a s t h e a co r n wh en it b eco m e s a n o a k L ik e t h e .

a co r n it poss e sse s a n e ss en ti a l ch a ra ct er d e fi nit e pot en ti a liti e s

, ,

which u n d er p r op er conditions will fo r cibly b ecom e a ctu a l

, ,
.

Th e o n ly diff e r enc e th a t exists b etw een t h e pot e nti a l ity of th e

in o r g a n ic a n d of t h e o rg a n i c wo r ld li es in t h e f a ct th a t i n o rg a n ic
a g en ts do n ot poss e ss a ny p r incipl e of s elf a ct ua tion a n d th er e -
,

fo r e th ey do n ot a ct e xc ept wh en m ov e d by som e ext er n a l c a u s e .

O rga n ic b ei n gs on t h e oth er h a nd a r e en dow e d with a n inn er

, ,

p r i n cipl e of s e lf det erm in a tion It is in this v ery princip l e th a t

-
.

”
th e e ss en c e of l if e consists : Th e living b eing s a ys S t , .

”
Thom a s is th e on e th a t c a n m ov e itse l f
,
Vi ta est su bs t a n tia ,
.

”1
c ui con v en i t s ecu n du m n a tura m s ua m m ov ers s eip sa m .

howe v er a ltho ugh s el f d e te rm in ed a re n ot consciou s

P l a nts , ,
-
,

of t h e en d tow a rd which th e ir own n a ture co m p el s th em to t end .

‘
T h oma s A qu i n as S umm a T h e ol P
, .
, . 1, Q . 1 8, a rt . 2, c .

1 36
 1 38

ra tion a l ity f r o m our wo rld a n d by so doing we d est r oy m or

, , ,

a l ity itse l f .A ll ext erna l syst em s of ethics i m ply th a t n o a cti on

i s good or b a d in its elf ; th a t a n a ct we now r ega r d a s good would
be b a d if som e d ete rm i n a t e f ree a gent h a d will e d it so ; m ight
b e com e b a d this v er y da y i f t h e w ill or t h e c a p r ic e of t h e la w
giv er sho u l d v a ry U nd er su ch conditions no sci en c e of e th ics
.

i s possibl e .

Th e e n d of m a n is th u s th e co m pl et e a ct u a l i z a tion of his
n a t u r e— or to u se a t er m c u r r ent in a n ci en t G r eec e—p er f e ct

h a ppi n e ss .

H ere S chol a stic ethics m eets a pow er f ul a dv ers a ry which ,

u n d er a v a r i ety of fo r m s h a s co n t r oll e d m od ern tho u ght h a s

, ,

a ss u m e d diffe r en t g a rbs a cco r di n g to t h e v a r yi n g ci r c u m st a n c e s ,

an d ,
r e p ea t e dly u n m a sk e d h a s a pp ea re d a ga i n a n d a g a i n its
, ,

a pp ea r a n c e b e i n g t h e si gn a l f or p r olo n g e d a ppl a u s e ; a syst em

whi ch u n d er th e sp e ciou s n a m e s of h e do n i sm E p ic ur ia n ism

, , ,

u tilit a r i a n ism is to da y p erh a ps m o r e vigo r o u s th a n e v er a n d

,
-

p r id es its el f u po n its a bl e de f en d er s a n d l egio n s of a dh eren ts .

Th e di ff e ren c e b etw e en h e do n i sm a n d Schol a sticism l i e s in

this : H e do n ism i n c u lc a t e s th a t pl ea s ure is t h e u lti m a t e c r i ter ion
of m o r a lity a n d th a t a n a ctio n i s good o n ly in so f a r a s it i s
,

pl ea su ra bl e ; wh erea s f or Schol a sti ci sm g oo d n ess l i e s in t h e

n a t ure of t h e a c t its el f a n d pl ea sure i s si m ply a n effect which
,

m a y follow f r o m a m o r a l a ct wh ich will n ec e ss a r ily a cco m p a n y

,

t h e g o od in th e lo n g r u n b u t which is n ot th e good
,
.

A s h e do n ist s oft en a ll ege t h e a u tho rity of P l a to a n d A r istot le

in su ppo r t of th ei r th e ory it will b e wo r th whil e b e fo re expos
, ,

in g th e p r i m e d e f ect of H e do n is m to q u ot e a f ew p a ss a g e s which
,

cl ea rly show th a t P l a to a n d A r istotl e did not conf u s e t h e pl ea s

u r a b le with t h e good a n d th a t f u rth er m o r e th ey h e l d in r eg a rd
, ,

to t h e fi n a l en d of m a n th e v ery b eli efs th a t ch a r a ct eri ze th e

,

e t h ic a l syst em of t h e Schol a stics .

Th e fi r st p a ss a g e is t a k e n f ro m P l a to s Go rgi a s
’

L i st e n to m e th en whil e I r e c a pit ul a t e t h e a r gu m en t : I s
, ,

th e pl ea s a n t t h e s a m e a s th e good ? N ot th e s a m e Ca llicles .
 1 39

and I gree d a bout th a t A nd is th e pl ea sa n t t o be p urs ued

a re a .

f or t h e sa k e of th e good ? or th e good for t h e sa ke of t h e pl ea s

a nt ? Th e pl ea sa nt is to be p u rs ued for t h e sa k e of t h e good .

And tha t i s th e pl ea sa nt a t t h e prese n c e of which we a re pl ea sed ,

a n d th a t is goo d a t t h e pr e se n c e of whi ch we a re good ? To be

s ure A n d we a re good a n d a ll good t h i ngs wh a t e v er a re good
.
,

wh en so m e vi rtu e i s p rese nt in them ? Th a t Ca llicles is my , ,

con viction B ut t h e vi r t ue of ea ch th ing wh eth er b o dy or so ul

.
,

in str um en t or crea ture wh en giv en to th em in t h e b e s t wa y

, ,

com es to th em not by ch a nc e b u t a s t h e r e s ul t of th e o rd e r an d ,

truth a nd a rt which a re i m p a rte d to th em A m I n ot right ? .

I m a in ta in th a t I a m A nd i s no t t h e s oul which ha s a n
.

ord er of h er own be tt er t h a n th a t which h a s no o rd er o f h er

o wn ? Ce rt a inly A n d th e so u l whi c h h a s a n o rd e r is o rd e rly ?
.

O f co u rse A n d th a t which is o r d erly is t em p e ra t e

.
? A s su redly .

A nd t h e t em pe ra t e so ul is good ? N o oth er a n sw er ca n I giv e ,

Ca llieles d ea r I f t h e t em pe ra t e so ul is th e go o d s o ul t he
. ,

so ul which is in t h e opposi t e co n di t io n th a t is t h e f o oli s h a nd ,

int em p era t e is t h e b a d s o ul .

A n d will not t h e te m pe ra t e m a n do wh a t is p rop e r b oth in ,

rel a t ion to gods a nd m en ; f o r h e w o uld no t b e te m p e ra te i f h e

did not wh a t is p rop e r ? Y e s c erta i nly A n d in his r el a tion .
,

to oth e r m en h e wi ll do wh a t is j ust a n d in h is re l a t io n t o t he ,

gods h e will do wh a t is holy ; a n d h e who do es wh a t is j ust a nd

holy ca nnot b e oth er th a n j us t a n d holy ? Ve ry t rue A nd .

h e m ust be co u ra geo us f o r t h e d u ty of a t e m p e ra t e m a n is not

,

to follow or to a vo id wh a t h e o ught no t b ut wh a t h e o ugh t . ,

wh eth e r thi n gs or m en or pl ea s ures o r p a i ns a nd p a ti e n t ly to

, , , ,

end ur e wh a t h e o ught ; a n d th ere fo re Ca llic les t h e te m pe ra t e , ,

ma n be ing a s we h a v e d e sc r i be d a l s o j us t a nd c o u ra ge o us a nd
, , ,

holy ca nnot be oth e r t ha n a pe r fec tly good m a n no r c a n t h e

, ,

g oo d m a n do oth e rw i se th a n w e ll a n d pe r fec tly wh a t e v e r h e

doe s ; an d h e wh o does w ell m ust of nec ess i ty be h a ppy a nd

”2
bl essed a nd th e e v il m a n who doe s e vil m is e ra bl e
,
.

As weha ppin ess is by no m ea ns ide ntifi e d wi th pl ea s u re

see , .

I t consists in a ce rta in vi rt ue in a n o rd e r which ch a ra ct e ri zes ,

th e so ul of t h e goo d m an Th e te m pe ra te so ul is t he good so ul ;
.

th e foo lish a n d inte m pe ra t e is t h e ba d so ul .

‘
P l a to Di a l o gues
, , J owe tt
’
s cd .
, Vo l 3 ,
. pp . 97 98 — .
 1 40

A s im il a r doctri ne is h el d by A ristotl e I n t h e fi r st book of .

h is N ico m a ch ea n E thics h e tea ch es th a t h a pp in ess is n e ith er

,

pl ea s ur e nor honor nor w ea lth b ut a n en ergy of th e so ul

, , ,

”
a c c ording to vi r t ue Th es e a re A ristotl e s own words
.
’

Men s eem not u n r ea son a bly to form th e ir notion of t h e

good a n d of h a ppi n ess from obs er ving th e di ffe rent liv es which
, ,

m e n l ea d Th e m a n y a n d m ost sordi d cl a ss s u ppos e it to b e

.

pl ea s ur e a n d th er efo re th ey a re cont ent with a l if e of en j oy

,

m e nt 3
.

B u t p e r h a ps to s a y th a t h a ppi n ess is th e grea t est good

, , ,

a pp e a r s lik e st a ti n g so m e thi ng which i s a l r ea dy gr a nt e d ; a n d it

i s d esi ra bl e th a t we sho ul d ex pl a in still m or e cl ea rly wh a t it is .

Pe r h a ps th en this m a y b e do n e if we t a k e t h e p ec u li a r work of
, , ,

m a n ; f or a s to t h e m u sici a n a n d sta tua ry a n d to e v er y a rt ist

, , ,

a n d in sho r t to a ll wh o h a v e a n y wo r k or co ur s e o f a ctio n th e ,

goo d a n d e x c ell en c e of ea ch a pp ea r s to co n sist in th e i r p ec u l i a r

wor k ; so wo ul d it a pp ea r to b e wi th m a n if th er e is a ny p e c u li a r ,

wo r k b elongi n g to h im
“
Wh a t th en m u st this pe cu li a r wo r k b e ? F or l ife m a n
, ,

a pp ea r s to sh a r e in co m m on with pl a nts ; b u t his p ec u l i a r wo r k

i s t h e obj e ct of our i n q u i ry : we m u st th ere fo re s ep a r a t e th e , ,

l ife of n ut r itio n a n d gr owth Th en a ki n d of s en sitiv e lif e .

wo u l d n ext follow ; bu t this a lso h e a pp ea rs to en joy in co mm on

with th e ho r s e t h e ox a n d e v ery a n i m a l Th er e r em a ins th er e
, ,
.
,

fo r e a c er t a i n p ra ctic a l lif e of a b ei n g which poss ess es r ea son ;

,

a n d of thi s on e p a r t is a s it w e re ob e di en t to r ea so n t h e oth er
, , ,

a s poss e ssi n g it a n d e x e rcisi n g i n tell ect

,
B ut this l if e a lso .

b e i n g spok en in two w a ys ( a ccording to en erg y a n d a ccording

t o h a bit ) we m u st t a k e th a t a cco r di n g t o en ergy ; f or th a t
,

a pp ea r s to b e m o r e p r op er ly so c a ll e d N ow if t h e wo r k of .

m a n a n d of a goo d m a n is t h e s a m e gen er ic a lly a s in t h e c a s e

, , ,

of a h a r p er a n d a good h a r p er ( a n d so in short i n a ll c as es
, , , ,

s u p er io r ity in ea ch p a r ti c ul a r exc ell en c e b e in g a dd e d to ea ch

p a r tic ul a r wo r k ) f o r it is t h e wo rk of a h a r p er to pl a y of a ,

goo d h a r p e r to pl a y w ell : a n d i f we a ss um e t h e p ec uli a r work

of m a n to b e a ki n d o f l ife a n d this l if e a n en e rgy of t h e so u l
,

a n d a ctio n s pe rform e d with r e a so n ; a n d th e p ec u l i a r wo r k of

a goo d m a n to b e t h e s a m e things do n e w ell a n d ho n or a bly ; a n d ,

e v e rything to b e com pl et e a ccordi n g t o its prop e r e xc ell enc e :

‘
A r i s t otl e , N ic o m a c h e a n E t h ic s , Bk . 1, ch a p . 5; B r ow ne ’
s ed .
, p . 7 .
 1 42

a nd h a ppi n ess of his f a m ily a n d a s a co n s e qu en c e his own

, , ,

p ea c e a n d j oy a t ho m e Th e sist er of ch a r ity who l ea v es h er

.
,

ho m e a n d p a r en ts who r eno u n c e s for ev er t h e m ost l egitim a t e

,

j oys of l if e t h e pl ea s ur e s th a t t h e m a tr i m o n i a l sta t e a n d t h e
,

r ea r i n g of child r en wo u l d bri n g t o h er ; wh o sp en ds h e r d a ys

a n d h e r n ights a t t h e b e dsid e of a poor sick m a n who m sh e h a s

n ev er m e t b e fo re ,
to who m sh e f eels a tt a ch e d by no ea r thly
bonds who m n ev e rth el ess sh e a tten ds with a ll t h e p a in st a ki n g
,

c a re s of a m ost d evot e d m oth er whom sh e fi n a lly s n a tch es f r o m

,

t h e cl a ws of d ea th e xp e cti n g n o ea rthly r ew a r d k n owi n g f u ll

, ,

w ell th a t th e o n ly p r i z e of h er s elf a b n ega tio n will b e a n u n

-

ti m ely d ea th ; this sist er of ch a r ity whos e whol e lif e s eem s to

,

b e a glowi n g i m p e r so n a tio n of a lt r u is m is f r o m a h e do n istic

, ,

poi n t of vi e w j u st a s s e lfish a s t h e m ost v u lga r m a n S h e

,
.

r en o un c e s t h e pl eas u re s of this wor ld to en joy t h e pl ea s ur es o f

t h e wo r l d to co m e S h e a b a n do n s r el a tiv es rich es life its el f
.
, , ,

a ll fi n it e a n d p er ish a bl e goods to s e c u r e t h e poss e ssion of tr ea s

,

u r e s th a t n e v er f a d e n or grow old Th e p r i z e sh e cov ets is no n e

.

l ess th a n God h im s elf .

P l ea s u r a bl e a ctio n s how e v er c a n b e m a d e co e xt en siv e with

, ,
-

goo d a ctio n s o nly in a ss u m i n g th ere i s a f u tu re lif e A s m a ny .

h e do n ists wo u ld b e lo a th to t a k e s u ch a lif e i n to a cco un t wo ul d ,

r a th er p r of e ss with H e g el th a t this e v er y da y wo r ld wh a t i s h er e
-
,

a n d n ow h a s b ee n a v e ry good e x ch a n g e f or t h e sh a dowy oth er

,

wo r ld a bo u t which a n ci ent philosoph er s wo rr i e d th em s elv es sick ,

th ere will co m e in th e i r wa y a gr ea t m a n y f a cts which th e ir

—
syst em n th e fo rm we a r e a t p e s t co sid e i g will b e
i r e n n r n —
u n a bl e to e x pl a i n . N o f ut ur e gra ti fic a tio n if we si m ply con ,

sid er this a ct u a l wo r l d of o ur s c a n possibly a ccr ue to t h e

,

soldi er who in a b r a v e fight a ga inst t h e fo e s of his co un t r y

, ,

di es th e d ea th of a h e ro on th e b a ttl e fi eld I f h e is unknown .

to t h e wo r ld h e will not e v en r ea ch t h e glo ry of h a vi n g his n a m e

,

r ecor de d in t h e a nn a ls of his co un try ; h e will not b e h el d up to

t h e school boys of f u t ur e gen er a tions a s t h e id ea l citi z en
-
.

Obsc ure in l ife ; still m ore obsc ur e in d ea th N o m a n how e v er .

, ,
 1 43

wo uld ca ll in to q uestion t h e int rins ic worth of h is h e roic d ea th .

F a cts of this ki n d h a v e ca u se d th e do wnf a ll of individ ua l

h edon ism a n d given bi rth to t h e cel ebra t ed form ul a so u niv er ,

“
sa lly a dm itted by h edon ists to da y : th e grea test goo d for th e
-

g r ea t e st n u m be r I n thi s new form of t h e syst em not only

.
,

m u st imm edi a t e sa tisfa ction s giv e wa y to sa tisfa ctio ns m ore

re mote b ut t h e p resent a n d t h e fut ure pl ea sure s of t h e indi
,

vid ua l m u st be s ubordin a ted to t h e pl eas ure s of th e whol e c om

m uni ty A ll form s of se l f sa crifi c e a re th us ea s ily j us t ified
.
-
.

Th e sist er of ch a rity will die in h er p r i m e of li fe a t h er post

of d uty b ut t h e h undr eds of un fort una te p e opl e whom s h e h a s
,

resc u e d f rom dea th will live a n d soci ety will b e be n e fi te d Th e .

h ero will be kill e d on th e b a ttl efi eld b ut h is co un try will b e

,

sa ved .

Schol a stic m ora li st s wo uld a dm it th a t pl ea su re a n d good a re

co e xt ensiv e
-
I f good a c t ions a re t h o s e p e r fo rm e d in h a r m o ny
.

with our na tu re th ey m u st n eeds p rod uc e pl ea s ura bl e res ul t s a t

,

t h e p rese n t m o m en t or a t so m e f u t ure ti m e We c a n no t d eny

.

t h i s principl e witho ut d enying th e ra ti o na l ch a ra ct er of o u r

world A nd as h ere below m a ny d ee d s u n iv e rs a lly rega rd e d a s
.
,

good do not giv e ri se to a ny pl ea sura bl e co ns eq ue n c e t h ere

, ,

m u st exis t a m ore pe r fect wo rld in which wh a te v e r se e ms i r ra

,

t iona l in this w ill be re ctifi e d B ut a ltho ugh pl ea s u re a n d good

.
,

a re c o e xte nsiv e th ey a re f a r fro m be ing id entic a l t e rm s

-
,
Pl ea s .

u re bea rs to goo d th e r el a tio n o f a n eff e ct to it s c a us e A good .

a ct ion will prod u ce pl ea su r a bl e r es ults ; b u t it will p r od uc e th e m

on a cc o un t of its own inh e rent n a ture Th e good n e ss will .

be long to the el em ents of t h e a cti on i t se lf r ega rdl e ss o f th e ,

conse q ue nce s t h a t ma y possibly follow fro m it A ri pe a ppl e .

will give ri se to pl ea sa nt g usta tory i m pre ssions b ut those im ,

pres sion s wi ll be due to th e pec u lia r n a t ure a nd dis pos itio n of

th e a to m s o f th e a ppl e i t sel f which wil l th us posse ss a n intr insic
,

goodn ess ind e pe nd ently o f th e se nsa tions it ma y p rod uce A nd

,
.

i f t h e a ppl e d eca ys it is in th e a ppl e itse lf tha t a ch a nge from

,

oo d to b a d will oc c u r : it will be ba d ev en if no b o dy e v e r ta st e s
g
 1 44

i t Wh a t is t ru e of a n ext ern a l obj ect is lik ewis e tr ue of a ll

.

th a t b elongs to th e inn er n a tu re of m a n A ll our a cts poss e ss .

a v a l u e of th e i r own which m u st b e r eg a rd ed a s prim a ry whil e

, ,

t h e en su i n g cons e q u en c e s a re look e d u pon a s onl y s econd a ry .

Th e good is thu s id en tifi a bl e with wh a t i s i n h a rm on y with ou r

n a t ure B ut a s we a re en dow e d with s e v er a l o r d er s o f f a cu lti e s
.
,

a s we a r e m a d e u p of body a n d so u l a n d th e r eby poss e ss a ,

s en s uo u s a n d a n i n t ell ectu a l a p p etit e t h e gr a ti fi c a t ion of our ,

low er i m p u ls e s m u st b e subordin a t ed to our nobl er en ergi es .

We m u st l iv e a cco r di n g to our n a t ur e b u t to our whol e n a tur e , .

Th e s a ti sf a ct io n of a s en s uo u s d e si re is th u s goo d in its elf b u t ,

b e com e s b a d if t h e e xer cis e of a nobl er f a cu lty is thw a rt e d

th ereby °

”
D elec t a t ion e s co r po r a l es s a ys St T ho m a s s un t s ec un d um
, .
,

p a rt em s en s it iva m q uae reg ula tu r ra tion e : et i d eo indigen t t em

,
”5
e ra ri e t re f r ze n a r i p er r a tio n e m
p .

Th e s tio n th a t t h e s a tisf a ction of a s en s u ou s d esi re i s good

a se r

in its e lf p u ts Sch ola stic m or a list s in con fl ict with t h e a u thor of

t h e Cr i tiq u e of P ra c ti ca l R ea s on A ccordi ng t o I m m a n u el
.

K a n t a wo rk is good wh en it is don e n ot o nly f rom d uty b u t

, , ,

f r om p u re d u ty 6
W h en ev er so m e n a t ura l i m p u lse f urn ish es
.

t h e m otiv e of a good d ee d thi s d ee d is th er eby d ep r iv e d of its

,

m o ra l wo r th O u r a ctio n s m u st sp ri n g f r o m d u ty a lo n e a n d
.
,

n ot f r o m a n y n a t ura l i n clin a tio n wh a tso e v er

T o b e b en e fi cen twh en we c a n is a d u ty s a ys K a n t a n d , ,

b e sid es this th ere a r e m a n y m i n ds so sym p a th etic a lly constit u te d

th a t witho u t a n y oth e r m otiv e of v a n ity or s elf int ere st th ey
,
-
,

fi n d a pl ea s u r e in sp r ea di n g j oy a r o u n d th em a n d c a n t a k e ,

d e light in t h e s a ti sf a ctio n of oth er s so f a r a s it is th e ir own

wo r k B u t I m a i n t a i n th a t in s u ch a c a s e a n a ctio n of this
.
,

ki n d how ev er p r op er how e v er a m i a bl e it m a y b e h a s n ever th e

, , ,

l e ss n o t r u e m o ra l worth b ut i s on a l e v el with oth e r i n cl in a

,

tio n s 6 g t h e i n cl i n a tio n to hono r which if it i s h a ppily

, . .
, , ,

I”
Th o m a sA q u i na s S u mm a T h e o l 1 —2 Q 3 1 a rt 5 a d 3
, .
, , .
, .
, .

K a n t C r iti q u e o f P ra ctic a l R e a s o n a n d o t h e r w o r k s Abb o t t s cd p

, ,
’
.
, . 23 .
 1 46

f ar from t ea chi n g th a t fr ee a ctio n s a re done withou t a m otiv e

th ey s im ply cont en d th a t th e m otiv e do e s n ot n ec e ss a r ily d e te r
m i n e ou r wi ll O u r wi ll th ey sa y is a r a tion a l f a cu lty whos e
.
, ,

obj ect is t h e good N ow a good det erm ine s our will o n ly i f it

.

is good in e v er y r esp ect A s long a s th er e rem a i n s in it som e

.

u n d e si r a bl e a sp e ct —a s is th e c a s e with a ll th e fi nit e th ings o f

this wor ld—our will h a s not wh a t it n a tura lly t en ds to pe r f ect ,

h a ppi n e ss a n d is n ot th er e fore n e c e ss a r ily d e t erm in e d

,

Si p p
r o on a t u r a
q li u o d obje c m
t u vol u n ta t i,
q u od sit u n iv e r
s a lit er bon um , et s ec un dum om n em c on s idera t ion em , ex n ece s
sit a t e vol un t a s in illu d t endit , si a li qu id velit : non en i m p oterit
v ell e O p p ositu m : si a u t em p r op on a t u r sibi a li q u i d obj ec tum ,
q u od n on s ecun d um q u a m lib et c on sider a t ionem sit bo n um , n on
”8
ex n ec e ssita t e vol u n t a s f er t u r in illu d .

Th e l a bo rer who a ft er toil i ng l a bo r iou sly f or lo n g hour s ev ery

,

da y b r ings hi s wif e t h e f ru it of his toil a n d f a tigu e instea d of

,

sp en di n g it in a grog shop c er t a inly a cts with a n en d in vi ew

-
,
.

He is d et e rm i n e d by a m otiv e ; b ut his own conscio u sn e ss elo

q u ently t estifi es th a t this m otiv e di d not d e t erm in e hi s wil l
n ece s sa r ily th a t h e m ight h a v e a ct e d oth erwis e
, .

Schol a stics a re un a n i m o u s in r ega r di n g f ree will thu s u nder ,

stood as a n i n disp en sa bl e p re su pposition of a ll m ora lity Th e

, .

r ec ogn ition of this t ru th do e s not b elo n g sol e ly t o th em K a nt .

,

who s e philosophy li e s op en to criticis m in m a ny oth e r re sp e cts ,

j oi n s h ere in p erf ect h a rm ony with t h e t ea chings of th e School .

F ree will h a s a con spicu ou s pl a c e in hi s syst em of ethics is ,

in d ee d its corn e r stone -

He r ega rds it a s a n e ss enti a l co n dition
.

of a ll t r ue m o ra l ity .

I f we st a rt f r om f a t a listi c principl e s i f we r ega rd a ll our a cts ,

a s n e c e ss a r ily d e t erm in e d by ou r ch a r a ct e r a n d s urr o undi n gs a ll ,

possibil ity of a ctin g di ff er ently f rom wh a t we di d dis a pp ea rs ,

a n d th e wo r ds m er it a n d d em e rit los e a ll th e i r s ign ifi ca n ce .

I t will p erh a ps s eem stra n ge th a t a philosophy profe ssi ng to

‘
Th om a s A qu i n a s S umm a Th e o l
,
.
,
1—2, Q . 1 0, a rt . 2, c .
 1 47

be reviv a l of Thomi sm sho ul d d e fend a ny th esis of free wi ll

a .

Ma ny non C a thol ic write rs ind eed look upo n S t Thomas as a n

-
, ,
.

ang ry d e ter m in ist We will l im i t o urselves to two q uo ta tions :

.

” “
In th e fi rst pla ce sa ys Fu ll e rton it m ay help o ne to rea liz e
, ,

h ow e rron eo us i s th e curren t no ti on tha t t hi s doct rin e ( of free

will ) h a s so me n a tu ra l co nn ection wi th reli g ion a n d goo d m or
a ls a n d tha t th ey ma y be exp e c ted to b e fo und in co n j u nction
, .

Wh e n S t oic a n d E pi cu rea n a r e pl a ce d in co ntra st it is ce rta inl y ,

not to th e a dva nta ge of th e la tt er An d s urely no m a n ca n .

rega rd A ugustin e a s l es s religio us th a n Pel a gi us St Tho mas a s , .

l ess rcligious th a n D un s S cotu s Lu th e r a s l e ss r eligio us th a n ,

E ra sm u s a n d J a nse ni us as l ess reli g io u s th a n hi s J e s u it O pp o

,

n eu ts A gl a n ce a t th e history o f h u m a n tho ught t em pts one

.

to ma inta in th a t m en o f strong rel igio us fee ling a re l e ss l ik ely

to be co me free willists th a n oth er m en The ir p ec uli a r dan
-
.

g e r a ppea rs to b e a l a p se in to som e s ort of

O ur second q uota tion will be t a k en fro m th e Swiss p h iloso

phe r Ch a rl es S ecreta n
,

Il
( St Tho m a s ) a t t
. rib ue la c o u lp e a u lib re a r bi t r e de la

volonté : H oc enim im p uta t ur a lic u i in c ulp a m q uum d e fi c it

‘
,

a perf ec ts a c t ione c uj us do m i nu s e s t se c und um volu n ta tem

Deu s est a uctor m a l i pla nes n on a ut em m a li c ulpaz Ces d eol a

’
.
,

ra t ions se m bl en t p r écis es m a is ell es ne sa ura i e n t te n i r d e va n t ,

ls d é te rmi ni sm e a bsol u q ui fo rme 1a b a se de to u t ls

An d a littl e f u rth e r on he continues

Pere de l Eg lise ,
’
Le l ibre a rbitre n e s t , a u x y eux du
’
d e rn i er
q u e la f a c ul t é de s
’
éc a r te r de la ra ison . ll
’
n e st donc p as q ues
t i on dc li bre a rbitr e en
'
Fu l l e rto n S y s te m o f M e t a p hys ics p 557
, , . .

Se cr e ta n La Re s ta ura t i o n du Th om i s me ; Rev P h ilom Vol 1 8 p 7 8

, .
, .
, . .

“
I bid p 7 8 , Le t us com pa re with thi s la s t s ta te ment t h e f o ll o wi ng
. .

pa ssa g e f ro m St Th oma s s S um ma cont ra Ge ntil es :

.
'

Ca p ut LXXX VI I I : Quod in Dec es t l ibe rum a rbit ri um Ex p redict is .

a ute m os ten d i po tes t q uo d in Dco l ibe rum a rbit ri um inve nitu r na m

, ,

l ibe rum a rbit ri um di c it ur re s pe ct a co m m q ua e no n ne ces s i ta te q uia vul t ,

se d p ro p ria s po ut s ; un do i n nobi s es t l ibe rum a r bit ri um res pec t a e j us

quod vo lum us en t re ro ve l a mb ula re De us a u te m a l ia a as non e x nece s .

s ita te vul t u t su p ra os t e ns um e st
,
Ds o ig i tu r l ibe rum a rbit ri um in he re .

(C G L l c RM
”
co m pe t it . . ( e m e t ic a m id !
, .
, .
,
 1 48

S ec r et a n how e ver do e s not f eel p erf ectly a t c a se He f eels

, , .

no dou bt a bo u t St Thom a s s stric t de t erm in is m Ne v e rth el ess

.
’
.
,

h e is com p ell e d to r e cogn i z e in t h e wo rks of t h e A ng el ic D octor

, ,

som e t ea chin gs so u n di n g v ery m u ch lik e a n a dm ission of f ree

wi ll He concl u d e s th a t a co n t ra dictio n p erm ea t es t h e whol e
.

fl
system
E n co n t ra dictio n v ec son d é t erm i n i sm e a v e c son
a gr a nt e a ,

opti m ism e a bsol u, a v e c se s doct r i n e s s u r l é t en du e de la c a u s a lit é

’

d ivi n e et su r la p re scien c e de to u s les f ut u rs Tho m a s p rof ess e ,

”1 2
c a t égori qu em en t ls lib re a rb it rc .

L et us no w t urn to t h e wo r ks of St Tho m a s hi m s elf . a n d see

wh e th er h e wo u l d a cc ept a s hi s t h e doctr i n e s th u s im p ut e d to
h im . We sh a ll co n fi n e o ur s elv e s to a f ew st r iki n g p a ss a ges a n d ,

r e f er thos e who sho u ld d e si re m o r e a bun d a n t i n fo rm a tion to th e

S um m a Th eolog ica , t h e S u m ma c on tra G en t iles a nd t h e O p us
c a la , of which a tho r o u gh st u dy is n ec e ssa r y f or a com pl ete
u nd er s t a n di n g of t h e ph ilosophy of St Tho m a s a n d in which .
,

t h e point which int ere sts u s a t p r e sen t i s r ep ea t edly a n d a de

u a t ely disc u ss e d
q .

I n t h e S umm a c on tra G en tiles S t T ho m a s t ea ch e s t h a t a ll , .

int ell ect ua l s u bst a n c e s a r e en dow e d with f ree will :

Ca put X LV I I I — Q u o d subst a n tiae
in t ellec tu a le s sun t lib er i
.

a r bit r i i in a g endo E x his a u t em a p p a r et q u od p rsedic t ac sub

.
,

s t a n t iaa su nt l ib er i a r bitrii in a g en do q u od e ni m a rb itrio a ga n t .

,

m a n if es t um est c c q uod p er c ognit ion em in tellec t iva m j u dici um

h a b en t de op er a n dis lib ert a t em a u te m n ec ess e est ea s h a b e re
.
,

si h a b en t do m i n i um su i a ct u s u t o st en su m est ( c ,
S unt .

”1 3
igitur p rae dic t aa s ubsta n tiae lib er i a rb it r i i in a gen do .

He giv e s his vi ew on D i vin e P r ovid enc e , and prof es ses th a t

it do e s not i n t er f er e with th e fr ee will o f m a n :
C a p u t L X X I I I —Q u od divi n a p rovident ia non ex clu dit
'

a rb it r i i lib e r t a t em E x q uo p a te t q uod p rovident ia divin a vol

.

”
I b id .
, p 82
. .

”
C . G .
, L ib 2 c .
, . 48 .
 1 50

in di v er s a ferr i : ra tio en i m circ a c on t in gen s h a b et vi a m a d oppo

sit a u t p a t e t i n D ia lect ic is sy llog ism is et Rh et or icis p er su a
, ,

s ion ib u s : p a r t ic ula r ia a u t em op era b ilia su n t q uae d a m contin

gen ti s et i d e o ci r c a ea j u dici um ra t ionis a d di v er s a se h a b et et ,

n on est det e rm in a t u m a d u n um Et p r o t a n to n e c esse es t q u od .

,
”1 °
hom o sit l ib er i a r bitr i i ex h oe ipso q u od r a t ion a lis est , .

He v t ea ch e s th a t fr ee
e en a cts a re th e only a cts th a t m a y
p r op erly b e styl e d hum a n
Resp on deo dic en du m , q u o d a c t ionum , q ues a b hom in e a gun
t u r, illae soles p r op r i e di cu n t u r h um a n ae, q u es s u n t p r op r i ae h om
ini s in q u a n t um hom o : diff e rt a u t em hom o a b ir ra t ion a lib u s
e st

c r ea t u r i s in hoc q u o d est s n o ru m a c t uum do m in u s ; u n d e illm

,

s ol se a ction es voca n tur p r op r i e h um a n se q u a ra m hom o e st dom ,

i n u s ; est a u tem ho m o dom i n u s su orum a c t uu m p er ra tio n em et

volu n t a t em u n d e e t lib er um a r bit r i u m e ss e dic it u r f a cu lt a s

volu n t a t is et r a t ion is ; illse e rgo a ctio n e s prop r i e h um a n ae dic u n

,

t u r q u ae ex vol un ta t e d el ib er a t a p roc e du n t : si q u se a u t em a li se
,

a ctio n es b o m i n i c o n ven i a n t o s un t dici q u i d em ho m i n i s a c

p s ,

t ione s se d n on p r op r i e h um a n ae c um n on si n t ho m i n is in q u a n
, , ,
”1 7
t um e st hom o .

He disc u ss e s t h e re al tio n s of G od to m a n m o re clos ely still

th a n in th e S u m m a con tr a G en ti les ,
a nd r ea ch e s th e s a m e
concl u sio n s

Q u i a igit ur vol un t a s p r incipi um non d eterm i n a e st a c t ivum

t u m a d u n u m s e d i n di ff eren t e r se h a b en s a d m u lt a ; sic D eu s
,

i p sa m m ovet q u od n on ex n ec e ssit a t e a d u n um det erm in a t s ed

, ,

r em a n e t m ot u s ej u s c on t ing en s et non n ec essa r i u s nisi in his , , ,

”1 8
a d q use n a t u r a lit e r m ovet u r .

Th er e fo re th ere c a n n ot b e th e slight e st dou b t a s r ega rds S t

,
.

Thom a s s l ib er ta r i a n is m I t m u st be a dm itt e d how e v er th a t

’
.
, ,

a p e c u li a r doctrin e of his u n iv er sa lly a cc e pt e d by his m od er n ,

follow er s s ee m s a t fi r st sight to b e h a r dly r econcil a bl e with

, , ,

h um a n lib er ty ; i t is t h e doct r in e o f presci enc e p re de stin a tion ,

S um m a Theo l P i Q 8 3 .
, .
, .
,
a rt . 1, 0 .

“
I bid 1 2 Q 1 a rt 1 0
.
,
-
, .
, .
, .

”
I bi d 1 2 Q 1 0 a rt 4 c
.
,
-
, .
, .
, .
 1 51

a nd reprob a ti on . St . T ho ma s a s ks wh eth er m en a re pred es ti

Deo conveni ens es t ho m in es

He dds th a t G od re proba t es so me m en
a t ha t th e l ct
e e a re

chose n by E M '

U nd e p rmdes ti na t io a liq uorum in sa lute m e te rn a m p rae s u p

ponit se c und um ra ti onem q uod Deu s illorum velit sa lutem A d , .

q uod per t in et elec t io et dilec t io ,

th a t th e n um be r of th e el ect is ce rta in not o nly fo rm a lly b ut ,

m a te ria lly ; th a t i s to sa y G od doe s n ot o n ly k n ow how m a ny

,

men will be sa v ed ; b ut h e a lso knows wh e th er Joh n Pe t e r a nd ,

Thom a s will be sa v ed :
“
Resp on deo dicen dum , q uod n um e ru s p razdes t in a to rum e s t
ce rtus S ed q u id a m dixe run t , c um e ss e c e r tum fo rm a lite r, se d
.

non m a t eria lit er : ut p u ta , si dicerem us c ertum e sse , q uod ce n ‘

tum, m ill e sa lven t ur, non a ut em q u od hi , vel illi

ve l S ed h oe .

t ollit ce rti tu din em p res des tin a t ioni s, de q ua j a m di x im us Et .

id eo oporte t diee re, q uod n um e rus p raedestin a t oru m sit c e rt a s

”22
Deo non sol um form a lit er, s ed eti a m rna te ria liter .

It is th u s cl ea r th a t a cco rdin g to this vi ew o f S t Tho m a s

, .
,

God kn ows a ll f ut ure e v ents ; th a t h is knowl e dge b e i ng im m u ,

ta bl e a ll t hings will n ec essa r ily co m e to p a ss a s h e a ct ua lly

,

know s th em ; th a t t h e n um b er of t h e el ect is thu s d ete rm i ned ;

tha t God kn ows wi th rega rd to a n y m a n no t o nly whe th e r h e
, ,

wi ll be sa ved or d a mn ed b u t wh a t th e d e te rm in a tion of h is will

,

will be in ea ch pa rtic ul a r ca se ; tha t th ere is not t h e sl ight est

’
possibility for a ny one o f us to ch a nge in t h e l ea st d eg r ee God s
e te rna l a nd imm uta bl e d ecrees in o ur rega r d .

We do not d eny tha t th e re is h e re a n a pp a rent cl as h with St .

Tho mas s tea ching a bo u t free w ill Th e op pos ition o f t he two

’
.

”
I b id .
, 1 2,
-
Q . 23 , a rt . 1, c .

” bra 1 2 Q
-
23 , m 3
1—
. . .
, ,

"
I bid .
, 2 Q
, . 23 , a rt . 4, c .

ll‘
I bid .
, 1 2 Q
-
, . 23 , a rt . 3, c .
doct r i n es howe ve r e xists o n ly in a pp ea ra nc e a n d dis a pp ea rs a s
, , ,

soo n a s we gra sp St Thom a s s conc eptio n o f God H i s th eory

.
’
.

of t h e D ivi n e B e i n g h a s b een expos e d in ou r ch a pt er on N a tu r a l

Th e ology S uffic e it to r ec a ll th a t God b e i n g et ern a l th ere is
.
,

n o f u t u re f or h im b ut a p erp et u a l p r e s e nt
, . He h a s not e xist ed
th r ough a n i n fi n it e t em po ra l s er i es a s er i e s of su cce ssiv e inst a n ts
,

of which th ere wa s n o b egin n i n g a n d which sh a ll k n ow n o en d ;

h e e v en do e s n ot p r op er ly e xist : He i s . W h a t is a f u t ur e f or
u s is th u s n ot a f u t u re f or God a n d it i s o n ly a n i m p er fe ctio n
,

’
of ou r l a n gua ge th a t com p els u s to sp ea k of God s p resci enc e .

He do e s n ot k n ow our a cts b efor e we p er fo rm th em ; h e knows

th em a s a ct u a l H is k n owl edge i s n ot logic a lly a n t er io r b u t
.
,

poste r io r to t h e f re e d et ermi n a tio n of ou r will It is h a rd for

.

u s of co u r s e li m it e d a s we a r e to ou r t em po ra l s er i e s to h a v e
, , ,

a cl ea r co n c e ptio n of a knowl e dg e of this ki n d .We m a y how ,

e v er h a v e a n i d ea of its—tho u gh i m p er f e ct—b y co n sid e r i ng ou r

,

own k n owl edge of t h e pres en t a n d of t h e p a st We a ct u a l ly .

k n ow th a t Joh n h a s don e this a n d Thom a s th a t a n d our k n owl

,

e dg e do e s not int er f e r e in t h e l e a st with t h e f ree do m of th e i r

a ctio n s . I t is in a si m il a r wa y th a t God knows our f utu r e

de e ds . He knows th em a s do n e .He p re d esti n a t e s som e m en
b e c a u s e th ey f r eely a c t in a cco r d a n c e with th e m o ra l la w; h e
r ep r ob a t e s oth er s b ec a u s e th ey f reely disob ey his p r e c ept s ; h e
k n ow s h ow m a n y m en will b e s a v e d j u st a s we m ight k n ow t h e
ex a ct n um b er of soldi e r s who w e r e sl a i n a t G ettysb u rg .
m o re th a n a nythi n g els e to disc r e di t t h e syst em th ey w ere
,

c a ll e d to d ef en d Th e s p i r it which h a d a n im a t e d t h e g rea t
.

m a st er s of t h e thirt eenth c ent ur y h a d com pl e tely dis a pp ea r e d .

Va i n s ubtl e ty h a d r epl a c e d t h e p r ofo u n d r ea soni n g of th e p a st .

Th e a rgum en t f r o m a u tho r ity co n sid er e d by St Tho m a s a s

, .

th e w ea k e st h a d b een ra is e d to a n u n d ue i m por t a n c e
,
Th e .

n e w sci en tific spi r it i n to which th e g rea t Schol a st ics of t h e

,

thirt eenth c en tury wo u l d h a v e so e a gerly en t ere d wa s oppos ed ,

with u n a n im ity by th eir d egen era t e su cc e s so r s I n st ea d of b a r

.

m on iz in g th e i r p r incipl e s with t h e n ew physic a l discov er i e s a s ,

A r istotl e a n d Tho m a s A qu i n a s wou l d h a v e don e the y oppose d ,

with a ll th ei r m ight th e ve ry spi r it of th e i r ti m e Th ey de .

c la r e d it to b e oppos e d to t h e philosophic a l doct r i n e s th ey ch er

i sh e d a n d th u s r a i s e d a n u nn ecess a ry a n d u n e qu a l st ru ggl e in
, ,

which th e old Me t a physics wa s doom e d to p erish .

Schol a stic philosophy did n ot how e ver co m pl et ely disa pp ea r

, , .

A n i m po r t a n t m ov em en t of Tho m istic r e viv a l took pl a c e d u ri n g

t h e sixt een th c en t ur y a n d e n r ich e d Schol a sti c l it er a t u r e with
m a n y em i n en t co n t r ib u tio n s Tho m a s de Vio Ca j eta n us ( 1 469
.

Va s q u ez ( 1 55 1 T olet u s ( 1 53 2 F on se c a
( 1 5 2 8 a n d e sp e ci a lly S u a r ez ( 1 54 8 w er e
p r o

fo un d thi n k er s wo r thy of t h e grea t m a st er s whos e p r i n cipl es

,

th ey h a d a dopt e d .

T h e i n fl u en c e e x er cis e d by t h e philosophy of S t Tho m a s .

d ur i n g th e s ev en t een th c ent ury wa s a l so co n sid era bl e B ossuet .

( 1 6 2 7 —1 7 04 ) a n d F e n e lo n ( 1 6 5 1 a ltho u gh co n t r oll e d
by D e sc a rt es to a c e rt a i n e xt en t a n d som eti m e s r ega r d e d a s
,

C a r t esi a n s d e v elop e d a body o f doct ri n e s whi ch i s by n o m ea ns

,

oppos e d t o th e p r i n cipl e s of t h e A ngelic D octor A m ong th e .

philosoph ic a l wo r ks of B oss uet th e Trai t é de la c on na is sa n c e

,

de D i eu et de s ci m em e t h e L og iq u e a n d th e Tra it é da li br e
-
,
'

'

a r b i tr e a r e of sp ec ia l s ig nifi ca n c e Th e philo sophi c a l doct r in e s

.

th ey co n t a i n a re e vi de ntly inspi re d by t h e t ea chings of St .

Tho m a s .

M a ny w r it er s of th e s a m e p eriod w ere m o re strictly Tho m istic

st ill . J ohn of S a int Tho mas ( 1 58 9
-
An to in e Go udin
( 1 6 3 9 Cos m o A l ema nni C a ra muel ( 1 60 6
G uer inois ( 1 640 m a y be co unted a m ong th e m ost
d ist ingui sh e d re pre se nta tiv es of Schol a stici s m S e v era l of th e i r .

wor ks h a ve bee n rep ubl ish ed or studi ed d ur i n g t h e prese nt ce n

During t h e ightee nth c entury t h e phi losophy of t h e school

e ,

men wa s gra d ua lly a b a ndo ne d The th e o ri es o f Lock e a nd

.

Condi lla c foun d th e ir wa y i n to ma ny C a tholic c en ters Am o ng .

t h e d e f end e rs of Thomi s m a t th a t ti m e we m a y m en tion t h e ,

Sp a ni a r d Va lca rc el who d e vot ed his effo r ts to t h e re f ut a tio n

,

of De sca rte s Spinoza M a l ebra nche a n d Lock e ; t he J es u i t

, ,

B a rth el em y des Bosse s ( 1 688 who co rre s po nd e d wi t h

W ol f a n d Cl a rk e a n d t ra n sl a t ed Le ib n i z s Th eodicy ; t h e D o m i n
’

ica n Rose lli whose S u m ma P h ilos ozi h ic a is sa id to h a v e i n spi red

,

t h e neo Tho m is t s of t h e n in et ee n t h c en t u ry
-
.

A t th e b eginn i ng of t h e nin et ee n t h c e nt ury t h e philo so ph y ,

of St Thom a s ha d b ee n a l m os t c o m pl e t ely a b a n d one d Ca t ho

. .

li ca th em se lv e s w ere s t r ivi ng to b u ild i nd e p e n d en t sy s t e m s o f

tho ught I n It a ly t h e sa i n tly fo u nd e r o f th e I ns t i t u t e o f
.
,

Ch a rity A ntonio Ro srn in i ( 1 7 9 7 1 8 55 ) a dv o c a t e d a ki nd o f

,
-

id ea l ism which h a d bee n se v erely a t t a ck e d by t h e ea rly Ro m a n

Tho m ists In G e rm a ny B a a d e r ( 1 7 65 H e rm e s ( 1 7 7 5
—
.
,

Fr oh sc h a mm e r ( 1 8 2 —
1 1 8 9 3 ), a nd G iin t h e r ( 1 7 8 3 1 8 6 3 )
w ere grea tly in fl uenc ed by H egeli a n id ea lis m G o rrea hi m se l f .

( 1 7 7 6 o ne o f t h e g r ea te st G e rm a n C a thol ics a dv a nc e d ,

same p h ilo sophica l pri nciple s m o re dir ectly co nn ect ed with

sp irit ism tha n with Thom i stic philosophy .

In F ra n ce t ra di tiona lism wa s in vogue I t wa s d e fend ed by

,
.

De Bo nald ( 1 7 54 B onne tt y ( 1 7 9 8 Ba uta i n

( 1 7 9 5 V e n t u r a de R a uli ca ( 1 7 9 2 a n d in a ,

s lightly m odi fi ed form by La menna is ( 1 7 8 2,

Som e works of Ven tura a re how e ve r pe rm ea ted by p urely

, ,
 1 56

“
l a stic r e viv a l in F ra n c e I n F a th er Vent ur a s a ys C a r di n a l
.
,

“
G o n za l ez ,
two m en m a y b e consid er ed Th er e m a y b e s een .
,

on t h e on e h a n d a n e nth u si a stic a dm i re r of St
,
Tho m a s a n d .
, ,

a t t h e s a m e ti m e a s u pport e r of tr a dition a lis m

,
a discipl e o f ,

D e M a ist re a n d D e B on a ld I n La P h ilos Op h i e c h r é tien n e h e

.
,

i s a gen u in e r ep r e s ent a tiv e of Thom i s m whil e in so m e othe r ,

wo r ks h e s eem s d r iv en by t ra dition a l istic principl e s to th e v ery

,

”1
li m it s of o r thodoxy a n d r ea so n .

D u ri n g t h e fi r st p a r t of t h e nin et ee nth c ent ury th e re w ere ,

m a n y sign s of a ret u rn to t h e Middl e A g e s Th e rom a n tic .

m ov em en t in F ra n c e st r ov e to di r ect lit er a t u r e tow a rds Me di

”
ae va l c u sto m s a n d hi sto r y H u go s N otr e D a m e de P a ris
.
’
,

p ublish e d in 1 8 3 1 co n t a i n s a vivi d pictu r e of t h e li fe of M e di

,

sev e l P a r i s I n oth er fi elds of h um a n sp e c u l a tion si m il a r a t

.
,

t em pts w er e m a d e T h e ph ilosoph er s of t h e M iddl e A ge s soon

.

b ec a m e a n obj ect of gen era l int ere st N ot lon g a ft e r th e p ubl i .

c a tion of N otr e D a m e de P a ris Victor Cou sin ( 1 7 9 2— ,

1 8 67 )
m a d e k n ow n to t h e wo r l d unk n own wo r ks of A b el a r d a n d Rog er
B a co n a n d p ublish e d thos e l ea rn e d stu di es a bo u t t h e M iddl e
A ge s which m u st b e r ega r d e d a s on e of his m ost gen u in e titl e s
to t h e gr a titu d e o f philosophy .

A t t h e s a m e ti m e a n oth er em i n e nt schol a r C ha rl es de Rem u

, ,

sa t ( 1 7 9 7 follow in g t h e sa m e lin e of r es ea rch wrote ,

a bo u t A b ela r d A n s e l m a n d B a co n
,
B a r th el em y Ha uréa u .

( 1 8 1 2— 1 8 9 6 ) p u blish e d hi s r em a r k a bl e wo r ks o n t h e M iddl e

A ges Th e grea t S chol a stic philosoph er s w ere a t l a st em erg

.

in g f r o m t h e obl ivion to which th ey h a d b ee n so u nj u stly con

dem ne d .

In oth er E ur op ea n co un t r i e s id entica l t end en ci es cou l d ,

ea sily b e disc e rn e d I n G erm a n y F r i ed r ich Schl egel ( 1 7 7 2

.
,

1 8 29 ) h a d a lrea dy shown t h e r ea l m er it of Me di aev a l ph ilosophy

in his f a m o u s His t ory of A n cien t a n d Moder n L i t era ture .

Am o n g C a thol ic think ers a ret u rn to Thom i stic p r incipl es wa s

,

th en effect ed Mbh ler a n d hi s ill u str iou s discipl e St a u d e n

.

Cf G nz l z H i t i
. o a e , s or a de la F i lo s o fi a , V . 4, pp . 42 8 fi
'

.
 C H AP T ER IX

T HE NEG—
S CHO L ASTI C R EVI V AL IN I TA LY
Th e di rect i n iti a tor of th e n eo Schol a stic m ov em ent in I ta ly -

wa s Ca j et a n o S a n s e v er i n o c a n on of N a pl es ,
.

S a n s e v eri n o ( 1 8 1 1 —1 8 6 5 ) wa s a t fi r st a n e nthu si a stic a d

m i r er of D e sc a rt e s Th e e pisode of hi s l if e which m a rk e d th e
.

t urn i n g poi n t of his philosophic a l c a r eer h a s b een tol d by m a ny

-

histo r i a n s I n t h e y ea r 1 8 40 S a n s ev er i n o r ec eiv e d th e visit of

.
,

F a th er So r di S J who h a d r ea d a n d a nnot a t e d St Thom a s s

. .
’

S um m a Th e olog ica So r di poi n t e d ou t to S a n s e v eri n o th e

.

shortcom i n gs of D e sc a rt e s s thought a n d th e su p er iority of th e

’

Thom istic pr incipl e s in t h e sol u tio n of a ll philosophi c a l prob

l em s G rea t wa s th e s t ruggl e for t h e de vo u t c a no n F or
. .

tw enty y ea r s h e a ppli e d hi m self to a tho r ough st u dy of St

,
.

Thom a s s ph ilosophy A t t h e light of th e S u mm a Th eo logica

’
.

h e r ea d a ll m od e r n w r it er s a n d b e ca m e m ore a n d m or e c on
vin c e d of th e i r insuffi ci ency Th e r e su lt of his inv e stiga tions
.

wa s th e P h i los ogyh ia c hr is tia na cu m an tiq ua e t n o va c om p a ra ta ,

a wo rk which u n fin ish e d a s it i s consists of s e v en qu a rt o

, ,

vol um es a n d displ a ys a n uncomm o n eru ditio n a rem a rk a bl e ,

k n owl e dge of m od ern philosophy a n d a bov e a ll a n enth u si a stic , , ,

a dm i r a tio n f or t h e A n g e l ic D octo r .

A cco r di n g to C a rdin a l Go nz a l ez th e P h ilos op h ia c hr is tia na ,

h a s a do u bl e d e f e ct W ith r ega rd to its m ethod it p res en ts a

‘

.
,

som ewh a t a wkw a r d dist r ib ution of a rgum en ts a n d a t ti m e s , , ,

e xc ee di n gly diffu s e a r ticl e s W ith r ega r d to its spirit it i s

.
,

t oo n a r r owly a tt a ch e d to t h e philosophy it d e f ends S a n se ver ino .

a cc epts St Thom a s s concl u sions ev e n in th e m in ut est d et a ils

.
’
,

a n d d e spi se s m od e rn tho u ght a s a ltoge th e r v a i n a n d wo r thy of

cont em pt 1
.

C f G n z l z P h il
. o a e ,
os o phi a e le m e n t a r ia , pp . 38 3—3 8 4 .
 In sp i te of th ese d e fects th e P h ilos 0 p h ia c h ris t ia na h a s exer
,

cised a n im m en se in fl uen ce u po n C a tholi c th ink e rs F or ma ny .

yea rs it h a s bee n th e grea t work of neo Scholas ticism the

,
-
,

fo un ta in a t who se p u re w a te rs all ca me to drink th e spirit of t h e

Thom isti c regen era tion I n its na rrow m ind edn e ss itse l f it
.
-
,

ha s found a m ul ti tude of follow e rs Too ofte n h a v e neo

.

Schola s tics sha re d S a nse verino s cont em pt f or m od e rn tho ught

’
.

Th ey ha v e not e ve n ta k en th e tro u bl e to rea d n on S chol a stic -

w ri t ers in t h eir origin a l works Wh y su bm it ind eed to s uch .

, ,

a w ea riso m e ta sk ? Ha d n ot S a nse v e ri n o do ne th e wo rk o n ce
for a ll ? Ha d h e not from th e n a rrown ess of his c ell pro
, ,

noun ce d a n ultim a te v e rdi ct u pon m od e rn thi n ki ng ? A nd

thus S a nse verin o s word h a s bee n ta k en not o n ly with rega rd
,
’
,

to the expositio n of m od e rn philoso phica l syst e m s b u t also with ,

r ega r d to hi s v e ry criticism s .

Th e P h ilosOp h ia Ch rist ia n a wa s a t fi r st t h e obj ec t of viol ent

a tt a cks C a rt esi a n s a n d Rosm i n i a ns a gr ee d in d eno un ci ng it
. .

But S a nse v eri n o wa s d e fend ed by his disc ipl e S ig noriello a n d

'

e n c o u ra g e d by his a r chb ishop Ria r io S fo rza ,

Shortly a ft er .

w a rd s e u A ca d emy of S t Tho m a s wa s fo und e d a t N a pl es a n d

, .
,

honored by t h e a pprob a tion of P i u s I X A ll se e m ed to indi .

wte t ha t t h e e fi orts tow a rds a Tho m i s ti c re viv a l wo uld be

cro w n e d with s ucc ess .

The a rchi e pi sc op a l see of Pe ruse was th en oc c u pi e d by

J oa c h i m Pece i wh o a s ea rly a s 1 8 58 h a d fo und e d a n A ca d em y
, ,

of S t . Thoma s .Pece i wa s in close con n ec tion wi th C a rdi n a l

S t ore s wi t h whose cob pera t ion h e h a d a lrea dy writt en a re f uta
,

non of O ntol og i sm He g m t ly sym pa thi zed with t h e Tho m

.

isfi c re vi va l whi ch wa s ta kin g pl a w in N a pl es a nd a d dresse d a ,

memoir t o Pius I X as king him to dec la r e S t Tho mas pa tron

, .

of t h e uni v e rs iti es .

A t th e sa me t im e, th ere lived in an ot her point of th e I ta lia n

,

pe ni ns ul a a rem a rka bl e ma n wh o wa s desfi ned to be th e ve ry

, ,

life o f th e new m ov em en t to im pose it b an g ré ma l g r é a nd

, ,
to sil enc e a ll m a lc on t en ts I t wa s t h e f a m ou s J esu it J oh n
.

M a ry Corn oldi .

Corn oldi i s u n do u bt edl y on e of th e m ost i n t ere sting fi gur e s

of th e n eo Schol a stic r eviv a l A s soo n a s h e h ea rd of t h e work
-
.

do n e in oth er pl a c e s h e int en d e d not to r em a in b ehind A c a d

,
.

em i e s h a d b een fo u n d e d in N a pl e s a n d P eru sa : h e wo ul d fo u nd

in B olo n i a a n A c a d em y of h is own Un willing how ev e r to b e .

, ,

a m er e i m it a to r h e m a d e up hi s m in d to cr ea te so m ething t rul y
,

o r igi n a l Th e two oth er A c a d em i e s w ere si m ply philos ophic a l ;

.

h is wo u ld b e m e dico philosophic a l Th e A ca demia filos ofico

-
.

m edic a di S a n Tom ma s o wa s a cco r di n gly fo u n d e d

in whi ch Tra va g lin i Ven tu roli a n d Z a n o n rep res ent e d sci en c e ;
,

Corn oldi B a tt a glini a n d Rub b in i philo sophy

,
Th e r e vi e w L a
,
.

S cien z a I ta lia na th e o rga n of t h e n ew i n stit u tion h a s b ee n

, ,

p u bl ish e d u ntil 1 8 9 1 .

In t h e Rom a n u n iv er siti e s how e v er Thom ism did not a s y et

, ,

s eem to ga i n a footin g Th e philosoph e r m ost in vi ew in Ro m e

.

a t t h e ti m e wa s t h e J e su it T n i rg i a r em a r k a bl e th ink er
o go , ,

”
som e ti m es c a ll e d by his a drnirers th e B a l m es of It a ly
l v

‘z‘
On .

th e whol e T ong iorg i s philosophy m a y b e r eg a r d e d a s Thom istic

’
, .

Th e f e w q u estio n s in which h e d ep a rt s fro m Schol a stic pri n

c ip les a re p r e cis ely thos e in wh ich Schol a stic principl es a re
t h e w ea k est He th u s r e f u se s to a dm it th e th eo r y of M a tte r
.

a n d F o rm a s a n a d e q u a t e e xpl a n a tio n of th e n a t u re of bodi e s ,

a n d a dvoc a t e s a ki n d of A tom is m N e v erth el es Tong iorg i .

s
,

f elt n o sym p a thy f or a r eviv a l of Tho m ism .

S u ch wa s t h e st a t e of a ff a irs wh en i n 1 8 78 J o a chi m Pec ei , ,

wa s el e ct e d Pop e Th e sit ua tio n wa s a t o n c e gr e a tly ch a nge d

. .

P i u s I X h a d sy m p a thi z e d with th e Tho m i stic r eviv a l He h a d .

e v en s en t a l ette r of a pprob a tion to t h e a rchbishop of N a pl e s .

I n Rom e how ev e r u n willing to vex his a nti Thom istic pro

, ,
-

f es so r s h e h a d do n e noth ing
,
A s we sh a ll see t h e n ew pop e
.
,

will not h e sit a t e to a c t m ore r esol u t ely .

In th e v ery l e t ter in which h e a n n o unc e d his el eva tion Leo ,

X I I I q u ot e d fro m t h e t ext of St P a u l : videt e n a q uia vos .

psychology a n d m et a physics T o a ll que st io n s wh a tso e ver .
,

Cor n oldi St Tho m a s in h a n d co u l d a n sw er ! I n th e S u mm a

,
.
,

Th e olog ica wa s to b e fo u n d t h e key to a ll d ifficu lti e s of m od ern

sci en c e !
A t th e s a m e ti m e th ere b ega n to sp r ea d a rum o r th a t Le o
,

X I I I wa s p r ep a r i n g a n en cyclic a l l e tt er a bo u t Ch r i sti a n phi

losoph y Th e u n ea si n e ss of t h e C a r t esi a n p r of e s so r s wa s grow
.

in g da y by da y Th a t Thom istic r e viv a l th ey h a d so m u ch

.

d e spis e d wh en con fi n e d to N a pl es a n d P eru sa wa s now t a k in g ,

Ro m e by sto r m Th e d re a d e d en cyclic a l a pp ea r e d
. Leo X I I I .

g r ea tly co m m en de d t h e philosophy of Tho m a s A q u i n a s a n d

i n sist e d u po n a st u dy of t h e gen u in e wo rks of th e gr ea t
Schol a stics
P r ovidet e ut s a p ien t ia m Th om as ex ip s is j
e us f on t ib u s
”3
h a u r ia t u r .

M o re th a n oth e r Schol a stic m u st St Thom a s b e st u di e d

a ny .

b ec a u s e h e ga th er e d a ll p re viou sly discov ere d t ru ths in a grea t

sy n th etic syst em w hich h e still co n sid era bly i n c rea s ed :
,

I lloru m doct r i n a , velu t di s p er sa c uj u s da m co r po r is m em b ra ,

in u n u m Tho m a s c olleg it e t c oa g m en t a vit , m i r o o r di n e dige s
sit , e t m a g n is in erem en t is i t a a da u x it, u t c a t h olicas E ccl esi ae
”4
i
s ng u a re l p raesidi um et d ec u s j ur e m e r it oq u e h a b ea tu r .

Th ere is no p a rt of philosophy which he h as not solidly dis

c u ss e d
N u ll a p h ilo se st
op h im p a r s ,
q u a m n on a c ut e sim u l et solid e

e r t r a c ta r it : de le ib u s r a t ioc in a n di, de D eo e t i n co r po r e is sub

p g
s t a n t iis, de ho m i n e a liis q u e s en s ib ilib u s r eb u s, de h u m a n is a cti

b u s e oru m q u e p r i n cipi is ita disp u t a v it, u t in eo n eq ue C opio sa

q u aes t io n u m se es, n e q u e a pt a
g p a r t iu m dispositio ,
n e q u e O pti m a

r o c eden di r tio n q u in i u m fi m i t t m
p a e e p r c i p o r ,
r a s a u a rg u e n

to r um r ob u r n e qu e dic en di p er sp icu it a s a ut p rop rieta s n eq ue

, ,
” ls
a b st l u sa u ae u x lic a n di f a cilit a s des ider et u r
q q e e p .

‘
En cycl ic a l te r n i P a t r i s ;
!E In T h om a s A q u i n a s s S um m a T h e o l
’
.
,

R o m eo, 1 8 9 4 , Vo l 6 pp 4 2 5 fi
'

. .
, .

‘
I b id .
,
p . 4 32 .

1‘
I bi d .
,
p . 43 2 .
 1 63

This retu rn to pas t how e v er is f a r fro m be ing a re tro

the , ,

g ress ion A ll M e.d i aev a l v a in s u btl e ti es m u st b e disc a rd ed All .

Schola sti c t ea ching s whi ch a re n ot in h a rm ony with m od ern

sci enti fi c d iscov eri e s must be a b a n don ed
S i q ui d doc to rib u s S c h ola s tic is vel n im ia sub
en im es t a

t ilita te q umit um , vel p a rum co n sid e ra te t ra di tum , si q u id c u m

exp lora t is post e riori s mvi doc tr in is m in u s c oh e ren s, vel de niq ue

u
q q o u o m odo n on prob a bil e ,
id n u llo p a cto in a ni m o e s t mt a t i
n os trm a d im ita n dum propo n i .

Mod e rn sci e nti fi c progre ss m ust be w elcom e d as a be n efi t to

phil os ophy

fl
Non im p rob a m us doctos hom in e s a t q u e sole rte s,
eo s p ro f ec t o

u i ind u s tri a m et e ru dit ion em su a m , a c n ovo ru m in ven t oru m

q
o pes a d excolen da m philosophi s m a erunt : i d en i m p rob e in
”7
t ell igim us a d i n cre m e n t a doc t r in m p er t i n e re .

Th e infl ue n c e of t h e p e p e s en cyclic a l wa s si m ply i m m en s e

’

fl
.

Th e re viv a l o f T ho m is m which h a d b ee n li m i te d to so m e is o
,

l a te d e ort s wa s th en ta k e n se r io u sly by m os t of t h e C a tholic

,

thi nk e rs S uffi ce it to m e ntion t h e c e l e b ra t ed p rofe ss o r of t h e

.

C a tholic U niv er sity of Lill e A m édée de M a rge ri e Mr de ,

. .

Ma rge ri e a ltho ugh m ore th a n fi fty y ea rs of a g e wh en th e p a p a l

,

enc y c lica l a pp ea r ed a t o n ce m a d e a tho ro ugh s t udy of th e

wo rks of St Tho m a s—which w e re c om pl et ely unkn o wn to h im
,

—a nd a dopted h is doc t r in e in a grea t ma ny points

.

I n Ro me itsel f th e s u cc es s of th e p O pe wa s co m pl et e
, This .

was due in w t p a rt to th e f a ct tha t Leo X II I in s tru cted by ,

h is fi rst f a il ure t o ok th e prec a ution to cor ro bora te h is ins tru c

,

t ion s by f orc ib l e mws urm Pa l m i e ri a nd Ca ret t i w ere dis

f romt he ir c ha i rs a nd t he ne w a p po in tm e nts m a d e l eft
fl
.

cm ,

no doub t a s t o th e fi n a l issue of th e a a ir A ll und e rst ood .

t h a t t hi s ti me t h e p ope w oul d be vi c tori ous .

Th e men hono r ed by th e pa pa l c hoic e a s pro f essors of ph i

q ua , p . 48 6 .

'
I bid .
, p . 4 34 .
 1 64

I OSOp h y , in Ro m e, w er e th e following : Corn oldi wa s m a d e p ro

f e ssor a t t h e Ro m a n C oll eg e Z igli a r a a t th e Min er v a Loren
, ,

zelli a n d S a toll i a t th e P rop a g a n d a T a l a m o a t t h e A polli n a r is

, .

A s a ll th e se m en h a v e di stin g uish e d them s elv es by em i n en t pro

duc t ion s I will s a y a f ew wo r ds a bo u t ea ch of th em
, .

Gi ov a n n i SJ ( 1 8 2 2 b.e sid e s his two

grea t wo rks : I ns ti tu tion es P h ilos ogah iw S p ecu la tive: a n d La
F i los ofia S colas tica di S a n Tomm as o e di D a n t e a n d n u m erou s ,

sho r t er t rea tis es in which h e d e f en ds t h e Schol a stic p r i n cipl es

a n d a tt a cks opposit e doct r i n e s e sp eci a lly Rosm ini a n is m
, ( C f .

B ibliogra phy ) h a s co n t r ib u t e d m a n y a rticl e s to t h e Civi lta

,

Ca t to li c a Le ss p r ofou n d a s a philosoph er th a n Z igli a r a or

.

S a n s e v er i n o h e h a s n ev e rth el e ss do n e t h e g rea t est s er vic e to

,

th e n eo Thom istic c a u s e by t h e v ery a ctivity h e h a s displ a y e d

-
.

Th e di re ct a im o f hi s g r ea t wo rks a s w ell a s of his n u m er ou s ,

e ss a ys ,
is m o st p ra i se wo r thy He st r ov e t o poi n t out th e p er
.

f eet h a rm o n y e xisti n g b e tw ee n Thom is m a n d sci enc e to give a ,

s c i en tific b a sis to n eo S chol a sticism This is th e v ery spi r it

-
.

which h a s r e c en tly i n spi r e d D esiré Mer ci er a n d t h e Institu te of

L ou v a i n U n h a ppily Corn oldi s effo r ts h a v e not a lwa ys b een
.
,
’

i n t e llige n t a n d h a v e m et with littl e s u cc ess He is chi e fly .

k n ow n to— da y f or h is b itt er c r iticis m s of m od er n tho u ght In .

his P ro leg om en i h e d ivid e s a ll philosoph er s i n to th ree gro u ps :

,

t h e t ru e philosoph er s t h a t i s t o sa y th e Schol a stics ; t h e l ib er a l

, ,

philosoph ers or thos e who do n o t a cc ept a ll Schol a stic doc

,

t r i n e s ; t h e non philosoph er s to which gr ou p a ll oth ers b elo n g

-
,
8
.

W ell k n ow n is Corn oldi s phr a s e d e sc r ibi n g m od ern philosophy

’

“ ”9
as t h e p a thology of h u m a n r ea son .

Le ss u n fa i r to m od e r n s h a s b een Tho m a s Z igli a ra O P ,

. .

n - M

( 1 8 3 3 H is S u m m a P h i lo s o
gah i c a i n which h e clos ely ,

a dh er e s to St Thom a s s doctr i n e h a s f or a l on g ti m e se rv ed
.
’
, , ,

a s a t ext book in C a tholic se mi n a ri e s

-
a n d i s m u ch in u se still ,

to d a y H i s m ost v a l ua bl e co n t r ib u tion to philosophy is p rob

.

Cf G
. om e z I zq u i e rdo H i s t o r i a
, d e la F i los o fi a del s igl o XI X, p . 4 64 .

’
Co rno ldi, Le c o ns de P h i10 8 0 p h ie Sco l a s ti que ; P a r i s ,
1 878, p . 16 .
 1 66

Me di aev a l sp e c ul a tio n Th e a u tho r cl ea rly shows th a t th e ph i .

losoph y of t h e school m en a ltho u gh i n ti m a t ely conn e ct e d with ,

th e ology h a d a n obj ect a n d a m ethod of its own with wh ich

, ,

th eol ogy wa s n ot co n c erne d .

I n t h e s e co n d p a r t t h e a u tho r st u di e s t h e gr o un d of th e p r e f
,

e r en c e giv en to A r istotl e in th e M iddl e A ge s Th e rea so n s h e .

a ssign s a r e t h e followi n g

1 A r i stotl e wa s t h e gr ea t e st m a st er n a y t h e i n v en to r of one
.
,

o f t h e m ost i m po r t a n t b r a n ch e s of phil o sophy t h e sci en c e of ,

l ogic which st u di e s t h e l a w s of our m i n d a n d t h e m ethod we

,

m u s t follow in t h e r e se a r ch of t ru th .

2 A r istotl e s wo r ks co n t a i n e d a t r ea s u re of i n fo rm a tio n
’
.

a bo u t a ll b ra n ch e s of h u m a n k n owl e dg e : n a t u ra l sci en c e e thics , ,

polit ic s p sych ology m et a physics e t c

, , ,
.

3 A r i s totl e g a v e th e e x a m pl e of a m e thodic disc u ssio n a n d

.

a c on cis e styl e r ej e cti n g t h e b ea u tif u l g a r b u n d e r which P l a to

,

oft en co n c ea l e d t h e i m possibil ity o f a d em on str a tion .

4 F i n a lly t h e St a gi r it e re v ea l e d to th e c u r iosity of t h e Me di
.
,

es va l philosoph er s t h e o r igi n of philosophy a n d its d e v elop m en t

a m o n g t h e G r eeks
1 1
.

Th e en th u si a sm with which t h e philosophy of A r istotl e wa s

a cc e pt e d wa s how ev er f a r f ro m m ere s l a vi shn e ss W h en e v er
, ,
.

t h e Schol a stics fo u n d in A r i stotl e som e th e o r y th ey j u dge d

e rr o n eo u s th ey di d n ot h e sit a t e to r ej ect it
,
12
Th ey l ik e wis e .

m odifi e d a n d p er f ect e d t h e syst em of t h e m a st e r in a gr ea t m a ny

poi n ts W ith r eg a r d to th e e ss enti a l r el a tio n s b etw een th e u n i
.

v er s e a n d God th e fi n a l e n d of m a n t h e spi r it ua lity a n d imm or

, ,

t a l ity of th e sou l et c th ey t a u ght d efi n it e doctr i n e s wh ich A ris

,
.
,

”
t ot le h a d d en i e d or v e ry i m p er f e ctly t rea t e d Th e i r c on c ep .

tio n of t h e a c t of c r ea tio n wa s a l so e ssen ti a lly di ff erent f rom

A r istotl e s co n c eption A r i stotl e h a d a dm itt e d God a s t h e
’
.

fl
Ta l a m o de ll a Sc ol a s ti ca cd Si e na 1 88 1,
n
Cf L A r i s t o te lis m o
’
3

fl
.
.
, , .
, ,

pp 234
'

fl
. .

1’
I bid pp
.
,
. 1 51
'

”
I b id pp
.
, . 36 1
'

.
 1 67

n ece ssa ry ca use of th e world b u t h a d rega rd ed h im sim ply a s a

,

d em i urge a cti ng u pon et e rn a lly preexi sting m a tte r Th e Scho .

la stics conce iv ed cre a tion as a p rod uction of th e world out of

14

Wh il e t h e p rofes so rs we h a v e m e n tione d w ere wo rki ng h a r d

for t h e succ e ss o f th e ir ca use th ere ca me in t o n otic e a n oth e r
,

m a n who h a d not a tt ra cted t h e a tt ent io n a t fi rst p e rh a ps be ,

ca u se h e shun n e d p ublic notic e who h a d writte n m u ch how , ,

e ve r, a n d who f ro m th e sil enc e of his c ell p rov e d a s a bl e a

, ,

d e fe n d e r of th e new m ov em en t a s t h e m e n who w ere e x po un d

fl
ing t h ei r vi e ws fr o m a univ ersity s c a th e dra
’
.

M a tt eo ( 18 10 wa s a l rea dy a n old m a n
a t t h e ti me we co n sid e r H i s I ns titu tio n es P h ilos o zic a p ub
.
,

lish ed m a ny y ea r s b e for e h a d bee n of t en re i s s ued a n d a s w e ll

, , ,

a s Z ig lia ra s S um m a h a v e p r ov e d a n e x c ell e n t t e x t book in m a n y

’
-
,

C a t holic in stitu tio n s A nticip a t i n g t h e p O p e s a dvic e Lib era

.
’
,

tore h a d sh unn ed a ll use l e ss q ue s t io n s a n d h a d de fe nd ed t h e ,

e sse nti a l p r in cipl e s of Schol a s t ici s m in a cl ea r a n d e l e g a n t la n

gua ge N ot sa t i s fi e d with t h e ge ne ra l e xp o s iti o n c ont a i n ed in

.

his first wo rk h e l a t e r took up som e sp e ci a l t o pics ch i e fly in t h e

, ,

fi eld of Schol a stic psychol ogy a n d p ublish ed l ea rne d t rea ti s es

, ,

which h a v e bee n t ra n sl a t e d i nto v a r i o us l a ng ua ge s ( c f B ibliog .

ra p h y ) He e v en m a d e use o f t h e d ra m a t ic fo rm to d e fe n d h is
.

philosophica l th eori es a s in L a u toc ra z ia dell en t e c om e dy in

’ ’

, ,

three a cts ( N a pl e s His wo rks do no t e vi n c e a d ee p

,

kn owl edge of t h e phi l osophica l t ho ught o u ts id e of It a ly ; b u t h e

h a s m a st e re d Ita lia n philosophy a nd giv en tho ro ugh criticis m s
o f th e doctrin es of G iobe rti a nd Ros m ini Th e l a tt e r p a rt of .

h is l ife was d evo ted to soci a l s t udi e s He poi n t e d out t h e wa y .

in which th e C a tholi c Ch urch ca n a cco mm oda t e itse l f to a ce r

ta in kin d of s oci a lis m F in a lly Libe ra tore wa s one o f th e
.
,

fo und ers of th e re vi ew C i vilta Ca tto lica which h a s not

cea s e d to be one of t h e most effi ci ent orga ns of C a tholic tho ught

in I ta l y .

“
I b id .
, p . 1b l .
 1 68

I n t h e m ea n ti m e, t h e s u cc e ss of t h e Rom a n prof esso r s wa s

b ecom i n g m o re a n d m or e com pl e t e I n 1 8 8 0 Le e X I II o r d er e d .
,

t h e p re p a ra tio n of a n e w e ditio n of t h e wo r ks of St Tho m a s . .

A t th e s a m e ti m e a n A c a d em y of St T ho m a s wa s fo un de d in
,
.

Ro m e itse lf ( O ctob er 1 3 I t wa s com po se d of thi r ty

,

m em b er s : t en t a k en f r o m Rom e t en f r o m t h e re st of Ita ly , ,

t en f r om oth er co u n t r i e s P e c e i a n d Z igli a r a w ere cho s en a s

.

15
p re sid en ts .

Th e wo r k o f t h e A cca d em ia Rom a n a di S am Tomm as o soo n

a tt ra ct e d t h e a tt en tio n a n d t h e c r itici sm s of t h e I t a li a n thi n k er s .

I t wa s cl a i m e d th a t t h e n ew Schol as tics w ere not followi n g t h e

p r ece pts of Le o X I I I th a t th ey a ppli e d t h e Tho m istic p r i n cipl es
,

t o sci en tific discov er i e s in th e m ost r idic u lo u s m a n n er th a t th ey ,

h a d p r od u c e d n othi n g o rigi n a l s a v e re p e a t e d a tt a cks on Ros

,

m ini .Th e s e ch a rge s fo rm u l a t e d a s ea rly a s 1 8 8 6 by B enz oni

,

in t h e Rivis ta i ta lia n a di F i los ofia h a v e b een ta k en u p a g a in by

.
,

B es se in h is p a m phl et D eum c en tr es da m ouvem en t thom is te

, ,
.

Th e a im of Mr B e s s e in thi s littl e t r ea tis e i s to com p a r e th e

.

wo rk do n e a t Hom e by t h e ea rly n eo Schol a stics with th e wo r k -

do n e a t L o u v a i n to da y a n d to sho w th a t a t Lou v a in
-
,

thi n g t ru ly ph ilo sophic a l h a s b een a ccom pl ish ed ; th a t t h e

L o u v a i n p r of esso r s a lo n e h a v e a ct e d in a gre em en t ith t h e p a p a l w
i n st r uctio n s a n d with t h e n ec e ssiti e s of ou r ti m e .

Th e m ost i m p o r t a n t ch a rge s fo rm u l a t e d by Mr B e ss e a ga inst .

t h e Ro m a n Tho m i s ts a re t h e followi n g
1 O n a ll p oi n ts co m m o n to philosophy a n d f a ith t h e Rom a n
.
,

Thom ists st rov e to co n n ect th e n a tu ra l a n d th e su p ern a t ura l ,

a n d b e c a m e m ere i n t er p r et er s of t h e Chri sti a n do g m a s

16
.

2 Th ey did not st u dy m od e r n philosop h y b u t u ncritic a lly

.
,

a cc ept e d S a n s everi no s co n cl u sions

’
Th e i r c r iticis m s th ere for e
.
, ,

co n t a i n n othing p erso n a l noth ing se riou s a n d h a v e b r o ught dis

, ,

"
cr e dit u po n t h e c a u se th e i r a utho rs pr e tend e d to d efen d .

“
Cf . B la n e , Hi t i
s o re de la P hil os o p h i e t 3 p 559
, .
, . .

1°
B e s s e D e u x c e n t re s
,
du m ou ve m e n t t h o m i s te p 2 5 , . .

"
I bid p p 30 3 1
.
,
.
-
.
boldly fo rw a r d a n d p r ocl a i m its e xist en c e to th e outsid e world .

Thi s is th e rea so n why th e Rom a n Thom ists h a v e wo rk e d h a r d

a n d f a st to show t h e p er f e ct h a rm o n y of th e i r syst em with t h e

body of rev ea l e d t ru ths It is t h e rea so n why th ey h a v e m a d e

.

m er cil e ss a tt a cks u po n a ll oth er philosophi es a n d h a v e s een a ,

h ere sy wh ere th ere wa s a t m ost a n err o r .

Th e n eo Tho m ists of t h e p re s en t da y o ught not to c e n s u re

-

too h a stily th e wo rk of th e i r old e r b re th ren I t i s th e Ro m a n .

Schol a stics th a t h a v e fi rm ly i m pl a n t e d Thom ism in t h e C a tholic

wo r ld Th ey h a v e f a ithf u lly gr a sp e d th e t a sk th a t la y b e fo re
.

th em a n d h a v e f u lfill e d it with th e g rea t est su cc ess Th e

,
.

m ea n s th ey h a v e t a k en w er e on th e whol e t h e b est th ey co u ld
, ,

t a k e t h e o n ly o n e s p erh a ps th a t co u ld i n s u r e su cc e ss
, , ,
.

T h e e a r ly n e o Tho m ists we h a v e st u di e d h a v e fo un d n u m er o u s
-

di s cipl es who h a v e con tin u e d a n d p er f e ct e d t h e wo r k of th e m a s

t er s I n 1 8 7 9 t h e La z a r ist A lb e r t B a rb er is ( 1 8 4 7—1 8 9 6 )
.
,

fo u n d e d in P i a c en z a a La ti n philosophic a l r evi ew th e D iva s ,

Th om a s which h a s b een t h e o rg a n of n e o Schol a sticism in It a ly

,
-
,

a n d in which To r n a to r e V i n a ti E r m on i a n d oth er em in e nt
, , ,

m e n h a ve p u blish ed l ea rn e d diss er t a tio n s

,
T h e prof e sso r s of .

L ou v a i n th em s elv e s h a v e occ a sio n a lly hon o r e d t h e D iva s Th oma s

by th e i r a r ticl es Q u it e r ec en tly t h e p u blic a tio n of th e D iva s
.
,

Th om a s h a s b e en i n t err u pt e d N obody r egrets t h e f a ct m o re

.

si n c er ely th a n we do I t i s p erh a ps t ru e th a t m od er n l a n gu a ges

.

a re a m o re s u it a bl e i n st r u m en t th a n L a ti n f or philosoph ic a l dis

e u ssio n s A ll i n t eres t e d in n eo Schol a stici sm w ere non e t h e l ess

.
-

gl a d to r ea d di s s ert a tion s w r itt en by m od er n Schol a stics in t h e

v er y l a n gu a ge of t h e school m en A ft er h a vi n g en j oy e d th e .

D iva s Th om as f or so m a ny y ea r s we f eel th a t its a ct u a l a b se n ce

,

is a r ea l l a ck to Schol a stic l it era t ure a n d we sin c er ely i m pl ore,

t h e disti n gu ish e d p r of e ssor s of P i a c en z a to a lt er th e ir d ecisio n

a n d be gi n th e i r wo rk a n ew .

B a rb er is is a lso t h e a u tho r of two La ti n di ss e rt a tion s : P os i

tivis m us a c n ov a m e th o dus p s y ch olog ica ( 1 8 8 7 a nd E ss e f
or

ma le es tn e rei in tr ins ecu m a n n on ? which , b y th e solid

 171

ity of th e rea so ni ng a nd the d epth of th e doctrin e as s ure th e i r ,

a u thor a pl a ce a m ong th e m os t profo und m e ta physici a ns o f

Am ong th e t d e fend e rs of neo Schol a stic is m in I ta ly t h e

c
r e en -
,

be st kn ow n a re : t h e J e s uits S ch ifiin i De M a r i a a n d S a l is S ee wi s

fl
, ,

a nd th e di sti n gu i sh ed profe sso r of P a vi a G i u se ppe B a ll er in i ,

.

S a n t o S c h i in i ( 1 8 4 1 for a long ti me p rofes sor a t th e

Gregori a n U n iv e rsity p ubl ish e d a co m pl e te a n d d et a il e d co u rse
,

o f Schol a stic ph il osophy H i s P rinc ip io p h ilos Op h ic a d ea l wi t h

.

logic a nd o n tology ; his Dis p u tat io nes m e ta p h y s ic az s p ec ial i s ,

with cosm ology ; his Dis p uta tio n es p h i los op h ia m ora lis wi t h ’
,

m ora l ph il osophy I n 1 8 8 8 in a l ea rn ed a rticl e o f t h e A n na les

.
,

de P h ilos op h ia c h r é tien n c Co un t D o m e t de V o rge s p ra i se d

fl
,

S c h ifiin i s Ontology a s t h e m o s t solid a n d p rofo un d t h e n e x is t

’

ing 20
O ne of th e m o s t i n t e resti ng st u di e s S c h i i n i s v o l um e s
’
.

conta i n i s a n a na ly s is of th e i n fl uen c e of will u po n beli e f which ,

rem inds us o f t h e t en et s o f o ur p ra gm a tists .

M ich a el de Ma ri a be c a m e fa m o us in 1 8 9 2 a f t e r p ubli shi ng ,

th ree vol ume s o f philosophic a l stu di es wi t h th e t i tl e P h ilos op h ia

P c r ipa t e tic o S c h o las t ica
-
I n hi s cri tici s m s o f m ode r n p h ilo s o
.

phy De Ma ri a cl ose ly rese m bl es h is Ro m a n p re d ec e s so rs I n

, .

h is con tem pt f or m od e rn tho ught h e is no t f a r f ro m Co rnoldi s

’
,

position a s ma y b e ga th ered f rom th e followi ng p a ss a g e o f h is

,

p m m w :

P r in cipio q ui d em se m pe r p e rs ua s um
b a b u i ph ilosO p hia m a d ,

tot a bsu rda et inc redi b ilia a m p lec te nda in ipsa Ch r is t ia naa soc i e
ta tis l u ce eo m i sere n ost ris te mpo rib u s d eclin a sse q uod p a ula t im ,

e t pede nten tim a b illi s p r in cipi is d iscess it ua: S Tho m s e x

q a .

A ris to tel e a cce p ts m iri fi ce illus tra vi t e t c um Chri s ti a n a r evel a

t io ne co mposui t Ex q uo fac il e e ra t in te llige re n ulla m m el i
.

orem e xpe dien dm sal ut is repe ri t i po sse via m q ua m a d illa m ,

sa p ien tia m p la n e re v e rti a q ua in c o nsul te a dm od um e t t e me re

,

discessu m
”
C f Dom et
. V orge s B ib liog ra p h ic de la Ph ilosO p h ic th o mi s te
dc , de
187 7 a 1 88 7 ; A nn dc P ini on e lm v o l xvii i pp 5 20 ff
. .
, .
, . .

”
De Ma ri a Ph ilosO p h ia Pc ri pa te t ioo Sc ho la s ti ca Vo l I p vi i i
,
-
, .
, . .
 1 72

De M a r i a s wo rk how ev er is exc ell ent in

’
,
r esp ects B e , m a ny .

side s its int r i n sic v a l ue a s a n exposition of t h e Schol a stic ph i

losoph y it p r e s en ts a sp eci a l int er e st on a ccou nt of th e profou n d
,

stu di es it co n t a i n s a bo u t St T ho m a s s doctrin e on som e sp eci a l .

’

topics viz on e ss enc e a n d exist enc e on t h e n a t u r e of th e

22
.
, , ,

23
i n dividu a l e tc , .

F ra ci s S a lis S eewis (
n 1 8 3 5 —1 8 9 8 ) is chi e fly kn own f or his
tr ea tis e D ella c on os c enz a s en s itiva p u blish e d in 1 8 8 1 a n d a
, , ,

stu dy of t h e do t r i n e s of St A u gu sti n e St Thom a s a n d S ua rez

c
.
, .

on s po n t a n e o u s gen era tion p ubl ish e d in 1 8 9 7 Th e a u tho r ,

.

st u di e s th e Schol a stic doct r i n e s f rom th e poi n t of vi ew of m od

er n physiology a n d co m p a r e s t h e t ea chi n gs of St Tho m a s with .

t h e po s itiv e r e s u lts obt a i n e d in ou r da y by H el m hol z W u n dt , ,

W e b er et c B y his c a r ef u l stu dy of m od ern s ci e ntific disc ov

,
.

er i e s ,
S a lis S ee wi s f ra n kly de p a r t s f rom t h e co n t em ptu o u s
n egl e ct of th e ea rly Ro m a n T hom ists a n d op en s to t h e n eo
“
Sch ol a s tic m ov em en t in It a ly a n era of p rog re ss .

Gi u s epp e B a ll er i n i a l rea dy known by a t re a tise on soci a lis m

,

a n d a th e ologic a l diss e rt a tio n a bo u t t h e Eu ch a r istic dogm a u b

p ,

lis h ed in 1 9 0 4 a s t u dy on t h e p r i n cipl e of c a u s a lity a n d t h e

! I p rin c ip i o di ca us a lita e l es is t enz a di D io
’
e x i s t e n c e of God
'

di f r on t s a lla s c ien z a m oder na He r ega r ds th e p r in cipl e of .

c a u s a lity a s t h e rea l poi n t a t iss u e b etw een t h e Schol a stics a n d

th ei r oppo n en ts He di sc u ss e s its obj ectivity com b a t s H um e s
.
,
’

th eo r i e s a n d sho ws th e co nn ectio n of t h e i dea o f c a u s e with t h e

,

b eli e f in th e e x i s t enc e of God .

A co m pl et e st u dy of n eo S chol a sticism in It a ly sho u l d con ta in -

t h e n a m e s of t h e J e s u its D e Ma nd a to Re m e r a n d T a p a r elli , ,

d A z eg lio t h e a u tho r of th e c el ebr a t e d S a g g io di D irit to na tur

’
,

a le ; of P r i sco Chi e s a Ca pp ella zz i P u ccini a n d of th e distin

, , , ,

g u i sh e d logici a n L o r en z o Schi a vi I t sho u l d not f a il to m e ntio n .

t h e a cc u ra te a n d p a inst a ki n g e dition of t h e wo r ks of St B o n a .

m
I b id . pp 4 4 1 11
,
Vo l . 1, . .

28
I b i d Vo l 1 pp 52 9 ff
.
, .
, . .

3‘
C f G om e z I zq u i e r d o op
.
, . ci t ,
p . 4 50 .
 C H AP T ER X

TH E N E G —S CH O LASTI C RE VI V A L I N S PA I N ,
P O R TU G A L
A ND S P A N I S H AM ER I C A

S E CT I O N 1 .
-
TH E N E G -
S CH O LA STI C REVI VA L IN S PAI N

O ur o r di n a r y philosophic a l stu di e s in A m er ic a n instit u tions

m a y ea sily l ea d u s to th e b el i e f th a t th e r e i s n o s u ch a thing a s
a Sp a n ish philosophy W ho a m on g our u n i ver sity stu d en ts
.
, ,

h a s e ve r h ea r d of a Sp a n ish philosoph er ? W ho co u ld p r e se ntly

n a m e on e ? O ur co m pl et e ign o ra n c e on this point m u st p e r h a ps
b e e x c u s ed .Som e y ea r s ag o Mr G u a r di a w r ot e a n a rticl e in
, .

t h e R evu e P h ilos ogyh i q u e to p r ove th a t we a re right He g a v e .

i t t h e a tt ra c tiv e titl e of L a m is er e p h ilos op h iqu e en E sp a g n e

‘

a n d st r o n gly d e f en d e d t h e th e si s th a t Sp a i n poss e ss e s n o h ilo o

p s

phy 1
. Th e s a m e th e si s h a d b een d e f en d e d a f e w y ea r s b e for e
by t h e M e x ic a n p r i est A gu sti n R iv er a who h a d ext en d e d his ,

c o n d em n a tio n to t h e Sp a n ish sp ea king co u n tri e s of t h e New

-

W orld 2
.F e w Sp a n i a r ds how e v er wo u l d a g ree with th e s e two
, ,

m en .P a t r iotis m is st r o n g b eyo n d th e P yr en e e s a n d t h e a ss er ,

tio n s to which i t f re qu en tly l ea ds t h e fi ery so n s of Pe l a yo wou ld

so un d i n c re dibl e to t h e cool h ea d e d A nglo S a xo n ra c e I t - -
.

s eem s th a t t h e disti n gu ish ed writ er Ma r c eli n o M ene nd ez y

P el a yo h a s pl a c e d Sp a n ish philosophy on eq u a l footi ng with t h e
philosophic a l syst em s of F ra n c e a n d It a ly a n d h a s j u dged it ,

i n f er io r o n ly t o G reek a n d G e rm a n spe c u l a tio n To m ost of .

us , th is j u dgm en t wo u l d s eem ra th er bold I t h a s be en con .

dem n e d a s too ti m i d by W illi a m G a r ci a who do e s not h e sit a t e ,

to giv e Sp a n ish philosophy th e first pl a c e H is li ne of rea son .

ing is v er y sim pl e He s um m a r ily dism isse s G erm a n philosophy

.

‘
Re v . P h i los 1 8 9 3 pp 2 8 7 fi
, , .
'

2
In t h e w o r k : L a F i lo s o fi a e n la N u e v a E s p a na , La go s 1 8 8 5
, .
 1 75

as a m ere pl a y of i m a gin a tion a n d no knowl edge of truth As .

rega r ds Gree k philosophy G a rci a as a ge n ui n e Schola s ti c does

, , ,

full j u sti ce to A ristotl e ; b ut h e a dds A ristotl e h a s bee n sur

, ,

pa ssed by S t Tho ma s so th a t th e Thom is tic or Ita li a n ph iloso

.
, ,

h i s r ea lly t h e fi rst philos o phy N ow th e Tho m istic ph il oso

p y ,
.
,

h
p y h a s be co m e Sp a n ish by r i ght of con q u e st H e n c e it is cl ea r .
,

“
th a t Spa n ish philoso phy i s th e fi rs t phil osophy .

O ur be li e f a s to t h e rea l w orth of Sp a ni sh tho ught m a y be

r ea tly i n fl ue n c e d by t h e poi n t of vi e w fro m which we st u dy t h e
g
q u w t io n A. K a nt ia n for e x am pl e ca n h a rdly be p r o u d of t h e
, ,

in fl uen ce th e Critiq ue of Pur e Reas on h a s ex ercis ed on t h e

Sp a nis h soil I f a s Mr La t in u s poi n t s ou t only two Sp a n ia rds
.
,
.
, ,

d u ri ng th e nin etee nth c en tu ry h a v e j udge d i t u se f ul to go a n d

,

s tu dy phil os ophy in G e rm a ny i f t h e physici a n N i eto S e rra no is

fl
,

ac tua lly t h e only K a n ti a n in Sp a i n a ll who m a i n t a i n th a t

‘
,

phil oso phy m ust ow f ro m Koe n ig s be rg t h a t we m u st go b a ck ,

t o Ka nt will be a p t to b e a s se v ere t o S p a n i sh tho ught a s Ri v e ra

,

a nd G ua r di a h a v e bee n .

A neo Schol a stic will no do u bt be m o re i n d ulge n t Spa i n is

-
.

perha ps th e o nly co u nt ry in which t h e Schol a stic t ra di t i o n s

ha ve ne ve r been e ntirely fo rgotten A lo ng ti m e be fo re S a n .

se ve rino p ublis h e d h is P h ilos op h ia C h ris t ia na a n d Le o X I II hi s .

ency c l ica l distin gu ish ed S pa ni a rds h a d d e f en d ed t h e es s e n ti a l

,

p rin c ipl es of th e A ri s tot e li a n a n d Tho m ist i c philosophy D u r .

ing t he co urse of t h e n in e tee n th c en t ury Sp a i n a s we s h a ll s ee , , ,

ha s produced three g m t philo s oph e rs who a re ce rta m a m o ng

th e ta t of who m t h e Schol as tic re viv a l m a y bo a st
s
O ne o f .

th em Urra buru is st ill li vin g ; th e othe r two Ba lm es a n d G on

, , ,

za lez, ha ve depa rt ed from this world ma ny y m rs a go b ut th ei r ,

works a re immor t a l .

A t th e end of th e e i gh teen th c entury th e sensism of Locke ,

a nd Con dilla c w as in troduce d int o S pa in a nd ga in ed m a ny dis

‘
G rci
a a, To m i s mo y Neo to mi s mo pp 3 50— 3 51 , . .

‘
La ti n us , Une excu rs i on p hil oso p h iq ue e n Es pa g ne , Re v . Nee -S ew ,

1 90 1 , pp . 1 92 (I .
c ip le s Am ong its b e st known a dh ere n ts m a y b e m en tion e d
. th e
J es u its Ex im en o a n d A n d re s Schol a sticism how ev er did .
, ,
n ot

dis a pp ea r a ltogeth er It wa s d e f en d e d by Ra f a el P u igc er v er

.
,

O P in h is P h ilos op h ia S a n c ti Th om a: A q uina tis a ur ibus h uj us

. .
, ,

t em p oris a c c om m oda ta which wa s u se d a s a t e x t book in m a n y

,
-

i n stit u tion s .

N ot lo n g a ft er w a r ds F ra n cisco A lv a r a do O P ( 1 7 56
, , . .

g en er a lly k n own a s cl fi los of o r a n cio ( t h e r a n k philosoph er ) ,

a c q u i r e d a g r e a t c el eb r ity by his Ca r t as A r is t o t e li c as a n d his

’

Ca r ta s Cr i t ica s in which h e d e f en d e d t h e philosophy o f St

,
.

Tho m a s a ga i n st th e h e t er odox politic a l soci a l a n d philosoph , ,

ic a l th e o r i e s which h a d b ee n re c en tly i n t r od uc e d into Sp a i n .

B u t t h e m a n who g a v e to Sp a n ish philos ophy it s g r ea t e st

spl en do r d ur i n g t h e fi rst h a lf of t h e n in et ee n th c en t ur y wa s
u n do u bt e dly B a l m e s .

J a m es B a l m e s wa s bo rn in V ich ( C a t a lo n i a ) in 1 8 1 0 a n d di e d
in 1 8 4 8 Co m pl et e ly un know n in 1 8 4 0 h e a c qu ir e d in a f ew
.
,

y ea r s a n i mm en s e r e p u t a tion He a lon e s u cc eed ed in a w a k en ing

.

t h e i n t ere st of E u r op e in Sp a n ish tho u ght B e sid e s n um ero u s .

soci a l p r od u ctio n s a m on g which m u st b e m ent ion e d a co m p a r a

,

t iv e stu dy of P r ot est a n tis m a n d C a tholicis m with r ega r d to

th e ir i n fl u en ce u po n E ur op ea n civili z a tion B a l m e s h a s w r itt en ,

t h e followi n g philosophic a l wo r ks : E l Cr it eri a or a st u dy of ,

t h e c r it er i a o f t r u th which in Mr T u r n er s opini on is his m ost

’
.
, , ,

v a l u a bl e co n t r ib u tion to philosophy ; Ca r tas a a n es c ép tic o a ,

coll ectio n of l ett er s in which sc epticism i s m ost a bly di s c u ss e d ;

F i los ofia e lem en ta l; a n d F ilos ofia fu n da m en ta l t h e wo r k u pon ,

which his f a m e a s a philo soph e r chi e fly r e sts .

O r e st e s A B r ow n son d ecl a r e s th e F u nd a m ent a l P hilosophy

.

to b e n ot o n ly B a lm e s s m a st er pi ece b ut t h e m ost im po r ta n t
’
,

wo r k p ubl i sh e d on th e b a s e s of phil osophy d u ri n g th e nin et een th

c en t ury ‘5
This j u dgm e nt i s t oo eu logi stic p erh a p s ; b u t we
.

m u st a t l ea st a d m it th a t B a lm es s wo r k h a s a c q u i re d t h e ch a ra c
’

°
B a l me s F und a m e nta l P h i l oso p h y
, , New Yo r k ,
1903 ; B ro wn s o n s ’

I n t r o d u cti on p v i i i , . .
know t h e ext end e d worl d j u st a s it is in itself a nd w oul d not ,

ha v e t h e se n sibl e re p res ent a tion s e ith er extern a l or int ern a l

which we h a ve “
.

K a nt t ea ch e s th a t e v en with r ega rd to , our own se lf, ou r

k n owl e dge is ph en om en a l B a l m e s s a ys : .

Th e E g o do e s n ot s ee its elf i n t uitiv ely ; it i s o ffe red to its elf

on ly m edi a te ly, by its a cts ; th a t i s, so f a r a s it is known it ,

i s in t h e s a m e c a t ego r y a s a ll oth er e xt ern a l b e i n gs which a r e

,
”9
a ll known by th e i r effe ct u pon u s .
.

A co m p a ra tiv e stu dy of philosophie s of B a l m es a n d K a nt

th e
w ou l d b e of g rea t i n t er est Th e scop e of this t rea tise obl ig es .

u s to li m i t o u r s elv e s to a s u gg e stion a n d a f ew r em a r ks Wh a t .

e v er t h e co n cl u sio n s o f s u ch a st u dy m ight b e on e thing i s ,

b eyo n d do ubt : B a lm e s s p r i n cipl e s show a m a r k e d t end en cy to

’

s u bj e ct i v i s m He p r ofe ss e s th a t we poss e ss c er t a i n ty o n ly with

.

rega r d to i n t ern a l ph en om e n a a n d th a t we k n ow e x t ern a l obj ects ,

by m ea n s of a n a tu ra l in sti n ct .

Ra m on M a rt i de E ix a la ( di e d a ltho ugh l a cki n g th e

de pth of g en i u s of B a l m e s e x e r cis e d a m o re di rect i n fl uenc e ,

u pon Sp a n ish thi n ki n g S u rr o un d e d by a n um b e r of discipl e s

.
,

”
h e g a v e bi r th to t h e school known a s C a t a loni a n school O ne .

of his discipl es Llo r en s ea gerly en t ere d into t h e spi r it of th e

, ,

Thom istic re viv a l which wa s th en t a king pl a c e in It a ly a n d , ,

d ur i n g t h e l a st ye a r s of hi s lif e st r ov e to p u t his doct r in e in ,

p er f ect h a rm o ny with thos e of S a n se v er i n o a n d Corn oldi .

N ot lo n g a ft erw a r ds t h e s a m e p r ovinc e of C a t a loni a prou d

, ,

o f s u ch th i n k er s a s M a r ti a n d B a l m e s prod u c e d a noth e r h ilo o

p s ,

phe r of re a l m e rit A ntonio Com ell a s ,

.

A to io Co mell s y Cl et (
n n a u 1 8 32— 1 8 8 4 ) h a s not enj oye d du r
ing hi s lif e t h e noisy c el ebrity in which oth er m en d el ight .

E v e n a ft e r hi s d e a th h e h a s r em a in e d u nknown for m a ny y ea r s
, ,

a n d hi s n a m e wo u l d prob a bly b e fo r gott e n to da y w e re it not -

‘
I b id .
, V . 1, p . 4 32 .

’
1 bi d .
, V . 1, p . 42 .
 1 79

f or th e l ea rn ed st udy m a d e by th e d istin gu ish ed his tori a n of

phi l osophy G om ez I z q ui erdo in t h e re vi ew La Cultu re Es
, ,
'

ria la ( cf B ibliogra phy ) C m ll s s l if e a s G o m ez I zq uie rdo

' ’
p a . . o e a .
,

points out ma y be summ ed up in th ese two words : Sol itu d e

,

a n d stu dy .

His g rea t est co n trib ution to phi lo sophy a re h is D em ans trac wn

de la a r man ia en tr e la r elig ion ca talica y la cien cia a n d his I a i m
.

Th e m a n who ha s ra ise d Sp a ni sh phil os ophy to its grea te st

h eight d ur ing t h e se co n d h a l f of th e n in e teenth c entu ry i s
C a rdin a l G onza l ez .

Ze fe rin o Gonz a l ez y D i a z Tuiion ( 1 8 3 1 - bo rn in Vil

lo ria e nt e re d th e D om inic a n ord er a t t h e a g e of th irt een a n d
,

was se nt wh en q uit e a yo ung m a n to th e m ission of th e Ph ilip

, ,

pin es In Ma n il a h e ta ught philo sophy a n d th e ology a n d p ub

.
,

lish ed his fi rst work : E s tudia s s obr e la F ila s a fia de S a n ta Tom as ,

whi ch e vinces a dee p kn owl edge of th e philosophy of t h e A ngel ic

D octo r a n d i s re ga rde d by m a ny c r iti cs a s t h e m ost rem a rk a bl e
,

work on th e su bj ect w ritt en d ur ing th e ni net ee n th c e n tu ry .

Co m pell e d by h is h ea lth to re tu rn to Sp a in in 1 8 65 Gon za l ez ,

c on trib ut ed to La C iu da d de D ia s a n d oth e r p er i odic a l s n u m e r

.

ph ilosoph ica l es sa y s His P h ilos op h ia eleme n ta rza his

'

ous .
,

Es t ud ia s r elig ia sas filos aficos cien tific a s y s oc ia les h is m ost

, , ,

recen t work La B ai lia y la C ien cia

, a nd e sp eci a lly hi s

His t or ia de la F ilasa fia in which a whol e vol um e is d evo te d to

,

Mediwva l phi losophy h a v e giv en t h e l a st to uch to h is rep u ta tion

,

as a phil osoph e r a nd a ssur e d hi m a pl a ce a m ong th e gr ea te st

thinkers o f his c o untry a nd th e most gen uin e d e fend e rs a n d

propa ga tors of neo Schol a s tici sm -
.

C otem pora n eous with Gon za l ez a re O rt i y La rs a nd F ida l y .

Mon .

J ua n Ma n uel Ort i y La ra h a s wri tte n imm ense ly H is m ost .

im porta nt philoso phi ca l works m a y be see n in our bib li ogra phy .

Be sid es his P sic a logia his Log ica his Elisa a nd o th er co ns truc
, ,

ti ve wo rk s h e d ese rv es t h e g ra titu d e o f neo Scho la sti cs for his

,
-
 1 80

r e fu ta tion of th e p a nth e istic ph ilo sophy of K ra use a n d of th e

wor k of D ra p er H i s conc eption of th e Tho m ist ic m ov em e nt
.

is how e v er v ery n a r row O r ti y La ra do e s not ta k e a ny int er

, ,
.

“
es t in m od ern philosophy which h e r ega r ds a s re sti n g u pon ,

”1 0
e rr o r a n d sin .

A l ej a nd r o F ida l y Mon born in Ma d r i d in 1 8 4 7 i s chi e fly , ,

k n ow n a s a pol itic a l w r it er H is p r incip a l contr ib u tio n s to .

philosophy a re a wo r k en titl e d S is t em as filas afic a s a nd

a st u dy o n St Tho m a s S a n t a To m as de A q u in o
.
,
which
h a s b een gr ea tly p r a is e d by C a rdi n a l Gon z a l ez .

A m o ng th e m ost r e c en t Sp a n ish n eo Schol a stics let u s m en -

,

tion : A rn a iz C ep e d a D a urella D on a diu Go n z a l ez y A r i n t ero

, , , , ,

Lem os H ern an d ez y F a j a rn é s M i ra ll es y Sh er t t h e J e su its

, , ,

Urr ab u r u a n d M en div e t h e histo r i a n of philosophy G om ez ,

I z q u i er d o .

J M en div e S J ( di e d
.
, i s t h e a u tho r of a co ur s e of
. .

philosophy w r itt en a t fi r st in Sp a n ish a n d a f ter w a rds p ub

, ,

lish e d in La tin L ik e m a ny oth er J e su its h e h a s b een ,

r e p r o a ch e d with following S u a r ez too clos ely in his i nt e rp ret a

tion s of St Thom a s . .

A n to n io H ern a nd ez y F a j a rn é s prof e sso r in th e U n iv er sity ,

of Z a ra go z a is t h e a u tho r of a ser i es of philosophic a l a n d sc ien

,

t ifi c wo r ks in which t h e f un d a m en t a l p r incipl e s of S chol a sticis m

a r e d e f en d e d a n d oppos e d to t h e a nt a go n istic m od er n th e o r i e s .

H is fi r st wor k P s ic olog ia c elu la r ,

is a n a bl e r e f ut a tio n
of H a eck el s bi ologic a l th eo r i e s H is O n tologia ( 1 8 8 7 ) is
’
.

di re ct ed a ga i n st p o s itivism .

J u a n Gon z a l ez de A r i n t er o O P p ublish e d in 1 9 0 4 a wo rk ,
. .
,

en titl e d L a P r ovi den cia y la E vo luci on whos e chi e f a im is t h e

’

p r oof of th e e xist enc e of fi n a l ity in t h e un iv erse F r A r int ero . .

a tt a cks t h e doct r i n e of p u re ch a nc e ; a n d in his ch a pt e r on e vo ,

l u ti a n cl ea rly shows th a t e vol u tion withou t fin a lity i s co nt r a ry

,

to rea son to e x p eri enc e to sci en c e it se l f

, ,
.

1°
C f L ti nu
. a s, U ne e xc u rs i on p h il os o p h i q u e en Es p gna e, Rev . Ne o
S co l , 1 9 0 1
. .
 1 82

Urr ab uru
’
s wo rk s—p erh a ps on a ccoun t of th e v ery m ethod
—
th ey follow h a v e not a tt ra ct e d th e a tt en tion th ey d es erve .

Th e i r a u tho r s n a m e is n ot e v en m en tion e d in Mr B l a n c s D ic
’
.
’

tion n a ir e de P h i la s oPh i e p u bli sh e d in 1 9 0 6

,
. Th e a ctu a l c ur
re n t o f n eo Schol a sticis m
-
ch i efly due to t h e i n fl u en c e of Mg r
, .

Mer ci er a n d th e I n stitu t e of L o u v a i n i s u n f a vo ra bl e to U rr a
,

b u ru I t p r of ess e s th a t t h e La ti n l a n g ua ge o ught to b e di s
.

c a r d e d in philosoph ic a l disc u ssion s a n d th a t philosophy o u ght

,

to b e r ega r d e d a s a sci enc e which m u st go its own wa y withou t ,

a n y p r e d et erm in a te co n cl u sio n im pos e d by th e ologic a l b el i e fs .

To t h e obj ectio n th a t this h a s not b een th e m ethod follow ed by

St Thom a s t h e Schol a stics of L ou v a in wou l d a n sw er th a t St
.
,
.

Thom a s a ct e d in h a rm o n y with t h e spirit of hi s t im e a n d th a t , ,

if h e l iv e d n ow h e wou l d l ik e wise a ct in h a rm o n y with th e spi r it

,

a n d m ethods of ou r da y . T his m a y b e v er y t ru e b u t it p r ov e s
,

too m u ch I f St T hom a s l iv e d to da y a P ositivi st m ight a sk

. .
-
, ,

i f h e b rea th e d in our i n t ell ectu a l a t m osph ere wou l d h e b e a

,

D om i n ic a n ? W o u l d h e b e a Schol a stic ?
U rr ab uru s m ethod is p erh a ps a n th e whol e m o r e con s ist e nt
’
, ,

with t h e p r i n cipl e s of Schol a sticis m th a n his oppo n en ts V i ew ’

.

T h e Schol a stics of Lo u v a i n a r e a s profo u ndly co n vi n c e d of th e

t ru th o f t h e doct r i n e s of th e Chu rch a s U rr ab u ru is Th ey .

b elie v e a s st r o n gly a s th e em in en t Sp a n i a r d th a t a philosophic a l

or a sci entific co n cl u sio n oppos e d to t h e r e v ea l e d t ru ths is er r on

e ou s a n d m u st b e r ej e ct e d I f s u ch b e t h e c a s e a n d i f t h e p ri
.
,

m a r y a im of philosophy b e t h e a tt a i nm e nt of t ru th i s it not ,

illogic a l to a bst a in f rom ta kin g th eologic a l doctr in e s a s a gu ide

in philosophic a l inv e stig a ti on s ?
A p r oof f rom Scr iptur e will not a pp ea l to th e m oder n m ind .

I n P r ot e sta n t co u n t r i e s e sp eci a lly it will so un d a s profo un dly

u nphilosoph ic a l B ut we m u st n ot fo rg e t th a t U rr ab ur u writ e s
.

in a C a thol ic co un t ry a n d for C a thol ic r ea d er s Th e sp i r it of

.

f ree i n t erp ret a tion h a s le d P r ot e st a n t th e ology v ery f a r Ma ny .

Pr ote st a n t m inist e r s to da y do u bt t h e exist enc e of h ell a n d a

-
,

f ew a r e incli ne d to t r a n sform a p er so n a l God i n to a n e thi ca l or

 1 83
‘

meta physica l principl e ca se of th e C a th olic cl ergy is q uit e

. Th e
d iffe ren t A ll who a re rea lly C a tholi cs firm ly be li e v e not only
.
,

in a pe rson a l God who see s us a nd w a tches ov er us in a h ell in

, ,

which th e re prob a te wi ll be tortu re d wi th th e d evils d uri ng th e

whol e ete rn ity b ut e ve n in th e I m m a c ul a te Conc e ption an d t he
,

in fa llibility of t h e pope .

It ca nnot be d eni ed tha t th e sp irit of Lo u va in is m ore in b a r

ma ny with m od e rn t ho ught This is t h e rea so n why t h e wo rks
.

p ubli sh e d by th e I ns ti tu t S up érieur de P h ilos op h ia h a v e been

t ra nsl a te d in to v a rio us l a n g ua ge s a n d h a v e a tt ra ct ed t h e a t t en
tion of a ll Europe wh e rea s Urrab uru s b ulky vol um e s h a v e bee n
,
’

fo rgotte n in so m e d usty co rn er of a conv entu a l lib ra ry Th e .

study of th e works of the l ea rn e d J es u it i s how e v e r indis p ensa , ,

b le for a n a d eq ua t e u nd ersta n din g of t h e spi r it of Schol a s t icis m .

Le t u s n ot l ea v e Sp a in witho ut m en tio ni ng so m e im po r ta n t
re vi ews which h a ve g rea tly h elp e d t h e c a us e of neo Th o m ism -
.

Raz an y F é La Ci uda d de Dia s th e Revis ta de A ra g an a n d t h e

, , ,

C ultura E spa fi o la h a v e p ublish ed a rti cl e s of grea t i n te re s t O f

. .

grea t er int ere st still is t h e Revis ta I n d ia n a foun d e d in B a rc e ,

l on a whose a im is th e p ublic a tio n a n d th e c r itic a l

in 1 9 0 1 , a nd

inte rpreta tion of t h e wo rks of t h e Me di ae v a l S p a n ish philo s o ph e r

Ra ym ond Lu lly .

S ECT I O N 2 —T n s
. NEG - S CH O L A S TI C REVI V A L IN PO RT UG A L “

Th e ma rch of philosophy in P ort uga l is close ly connect ed

with tha t of ph il oso phy in Sp a in B oth co unt ri e s h a ve bee n .

insp ire d by t h e sa me m a ste rs a nd h a v e follow e d p a ra ll el d irec

,

tio ns in th e i r s pe cula ti o n By t h e end of t h e e ight ee n th c en

.

t ury th e dom i na nt syste m in P o r tug uese i ns titu tion s wa s a

,

se nsi sm inspi red by Lo ck e a n d Condilla c Th e J es u its o f .

Co im bra wh o a lo ne cl un g to a n o rth odox Tho m i s m we re se

, ,

vere ly a tta ck e d by oth er r e l ig io us ord e rs es p eci ally by th e O ra ,

t a ria na a nd A ugus ti ni a ns Condilla c s A rt dc P ens er was

’
.

"
Cf . F e rre ie c us da do , La P h i l oso p h ia Tho mi s ts en Po rt uga l , Re v .
 1 84

t ra n sl a t e d into P o rt ugu es e a n d p u blish e d in 1 8 1 8 Th e O ra .

to r i a n F r Joh n t h e B a pti st t h e a rchd ea con Lu i z An toni o Ver

.
,

n ey a n d T h eo do ra d A lm eida f r a nkly int r od u c e d m od er n syst em s

’

of tho ught i n to t h e P o rt u guese philosophic a l circl es .

L ittl e wa s do n e in P o rt u g a l f or a r esto ra tio n of Tho m ism

b e fo r e t h e p ublic a tion of Le o X I I I s en cycl ic a l Th e f ew c on ’
.

t r ib u t ion s to Schol a stic lit era t u r e w r itt en in P ort u gue s e d u ri n g

th a t p er iod do not b elon g t o P o rtu ga l p r ope r b ut to A si a or
, ,

A m er ic a.

I n M a c a o th e J es u it F r a n ci s X Rondi n a ( 1 8 2 7
, an.

It a l i a n by bi r th p u bl ish e d in 1 8 69 a cour s e of philosophy in

,

h a rm o n y with t h e Schol a stic p r i n cipl e s Th e titl e of th e wo rk .

i s : C om p en dio de P h i los op h ia t h ea r etica e p ra tica p ar a us o da

m o cida de p or tug u es a n a Ch in a Th e a u thor h a s b ee n di rectly
.

inspi re d by St Tho m a s S ua r ez Go u di n B a l m e s Gon za l ez a n d

.
, , , , , ,

to a c er t a i n ext en t by Ros m i n i , .

Two y ea r s l a t er J ose So r i a n o de So u s a prof essor i n P ern a m

, ,

b u co ( B ra z il ) p u blish e d his L i c a es dc P h i losop hia e lem en ta r

,

r a ci on a l e m or a l p er f e ctly Tho m istic i n spi r it

,
which h e d e di ,

c a t e d to E m p er or P e d r o I I .

A ft er t h e p r o m u lga t io n of th e en cyclic a l E t erni P a tr is t h e ,

C a tholics of P o r t u g a l ent er e d witho u t h esit a tio n into th e spi r it

of t h e Rom a n P o n ti ff B y th e philosophic a l a c a d em i e s th ey
.

fo un d e d t h e re vi ews a n d th e wo rks th ey p ublish ed th ey h a v e

, ,

a ss u r e d to th e i r co u n t r y a conspic u o u s pl a c e in th e histo ry of

ne o Tho m is m
-
.

I n 1 8 8 1 a n A c a d em y of St Tho m a s wa s fo u n d e d in Co im b ra
,
.
-
,

and ,
by m ea n s of its o rga n t h e r evi e w I ns t ituch es ch ris tas
, ,

a ctiv e ly co n t r ib u t e d to t u r n t h e a tt en tion of P o r t u g a l to th e

Thom istic r e viv a l Th e fo u nd a tion of t h e A c a d em y o f St

. .

Thom a s wa s soo n follow e d by th e p ublic a tion of philosophic a l

wo rks i n sp i re d by Schol a st ic p r incipl es A m o n g t h e w r it ers .

who th u s ser ve d t h e c a u s e of n eo Schol a sticism t h e b e st known -

,

a r e Si n ib a ldi P er e i ra Go m ez de C a r v a lho a n d Ma d ur e i ra
,
.

Thi a go S i n ib a ldi p r ofe ssor in th e s em in a ry of Coi m b ra p ub

, ,
 1 86

Va lv er d e T e ll ez th a t th ey w e re due to t h e p en of t h e J es u it
1 2
A rrilla g a .

A r rilla g a d efi n e s Schol a sticism in t erm s of its m ethod of

e x position giv es a col d p r a i s e t o A b el a rd a n d Tho m a s A q u i n a s
, ,

“
c a lli n g th em r a r e g en i u s es who in a n oth er t im e co ul d h a v e , ,

” '

do n e wond er s i s p a r tic ul a r ly s e v er e tow a r ds D un s S cotu s

, ,

sp ea ks of Lully s A ra m a g na a s of a coll ect ion of ext ra v a ga n c e s

’
.

S i m il a r vi ews w ere c u rren t a t t h e ti m e Th e grea t est C a tholic .

th ink er M exico h a s p r od u c ed Cl em en t e de J e su s M u n gu i a do es
, ,

n ot a bsol ut ely e sc a p e th em A ft er e x posing th e S chol a sti c doc

.

t r in e a bou t t h e o r igi n of id ea s t h e disti n gu ish e d bishop fi n ds

,

hi m s el f a t a loss to expl a i n how s u ch a n a bs ur d th eory cou ld

e n j oy so g rea t a vogu e a n d f or so lo n g a ti m e a m o ng
, ,

”1 3
p h ilo s 0 p h er s .

Th e philosophic a l syst em of Mu n g ui a how ev er a gr ee s in t h e , ,

m a i n with th e p r i n cipl e s of t h e School He who h a s b een c a ll e d .

by his a d m i rer s th e B a lm es of M exico m a y b e reg a r d e d with

“

j u stic e a s on e of t h e fo rer u n n er s of th e n eo Schol a stic m ov em en t -

in his cou n t ry O ur bibliogr a phy co n t a i n s t h e titl e s of his m ost

.

im port a n t philosophic a l p u blic a tio n s .

Th e fi r st m a n who by his writi n gs a n d his i n fl u en c e di rectly

, ,

con t r ibu t e d to th e r evi v a l of Thom ism in Me x ico i s B ishop

S oll an o .

J os é M a r i a de J esfi s D i ez de Soll a n o y D av a los wa s bo r n in

S a n M igu e l de A ll en d e ( G ua n a j u a to ) in 1 8 20 A ft er st u dyi ng .

in hi s n a tiv e tow n a n d in M exico h e wa s o r d a in e d p r i est in ,

1 8 44 a n d b ec a m e s u cc e ssiv e ly r ector of t h e Coll eg e of S a n

,

G r ego r io of t h e S em i n a ry an d of th e U n iv ersity In 1 8 63 h e
, .

wa s m a d e b ishop of Le on by P i u s I X He di e d in 1 8 8 1 . .

Th e philosophic a l w r it ings of B ishop Soll a n o a r e not of g rea t

i m port a n c e Th ey a re li m i te d to a n a nnot a t e d e dition of Ro u x s
.
’

L ogic a p a sto r a l l ett er d ea li n g with t h e encycl ic a l E t em i

,

Cf V l
. d e Te l le z B ibl i ogr a f ia F ilos ofi ca M e xica n a p 4 1
a ve r , , . .

1‘
Cf . Va l ve r de Te l l e z A p un t a c iones h is t or ica s de la F il o so f ia
,
en

M ex ico , p . 2 62 .
 187

di sse r ta tion a bo ut th e Im ma c ul a te C once pt io n

'

P a tn s an d a

fl
.
,

N e vert h el ess Solla no m ust be rega rd ed a s one of th e best p ro

,

p a ga tora of n eo Scho la stic ism in Mexi co on a cco un t of t h e in u

-
,

e nce h e ex erc ise d u pon t h e direc ti on of philosophy in m a ki ng

o f his semina ry of Le on one of th e m ost a ctiv e ce nt ers o f neo

Fr o m p a rt s of t h e Mexica n rep ublic th ere soon a rose dis

a ll

t ing uish e d write rs to d e fen d t h e e sse nti a l p r i n cipl e s of Schol a s

tic philosophy so th a t t h e neo Schol a stic m ov em en t in M ex ico
,
-

ca n co m p a re witho u t too m u ch dis a dv a nt a g e with t h e sa m e

mo v em ent in E urope a n na tions .

A g ust in de la Rosa ( bo rn c a n o n of G ua d a l a j a ra ,

d e fe nd ed th e Schol a stic doct r in e o f t ru t h in his C ons ide rac ion es

fi los é /ic a s s ob r e la V e r da d y la C ert idu m br e

José M de J e s us Port uga l bish o p of A gua sc a li e n t es w rot e

.
, , ,

with t h e titl e s of E l A ma b le J esus a nd La S a n ta volun ta d de

D ios ex ce ll ent co mm enta r i e s on th e wo r ks of St Tho m a s
, El . .

A m ab le J esus i s a comm enta ry on t h e thi rd p a r t of t h e S umm a

Th eo log ic a wh er ea s La S a n ta Volun ta d de D ios d ea ls with t h e
,

S umm a co n tra G en tiles .

A gusti n F . Vill a gr ea tly fa cilit a t e d t h e st udy of Schol a stic

ph il osophy by th e p ubl ica tion of a V oc a b ul a ry of Schol a stic
Te rm s
N i ca nor Lo za d a p ublish ed in 1 8 8 0 his A p un t es de Leg ion ,

C osmo log ia y Psic olog ia Thi s wo rk is not a co ur se of Schol a s

.

tic phil osophy As its ti tl e in di ca te s it s im m

. y consists of n ot e s
,

a nd obse rv a ti ons d est in e d to gi v e to t h e st u d e nts a cl ea r in telli

g en ce of so m e o bs cu r e points of t h e t e xt book th ey w e re usi ng -

.

This te xt boo k was G ra ndcla ude s B remm ium P h ilos Op h iaz

'
- ’
-

Ra f a el Cag ig as ( wh ose prema tur e d ea th h as

1 8 64
bee n a grea t l oss to Mexi ca n phil osophica l li te ra t u re ma ni fests ,

a n e nth u sia s t ic a d m i ra tion for t h e Tho m isti c doc t rin e in his ,

vol um e o f works p ublish ed in 1 8 9 0 W ith th e soul of a p oe t .

,

t h e you ng wri te r st u di es t he m os t a b stru se phil oso phi ca l doc

 1 88

t r i n es Th e th eo ry of M a tte r a nd F o rm i s f or h im a bo un dl e ss
.

h a rm on y which h e s ee s r efl ect e d i n t h e h um a n m i n d Ca g ig a s
, .

i s p er h a ps t oo se v ere f or m od er n philosophy a s m a y b e g a th er e d ,

f r om t h e followi n g f r a gm en t of a sp eech h e p ron oun c ed in t h e

C a tholi c Ci r cl e of M exico on J a n u a ry 1 9 1 8 9 0 , ,

M od ern philosophy f ro m ,
D e sc a r t e s
to this da y is in a st a t e ,

of e vid en t d e c a y S h e d ecl a res it h er s elf with f ur io u s c r i e s

.
,

a pp ea ri n g to t h e ey e s of t h e c r owd a s a coll e ction of a ll er ro r s

,

a s a si n k of a ll filth a s t h e r u in of a ll spi r its

, a s a l a by r i n th ,

wh ere t h e wis e st m a n hi m s el f i s su dd en ly con fo un d ed W h a t is .

m o ra l ity in t h e c a th e d ra s in t h e soci eti e s su ch a ph ilosophy c or

,

ru ts ? T h e n eg a tiv e m o r a l ity of t h e m u l e a n d of t h e
p

S ec u n di n o B r ic eno b esid e s a n op u scu l e on t h e syllogis m a n d

,

a di s sert a tio n d ea li n g with St Tho m a s s doct r in e a bo ut t h e.

’

I m m a c u l a t e Conc eptio n h a s w r itt en a com p a ra tiv e st u dy of th e

,

Sp en c er i a n a n d Schol a stic philosophy Th e titl e of thi s wo r k .

i s Lig er os A p u n t es s obr e la F ilosofia de S p en c er c omp a ra da c on .

la F i los ofia E s c olcis tica Its a im is to oppos e t h e pow er f u l cu r

.

r e n t o f positivi s m which du e to t h e i n fl u en c e of B a r re d a a n d
,

P or fi r io P a r ra h a s b een f or a long t i m e th e o ffi ci a l philosophy

,

in M e x ico B r ic eno li m its h is co n si d era tio n s to Sp en c er s F i r st ’

.

P r i n cipl e s a n d skilf u lly poi n ts ou t t h e cont r a dictio n s con t a in e d

,

in t h e doct r i n e of t h e E n glish philosoph er .

A n a bl e r ep r ese n t a tiv e of n eo Schol a sticism in M ex ico i s t h e

-

D o m i n ic a n G u ill erm o G a r ci a A Sp a n i a r d by bi r th n ow pro

.
,

f essor of dog m a tic th eology in th e s em in a ry of S a n Lu is P otosi ,

F r G a r ci a h a s w r itt e n b e sid e s a p a m phl e t on S t B on a v ent u r e

.
, .
,

a histo r ic a l st u dy en titl e d T om is m o
y N eot om is m o Th e a im .

of thi s t rea tis e i s to giv e a f ull a ccoun t of t h e wo r ks a n d th e

philosophic a l doct r in es of Thom a s A qu i n a s to c om p a re his ,
-

philosophy with th e m od ern c u rren ts of thought to giv e a his ,

t oric a l sur v ey of t h e Tho m istic philosophy thro ugho u t th e a ges .

Th e p a r t of t h e wo r k d ea l i n g with m od ern phi losophic a l syst em s

h a s n ot m u ch v a l ue I t is ea sy to s ee th a t Fr G a r ci a is n ot
. .

In O b ra s de R . Ca g ig a s , pp . 1 76 ff . Al s o gi ve n in Va l ve r d e s
’

A p u n t a c i on e s , p . 4 02 ff .
 1 90

This is n ot th e o n ly con t ra dictio n which Tom is m o y N ea ta

F r G a r ci a s position a s r ega rds n eo s c h ola st i
’
m is m o con t a ins . .
-

c ism i s f a r fro m b ei n g cl ea r He de cl a r e s th a t his vi ew of t h e

.

Thom istic m ov em ent is in h a rm ony with t h e vi e w of th e Lo u v a in

school a n d h e giv e s a n e x c ell en t p r ogra m of n e o Schol a sticism
,
-

to which e v ery p rofe sso r of Lo u v a i n wou l d subscrib e O n t h e .

oth er h a n d h e qu ot e s with a pp r ov a l Corn oldi s f a m o u s phra s e

,
’

d e sc r ibi n g m od ern phil osophy a s th e p a thology of hum a n r ea so n ,

a n d c a n n ot bl a m e O r ti y L a r a for r e g a r ding m od e rn tho u ght a s

r e sti n g u po n er ro r a n d sin .

I n sp it e of th e s e d e fe cts Ta m is m a y N ea tam is m a is a v a l ua bl e
,

littl e wo rk It co n t a in s im port a n t histo r ic a l d a t a a b ou t th e

.

Thom istic m ov em ent Th e fi ve ch a pt ers d ea l i n g with th e phi

.

losop h y of St Thom a s in t h e D o m in ic a n ord er a r e p a rticu l a rly

.

i n t er e sti n g F r G a r ci a is a ctu a lly p r ep a r i n g a t rea tis e on St

. . .

Tho m a s s sociology We si n c er ely hop e th a t thi s n ew wor k wi ll

’
.

b e lik e Tom is m o y N ea tom is m a a pr e ciou s contrib u tion to n e o

, ,

Schol a stic lit e ra t u r e .

N o M exic a n how ev e r d eser v e s t h e th a nks of a ll lov er s of

, ,

Schol a stic philosophy so gr ea tly a s Mr Va lv er d e T ell ez . .

E m et erio Va lv er d e T e ll ez a c a n o n of t h e c a th e dr a l of Mexico
, ,

h a s writt en b e sid e s a t rea ti se on t r uth th r ee histo r ic a l works

, ,

of gr ea t i m port a nc e : t h e A p u n ta cion es h is t oricas s obr e la F iloso

f i a e n M e x i c o t h e C r i t ic a F i la s afic a a n d t h e

B ib liog ra fia F i los a fica Mex ica na

'

. .

I n t h e A p u n taoion es h is t oricas Mr Va lv er d e a ft e r gen era l

’

.
, ,

con si d era tions on t h e n a tu re of phi losophy a n d a w ea k d e f ens e

of M et a physics a g a i n st t h e a tt a cks of P ositivi sm t ra c es t h e ,

g rea t l i ne s of M e x ic a n sp ec u l a tion giv e s v a l ua bl e inform a tion s ,

a bo u t t h e lib r a ri e s a n d t h e c ent ers of l ea rning in Mexico l ea ds ,

u s th r o u gh t h e vicissit u d e s of th e Mexic a n U niv ersity si n c e its

foun d a tion in 1 521 to its fin a l su pp r ession in 1 8 68 an d th e ,

foun d a tion of t h e n ew P on tific a l U n iv er sity in 1 8 9 6 He th en .

p a ss e s to a d et a il ed a n d critic a l st u dy of th e v a rio u s philosoph

 191

i ca l system s in hi s co un try He a na lyzes t h e work s a nd th e

.

doctr in es of all grea t Mexi ca n think ers .

In spit e of hi s enth us ia stic a dm ira tion for St Tho ma s Mr .

,
.

Va lve rd e doe s f u ll j ustice to t h e philosoph e rs of oth e r sc hoo ls .

H is stu dy of th e rece nt posi tivistic m ov ement in Mexi co a n d of

"
th e vi ol e nt disc ussi ons to which it h a s giv en rise is e xc ell ent .

T h e C ri tic a F ilos é fic a co m pl e te s t h e A p u n ta c iones by f urnish

ing ne w da ta by m a king u s kn ow philosop h ica l wor ks com pl et ely
,

unkn own a nd un ea rth e d by t h e p a ti ent l a bo r of t h e a u thor

,
.

Th e B ibliog ra fia F ila s a fic a Mex ica ns giv e s u s with t h e g rea t

’

es t e x a ctitud e t h e list of a ll philo so phic a l prod u ctio n s wr itt en

,

in Mexi co Ea ch work is prec ede d by a biogra p h ic a l sk etch of

.

its a u thor a n d follow ed by a criti ca l a n a lysis so th a t t h e B ib lio ,

g ra fi a is in d isp e ns a bl e to a ll who a re in te r e ste d in t h e m a rch

of ph il os ophica l spe c ul a tion a m ong t h e Sp a n ish r a c e .

S ECT I O N 4 .
—T H E NEG -
S CH O L A S T I C REVI VA L IN S O UT H
A M ERI CA

Am ong co untri es which h a v e ea ge rly em b ra c ed t h e c a u se

the
of th e Schol a stic r e viv a l Colom bi a d e se r v e s a sp eci a l a tten tio n
, .

Thom is m h as becom e as it w ere its offi ci a l philosophy a n d

, , , ,

m ore tha n a nywh ere else pe rha ps h a s id entifi ed itse l f with t h e ,

sp irit of t h e n a tion .

Wh en in t h e m iddl e of th e l a st c en t u ry Benth a m s utilita ri a n

, ,
’

e thi ca l sys tem wa s in tr od u ce d i n to Colo m bi a i t wa s op p os ed by ,

some of t h e m os t em in en t Colo m b ia n w rite rs Ma rga llo M M .

,
. .

Ma ll a rino Ri ca rdo de la Pa rr a Jo a q uin Mosq uera M a rio

, , ,

Va l e nzuel a a n d m o re especi a lly José Eu se bio C a ro ( 1 8 1 7—

, 1 8 53 )
a nd his i ll u s t ri o u s son Miguel A ntoni o C a ro d efend ed th e
, ,

Tho m istic m ora l sys tem wi th m uch a bility a nd s uccess .

Migue l An toni o C a ro born in Bogo ta on N ov ember 1 0 1 8 4 3

, , ,

is chi e fly kn own as a poli ti cia n a nd a ma n o f l e tte rs As a .

poli ti ci a n h e h a s ex erc ise d a n i mmense in fl uence u pon th e gov

,

"
Th e grea te s t suppo r te r o f Pos iti vi s m in M exi co is Mr Po rfi r io .

Pu n . I ts mos t i rred u cibl e a d ve rs a ry ha s be e n M r J M V igi l . . . .

 1 92

e rn m en t of his co untry a n d h a s b ee n intru ste d with th e high

,

offi c e of p r esid en t A m on g his l it era r y a chi e v em en ts which

.
,

h a v e giv e n h im a co n spic u o u s pl a c e in th e h istory of Sp a ni sh

l it er a tu re let u s m en tio n his a dm ir a bl e tr a n sl a tion of Vi rgil
,

i n to Sp a n ish ver s e H i s m ost l a sti n g t itl e to th e gra tit u d e of

.

P hilosophy is his E s tu dia s ob r e e l Utili ta rism o which h a s b een ,

p r ocl a i m e d wo rthy of Jos eph de M a ist r e 18

.

Th e m ost i m po rt a nt c en t er of Tho m i s m in Colom bi a is a ct u

a lly t h e C oll eg e o f th e Ros a r y ( Col egio M a yo r de N u e st ra
S efi or a del Ro sa r io ) in B ogot a .

A s e a rly a s 1 8 8 1 Ra f a el M a r i a C a rr a s q u ill a ( bo rn in B ogot a

,

on D e c em b e r 1 8 1 8 57 a n d p r e sid en t of t h e Coll eg e of th e
, ,

Ro s a ry si n c e 1 8 9 1 ) p r ocl a i m e d hi s a dh e re n c e to t h e philosophy
“
i m pose d by P a p e Leo X I I I o n t h e C a tholic wo rld To t h e .

m od e r n err o r s
”
s a i d h e we m u st oppos e t h e enti re t ru th e v en
, , ,

i f we o ff en d th e p r i d e of ou r c en t u r y of p r ogr e ss by e x hibiting ,

”1 9
a m o n k of t h e thi r t ee n th c en t u ry a s a m od el of wi s do m .

Th e p r og r a m th u s sk etch e d by Mr C a r r a s q u ill a h a s b een .

f a ith f ully c a rr i e d ou t A ll t h e wo rks a n d ess a ys t h e C oll ege

.

h a s p r od u c e d h a v e b een i n spi re d by t h e p u res t Tho m istic prin

c ip les ,
s o th a t t h e h i s to ry of t h e Coll eg e of t h e Ros a r y d u r i ng

t h e l a st fift een y ea r s form s on e of t h e m ost i n t ere sti n g p a g e s

of a histo ry of n eo Schol a sti cism -
.

T h e a dh er en c e of t h e coll eg e to t h e p r incipl e s of t h e A n g elic

D octo r does not how ev er d egen e r a t e into s er vility
, ,
It is e ss en .

t ia lly e cl e ctic a n d p r ogr e s siv e Th e n ew co n stit u tio n s of t h e

.

coll eg e st r o n gly i n sist u po n t h e f a ct th a t we m u st follow t h e

Schol a stics wh ere v er th ei r philosophy i s a cc ep ta bl e in th e light
of m ode rn c r iticism a n d r ej ec t th e i r doct r i n es i f th ey h a v e
,

20
p rov e d err o n eo u s or i n a d eq ua t e .

Th e m ost i m po rt a n t wo r k of M r C a rra s q u ill a is t h e vol u m e .

e n titl e d E n s a y o s a b r e la doc tr in a lib era l which h a s obt a i ne d

,
. ,

”
Cf . R a m i re z , F ilo s o fi a P os iti v i s ts p , . 95 .

”
C a r ra s qu ill a , S o b re e l e s t u di o de la fi loso fi a ; Re pe r t . C l
o om b .
,

A ug , 1 88 1 .

Cf . R e v i s t a de l C l gi
o e o de l Ro sa r i o , J une , 1 9 0 6, p . 3 16 .
 1 94

tio n of t h e S chol a stic logic a l p r i n cipl e s is worthy of a tt en tio n ,

f or a th e or y of t h e m od e s o f t h e hypoth etic a l syllogis m which ,

co n stit u t es a di r ect co n trib u tio n of t h e a u tho r to th e fi el d of

logic .

Si n c e 1 9 0 5 t h e Coll ege of t h e Ros a ry a lso p ublish e s a n im

,

p or ta n t re vi e w ( R ac is m del Coleg io Ma y or dc N u es tra S efi a ra

del Rosa r io ) which i s u n do u bt e dly on e of t h e m ost e xc ell en t
Sou th A m er ic a n p er iodic a l p u bl ic a tio n s Its fi eld is n ot c on .

fi n e d to philosophy I t t rea ts lik e wis e of l it era t ur e e d u c a tion

.
, ,

histo ry a n d s eldo m f a ils to giv e a d elightf u l pi e c e of po et ry

,
.

F r om a philosophic a l poi n t of vi ew t h e m ost i m po r t a n t c on ,

t r ib u t ion of th e r e vi e w i s th e e ss a y en t itl e d S a n t a Ta m ds a n t e
la c i en cia m ode r ne of F ra n cisco M a ri a Re n gifo n ow p r of esso r
.
, ,

in t h e coll ege .

Mr Ren gifo st u di e s th e m od er n th eo r i e s d e f en d e d by m a th e
.

m a ti e s a n d sci en c e a n d shows th a t th ey a r e in p e r f e ct h a rm o n y
with t h e e ss en ti a l p r i n cipl e s of Thom is m .

Le t u s n ot l ea v e t h e Coll eg e of t h e Ros a ry witho u t m en tio n i n g

t h e i n t er e sti n g wo r k e n titl e d La F i la s a fia P osi tivi s ts w r itt en by
.
,

S a m u e l Ra m i rez ( 1 8 7 5 a s a di ss er t a tio n f or t h e d eg r ee

of D o cto r of P hilosophy A ft er givi n g a d et a il e d hi sto ry of

.

t h e v a r io u s positivistic schools Mr Ra m i rez d em on st r a t e s t h e

, .

s u p er io r ity of t h e Tho m istic p r i n cipl e s ov er t h e doct r i n es of .

Com t e a n d hi s discipl e s .

T h e Rev Lu i s O r ti z S J prof e sso r in t h e Coll eg e of S a n

“

.
,
.
,
.

B a r tolom é h a s co n tr ib u t e d to C ol om bi a n n eo Schol a stic lit era

,
-

t u r e a littl e wo r k en titl e d La Vida ( Li f e ) Th e th e sis de

. . .

“
f end ed by t h e a u thor i s t h e followi n g : Th e doct r in e of t h e
A n gelic D octo r a n d of F r S ua r ez d efen ding th e existen c e of a
.
,

vit a l p r i n cipl e which i n fo rm s living b ei n gs a n d is e sse nti a lly

,

disti n ct f r om t h e physico ch em ic a l fo r c e s of b ru t e m a tt er is
-
,

con fi rm e d by t h e obs er v a tion s of m ode rn sci en c e ; or m o re ,

b r i efl y th e physic a l a n d ch em ic a l fo rc es a r e i n a d eq u a t e to ex
,

”
pl a i n lif e .

T h e p r oofs a dd u c e d by F r O r tiz in d e f en c e of thi s th e sis a re

.
 1 95

a de v e lop ment o f th e fo ll owing a rgum en t : Th e esse n c es of

t hings a re known from th e ope ra tio n s a n d prop e rti es of th e se
thin gs Th e ope ra tions an d pro pe rti es of ino rga nic m a tt er a re
.

e sse nti a lly di ff e re nt fro m those which ch a r a cte r ize living be ings .

Th e re fore th e na tu re o f liv in g be i n gs is e ss enti a lly di ff e re n t

,

from t ha t of i no rga nic m a tt er .

C olom bi a i s n ot th e o nly So uth Am erica n re p ublic in which

th e S pi r it o f t h e Tho m istic r eviv a l h a s p e ne tra t e d T he m ost
.

i m porta nt contr ibu tio n of So uth Ame rica to t h e ca u se of n eo

Schol a stici sm c a m e fro m Chil e a n d wa s due to F ra n cisco G ine
b ra of t h e S oci e ty of J e su s
,
.

Gin ebra s E lem en tos de F ilos a fia p ublish e d in 1 8 8 7 in S a n

’
,

ti a go ( Chil e ) h as d es ervedly ru n in to s ev e ra l e d itions It is

, .

o ne of t h e m ost v a l ua bl e t e xt books on Schol a stic philos o phy

-

whi ch th e neo Schol a stic re viv a l h a s p rod u ce d Th e a utho r h a s

-
.

bee n chi e fly i ns pi red by S t Tho m a s S ua rez Libe ra to re Kle ut

.
, , ,

e n C o rn oldi a n d B a lm e s
g ,
.

Th e E lem en tos dc F ilos ofio i s co m pl e t e d by a t re a tise o n

N a tu ra l La w ( Elem en tos dc D erec h o N a tu ra l ) which is a l so a
,

v e ry im po rta nt wo rk a n d h a s b een a dop te d a s a t e xt book in

,
-

se v e ra l of th e South A me rica n sc h ool s of la w .

 C H AP T E R XI

THE N E D—S CH O L ASTI C RE VI VAL I N G ER MA N Y AU STRI A

,

A ND S W I T Z E R LA N D

Th e p h ilos 0 p h ic a l syst em s of K a n t a n d H egel e x ercis e d a

pow er f u l i n fl u en c e u pon C a tholic philosophy i n G erm a n y .

G eo rg H erm e s ( 1 7 7 5—1 8 3 1 ) a n d A n ton G un th er ( 1 7 8 3—1 8 63 )

d e f en d e d th e om nipot enc e of h um a n r ea son a n d followi n g , ,

H egel rej ect e d th e disti n ctio n b etw een n a t ura l a n d s u p ern a tu ra l

,

u —
t r ths on e of th e f un d a m ent a l t en ets of th e C a thol ic Ch u rch .

R om e con d em n e d th e i r doct r in e s a n d pl a c e d th eir writi n g s on

t h e I n d ex so th a t th e ir efforts f r o m a C a thol ic poi n t of vi e w
, , ,

w ere a f a il ur e .

A m ov em ent of ret u rn towa rds Thom i stic phi losophy th en

took pl a c e a m on g G e rm a n C a tholic thi n k e rs ; so th a t wh e n Leo

fl
,

X I I I p u blish e d his e ncyclic a l C a tholic G e r m a n y e a g e rly e s

,

p a u s e d t h e vi e ws of th e P on t i .

A m on g t h e m en who p r ep a r e d this r et u rn t o Schol a sticism

m u st b e m en tio n e d
F r i ed r ich Schl egel who in his His tory of A n cien t a n d Ma d
, ,

e r n L i tera t ur e show e d t h e r ea l m er it of Medi aev a l philosophy

,
.

M ohl er a n d his discipl e S t a u denm a ier who co n dem n e d a ll ,

fo rm s of ra tion a l ism

fl
.

Cl em en s whos e a im wa s th e re fu t a tion of G u nth er

,
.

R o th en u e who in spit e of so m e o n tologistic a n d Ros m in i a n

, ,

id ea s a gr ee d in t h e m a i n with t h e philosophy of th e School

,
.

B u t th e two philosoph er s who m ost a ctiv ely cont r ib ut e d to th e

r eviv a l of Schol a sticism in G erm a n y w er e Kleu t g en a n d S t iic kl .

Jos eph Kleut g en S J ( 1 8 1 1

,
. . p ublish e d in 1 8 60 his
P h ilos a p hie der Vor z ei t which h a s b eco m e on e of t h e cl a s sic a l
,
 1 98

p u blish e d u n d er t h e of P h ilas ap h ia Lac ens is by t h e J es

nam e

u its of M a r i a L a a ch
-
This ser i e s co m pri se s t h e followi n g wo rks
.

I n s ti tu tia n es log ica l es ( 3 vol ) I n s ti tu tia n es p h i la s ap h ice

.

n a tu r a lis ; a n d I n s ti tu ti on es s
p y c h o log i c ce by Til m a nn P
, e sch ;
I n s ti tu tion es t h ea diccece si ve th eolog ies na tu ra lis by J H o n th e i m ; , .

I n s ti tu tian es j u r is n a tu ra lis by Th M ey er ; el e v en vol um e s in

, .

a ll form i n g a co m pl e t e co u r s e of Schol a stic philosophy

, .

Th e P h i los ap h ia La cens is is m o re d eci d e dly Schol a stic in its

m ethod th a n a ny oth er wo rk n eo Tho m ism h a s p r odu c e d -
Fr . .

P e sch follows in his e xposition t h e s a m e pl a n St Tho m a s fol .

low e d L ik e St Tho m a s h e b egi n s with a n e x position of a d

. .
,

v er se doct r i n es p a ss es to t h e th esis co n t a i n i n g hi s own vi e ws

, ,

e n d s with a n a n s w e r to t h e obj e ctio n s giv e n in t h e fi r st p a r t .

S u ch a m ethod m u st n ot how e v er l ea d u s to b eli ev e th a t t h e

, ,

em in en t a u tho r s of t h e P hi los op h ia L a c en s is a re s er vil e follow

e r s of t h e M iddl e A g e s a n d ign o r e m od ern id ea s Th e i r a c .

q u a i n t a n c e with t h e c u rren t of m od ern philosophy i s r em a r k a bl e .

F r P e sch disc u sses a ll re c en t sci entific hypoth e s e s in hi s I n s ti

.

t u ti a n es P h i los op h ia? N a tur a lis a n d t r i e s to e st a bl ish u po n th e s e

,

hyp oth e s e s t h e fou n d a tio n of Tho m isti c cosm ology A l ik e .

k n owl e dg e of m od ern psycholog y a pp ea r s in t h e I n s ti tu tia n es

P sy c h a la g i cw
'

F a th ers M ey er a n d H o n th e i m follow t h e s a m e m e thod a n d

displ a y t h e s a m e eru ditio n T h e l a tt er h a s r ec en tly a ppl i e d
.

m a th em a tics to logic in hi s wo r k : D er la g is c h e A lg ori tm us f

B e si d e s M ey er Sch ol a stic G erm a n y poss e ss e s two m o ra l

,
n eo-

,
—
is t s of a gr ea t m er it C ost a R os e tti ( 1 8 41 1 9 00 ) a n d Ca th r ein
- .

Victor Ca th re in S J ( di e d ,
. p ubl ish e d his Ma ra lp h i
.

los op h i e in 1 8 9 0 a n d g a v e it a n ew in a m ore co n ci se fo rm a f ew
,

y ea r s a fter w a r ds a s on e of t h e vol um e s of th e s er i e s C u rsus

,

h i los op h ic a s of which m o re in t h e s eq u e l O n e of th e m ost

p ,
.

im po r t a n t st u di es con t a ine d in Ca th r ein s wo rk is t h e ch a pt e r ’

d ea l ing with Soci a lism P ubl ish e d sep a ra t ely in G e rm a n a n d

.
,
 1 99

honored by fi ve e di t ions in l e ss tha n two yea rs i t has been tra ns ,

l a te d in to Engli sh Fren ch Ita li a n P ol ish a nd Fl em is h A l

, , ,
.

th o ugh th e a uthor s concl usions are oppose d to t h e soc ia li stic

’

th eo ri es Soc ia lis t s th em se lves h a v e been co m pe ll ed to a d mi t th a t

,

h e ha d gra spe d th e e sse nti a l principl e s of th e ir syst em m ore

a d eq ua tely tha n so m e of th e ir own follow e rs .

O ne o f th e grea t est G e rm a n neo Schol a stics of th e p re se n t -

tim e is Mr Consta ntin G ut be rle t profe ssor in F uld a S em i na ry

.
,
.

As m a y be see n in our B ibliogra phy Mr G ut berlet h a s st udi ed , .

th e tho ught of t h e A n gel ic D octor u n d er a ll its a sp ects Be .

sid es n um e ro us sho rte r t rea tise s h e p ublished be tween t h e , ,

y ea rs 1 8 7 8 an d 1 88 4 th e vol um e s of his Leh rbuc h de r P h ilos o

,

p h ia . This i m port a nt wo r k in which t h e a u thor ge ne ra lly fol

,

lows S ua re z h as b ee n th e first grea t s ucce ssf ul a tt e m p t to h a r

,

m oni ze m od e rn sci en c e wi t h Tho m istic p rincipl es G u t b erle t s

’
.

g r ea te s t se rvi ce to t h e c a u s e h e d e f en ds h a s p e rh a p s b e en t h e

fo unda tio n of th e re vi e w P h ilos Op h is c h es J a h rb uc h whi c h s in ce , ,

1 8 8 8 h a s bee n rea d wi t h a vid ity by a ll who a re i n t e rest ed in th e

,

Schola stic reviva l A ccordi ng to Mr P ic a vet t h e P h ilos op h

. .
,

is ch es J ah r buc h is th e m ost ecl ectic a nd t h e b est i n for m e d of a ll

neo Schola s ti c pe r iodi c a l p ublica tio n s
-
.

G e rm a n neo Schola stic li t e r a t ure posse s s e s a n oth e r re v i e w of

-

g r ea t v a l ue t h e J,
a h r b uc h f ii r P h ilo s op h ia a n d s
p ec u la t i v e

Th eolog ie This re vi e w wa s fo und e d in Pa d e rbor n in 1 8 8 7 by

.

E rn st Co m m e r p rofe sso r in t h e U n iv e rsi ty of Vi e nn a

,
A s its .

t itl e indi ca t es it doe s not co n fin e i tse l f to philosophic a l q ues

,

tion s I t of te n co nta ins in te resti ng th eolog ica l disc ussio ns a nd

.
,

espe cia lly co m p a ra tiv e st udi es of C a thol ic a n d P rote sta nt

th eol ogy .

Be sid es th e J a hrb uc h M r Co m m er h as p u bli sh ed so me im

, .

po rta nt works viz S ys te m der P h ilos a p lu e Log ik Die i mm er

'

, .
, , ,

wiih rendo P h ilosO p h ie et c wh ich ha ve g iven h im t h e first ra nk

, .
,

A t hird re view , t he S a int - Th om as b liitt er , p ubl ish ed f or som e

 200

y ea r s in Regen sb urg by Mr C M Schn eid er wa s m or e strictly

. . .
,

Tho m istic th a n th e two oth er p ublic a tio n s we h a v e m entio n e d .

Thom ism a cco r di n g to Mr Schn e id er m u st b e a cc ept e d in its

, .
,

e nti re ty or n ot b e a cc ept e d a t a ll This p r i n cipl e i n spi re d t h e

.

S a in t Th om as b lcitter a n d r e cu rs i n a ll t h e wo r ks Mr Sc h n e id er
’

-
, .

h a s p u blish e d .

G erm a n y h as di st in g uish ed its elf m ore th a n a ny oth er na tion , ,

by i m por ta nt wor ks con c e rning t h e histo ry of philosophy in t h e

Middl e A ge s We h a v e a l rea dy spok en of A lb ert S t iickl N ot
. .

l ong a ft er w a r ds C a rl W er n er p u blishe d im port a nt m onogr a phs

,

d ea l ing with t h e doct r i n e of a ll t h e grea t Me di aev a l thin k ers .

A lcu i n A lb er t th e G rea t W illi a m of Au v ergn e Roger B a c on

, , , ,

S t B o n a v en tu r e St Thom a s A qu i n a s D un s S cot u s S ua rez

fl
.
, , ,
.
,

w ere st u di e d with un ti r i n g z ea l a n d i n c r e dibl e eru dition .

So m e y ea r s l a t er E h r l e a n d H en ry D en i e O P ( di e d
, ,
. .

p u bl ish e d t h e A r ch iv f iir L i tera tur u n d Kir ch en g esc hic h t e des f

Mi t t ela lt ers which m a d e k n own m a n y a n un known t e xt a n d

fl
, ,

e n r ich e d n e o Schol a stic l it er a t ur e with n um e ro u s l ea rn e d st u di e s

-
.

D en i e a l so w r ot e a His t or y of t h e Un ivers ities in th e Middle

A g es which is th e m ost p re cio u s wo r k we poss e ss a n th e s u bj ect
, .

Thi s H istor y g a v e its a u thor su ch a fa m e th a t t h e F ren ch A c a d

e m y i n vit e d h im to w r it e a Ch a r tu la r iu m Uni vers i ta tis P a risi an

s is which h e co m pl et e d ( 1 8 9 1 ) with th e co op era tio n of A

fl
.
,

Ch a t el a i n .

M o re di re ctly co n c ern e d with philosophy th a n D eni e s con ’

t r ib u t ion s a r e t h e i m po r t a n t wor ks of Cl em en s B a eumk er a n d

B a ro n G V von Hert ling p ublished sinc e 1 8 9 1 un d e r t h e
. .
, , ,

titl e of B eitra g e zur G es ch ich te der P h ilos ap h ie des Mit tela lters ,

T h e coll ection co n sists of works h er etofor e u np u blish e d critic a l ,

e ditio n s of wo r ks a l rea dy know n m o n ogr a phs e t c Am o n g t h e

, , .

works it a l rea dy cont a ins let u s m enti on : th e D e Un i ta t e of

D o m i n icu s Gon z a l ez f a l s ely a tt r ib u t e d t o B o ethi us th e F on s
, ,

Vi t ae of t h e J e wish philosoph er I b n G eb ir ol t h e Th eory of ,

Knowl e dge of W illi a m of A u ve rgn e th e I m p ossi bilio of S ig er ,

 20 2

on s a m e s ubj ect h a s writte n v a l ua bl e s t udi e s on t h e cosmo

th e ,
~

logic a l th e or i es of Thom a s A qu in a s a n d D un s Scotu s .

Lu dwig S ch iit z ( 1 8 3 8 whos e m ost im port a nt contri

b u t ion t o n eo Schol a stic lit er a t u r e is a voc a b u l a ry known a s
-

T h o m as L ex ic on in which a ll sci en tific t erm s cont a i n e d in t h e

-
,

S u m m a Th eolog ica a n d t h e S u mm a c on tra G en tiles a r e thor

o ughly e x pl a i n e d .

F r a n cis X a vi er P f e i fer ( 1 8 29 wh o h a s t r i e d to h a r
m o n i z s t h e Tho m istic philosophy with t h e r ec en t sci en tific
hypoth e s e s in hi s wo r k Ha rm on is c h e B ez ieh un g z wis c h en S c h o
las tik un d
f
m o der n er N a tu r wts s en s c h a f t .

O tto W ill m a n n p r ofes sor in t h e Un iv er sity of P ra gu e a n d

, ,

a u tho r o f a r em a r k a bl e H is t or y of I dea lis m .

Jos eph J ung rna nn S J th e a u thor of on e of th e b e st wor ks

'

,
. .
,

d ea li n g with e sth etics ( E s th etik F reib u rg in which h e , ,

fi n ds in Schol a stic p sycholog y t h e fo un d a tio n of t h e n otion of

t h e b ea u tif u l .

F ra n cis Sch a u b th e a u thor of a com p a ra tiv e st u dy of t h e

,

Thom i s tic a n d soci a listic th e or i es .

E u g en e Rolf e s who h a s com p a r e d th e th eistic conc e ptio n s of

,

St Thom a s a n d A r istotl e a n d h a s t r i e d to discov er in t h e Greek

.
,

philo s oph er so m e t ra c e s of t h e Ch r isti a n dog m a s .

G u n dis a lv F eld n e r who h a s p u blish e d a st u dy a bou t S t

.
,
.

Th om a s s t ea chi n g con c ern i n g f ree w ill

’
.

M ich a el Glossn er c a n o n of M un ich on e of t h e b e st k n own

, ,

co n tr ib u to r s to t h e J a h r bu c h f ilr P hilos op hia a n d sp ecula ti ve

Th eo log i e .

M a rti n G ra b m a nn who b esi d es th e l ea rne d stu dy on Ma tth ew

, ,

of A q u a sp a r ta we h a v e a l r ea dy m en tion e d h a s p ublish ed a n ,

e x c ell en t t rea tis e on th e id ea of God in S t Thom a s s philo sophy

.
’
.
 C H APT ER XI I

THE NI CO S —CHO LASTI C REV I V A L IN F RA NC E

A ltho ugh Fr a n ce contrib ute d pe rh a ps oth e r m ore th a n a ny

n a tion t o tu rn th e a tte n tion of t h e wo rld to t h e M iddl e A g es ,

th e di r ect c urrent of t h e Tho m i stic r e viv a l h a d a t fi rst littl e or

no infl uenc e up on F rench spe c ul a tion T he phil osophic a l sy s .

tems of Des ca rtes a nd Co usi n w ere d eeply r oo t e d u po n t h e

F rench soil . E v en in C a tholic sem in a ri es t h e doct r i nes of t h e ,

two grea t French philosoph ers w e re offi ci a lly t a ught T h e t e xt .

book m os t in use a t th e tim e a n d whose p a ges b rea th e a s t ro ng

,

C a rtes i a n spirit h a d b ee n wr itte n by Fa ther Va ll a in t h e l as t

,

y w rs of t h e pre c e di ng ce nt u ry a n d w a s g e n e,
r a lly k n o wn a s
P hilosop hia de Ly on Th e f ull ti t le of th e wo rk is : I ns ti tu
.

tion es p h ilos Op h D D A r c hie pfswp i Lug dune ns is

e rs , a uc t or ita t e . .
,

Even fte r th e
a prom ulga tion of t h e encycl ic a l E lem i
P a t ri c e cl e cticism a n d C a rtesi a n i sm k ept th e i r g roun d f or a
,

long tim e a m ong F ren ch C a tholics This ea sily e x pl a i n s h o w .

Fra nw ha d not a si ngl e g rea t re pre s enta tive of n eo Sch ol ast icis m -

a t th e time G e rm a ny c o uld m ention wi t h p rid e t h e wo rks of

Kle utgen ; Spa in those o f C a rdin a l Go nz a l ez ; Ita ly those of

, ,

S a ns everino Libe ra t ore a nd T a la m o

, .

Th e works p ub lishe d in F ra n ce in d e fe n se of S chol a s t ici s m

p re vi o us to th e encyc liwl E tem i P a t r ic a re f e w a n d of li ttl e
im po rta nce . Le t us m en t ion t h e P rtm a Pr inc ipio S cien tia r um
of M ichae l Ba s se t ( 1 8 66 ) the Br ec ia ciwn P hilos Op h ia S c h ola s
tic az of G ra ndcla ude th e sh ort trea tise en h t led De
’

,
' '

l um on s ub s ta n tie lle de l dm e e t da corps p ub lish ed in 1 8 7 0 by

’

H enri Sa uv é pres ident of th e C a tholic U ni ver si ty of A ng ers ;

fl
,

t he Doc trine de la Con na issa c e of Mg r Bo urqua rd c f th e , .

,
 20 4

D e in tellec tua lis m o S ulpici a n P M B r in ( 1 8 43

of th e . .

which h a s s er v e d a s a b a sis to F a rg es a n d B a rbe det te f or th e

M a n ua l of Schol a stic philosophy th ey h a v e r ec en tly w r itt en
( P h i los op h ia s ch olas tica a cl m en t em S amoti Th om a: A q uina tis
ex p os i ta ) .

Th es e m od est eff ort s did not f a ll u pon a b a rr en grou nd Th e .

wo r k of th e fi r st p io n ee rs wa s com pl et e d by em i n e nt follow er s ,

so th a t to da y F ra nc e i s s ec on d to no oth e r n a tion in t h e n um b er
-

a n d wort h of t h e pr o du ctio n s wh er ewith n e o Schol a stic lit e r a t u r e -

h a s b ee n en r ich e d .

A s ea rly a s 1 8 7 5 C ou nt D om et de Vorge s wrote his Meta

,

h
p y q s i u e eu p r es en c e des s c i en c es a sm a ll work in which t h e
,

em i n en t a u tho r a l re a dy e vinc e s a t e nd e ncy which ch a ra ct er i z e s

his s u b se q uen t writi ngs n a m ely th e a ttem pt to show t h e h a r

,

m o n y e xisti n g b e tw een A r istot eli a n m e ta physics a n d sci enti fic

r e sults .

Mr D o m et de Vo rg es is on e o f t h e m ost disti n gu ish ed r ep re

fl
.

s en ta t ive s of n eo Schol a sticis m in F r a nce F or m or e th a n

-
.

thi r ty y ea rs h e h a s d e f en d ed with u n a gg in g en e rgy t h e grea t

, ,

c a u s e of which so ea rly in lif e h e p r ocl a i m e d hi m sel f a ch a m

, ,

p ion I n u n ion with Mg r d Hulst h e fo u nde d t h e P a risi a n

. .
’
,

Soci ety of St Tho m a s He h a s p ublish e d m a ny im por t a n t

. .

works a n d h a s be en on e of t h e m ost a ssid u ou s coll a bo ra tors of

,

som e C a tholic r e vi ews esp eci a lly of th e A n na les de P h i los op h ia

,

c h r é ti en n e a n d t h e R evu e de P hi l0 3 0 p hi e H i s m ost v a l ua bl e .

p r od u ctio n s a re his E ssa i de Méta p h y siq ue p os itive in

which h e profess e s th a t A r istot eli a n m eta physics is a t ru e sci
e nc e a n d lik e a ll oth e r sci e nc e s
, ,
i s foun d e d u pon th e f a cts of
,

e xp e r i en ce ; a n d hi s A b r é g é de M eta p hy si q ue
'

e sp eci a lly

i n t ere sti ng for t h e m e thod it follows F or ea ch prob l em Mr .

,
.

de V o rg e s b r ings a ll sol u tion s prop ose d b y Mediaava l ph iloso

p h e rs . A ft er a l ea r n e d co m p a rison a n d disc u ss ion h e g iv e s his ,

p re f eren c e to on e of them or p r opose s a sol ution of his own .

This histor ic a l m e thod c a n n ot b e too m u ch pra is ed It brings .

 20 6

th e wo rks of St Thom a s a re b r o u ght togeth er Th e wo rk ex

. .

e l u s iv e ly co n si sts of e x tr a cts f r o m t h e w r iti n gs of t h e A ng elic

D oc to r .

Th e m a n who co u ld disp u t e with F a rg e s th e fi r st pl a c e a m ong

F ren ch n e o Schol a stics is Mr E li e Blan e p r of esso r of ph iloso
-
.
,

phy in t h e C a tholic Un iver sity of Lyon .

E li e Bla n e i s a w r it er of r em a r k a bl e f ec u n di ty H a vi ng c om .

l e t e d a f ew y ea r s a g o h is D i c tion n a ir e u n iv ers e l de la ns ée
p p e ,

a m a st er ly wo r k which m a y b e d e sc r ib e d a s a n a t u r a l a n d philo
,

sophic a l cl a ssific a tio n of wo r ds id ea s a n d things h e u n d er took , ,

a n i mm en s e E n cyclop e di a which wh en com pl et e d will b e on e

, , ,

of t h e m ost i m posi n g m o num en ts of th e F r en ch l a ng ua ge This .

wo r k whose titl e is : S ys t em es des c on na iss a n ces h u m a in es

‘

.
,

E n cy c l0 p édi e c h r e ti enn e e t fr a n ca is e da X X s ié c le will consist

’

.
,

o f on e h u n d re d vol um e s oct a vo Th e fi r st fifty will t rea t of th e

.

diff er en t b ra n ch e s of h um a n k n owl e dg e ; t h e n e x t tw en ty will b e

d evot e d to g eogr a phy ; th e l a st thi r ty to history .

A m o n g Mr B l a n c s n um er ou s p r od u ction s th e followi n g a re
.
’

m ost e s p eci a lly d e vot e d to philosophy °

Tr a i t é de la P h ilos op hi e s co las ti q u e p u bl ish e d in 1 8 8 9 a n d , ,

r e c e n tly t r a n sl a t e d i n to L a ti n with t h e titl e Ma nua le P h ilo ,

so h i ce S c h o la s t i c w
p .

His t oir e de la P h i l0 3 0 p h i e et p a r ti cu li er em en t de la P h ilos o

p h i e c on t em p ora in e,
v er y v a l u a bl e f or t h e i n di c a tio n s it co n t a in s
a bo u t co n t em po r a r y philosoph er s .

D ic tionn a ir e de P h i ZO S Op h ie a n ci en n e, m odem s et c on t emp o

m in e ( 1 9 0 6 )
O p us c u les p h i l0 3 0 p h iq u es con t a i n ing st u di e s
,
bo u t t h e phi
a

I O S O ph y of V a ch er ot, t h e E thics of S pe n c er , t h e q uestion of f r ee

will et c
,
.

Méla n g es in l Un iv ers
’

p h i los o hi
p q u es ,
e ss a ys fi r st p u blish e d
Ca th oliq u e b etw ee n th e y ea r s 1 8 9 7 an d 1 9 00 a n d in which th e ,

a u tho r cl ea r ly follows t h e m ov em e nt of m od er n tho ught .

Mr Bla n e a lso w r ot e w ith t h e coll a bo ra tio n of Mr Va g a n a y

.
,
.
,

a B ibliog ra phy of t h e wo r ks r ec e ntly p u blish e d in F r en ch a n d

 20 7

La tin . F i n a lly h e fo und ed in 1 9 0 3 an im porta nt revi ew to

, ,

P ens é e con t emp or a ine which ha s a lrea dy giv e n m a ny inte resting

,

a rticl e s in d e f en se o f t h e principl e s of Schol a stic ism .

Bla ne Fa rges a nd D o m et de V o rges with t h e J esu its Delm a s

, ,

a n d De Rég n on of who m m o re in th e se q ue l a re th e m ost dis

, ,

t ing uish ed re p res e n ta t ive s of n eo Schol a sticis m in Fr a n c e

-
Of .

eq ua l o r sc a rc e ly infe ri or m e rit a re G a rda ir t h e Ma ris t Pe il ,

la ube a nd t h e Dom inica ns Coc onnier S e rt illa nge s Ma um us a n d

, , ,

Ma n donn e t .

Mr J G a rda ir ope ned in th e Sorbon ne in 1 8 9 0 a f ree co u rs e

. .
.

on t he ph ilosophy of St Tho m as H i s l ect ure s h a v e be e n s u b

. .

seq uently p ublish ed with t h e followi ng ti t l e s : C o rp s c l A m e

Les P as s ion s e t la Volon t é La C o n na is sa n c e
La Na ture h u ma in e a n d fo rm a co m pl e t e

c o urse of Schol a stic philosophy Th e a ut ho r clos ely follows t h e

.

tea ching of St Tho m a s A q ui na s a n d a dhe res t o t h e d oct r in e of

.
,

t h e Ange lic D octo r e v en in so m e poi n ts in which this doct r in e

ha s bee n co m m o n ly a b a n do ned He d e fe n ds f o r ex a m pl e t h e
.
, ,

Tho m istic vie w th a t t h e h um a n fe t u s p a sses t h ro ugh a se ri e s

o f sta ge s in which it i s s ucc e ssiv ely info rm e d by t h e v ege ta tiv e ,

t h e se ns itiv e a nd t h e i nt e ll e ct ua l s o ul L ik e Mr F a rge s Mr
.
l
.
,
.

G a rda ir h a s p u rpose ly negl ecte d m a ny un i m po r ta n t poi n ts a nd ,

de voted hi s a ttention to th e m ost e sse nti a l Schol a stic doct r i ne s .

Th e M a r is t Pe illa ube is a Tho m ist of t he ne w school a n d , ,

li k e Fa rges an d t h e profe ssors of Lo uv a i n doe s no t h e sita te to ,

st u dy the Tho mi sti c principl e s sid e by sid e with t h e m ost r e ce nt

p h il osophi ca l th eo ri es Thi s position was a lrea dy ta k en in his

.

Them is des con cep ts a thes is h e d e fended be fore t h e C a tholic

-
,

U nive rsity of Toul o use in 1 8 95 for t h e d egree of Doc to r of

Phi losophy I t ha s bee n a dher ed to in t he Revue de P h ilos o
.

p h ie
, p ubl i s h e d by Mr P e illa ube sin ce 1 9 0 0 a nd j ustly rega rd ed
.
,

as one of th e be st phil oso p hi ca l re vi e w s we posse ss M

y .

Two oth er Ma rists o f grea t m er it a re B ulli ot of who m Pe il ,

Ct . G a rda ir, La Na ture h uma i ne pp

, . 34 5 ft .
l a ub e h a s b een th e discipl e a n d B a gey th e a u thor of r em a rk a bl e
, ,

wo rks on St A ns el m . .

T h e D o m i n ic a n ord er h a s f urnish e d to t h e c a u s e of n eo
Schol a sticis m so m e of its m ost v a li a n t d ef en d ers St Tho m a s . .

A q ui n a s wa s a D o m i n ic a n a nd h a s a lw a ys b een a f a vo r it e a uthor
in D omi nic a n st u di e s T h e D om inic a ns a r e pro u d of th e i r gr ea t
.

,
—
s a i n t a n d r eg a rd th em s elve s p r ob a bly w ith j u st ic e a s hi s m ost h

f a ithf u l i n te rp ret er s We h a v e a l rea dy st u di e d th e wo rks of

.

Z igli a r a in It a ly a n d of Gon z a l ez in Sp a in .

In F ra nc e th e D om i n ic a ns h a v e don e i mm en s e s ervic e to th e
c a u s e of n eo Schol a sticis m by t h e p ublic a tion of th e R evue
-

t h om is t e fo u n d e d in P a r is in 1 8 9 3
,
Th e R evue t h om is t e st u d
.

ies th e ology sid e by s id e with philosophy a n d cont a ins int e rest ,

in g diss er t a tio n s a bou t t h e tr u e m ea n i n g of t h e A n gelic D octo r .

I t i s r ega r d e d by Mr P ica ve t a s t h e m ost i m port a nt p erio dic a l

.

p u blic a tio n of n eo Schol a stic lit era t u r e

-
.

T h e D o m i n ic a n Coc on n ier i s chi e fly kn o wn for his work

l Hyp n o tis m e fra n c
’
in which h e a tta cks th e i d ea s ex
p re s s e d by t h e It a l i a n J e s u it F ra nco in a n oth e r wo r k writt en
on t h e s a m e s u bj e ct so m e y ea rs b e f or e ( l I p n o tis m o t om a t o di
’

“
m odo ,
F r Coc onnier e xcl u d e s f r om
. f ra n k h y p n o
”
t is m a ll f a ct s of i m m e di a t e t ra n s m is s ion of i d ea s t el ep a thy , ,

i n tu ition o f t h e thoughts of oth er p eopl e vision of th e f u t ure , ,

e tc . He th en t ea ch e s th a t hypnoti sm thu s u n d erstoo d i s not

n e c e ss a r ily s u p ern a t u r a l .

B e si d e s this wo r k w ith w h ich S chol a stic philosophy i s not

,

di rectly co n c ern e d Coc onn ier h a s p u bl ish e d a trea tis e on t h e

,

h um a n sou l in which h e stu di e s m ode rn psychologic a l

th e or i e s .

A D S ert illa nges h as chi efl y di scu s se d th e pro bl em of God

. . .

F or m a n y y e a r s h e h a s bee n a s a ssi du ou s coll a bora tor of s ev er a l

philosophic a l r e vi e ws s u ch a s th e Revue t h omis t e an d t h e R evu e
,

des s cienc es p h iIOS Op h i q ues e t t h eolog iq ues a n d h a s prove d hi m

’

s el f to b e on e of t h e m ost profo u nd int erp ret ers of th e A ngelic

I ) oct or .
 210

i m po r t a n t m a t er i a ls which a llow e d h im to com pl et e in a sho r t

ti m e con sidera bl e philosophic a l a n d th eologic a l wo rks .

T h e m ost i m po r t a n t of D e Rég n o n s philo sophic a l p r od u ctions

’

is his M eta p h y s iqu e des Ca us es

’

Th e a im of th e a u tho r i s v er y m od e st He sim ply wish es to .

la y b e fo r e t h e stu d en ts of St Thom a s t h e philosophic a l notions

.

witho u t which a tho ro ugh u n de r st a n di n g of th e A n g el ic D octor

“
c a n n ot b e a tt a i n e d : To m a k e cl ea r t h e n a tio n of c a u s e by
se p a ra ti n g it f rom a dj a c en t n otions t o show how t h e i n fl u en c e ,

of t h e c a u s e e x p a n ds i n t o di sti n ct c a u s a liti es to expl a i n th e ,

n a t u r e of th e s e diff er en t c a u s a liti e s a n d th e i r co rr el a tio n ; fi n a lly ,

t o show u n ity a n d h a rm on y in th e a ction of th es e differ en t

c a u s e s : s u ch i s m y a im It i s a r a ti o n a l p l a n to co n t a in t h e
.

g r ea t m a x i m s co n c er n ing c a u s es which con sta n tly r e c ur in t h e

,

t re a tis e s of our docto r s I t is a p rep a r a to ry stu dy which m a y

.

b e u s e f u l to those who wish t o u n d er st a n d S t Tho m a s in St . .

”2
Tho m a s hi m s elf .

W ith wh a t p er f e ctio n F r de Rég n on h a s c a r ri e d ou t t h e pl a n

.

th u s sk etch e d in h is I n t rod u ctio n m a y b e g a th er e d fro m th e

eu logistic t e sti m o n i a ls of s e v er a l em i n en t philosoph e r s Oll é .

L a p ru n e whil e t ea chi n g a t t h e E c ole N or m a le S up é ri eure wo u ld

, ,

oft en di rect his st u d en ts to t h e Méta p hysiq u e des Ca us es a s to a

m a st e r pi e c e G eo rg e s F on seg rive in hi s Cou rs de P h ilos ogi h ie
.
, ,

p r on o un c e s D e Rég n on s wor k l ea rn e d a n d p r ofoun d

’ 3
B ish op .

M a u r ice d Huls t c a lls t h e distingu i sh e d J es u it um m et a ph y si

’

ci en de p rem i er
Ch a r l es D el m a s p ublish e d in 1 8 9 6 a n ex te nsiv e t rea tis e on
Schol a stic m et a physics en titl e d O n tolog ia Meta p h ysi ca g en er
,

a lis . A ll que stions conc ern i n g on tology ar e trea t e d with t h e

gr ea t est m in ut en e ss Th e a u thor follows St Thoma s S u a rez
. .
,

a n d m od ern Schol a stics e sp eci a lly thos e b elonging to t h e S oci e ty

,

2
M é t a p h y s i q u e de s C a u s e s I n t ro d u cti on pp 1 4 1 5
, , .
-
.

3
C f F o ns eg r ive E l em e nt s de P h il os o p h ie v ol 2 p 2 4 7 not e 1
.
, ,
.
, .
, .

‘
C f Mg r d Huls t C on fere n ce s de N o t r e Da m e p 3 7 0 ; Pa r i s Pou s
. .
’
,
-
, .
,

s i elg ue , 1 89 1,
 21 1

of J es u s F r De lma s sid es with S uarez ra th e r tha n with St

. . .

Tho ma s wh e ne v er a di v ergence exi st s be twee n th e two grea t doc

tors He th u s m a inta in s with S ua re z th a t th e disti nction be
.

t w ee n the e ssence a n d t h e e xis te nc e of cr ea te d be ings is not r ea l ,

“
b ut virtua l I t is pe rh a ps on a cco un t of this pre fe re nce th a t
.

t he O n tologi a h a s bee n d es cri bed as a su mmula S ua rez ii Fr . .

Delm as s w o r k is not how e v er a me re co m p end i um o f S u a rez s

’ ’
, ,

Meta p hys ica It s t ud es t h e doctrin es of K a n t Lock e H ume

i .
, , ,

an d oth er m od e rn philoso ph e rs Th e se co n sid era t ion s a bo u t .

mode rn s yst em s a re proba bly t h e w ea k es t p a rt of D elm a s s w o rk

’
.

I do u bt wheth e r a ny s t ud en t of K a nt wo uld r ecogn i ze t h e phi

los0 ph y of t h e C riti q ue a s po r tra y ed in t h e p a ge s 1 9 —22 o f th e
On to logia .

A m on g oth e r wri te rs who h a v e s erv e d with disti n cti o n t h e

ca use of neo Schol a stici s m in F ra n c e le t u s m e n tion
-

J ul es Didiot ( 1 8 40 who h a s ta ugh t f o r twe n ty fi ve -

yea rs in the C a tholic U n ivers ity of Lill e H is m ost i m po r ta n t .

c on t rib u tion t o philo so phy is : C on trib u t io n p h ilos op h iq u e ( i

l ei nde des s cien c es He h a s a lso m a d e in t h e v o l u me
’

e n titl ed Un S tee le a ra pid su rv ey of t h e philosophica l m ov e m e n t

,

of t h e world d ur i n g t he n in e tee n th c e n t u ry .

J M A Vaca n t ( 1 8 5 1
. . . p rofe ss o r in th e se m i na ry of
Na nc y Va ca nt a l tho ugh p r i m a rily a th e ologi a n h a s w ri t t en
.
, ,

n umerous work s o r essa y s co nc ern ing philosophy ( cf B ibliog .

ra ph y ) M os t i m po rta nt a m ong t h em a re h is co m p a ra tive

.

st udie s of t he phil os o phy of Tho m as A q u in a s a n d D une Scot u s .

Prospe r de Ma rtigné a m e m be r of t he F ra ncisca n ord e r , ,

fa mous by a wo rk entitl ed La S co la s tiq ue e t les trad itio ns f rom ,

mlsca ines in wh ich he s t ud ies A l e xa nd er of H a les St Bon a

, , .

ve n ture Ric h a rd of Mi ddl e town a nd Du ne Scot us

, .

A C lerva l of t he diocesis of Ch a rt res a uthor of rema rk a bl e

.
, ,

resea rch es a bout the sch ool of Ch a rt rm in the Middl e Agm .

Clé mc nt Besse p rofe ssor in th e I ns titu t Cat holiq ue de Pm

, ,

wh o bes id es v a l ua bl e a rticl es p ub l i sh ed in th e Revue Neo

,

'
Cf . De lma s , O n to l o gi e , pp . 1 8 3 ll
'

.
Scol a sti qu e d ea ling w ith m ora l ity in F r a nc e a n d t h e vol
and ,

u m e P h i los op h i a e t P h ilos op h es h a s r e c en tly w r itte n a historic a l

, ,

stu dy entitl e d : D euce c en tres du m ouvem en t th om is t e R om e e t ,

L ouva in Mr B e ss e h a s b een r epro a ch e d with h a vi n g

.

b een u n duly s e v er e f or Rom a n n eo Tho mi sm Th e ch a ra ct er -

.

i s t ic tr a its of t h e two gr ea t n eo S chol a stic sch ool s a r e howe v er -

, ,

f a ithf u lly d el i n ea t e d in hi s wor k T h e chi ef m er it of D eus: .

c en tr es du m ouv em en t t h om is t e is t h e histo r ic a l d a ta it cont a i n s

a bou t e a r ly Ro m a n Thom ism which h a v e been of gr ea t ser vic e ,

to a ll su bs equ en t hi stor i a n s of th e n eo Sch ol a stic m ov em ent -

.

C a rra de Va u x p r of e sso r a t th e I ns titu t Ca th oliqu e de P a r is

, ,

who h a s p u blish e d int er e sti n g stu di e s a bou t A r a bi a n ph iloso

p h ers .

V icto r B ern ies ,

au tho r of th e wo rk S p iri tua li té e t I m m or ta
,

li t é which h a s m et with g rea t s u cc e ss a n d of a s eri es ,

”
of a r ticl e s on th e a ctiv e i n t ell ect whos e ex ist en c e h e h a s
,

d en i e d .

P M i ell e p r of e ssor of philosophy in t h e s em in a ry of La n g r es

.
, ,

who p ublish e d in 1 8 9 4 a di ss er t a t ion en titl ed D e s ubs ta n tice ,

oor p or a lis vi e t r a tion e g r ea tly p ra is e d by Pi c a ve t ; a n d m ore

6
, ,

t h e t rea tis e La Ma ti ér e p r e m i er e e t l é ten du e

’
r e c en tly , ,

in which h e expo u n ds a n d discu ss es t h e op i n io n s of th e g rea t

S chol a stic philosoph er s a bou t p r i m o r di a l m a tt er a n d a g rees with ,

Thom a s A q u i n a s in r ega r di n g it a s t h e p r i n cipl e of i n divid u a

tio n of t h e bodily s ubsta n c e .

So m e F r en ch w r iter s of g rea t m er it a ltho ugh l e ss st ri ctly ,

S chol a stic th a n thos e we h a v e stu di ed h a v e d e f en d e d th e e ss en ,

ti a l p r i n cipl e s of Thom istic philosophy Most distin gu ish e d .

a m ong th em a re Mgr d Hulst Clodiu s P i a t a n d G eorge s

.
’
,

F on seg r ive .

M a uri ce d Hulst
’
s u cc e ssor of Mon sa b ré in
( 1 8 4 1
N ot re D a m e a n d fi rst re ctor of th e C a thol ic U niv er sity of P a ris
-
,

is p r i m a r ily a n ora to r He h a s s erv e d t h e c a u s e of n eo Schol a s

.
-

t ic ism by a s er i e s of a r ticl e s which h e h a s l a t er coll ect e d a n d

Cf . R ev P h i los
.
, Ja n .
, 1 8 9 6, p . 61 .
gr ea t est dition O f s peci a l i nt er es t a r e his stu di es on S cho
e ru .

la st ic ism Th ey con sist of a rticl es p u blished in th e R evu e P h i

.

los op h iq u e of l ea r n e d m o n ogr a phs on G erb ert A b el a rd a n d

, , ,

oth er M e di aev a l w r it er s a n d of a m ore e x ten siv e wo rk t h e

, ,

E s q uis s e d u n e h is t oir e g éne m le co mp a r es

’ ’

et des p hi IOS Op h ies

m édiévnles which h a s m et w ith
,
we h a v e a l re a dy spok en
g rea t a su cc ess, a n d of which
M r P ica vet do es not stu dy Schol a st ic
. .

phil osophy with t h e spi r it which h a s i n spi re d t h e n eo Thom istic -

r e viv a l He i s n ot a n d doe s n ot p ret en d to b e a Schol a stic

.
,
.

H e h a s n e v er th el e s s cont r ib u t e d m o re th a n a ny oth er w r i t er to
i m pos e t h e n eo Schol a stic r e viv a l u po n t h e a tt en tio n of F r en ch
-

phil osoph er s .

We h a v e m en tion e d t h e r evi e ws R evu e t h om is t e R evu e de ,

P hi los ogah i e a n d La P en s ee c on t em p ora vn e Neo Schol a sticism

’
-
. .

ow e s a l s o som e gra tit u de to th e A n n a les de P h ilos op hi e c h r é

ti enn e which wa s t h e fi r st o rg a n of th e Thom istic r eviva l
,
Th e .

A n n a lee h a s r ec en tly m odifi e d its di r e ctio n a n d m a n if e st e d a

m a rk e d sym p a thy for t h e K a n ti a n ph ilosophy .
 C H APTER X I I I

THE N EG - S CHO LA ST I C RE VI V A L IN B ELG I UM

Onto l o gis m o r t h e doctrin e of t h e direct int u itio n of t h e

,

De i ty wa s t h e sys tem in vogue in B elgi a n philosophic circl es by

,

t h e m iddl e of t h e n in ete e nth ce nt ury Ub a gh s s ph il osophy a s

’
.
,

is well kn o wn is direc tly inspi red by Ma l e bra nch e whose p ri n

, ,

c ip les it f a i t hfully re produm S i m il a r be li e fs w ere p rofes se d

.

by Uba gh s s eo wo rk e rs a t t h e U niv e rsity of Lo u v a i n : La fo re t

’
-
,

Cl a essen s a nd Moeller r

Thi s tend e ncy of B el g i a n tho ught did n o t howe v er p re s erv e , ,

f or a long tim e its ori g i na l fo r c e A f t er o n tologi s m h a d b ee n

.

con d em n ed by t h e Ch u rch in 1 8 6 1 Ub a g h s s philo s ophy wa s

’
,

d u a ll y a ba n doned a n d a re t u rn to St Th o m a s be g a n t o t a k e
g ra , .

p l ac e . A m o ng t h e prof es sor s of t h e U niv er sity of Lo u v a i n who

co n t r ib ut e d to b ring a bo ut this r e t u r n le t u s m e n tio n D u po nt ,

Bo ssu a n d Le f ebvr e
, .

N o ma n how eve r wo rk ed m ore bra vely for th e fi na l victo ry

, ,

of S c hol as tici s m th a n t h e Do m in ic a n Le pidi then pre fec t of ,

studi es in t h e Coll e ge of t h e I mm a c ul a t e C onc e ptio n of Lo u v a i n ,

la te r p rof esm r a t t h e M in e rv a in Ro m e .

A n It a l ia n by bi rth Le pidi belon gs to Be lgi um by his phi

,

losophy not o nly bec a use h e wrot e th ere his m o s t im po rta nt

,

works but chie fl y for t he i m mense infl uenc e h e e xe rci se d upon

,

Bel gia n th ough t by b ring in g a bo u t t he down fa ll of Ontologi sm .

A sol id ref uta tion of ontolo gism is indee d t he work entitl ed

Exc uses p hilos op hie o th eoiog ic um dc on t ologie mo
. a
Th e a u thor .

not only sh ow s t h a t t he t h eo ry of t h e D ivin e V is ion is g ro un d

less but he p roves th a t the passa ges f rom St

, e an d .

St Th oma s ge n e ra lly a dduc d by on tol ogis ts in sup p ort of th eir

.
e
 N0 l ess r ecomm end a bl e i s Lep idi s E lem en ta P hil0 3 0 p h ice
’

c ri st ia n
h a ( 1 8 7 5—7 It c o n t a i ns a cl ea r a n d m e thodi c ex os i
p
tio n of Schol a stic logic a n d m et a physics a n d m a y b e r ega r d e d
,

a s one of t h e b es t co n t r ib u tio n s to n e o Schol a stic lit er a t u r e writ

-

t en p re vio u s t o t h e en cycl ic a l E t er ni P a tri s .

A disti ngu ish ed wo r k er of t h e fi r st ho ur wa s a lso Va n

W e ddi n gen ch a pl a in of t h e co ur t H is fi r st wo rk E ssa i cr i
, .
,

t iq u e s u r la p h i los op h i c de sa in t A ns elm e wa s c r own e d

by t h e Roy a l Ac a d em y of B ru sse ls P r opos e d by Leo X I I I to
.

t ea ch phil o sophy in th e U n iv er sity of L ou v a i n h e d ecl in e d th e ,

off er p r e ferr i n g to k eep his f un ction s a t th e co ur t b ut h e pow er

, ,

f ully co nt r ib u t e d by his w r iti n gs to giv e to th e Thom istic r eviv a l

a s u r e footi n g in B e lgi um . B esid es a comm en t a ry on t h e en
cyclic a l E t ern i P a tr is in which h e spl en didly s ets dow n t h e
,

p r ogra m of n eo Thom ism a n d i m port a n t t rea tis e s on St

-
,
.

A n s elm A lb ert th e G rea t a n d S t Thom a s ( cf B ibliogra phy )

,
. .
,

V a n W e ddi n g en h a s giv en t o n eo Schol a stic l it er a t u r e a n e xt e n

-

siv e wo r k hi s E ss a i d in tr odu c tion a l etude de la p h i los op hie

’ ’ ’

, ,

whi ch co n sists of n o l ess th a n 9 0 0 p a g e s qu a rto a n d st u di e s th e ,

q u e st io n of th e obj ectivity of kn owl e dge a q u estio n to which ,

t h e Cr i tiq u e of P u r e R ea s on h a s giv en a c a pit a l i m port a n c e .

T h e n e o Schol a st ic r eviv a l in B elgi um h a s b ee n chi e fly fos

-

t er e d by two gr ea t c en t er s of l ea rn i n g : t h e Coll ege of t h e J e su its

of L ou v a i n a n d th e I ns ti tu t S up ér ieu r de P h ilos op h ie .

Th e m ost c el eb r a t e d a m ong B elgi a n J e s u its a r e D e S a n ,

La h ou sse Ca st ele in Va n der A a a n d C a rbon ell e

, , ,
.

L ou is de S a n ( 1 8 3 2—1 9 0 4 ) i s r ep u t e d a s on e of t h e m ost p r o
foun d thi n k er s th e Soci ety of J e su s h a s p r odu c ed F or m ore .

th a n thi rty y ea r s h e t a u ght philosophy a n d th e ology a t Lo u v a i n .

H is th e ologic a l p r od u ction s a r e n um er o u s U n h a ppily h e h a s .

,

co n t r ib u t e d to philosophy a si n gl e vol um e on co sm ol ogy on e of ,

t h e fo ur vol u m e s of a wo r k e n titl e d : I ns ti tu tion es m e ta p h ysi c ce

s p ecia lis , which th e l ea rn e d J es u it h a d in vi ew b u t n e v er ,

com pl e te d .

D e S a n i s thoro u ghly a c qu a i n t e d with m od e rn philosophy .

 218

t a ct with m od ern p r og re ss a nd i d ea ls I t i s t h e I ns ti tu t
m od e rn .

S up er ieu r de P h i l0 3 0 p h ie of t h e U niv ersity

’

T h e p ec u li a r ch a ra ct er which disti n gu ishe s th e Instit ut e of

L ou v a in f ro m ea r li er c en t er s of Tho m ism is chi e fly du e to t h e
i n iti a tiv e of its fi r st p r esid en t D e sire Mer ci er
, .

B o rn in B ra i n e l A lleu d ( Be lgi um ) in 1 8 51 D esir é M er ci er

’
,

b eg a n his st u di es in t h e s em in a ry of Ma l i n e s a n d com pl et e d ,

th em in th e U n iv er sity of L o u v a i n He wa s su bs equ en tly giv en

.

t h e ch a i r of philosophy in t h e semi n a r y of Ma li n es This wa s .

p recis ely th e ti m e in which Le o X III h a ving b ee n e l ect e d p e p e

, ,

wa s p r om oti n g in It a ly th e r e vi va l of Schol a stici sm Corn oldi .

wa s th en givi n g his f a m o u s co ur se sil en ci n g a ll oppone n ts with

,

t h e a u tho r ity of S t Tho m a s r e s olvi n g a ll sci en tific do ubts by

.
,

t h e S u mm a Th eo-log ica .

Le o X I II who wh en a young m a n h a d i nh a bit e d B elgi um a s

, ,

a p a p a l n un cio a n d h a d k e pt of th a t c ou n t ry t h e m ost d elightf u l

,

r em em br a n c e wa s t ryi n g to m a ke t h e n eo Tho m istic r e viv a l ste p

,
-

b eyo n d t h e l i m its of It a ly to c r ea t e in so m e oth er co un t r y a n

,

institu tion si m il a r to th e Rom a n Coll ege t o t h e Corn oldi school

,
.

N owh ere cou ld h e find a m ore f a vora bl e gro un d th a n in Be l

gi um B y t h e b r i e f o f th e tw en ty fi f t h of D ec em b er 1 8 8 0
.
-
, ,

a dd r e ss e d to C a r di n a l D e sch a m ps a r chbishop of Ma l i n es
, th e ,

p pO e u r g en tly r e co mm e n d e d t h e f ou n d a tio n o f a ch a ir of Th e m
ist ic phil osophy in t h e U n iv er sity of Lo u v a in So g rea t wa s .

th en t h e ren own of t h e you n g p rof esso r M er ci er so s u cc essfu lly ,

h a d h e f ul fill e d in M a li n e s hi s p r of e sso r i a l d u ti e s th at h e was ,

chose n to c a rr y t h e p a p a l d e sign s into effe ct .

Th e su cc ess wa s g rea t . I t did n ot how e v er s a tisfy th e p ope

, , ,

who u n d er stoo d th a t s om ething still grea t er co ul d b e don e A .

f e w y ea r s l a t er—th e e l e v en th of J uly 1 8 8 8 —Le o X I I I s en t a

,

s eco n d b ri e f to th e a rchbishop of Ma l i n es C a r di n a l G ooss en s, ,

r e co m m en di n g t h e fo u n d a tio n of a n i n stit u t e of Tho m istic phi

losoph y , e n d ow e d with its own ind ep en d ent l ife Ha vi n g .

l ea rn e d th a t th e gr ea t est diffic u lty wa s t h e l a ck of f un ds h e s ent ,

to C a r di n a l G ooss en s th e sum of f ra nc s G rea t wa s t h e .

 21 9

e n ergy di spl a ye d by th e Belgi an C a th oli cs to rea liz e t h e pa pa l

id ea ls The ir efforts we re fin al ly cro wn ed with s u cc ess a nd in
.
,

1 8 9 1 th e Instit u te of P hil osophy of Lo uv a in t h e glory of neo ,

Th om ism was offi ci a lly c rea te d

, .

I n a m em oi r r ea d be fore th e Con g res s o f C a tholics h eld in

Ma lin es Ln Sep t eLF
n bg r
d g l i M erc ier tra ce d th e progra m h e ha d

in vi ew to in s u re th e sudcesi of t h e ne w found a ti on A ft er re p .

rese nting a nd d eplo r ing t he i sol a tion fro m th e re st of t h e sc ien

t ifi c wo rld to whi ch C a tholics h a d cond em n ed t h em s e lv es b e out ,

line d t h e re form s h e con te m pl a t ed t h e n ew ro a d h e in t e nd ed t o ,

ope n to neo Schola sticism - .

Th e re fo rm s which cha ra cte ri z e d t h e school of Lo u v a in m a y

be cl a ssifi ed und e r two h ea ds
1 P hil osophy was not to be rega rd ed a s a m e re a nc illa th eo
.

log iw b ut to be st u di ed f or philosophy s sa ke
’
, C a tholic p h ilos o .

h ers wo u l d th u s fr a nkly e nt e r into t h e spi r it o f o ur ti m e a n d

p ,

088 88 to be look ed u po n a s m e re a p o logi s ts of th e i r C reed .

2 J ust as p h iloso phy wa s t o be stu di ed f o r its o wn sa k e so

.
,

a ls o was science Neo Tho m ists h a d to b ec o me t rue sci en tists

.
-
,

to con s truct l a bo ra tori es to m a k e e x pe r im e nt s a n d—this wa s

, ,

t h e point which a t first sa vo r e d o f p a ra dox — to fi nd in S t .

Tho mas hi m se lf th e reconcili a tion of sci enc e a nd philosophy .

This la s t a mbitio n wa s not novel I t wa s th e v ery a im Cor .

noldi h a d ch e ri sh ed m a ny y ea rs be fore t h e v e ry spi r i t which h a d ,

insp ire d t he encycli ca l E lem i P a t ric b ut th us f a r nothing ,

se rio us h a d bee n don e .

Me rc i e r pro p ose d : fi rst of a ll to study St Tho mas in his ,

.

origin al wo rks to o pen t h e S u m ma Th eo logica th e S u mma con

, ,

t ra G en til es th e O p us c ula P hilos op h ica th e C om m en te d ta in

,
-
,

A ris to te lea I t was th us fo un d t ha t a g rea t m a ny opi nions

.

w hi ch for cen tu ries ha d bee n ridi c uled un d er t he n a m e of

, ,

Tho mism w e re not f rom S t Tho m a s b ut fro m write rs of th e

, .
,

t i me of t he Rena iss a nce fro m Ne wton or G a ssen di I t wa s

, .

fo un d tha t A ri s totl e a nd S t Thom a s w e re not do g ma tic id ea l ists

.

c o n struct ing t h e w o rld a p rio ri b ut true sci en t is ts who ba se d

, ,
 2 20

th ei r philosophy u po n th e f a cts of exp eri enc e ; th a t th eir doc

t r i ne s w ere not a n ti q u a t e d a n d u s el e ss th eo r i es b u t posse sse d a ,

ch a r a ct er of m od ernn es s which m a n y r ec en t syst em s m ight envy .

Mod er n philosoph er s w e re lik e wis e to b e st udi e d in th e i r o r ig

i n a l w orks D esc a r t es a n d K a nt w er e n ot to b e r ea ch e d an y
.

lon ger via S a n s e v er i n o Th e D is cours e on Meth od a n d th e

.

Cri t iq u e of P u re R eas on w e re to b e r ea d a n d u n d er stood Thu s .

a n d th u s o n ly co u l d t h e spi r it of m od e rn philos ophy b e g ra sp e d ;

th u s on ly co u ld n eo Thom i sm k eep a b rea st w ith t h e r e st of th e

-

l ea rn e d wo r l d .

Th e s u cc e ss of t h e I n stit u t e of L o u v a i n h a s b e en prodigio u s .

Mg r Mer ci er h a s fo u n d a t fi r st m a n y oppo n ents a m o n g Ca th o

.

li c s b u t h e h a s a lw a ys a n swe re d V icto r io u sly

,
1
Th e n u m e ro u s .

a r ticl e s on n eo Tho m ism which si n c e th e fo un d a tio n of th e

-
,

I n stitu t e h a v e a pp ea r e d in t h e Ka n ts tu dien th e Z ei ts ch rif t f ur

, ,

P s y ch olog ie un d P h ys io log i e , th e R evu e P h ilos op h iq u e , th e

Rivis ta F i los ofica and m any
oth er p u blic a tio n s show how w ell
, ,

h e h a s su cc ee d e d in b r ea k in g t h e st u di e d sil en c e with which th e

Thom istic r eviv a l h a d b ee n p r eviou sly r ec eiv e d .

Th e I n stitu t e o f Lo u v a i n so s u cce ssf u l 1 n poi n t o

,
f philosophy ,

h a s a lso obt a i n e d sign ific a n t r e su lts in t h e fi el d of sci en c e At .

t h e h ea d of t h e d e p a r t m e n t of sci en c e is Mr Thi er y a fo r m e r .
,

p u pil of t h e f a m ou s Wun dt of Le ip z ig A bo u t th e l a bo ra to ry
,
.

h e h a s fou n d e d in L o u v a i n Mr B i n e t cou ld w r it e in t h e A n n é e
,
.

Ps y ch olog iq u e of 1 8 9 6 : F or th e cour s e of Mr Thi ery th er e .

i s a l a bo r a to ry a n d com pl et e e qu ip m en t f or physi ologic a l p ey

”
c h olog y s u ch a s do es n ot e x ist a t p r e s ent in a ll F r a n c e A sim .

il e r l a bo ra to ry h a s b een su bs equ en tly foun d e d a t t h e So rbo n n e

( H a u t e s —
E t u d e s )
U n d er th e di re ction of Mg r M erci er a Cour s e of P hilosophy .
,

h a s be en p u blish e d to which Mer ci er hi m s elf h a s co n t r ib ut e d t h e

vol um e s on L og ic Crit er io log y G en era l Me ta p hy sics a n d P s y
, , ,

c h o log y Le ss e xt ensiv e th a n th e I ns titu t ion es of U rr a b u ru

.
,

Mer ci e r s Cour s e i s m u ch m o re m od ern It disc a rds q ues tions

’
.

‘
Cf . Billi a , L
’
es ig li o di Sa n Ago s ti no To r i n o
, ,
1 89 9 .
tic school s Mr de W u l f s vi e w on this poi n t h a s n ot m et with
. .
’

a r e a dy a c c e pt a n c e It h a s b ee n r ej ect ed a m on g oth er s by E li e
.
, ,

B l a nc a n d P ic a vet Mr de W ul f how e v er still holds th e sa m e

. .
, ,

O pi n io n a n d h a s d e f en d e d it a g a in in his I n tr o duc timr d to

,

P h i losop h i e N tia S co las tiq u e -

.

Th e of thi s l a st wor k is to r em ov e c u rr en t m iscon c eptio n s

a im

a bo u t t h e n a t u r e of Schol a stic philosophy ; to giv e a s in a n u t ,

sh ell t h e e s s en t i a l t r a its o i Thom ism a n d to sh ow to wh a t e xt en t

, ,

n eo Schol a sticis m a gr e e s w ith t h e Schol a st icis m of t h e M iddl e

-

A ges a n d to wh a t e x t en t t h e old philosophy h a s b een m odifie d

, .

I n n o oth er wo r k i s t h e p r og ra m of n eo Schol a sticis m so defi -

T h e st u dy of Mr de W u lf s I n tr odu c tion i s ’
n it ely o u tli n e d . .

i n di s pe n s a bl e to thos e wh o w a n t to ent er th e fi eld of n eo Scho -

l a stic lit er a t u r e .

W ith t h e coll a bo ra tio n of Mr A P el z er Mr de Wu lf h a s . .

,
.

l a t ely u n d er t a k en t h e p u blic a tion of u n edit e d wo rks of Me dimva l

B elgi a n philosoph er s Am on g th e vol um e s a l rea dy p ubl ishe d
.

le t u s m en ti on : L e Tr a i t é D e Un i ta t e F or m ae de G illes de L es
s in es L es Q ua t res P r e m i ers Q u oli b e ts de G odef r oid de
F on ta in es
Mr D Ny s i s th e cosm ologi s t of t h e I n stitu t e
. . . B esid es two
vol um e s d ea l i n g with St Tho m a s s co n c eption of ti m e a n d sp a c e
.
’
,

a n d m a n y a rticl e s p u bl ish e d in t h e R evu e N éO S c o las t igue he a

,

h a s co n t r ib u t e d to t h e Cou rs do P h i los oPh i e of t h e I n stit u t e t h e

vol u m e on Cos m ology .

— —
I n n o oth er wor k s a f e p er h a ps in F a rg e s s es sa ys a re th e
’

Schol a stic theo r i es a bo u t th e wor l d so sa ti sf a cto r ily expou nd ed .

’
N y s s Cos m ology is e v en m or e sci en ti fi c th a n F a rg es s wo r ks on
’

t h e s u bj e ct A ll m od ern di scov eri es a ll r ec en t sci en tific r esu lts

.
,

a re disc u ss e d in co n n e ctio n with t h e Schol a stic syst em We m a y .

f a il to a gr ee with Mr Ny s s c o n cl u sions — . a n d I conf e ss th a t thi s

’ '

is m y c a s e—b u t we c an n ot en t er ta in f or a singl e inst a nt t h e

id ea th a t his con cl u sion s a r e n ot th e r e su lt of a s erio u s st u dy
of th e m a tt er .
 2 23

Am ong t h e m en who ha ve honored th e Ins t i tu te of Lo uv a in

by th eir philosophi ca l productions we m u st a lso m ention :
L N oe l wh o h as wri tte n v a l ua bl e wo rks on t h e q ue stion o f
.
,

d et e rm inis m a n d free wi ll .

Si mo n Dep lo ig e p rofesso r of eco n o m ics a n d po litic a l sci en c e

, ,

wh o h a s p ubl ish ed a tr ea tise on th e Th o m istic th eory o f prope rty

an d a m ost in t e re sting e ssa y e ntitl ed S t Th omas e t to q u es t io n
, .

j ui ve ; a n d E . Cra h a y,
a uthor of a wo rk d ea ling with St.

Tho ma s s po li t ica l doctrin es

’
.

F i na lly t h e Institu t e of Lo uv a in d ese rv es t h e g ra ti t ud e of

,

a ll lov e rs of p h ilosophy by t h e p ubli ca tio n o f o ne of t h e m ost

’

inte res ting an d l ea rn ed revi ews a ctua lly e xi sting t h e Re vue

,

N i a-S co la s t iq u e whose p a ge s a re of i m m e n se s e rvic e no t only

, ,

to those inte re st ed in neo Schol a sticism b ut t o a ll st u d en ts of

-
,

phi l oso phy .

 C H APT ER XI V

THE N E O —
S CH O L ASTI C R E V I VA L I N O T HER E URO P E AN
C O UN T R I E S

S E CTI O N 1 .
— T H E N E O S CH O LA S TI C
-
REVI VA L IN H U N G A RY ,

B O H EM I A A ND TH E N E T H E RL A N D S

Th e co un t r i e s we h a v e st u di e d th u s f a r a re th os e in wh ich
n e o Schol a stic philosophy h a s e sp e ci a lly flo u r ish e d
-
Th e Ca t h o .

li e s of th e rest of E u r op e h a v e n ot f a il e d how e v er to e spou se , ,

th e vi e ws of Le o X I I I so th a t t h e Thom i stic lit era tu r e of th e

,

p res en t c en t ur y is p r ou d of m a n y p r od u ctio n s with which t h e

fo regoi ng ch a pt er s h a v e n ot d ea lt .

A m o n g t h e co un t r i e s in which Th om ism h a s foun d a bl e repre

‘

s en t a t iv es
,
H un g a ry h olds a p r om i n en t pl a c e A s ea rly a s th e .

six t een th c en t ury Schol a stic philo sophy fl our ish e d in t h e s em

,

in a r ies e r e ct e d a cco r din g t o t h e spi r it of t h e Co u ncil of T r ent

, ,

by N ichol a s O lé h a n d C a r din a l P et er P a zm an y S J a r chbish op ,

. .
,

of E s z t ergo m Th e co n t r ol th u s e x er cis e d by Schol a stic prin

.

c ip les u po n H u n g a r i a n tho u ght b ec a m e st r o n g er still thro u gh

t h e lib er a tion of H u ng a ry f rom t h e T u rkish r u l e A n d it th u s .

h a pp en e d th a t in th e e ight een th c en t ury whil e Schol a sti c phi

, ,

los oph y wa s r a pidly losi n g gr ou n d in th e r e st of Eu r op e it wa s ,

re g a r d e d in H un g a ry a s a n ec e ss a r y co m pl em e nt of a lib e ra l
.

e d u c a tio n.

I n th e n i n e t een th c en t u ry how e v er t h e i n fl u en c e of t h e
, ,

F ren ch r e vol utio n a n d of G erm a n r a tion a l i sm p r od u c e d a n ot a

b le ch a n ge in t h e a ttit u d e of H u n g a ri a n thi n k ers A s wa s to b e .

e x p e ct e d
,
thi s ch a n ge was u n f a vo ra bl e to t h e t ra dition a l Ch r is
ti a n phil osophy Schol a sticism soon lost its form er p re stige a n d
.

wa s fi n a lly r ej ect e d f r om t h e gym n a si a e v en fr o m th e s em in a r i es

,
.

S u ch wa s t h e st a t e of thi ngs wh en th e en cycl ic a l ! E ter ni

 226

Th eology S i n c e 1 9 02 h e h a s t a u ght philosophy in th e S em

.

in a r y of E s z t er go m .

H is chi e f wor k is en titl e d Cursus B r evis P h ilos Op h ice a n d !

co n sists of th re e vol um e s T h e fi r st d ea ling with logic a n d .

,

m et a physics a pp ea r e d in 1 9 0 6 ; t h e se co n d d ea l in g with cos

, ,

m ology a n d psychology a pp ea r e d in 1 9 0 7 ; t h e thi r d d e a ling , ,

with n a t ura l th eology a n d ethics h a s n ot a pp ea re d y et ,

.

Th e i m por t a n c e of Mr P éc si s philosophy i s chi e fly du e to

’
.

h is s e ctio n on C osm ology wh ich m a rks a m ost signific a n t ph a s e ,

in th e e vol u tio n of n eo Schol a sticism Two doct r i n e s of his

-
.

d e s erv e a sp eci a l m ention : his t h eory of M a tt er a n d F o rm a n d

his ch a pt er on E n erg etics .

To m a n y sym p a thi z er s of n eo Schol a sticism t h e en d ea vor to -

r e viv e t h e th e o r y of M a tt er of F o rm h a d a pp ea r e d a f r u itle ss

a tt em pt I n vi e w of t h e a ctu a l co n dition o f ph y sic a l sci enc e

.
,

t h e d e f en d er s of h y lem or ph ism l e ft t h e i m p r e ssio n of m en who

wo u l d cov er a d ea d body with a n ew ga r b F or A ristotl e p r i .
,

m or dia l m a tt er wa s a n i n d et erm i n a t e a bst ra ctio n so m e thi n g ,

which wa s a n d y et wa s n ot ,
m a t er ia n eq u e q u id n eq u e q ua n ,
,
,

”1
t u m n e q u e q uo t e n eq u e al iu d q u i dq ua m es t
, , Thi s m yst er io u s .

e n tity h a d b e en a cc e pt e d by t h e gr ea t doctors of t h e thi r t ee nth

c en tu ry a n d s till l i ng er e d in a ll t r ea tis e s of Schol a stic p h iloso

,

phy Th e se m en th em s elv e s who w ere d ef endi n g S chol a sticism

.

f r om a sci en tific po i n t of vi e w h a d n ot d a r e d p a r t with t h e

f etich Mr A lb e rt F a rg e s h a d cl un g with a ll his m ight to t h e
. .

old idol Mr N ys h a d p r ov e d hi m s el f to b e l ess rel u ct a n t to

. .

co n c e s s io n s ; h e h a d n ot y et h ow e v er b een bol d en o ugh F i rst , , .

a m o n g n eo Schol a stics Mr P ecsi h a s fo rm u l a t e d t h e th eo r y of

-
,
.

P r i m o r di a l M a tt er in a fo rm which m en of sci en c e m a y a cc ept .

H e i d en tifi e s P ri m o r di a l Ma tt e r with th e u lti m a t e gro u nd of

a ll m a t er i a l r e a lity t h e e th er T h e ma t eria p rim a th u s cea s es
2
.
,

to b e a n em pty a bst ra ction : it b ecom e s s om e thing concr et e a ,

M e t a p h Bk VI ,
fl
1
, . 0 . 3 .

’
Ci . P é c s i, Cu rsu s B rev i s P h il o s o phi es ,
Vol 2 , . pp . 34
'

.
 22 7

r ea lity who se exist en ce i s tes tifi ed by n a tu ra l sc i en ce itsel f As .

'

for t h e s u bsta nti a l form M r P ecsi ident ifi es it with th e in te r

, .

In t h e section of his Cos m ology entitl e d E ne rg e tics Mr , .

Pecsi ca ll s in q uestio n th e a c cept ed a xio m s of physica l sci en ce .

He re fu te s t h e principl e of t h e co nse rv a tion of e nergy whi ch ,

h e re ga rds a s t h e fo un da ti on of m a t eri a lis m He a lso re f ut e s .

or correc ts t h e la w of en t r opy an d t h e l a ws of N ewton o n in er

t ia an d a ction a nd r ea c ti o n To th e tr a dition a l l a ws of m otio n
.

h e oppose s t h e fo ll owing l a ws
1 A ll physica l bodi es p erse v ere in t h e st a t e of re s t un l e ss
.

i m p elled by a n exte rn a l fo rc e B ut th e body i m p ell ed by a n .

ext e rn a l f o rce m ov es only proportio n a lly to t h e i m p re ssio n re

ce ived fro m t h e ext e rn a l fo r c e a n d a lw a ys in t h e di rec t io n o f

th e i m p re ssion .

— —
2 T he int en sity o r v eloci t y o f t h e m o t io n d e p e n ds u po n
.

t h e diff e renc e be tw ee n th e a ctio n a n d t h e re a cti o n i e is in ,

. .
,

di rect m a th ema tic a l p r op o rtio n t o th e a c t io n a n d in i nv erse ,

ma the ma ti ca l p ropo rtio n to t h e rea ctio n .

3 I f t h e m ut ua l r el a tio n of t h e a c t io n a n d t h e re a c t io n in
.

su bs eq uen t m o ment s is co ns ta n t m otio n will b e un ifo rm ; i f t h e

,

m u tua l rela tion of t h e a ctio n a n d t h e rea c t io n is m od ifi e d t h e ,

m ot io n will cea se t o be un i fo rm a nd a cc el e ra t io n or re t a rd a tio n

“
wi ll follow .

Mr Pécs i s th eory on t his p o i n t h a s not bee n un a ni m o usly

.
’

a cce pte d by neo Schol a stics I t ha s bee n s e ve rely critici zed by

-
.

Ch r Schre ibe r in t h e P h ilos Op h is ch es J ah rbuc h

. Mr P ecsi . .
,

‘
I t is tice t he re se mbl a n ce o f Mr Pecs i s vi e w w ith t h e
y t o no
’

fl
ea s .

vi e w we h a ve d e fe n de d i n ou r se cti o n o n Cos m o l ogy Th is se cti o n h o w .

,

ha s no t bee n i n ue nce d in t h e s l ighte st de gree by M r Pé cs i s '

ev e r , .

theo ry I t wa s wr i tte n in 1 906 a s a di sse rta ti on f o r t he d egr ee o f M A

.
, . .
,

un de r t h e titl e o f Th e Sch o l a s tic Do ct r in e o f Ma t te r a nd F o rm i n t h e

Fac e o f M od e rn Sc i en ti fi c D i s cove r i es a nd ha s not been modi fi ed s in ce
"

fl
,

t he p ubli ca ti on o f Mr Pé c s i s wo r k
’
. .

‘
C f Péc s i Cu rs us B re vi s Phi losO p hi se pp 29 39
.
, , .
,
’
.

C f Pé cs i C ri s i s a x io ma t um mod e rnas Ph is icm pp 6 1 am; a lso Cursus

.
, , .

B re v i s Vo l 2 p p 89 90
, .
, .
-
.
 22 8

how ev er h a s de ve lo pe d it a n e w in a s ep a r a te tr ea tis e w r itt en a t

, ,

fi r st in H un ga ri a n a n d tra nsl a t e d i n to La tin by t h e a u tho r him

s el f u n d er th e titl e O f Cris is a x iom a tum m odernce P h is i c ce
, .

I n B oh em i a t h e Thom i stic m ov em en t i s r e p re s ent e d by Vy c h O

dil who in 1 8 8 9 p u blish e d a wo r k de a ling with th e p r oofs O f
, , ,

G od s ex ist en c e ; Eu g en e Ka dera vek t h e a u thor O f s ev era l wo rks

’
,

i n spi r e d by t h e p u re st Schol a stic p r i n cipl e s a n d O f i m port a n t

a r ticl e s p u bl ish e d in t h e P h ilos op h is ch es J a h r b u c h a n d t h e J a hr
'

bu c h f ur P h i los Op hi e u n d s p ec u la tive Th eolog ic ; Ha va t y , P os

pisil ,
etc .

I n the ch a i r O f Thom istic philosophy wa s

N e th erl a n ds , a

fo un d e d in 1 8 9 4 a t t h e Un iv er sity O f Am st er d a m a n d co n fid e d
to t h e D om i n ic a n Va n de G r oot A b e tt er choic e co u l d h a rdly .

h a v e b een m a d e F r Va n de Gr oot i s on e O f th e m ost l ea rn ed

. .

a n d en th u si a stic a d m i r er s O f t h e philos o phy O f t h e A n elic D oc

g
tor In m a ny r em a rk a bl e wo r ks w r itt en in D u tch or in La ti n
.
, ,

a s w e ll a s in a r ticl e s p u bl ish e d in t h e D ivus Th om a s a n d t h e

R evu e Th om is t e h e h a s prov e d him s elf t o b e on e O f th e m os t

,

wo r thy ch a m pions O f th e Schol a stic c a u se .

Let u s m en tio n a lso t h e J e su it Vog els who p u blish e d in ,

A m ster d a m in 1 9 0 0 a t rea tis e on Fr ee W ill t h e fi r st con

, , ,

t r ib u t ion to n eo Schol a stic lit er a t u r e w r i t t en in t h e F l em i sh

-

l a n gu a g e .

S E CT I O N 2 —.T H E N EO -
S O H O L A s r I O REVI VA L
'
IN E N G LA N D

I n th e gen era l r et u rn O f t h e C a thol ic philosophic a l wo rld to

t h e p r i n cipl e s O f St T hom a s E n gl a nd h a s n ot rem a i n e d a la g
.
,

g a r d A f ew y ea r s a ft er th e p r om u lga tio n O f t h e encyclic a l

.

E t er ni P a tris Tho m a s H a r p er S J p u bl ish e d his Meta p h ysics

, ,
. .
,

of t h e S ch oo ls still co n sid er e d a s on e O f t h e m ost i m po r t a nt

,

wo rk s i n spi re d by S chol a stic p r i n cipl e s d ur ing t h e ni n eteen th

c en t ur y .

B o rn in L o n do n in 1 8 2 1 T ho m a s H a rp er a bj ur e d Methodism,

a n d ent er e d t h e S oci ety O f J es u s in 1 8 52 F or s e v era l yea r s h e .

t a u ght philosophy a t th e f a m ou s colle ge O f S t onyh u rs t He .

di e d in 1 8 9 3 .
 230

c ia t i on ist s It st u die s t h e r e cen t hypoth e se s a bo u t th e r el a tions

.

O f body a n d so u l a n d p r ono un c e s t h e do u bl e-a sp ect th e o r y e on

t r a dic t ory to e xp er i enc e a n d t o r ea so n .

B oe dder s N a tur a l Th eolog y in a ddi tio n to t h e c h a pt ers d ea l

’
,

in g wi th t h e exist en ce a n d t h e a tt r ib u t es O f G od in which t h e ,

Schol a stic doct r i n e O f th e D ivin e B e in g i s cl ea rly a n d f a ithf ully

e x po u n d e d cont a i n s a disse rt a tion a bou t th e m u ch disp ut ed
,
-

q u e stion O f physic a l p r em otio n A ft e r a f a ir expositio n O f b oth

‘

vi ews F r B oedder decl a re s hi m s elf in f a vor O f M oli n ism a n d

,
.

giv e s s er io u s r ea son s to show th a t t h e so c a ll e d Tho m istic th eo ry -

do es n ot r ea lly b elon g to S t Thom a s . .

A f e w y ea r s a fter t h e p ubl ic a ti on O f his N a tura l Th eology ,

F r B oe dder e n r ich e d n eo S chol a stic lite ra t u r e with two La tin

.
-

t rea tis e s d e a li n g t h e on e with N a t u ra l Th e ology t h e oth er with

, ,

P sychology Th es e t rea ti ses fo rm two vol um e s of a n ew co ur s e

.

O f Schol a stic philoso phy p u blish e d in F r ib u r g by t h e S t onyh u r s t

,

p r ofe s s o r s a n d kn ow n a s C u rs us P h i losop h icus ( cf B ibliog

,
.

ra p h y) .

Jo s eph R ick a by ( born b e sid e s t h e vol um e on M o ra l

P hilosophy of t h e S t on y h u r st S er i e s h a s con trib u t e d s e v er a l ,

i m po rt a n t p u blic a tion s t o E n gli sh n eo Schol a stic l iter a tu r e In -

.

1 9 0 6 h e g a v e a n a nn ot a t e d tr a nsl a tion O f t h e S um m a c on t ra

G en tiles I n t h e sa m e y ea r h e p u blish ed t h e wo r k F r ee Will

.
,

and F ou r E n g lis h P h i los op h ers ( H obb es L ocke Hum e a n d , ,

Mill ), in which h e d e f en ds t h e fr ee dom O f th e will a ga inst t h e

d et erm inist th e o r i e s O f th es e philosophe r s H is m eth o d is to .

q u ot e a p a ss a ge f ro m t h e philosoph e r u nd er e x a m i n a tion a n d
th en to disc u ss it .

R ich a r d F Cl a rk e t h e a u thor O f t h e t r ea tis e on Logic h a s

.
, ,

con t rib u t e d se v er a l i m port a n t a rticl e s to t h e A m erica n Ca th olic

Q u a r t er ly H e h a s
. a ls o p u blish e d a di a log u e on t h e e xist e n c e

O f God which is on e O f t h e m ost ch a rm ing philosophic a l dia

,

lognes e v er p enn e d .

Am o n g th e a ctu a l d e f en de rs O f neo S chol a sti cism in E n gl a nd -

,

t h e m ost p rolific i s p r ob a bly F ra n cis A velin g ( born In

 23 1

a n um be r Ofre vi e w a n d short h e h as
va l ia n t c h a m pion O f t h e Thom istic ca u se O ne
.

O f hi s be st p r od u ctio n s is t he vol um e en titl ed Th e G od of P h i

,

los Op h y . In this cha rm ing trea tise th e l ea rn ed wri ter ed uce s

t he na tu ra l proo fs for th e e xisten ce O f G od . H is styl e i s s im
p le
,
cl ea r a n d concis e . T h e ph ilosophic a l a rgum e nts a re sho rn

O f th e ir ri gidity a n d p re se nte d in a m ost f a sc in a t ing a sp ect .

 C H AP T ER XV

THE NE O -
S CH O L ASTI C R E V I VA L IN THE U NI T E D STATE S
A ND C A N A DA

S E CTI O N 1 .
-
TH E N EO -
S CH O L A S T I C REVI VA L IN TH E U N I T ED
S TA T E S

St a n l ey H a ll s h a l f s erio u s h a lf j o co s e wo r ds th a t p h iloso
’
-
,
-
,

”
h e r s a r e a s sc a r c e in Am e r ic a as s n a k e s in N or w a y co u l d not
p , ,

wi tho u t i nj u stic e b e re p e a t e d to da y D u r i n g th e s e l a st y ea r s
,
-
.

th e E u r op ea n philosophic a l p u bl ic a tio n s h a v e so f r e q u en tly

st u di e d t h e wor ks a n d opi n ions O f ou r writ er s th a t we m a y with ,

o u t too m u ch p re s u m ptio n e n t e rt a i n t h e b e li e f th a t philosophy

,

h a s a t l a st e st a blish e d a pe rm a n en t s e ttl em en t a m o n g u s .

In thi s ph a s e O f our int ell e ct u a l growth ou r C a tholic writ er s ,

h a v e n a t ural ly tu rn e d th e i r a tt entio n to t h e Offi ci a l philosophy

O f t h e Ch u r ch so th a t n eo Tho m is m a lthou gh it h a s p r odu c e d
,
-
,

in our co u n t ry n o wo r k which m a y com p a r e with t h e g rea t

E u r op ea n co n t r ib u tio n s h a s n e ve r th el e s s giv en ri se to e xc ell ent
,

t rea ti se s wh ich n o st u d en t O f th e r ec en t Tho m istic m ov em ent

s h o u l d n e gl e ct .

I n t h e m iddl e O f t h e l a st c en t u ry t h e g rea t est C a tholic w r ite r

in A m er ic a wa s O r e s t es A B r ow n son ( 1 8 0 3
. H is phi
loso p h y which m a y b e d e s c r ib e d a s a fo rm O f o n tologi sm ex er
, ,

c ise d a g rea t i n fl uen c e u po n A m e r i ca n C a tholics Giob erti .

b ec a m e t h e m a n in whos e wo rks th e o nly t rue philosophy wa s

s u ppo se d to b e f o un d .

A m o ng t h e w r it er s who w ere th us co n tr oll e d by ontologistic

p r i n cipl e s on e O f th e b e st know n i s H en ry A B ra nn ( bo rn in
, .

”
I n his Curious Q u es tions p u bl ish e d in 1 8 6 6 h e do e s
, ,

not h e sit a te to c a ll G iob erti t h e gr ea t est philosoph er O f th e nin e

23 2
 Th e y ea r 1 8 73 wa s p u blic a tio n O f S chi f
a lso th e d a te Of th e
fi n i s L og icce g en era lis I ns ti tu tion es
’
A n It a l i a n by bi r th p ro

fl
.
,

f e ssor in t h e ho use O f st u di e s O f t h e J es u its in W oo dstock ( M a ry

l a n d ) B i ag io A S ch i in i em bodi ed in hi s w ork t h e l essons h e
, .

h a d gi v en to t h e schol a stics He s u b se q u en tly p ubli sh e d som e

.

O f S t Tho m a s s t r ea tis es : t h e D e H om in e in 1 8 8 2 a n d t h e D e
’
.
, ,

Motu Hom in is in D eu m in 1 8 8 3 ,
.

A m on g th e co u r s es of S chol a stic phi losophy w r i tten by t h e

J e s u its in t h e U n it e d St a t e s t h e m ost v a l u a bl e a re p r ob a bly t h e
,

two vol um e s O f N ichol a s Ru sso ( born A p r il 24 1 8 4 5 ; die d ,

A p r il 1 H is S u mm a P h ilos Op h ica ( B oston

,
in ,

which h e gen er a lly follows L ib er a to r e m o re co m pl et e th a n ,

J ouin s wor ks is gen era lly r ega r d e d a s t h e m os t sa ti sfa cto ry

’
,

e xpositio n O f Schol a stic philosophy p u bl ish e d in this co u n t r y .

I n his D e P h i los op h ia M ora li F r Ru sso p u blish e d t h e .

l ect ur es h e h a d d eliv er e d t o t h e st u d en ts wh en p r of esso r O f ,

m o ra l philosophy in G e o rg etow n U n iv er sity .

A m on g t h e co u r s es O f Schol a stic philosophy thu s writt en w ith

sp eci a l r ega r d to t h e n eeds O f th e stu d en ts we m u st a lso m en ,

tio n th e wor ks O f Ch a r l e s Copp en s a n d W illi a m P ol a nd .

W illi a m P ol a n d bo rn in Ci n ci nn a t i in 1 8 48 a n d prof essor O f

, ,

philosophy in St L o u is U n ive r sity i s t h e a u thor O f s ev e ra l

.
,

t r ea tis es in which th e f u n d a m en t a l p r incipl e s O f Schol a sticism

a r e e x po u n d e d a n d d e f en de d in t h e cl ea r e st a n d m ost a tt ra ctiv e

styl e H is Tru th of Th oug h t ( 1 8 9 6 ) i s a n e x c ell en t t ext

.

book O n c r it er iology L ik e a ll Schol a stics F a th er P ol a n d holds

.
,

a m iddl e positio n b etw ee n t h e id ea list a n d t h e m a t er i a list He .

skilfully p oi n ts ou t th e i n co n siste n cy O f s ubj ectivism ! a n d

p r ov e s t h e O bj ectiv e ch a r a ct er O f r ea l ity by m ea n s O f t h e evi
d en ce wh er eby it i s p re se n t e d t o u s a s O bj ectiv e
J u st a s in t h e p er c eption or knowing of s elf I a ffi rm s el f , ,

so a lso f or t h e s a m e rea son e vi d en ce I a ffi rm with in evita bl e

, , , ,

co n viction t h e O bj ectiv e v a l ue O f n on s el f I h a ve a thought or

,
-
.

a h ea d a ch e Th e tho ught or t h e h ea d a ch e p r e se nts itself to m e

.

“
Of . T r u th Of T h o ug h t p p , . 1 97, 6 1 .
 23 5

as m in e . I th e reupo n ha ve a convictio n tha t it is min e O f .

thi s co nvi c tion ce rtifi ed in t h e pe r ce p t ion o f wh a t i s e vide nt I

, ,

ca nnot rid m ysel f a nd I hold to it Th e m i dn ight glory O f t he

,
.

sta rs prese nts itsel f to me a s a so me thing which excl ud es th e

e l em e nt O f m ysel f I ha v e th e reup on a conviction of th a t
.
, ,

so me th in g as strong a s t h e con vi ction of my o w

, n tho ugh t ; a n d

s im ul ta n e o usly I h a v e a convict ion tha t th a t so m e thing is dis

ti nct from m e O f thi s conviction ce rtifie d in t h e p erce ptio n

.
,

O f w ha t is e vid ent I ca nnot ri d myse lf ; a nd I hold t o

,

Th e doct rin e co nta in ed in this q uota tion i s not how ev e r pe r , ,

f ec t ly cl ea r We bel ie v e a tho ught to be s ubj ectiv e a nd th e

.

s ta rre d sky O bj ec ti v e be ca u se t h e forme r d e p end s u po n o ur will

, ,

whil e th e l a tte r doe s not ; be ca u se we ca n h a v e or rej ect a thought

a t pl ea s ure wh e rea s i f ou r ey e s a re ope n we a re co m p ell ed t o

fl
, , ,

see th e s ky B ut why sho uld a h ea d a ch e be a ny less O bj e ctiv e

.
,

th a n t h e sta rre d sky ? Does it d e pe nd upo n a a t of o ur w ill ?

Ca n it be rej ec ted as rea dily a s we pl ea se ? I t is a n a ff e ctio n
O f o ur body it will pe rha ps he re pli ed a nd our b ody be lo ngs
, ,

to our own se l f B ut our vi s io n O f t h e s ta rre d sky is a s e nsa t io n

.

O f color which be longs tO o ur body j ust a s w ell Wh y th en .

, ,

sho uld t h e s ky be O bj ec tiv e a n d t h e hea d a ch e s ubj e ctive ? This

is a q uest ion which Fr P ol a nd does n ot fa ce . .

Cha rl es Cop pens e xpo und ed t h e f un d a m enta l p ri n cipl e s O f

Sc hol as tic philo so phy in two s ma ll vol um es : A B r ief Tex t b ook -

of Log ic a n d Men ta l P h ilos op h y a n d A B r ie f Tex t b ook -

of Mor al P h ilos op hy He a lso p ublish ed in 1 8 9 7 a , ,

rema rk a bl e work u pon which his f a me chi efl y rests : Mora l P r in

c ip les a nd Med ic a l P rac t ic e In t h e light O f t h e Ch ri s ti a n p ri n
.

ci p les a bo ut t h e h uma n so ul F r Cop pe n s close ly e x a m in es so me

, .

s ubj ect s such as cra ni oto my a nd a b ortion which a re of b u rning

, ,

int erest in t h e fi eld o f med icin e He a l so s tudi es t h e q uestions .

o f i n sa ni ty a n d hypno ti sm a nd l a y s d ow n in th e m ost a ble

, ,

ma nn e r t h e profess iona l rights a nd d uti e s O f t h e phys ici a n

, .

Th e Am e ri ca n J esui ts ha ve not th us l im ite d th em se lv es to

t he writin g of Schol as tic te xt bo o ks S uch wor k s howe v er se r
- .
,

Po la n d Trut h
, of Though t p , . 54 .
 23 6

vice a b le
‘

they m a y b e e xi st now in sO gr ea t a num b er th a t n ew

,

one s c a n n ot b u t r ep ea t wh a t oth ers h a v e a l rea dy s a id F r COp . .

’
e n s s work i s on e O f thos e stu di es on p a r tic u l a r q u e stio n s to
p
which n eo Sch ol a stics shou ld n e w di rect th eir a tt ent io n A n
-
.

othe r st u dy in t h e s a m e di r ection h a s b ee n m a d e by Ren e I .

Hola in d in his N a tu ra l L a w a n d L eg a l P ra c tic e which

c o n t a in s t h e l e ctu r e s h e d el iv er e d a t t h e La w School O f G eo r g e

tow n U n iv er sity F r Hola in d c a re f ully stu di e s t h e c a p it a l

. .

q u estio n s O f t ax a tion c a pit a l a n d l a bo r o rga n i z a tions st r ik e s

, ,

a n d boycotts e tc ,
Th e s ol u tions h e giv e s a r e i n sp i re d by t h e
.

pri n cipl e s O f Ch r isti a n philo s ophy a n d p er f ectly a d a pt e d to th e ,

a ct u a l co n ditio n s O f soci e ty N ot only al l st u d en ts O f la w b ut

.
,

a ll A m e r ic a n cit i ze n s sho u l d re a d a n d m e dit a t e th is work .

Joh n J M i n g p r of e sso r O f Mor a l P hilosophy in Ca n isiu s

.
,

Coll ege ( B uffa lo ) b e sid e s n u m er o u s a rticle s in th e A m erica n

,

Ca t h olic Qu a r t er ly h a s c o n trib u t e d to A m eric a n n eo S chol a stic

,
-

e thics a p r ec io u s wo r k en titl e d Th e D a ta of Mo dern E th i cs

,

E x a m in ed .

Th e a im O f tho r a s set forth in his p re f a c e is to d e fen d

th e au , ,

Ch r isti a n e thics a ga i n st th e r ec en t m o ra l syst em s a dv a n c e d by

t h e m od er n school s O f P ositivists a n d A gn ostics .

Th e s ev e ra l fo rm s a ssu m e d by h e d onism a re f a ithf ully ex

p os e d a n d e x a m i n e d a t gr ea t l e n g th T h e a u tho r i s f u lly con .

v ers a n t with t h e th eo r i e s O f S p en c er J S M ill a n d oth er E ng ,

. .
,

li sh em pi r icist s H i s c r itici sm s a re O ft en e xc ell en t a lw a ys in

.
,

t e r e s t in g a n d displ a y a r em a r k a bl e powe r O f a n a lysis

, .

Th e h e do n istic syst em O f e thics i s not h ow e v er a s F r Ming , , .

s ee m s to i m ply e ss en ti a lly co nn ect e d with positivis m a n d a gn os

,

t ic ism . Th e st r o n g e st b eli e v e r in t h e s p i r it u a l ity of t h e sou l

m ight b e a s fr a n kly a n d a s co n sist ently a h e donist as M ill or
Sp en c er A re f u t a tion O f m a teri a lism or a gn ostici sm will n ot
.

th er efo re b e a t th e sa m e ti m e a r ef ut a tion O f h e do n ism This

, ,
.

i s a t ru th which F r M i n g se em s t o h a v e overlook e d A s his

. .

wo r k i s a t r ea tis e on e thics it o ught to a tta ck f ra n kly h edonism ,

 238

ph en om en a lists h e s a ys : Th ey do n ot ta k e gol d for silver nor

, ,

silv er f or copp e r b ec a u se th es e m e t a l s di ff e r in t h e ph eno m e non

,

O f colo r b u t b ec a u s e O f so m ethi n g b e n ea th th a t color a n d a r

, p
”
t ia lly m a nif est e d by it .

M entio n m u st a lso b e m a de O f ZEm iliu s de A ug u st in is for ,

his wo r k D e D eo Un o s ecun du m n a tura m

, a nd Jam es

Co n w a y ( 1 8 49 p r of e sso r in St Lo u is Un iversity a n d .
.
,

a u tho r O f a s m a ll vol um e e n titl e d Th e F u n da m en ta l P r incip les ,

of Ch ri s t ia n E t h i cs which b elo n gs t o t h e s er i e s
, Ca t h olic S u m ,

m er a n d Win t er S c h oo l L ib ra r y .

Thom ism h a s a lso fo un d di st i n gu ish e d r ep re s en t a tiv es in !

oth er re l igiou s o r d er s A n a m e th a t r ea dily co m es to o n e s

.
’

m i n d a t t h e co n sid er a tio n O f Schol a sticis m ou tsid e O f t h e Soci ety

O f J e s u s i s th a t O f B r oth er A z a r i a s O f t h e C h r isti a n Schoo ls ,
.

B roth er A z a r i a s bo rn P a t r ick Fra n cis M ull a n y ( 1 8 4 7

,

n f —
is o e O t h e m ost disti n gu ish e d th e m ost disti n gu ish ed p er
h a p s —O i o u r C a tholic w r it er s A lthough kn own chi e fly a s a .

lit era ry c r itic h e i s th e a u tho r O f s e v era l philosophic a l wo rk s

,

w ell wo rthy O f a tt en tio n W h eth er h e i s a grea t philosoph er .

or n ot ,
I will n ot h er e d ecid e A bo u t his o r igi n a lity a s a .

t hi n k e r n o do u bt c a n b e en t e rt a i n e d
,
I n his E ss a ys p h ilosop h .

i ca l h e giv e s t h e followi n g p r i n cipl e a s t h e fi r st p r i n cipl e O f

,

philosop hy : God a ctu a li z e s C osm os by t h e W o r d a n d c om

‘

”
pl e t e s its e n d in th e W o r d Wh ich h e u n r iddl e s in th e follow
.

in g m a n n er

t erm G od we h a v e th e s u bj ect O f Th eodicy a n d N a t

I n th e ,

u r a l Th e ology .

I n t h e t erm Cosm os we h a v e t h e id ea th a t giv e s us t h e id ea s

,

O f sp a c e a n d t im e with a ll th e ir co n co m it a n t i d ea s O f n u m b er
, ,

e xt en sio n m a th em a tics n a t u r a l histo r y a n d physics

, ,
.

I n t h e t erm t h e W o r d i s con t a i n e d th e typ e of c r ea tion

t h e b a sis of hi sto r y—t h e i d ea l O f lit era t u r e a n d a rt .

I n t h e t erm co m pl e t e s its d estiny in t h e W o r d we h a v e th e ,

whol e su pern a t ura l or d e r—a Ch u r ch t h e m ea n s O f sa n ct ifi c a t ion ,

.

I n t h e t erm a ct u a li z e s we h a v e t h e id ea O f p u re a n d s u prem e
,

‘
R ona yne , G od K n w blo a e a nd K n own p , . 32 .
 23 9

ca u se e xp r esse d ,
a nd the rea l re l a ti ons Of th e Cr ea tor to his

B roth er Aza r i a s th u s rega rds phil osophy bra cing a ll as em

h um a n knowl ed g e n a tu ra l a n d s u p e rn a tu ra l Thi s V i e w un
, .

e q ui voc a lly se p a ra t es h im from t h e n eo Schol a stics to whose -

,

school it is true h e doe s n ot prof es s to b elong :

, ,

“
TO be lo n g e x c lu s ive ly
school O f tho ught s a y s h e is to a ny , ,

to sh ut o ut f ro m on e s soul a ll tr uth b ut th a t which p re se nts ’

.

its el f u nd er a give n a sp ect I t i s to b e co n tin ua lly a ski n g t h e .

q u estion Ca n a ny goo d com e ou t of N a z a re th ? A n d y e t good

,

c a n co m e ou t O f N a z a reth ; e v e ry N a z a r e th O f tho u gh t h a s its

own l esso n to t ea ch us if we willi n gly l ea rn i t a n d p u t it to

”8
p ro fi t .

A lthough B r oth er Az a r i a s is t ictly s p ea ki ng a S ch O n o t, s r ,

l a sti c h e h a s done g oo d s e r vic e to t h e c a u s e O f n eo S c hol a stici sm

,
-

in this co un t ry by his l ea rn e d t re a t i s e s on Me diaava l philo s ophy .

Th e e s sa y A r i sto t le a n d th e C h ris tia n Ch u r c h co n t a i n s e x c e l

, ,

l ent p a ge s d ea lin g with t h e spi rit O f t h e school m en A lb er t .

t h e G rea t St Thom a s a n d Roge r B a co n a re chi e fly d e a l t wi t h

,
. .

Th e a u th or cl ea r ly shows th a t t h e Me d ise va l w r it e rs we r e n o t se r
vil e follow ers O f A r istotl e b ut th a t th ey th o ught a n d w ro te in ,

t h e spi r it O f rea l phi lo soph er s H ow B r oth er A za ri a s re ga rds .

t h e Schol a stic r e viv a l is cl ea rly i n dic a t e d in t h e fo ll o wi n g

sta tem en t
F i n a lly th e re i s th e i nt ell ect ua l a t m osph ere O f t he da y in
,

which tho ught liv e s a n d m ov es I t c a n n o t e x i s t witho ut b rea th .

ing thi s a ir I f t h e p a st is reviv ed it liv e s on ly in p ropo rtion

.
,

a s it i s bro ught to b e a r u pon t h e

Chrysostom born J ose ph J Conla n in New H a v en

B roth er , .
,

( Conn ectic u t ) in 1 8 63 a nd a ct ua lly p r ofesso r O f philosophy in

, ,

Ma nha tta n Coll ege ( Ne w Y ork ) i s m ore st ri ctly a Schol a sti c ,

th a n B rother Aza ri a s He i s th e a u tho r of two brie f co urse s of

.

B ro t h e r Aza r i a s , E ssa y s P h i l o so p h i ca l pp
, . 1 58 - 1 59 .

'
I bid .
, p . 85 .

’
l bid .
, p . 85 .
 2 40

Schol a stic philosophy th em t h e E lem en ta ry Cou rs e of

. O ne Of ,

Ch ris tia n P h ilos op h y i s a n a d a pt a tion O f a F r ench wo r k writt en

,

by B roth er Lo u is O f P oissy a n d in spit e O f its co n cis e fo rm is

, , ,

o n e O f t h e m ost i n st ru ctiv e m a n u a ls p u bli sh e d in thi s co u n t r y .

Th e oth er cou r s e w r itt en in La ti n wa s p u blish e d in 1 8 9 7 u n d e r

, , ,

t h e titl e E lem en ta P h ilos op h ia? S c h olas tic oe

,
I t dea ls w ith .

l ogic o n tology or g en er a l m e t a physics a n d cosm ology a n d is

, , ,

chi e fly i n spi re d by th e wo rks O f Z igl i a ra L ib era to re a n d F a r ges ,

.

B roth er C h rysosto m h a s a lso d e f en d e d th e ca u s e O f Schol a stic

philosophy in se v era l r evi e w a rticl e s Th e m os t i m port a n t O f .

th em a pp ea re d in th e P h ilos op h ica l R eview in 1 8 9 4 a n d wa s ,

d ev ot ed to th e st u dy O f th e th e istic a rgum en t O f St Tho m a s . .

I n t h e D o m i n ic a n o r d er we fi n d a si n gl e w or k wo r thy O f
,

m entio n ; b u t thi s wo r k is on e O f t h e b es t stu di e s w r itt en by

A m e r ic a n n eo Schol a stics La P h ilos op hi e en A m ér iq u e depu is
-
.
.

’
les or ig in es j u s q u a n os j ou rs O f F a th e r E dw a r d G r ego r y
L a u r en c e Va n B ec e l a e r e ( bo rn wa s p u blish e d in 1 9 0 4 ,

a ft er h a vi n g a pp ea re d in t h e fo rm O f a r ticl e s in t h e R evue

T h o m is t s . A s a st u dy O f th e v a r io u s c urr en ts O f tho ught which

h a v e dom i n a t e d ou r co un t ry F r Va n B ee ela ere s wo r k d espit e
, .
’
,

its b r e vity is t h e b e st wo rk we poss ess Som e a sp ects O f A m er

, .

ic a n tho u ght h a v e b een how e v er en ti rely ov er look e d or too

, ,

b ri e fly t rea t e d A hi s to ry O f A m er ic a n philosophy o ught c er

.

t a in ly to co n t a i n a ch a pt er on P ra gm a tis m .

F r Va n B e c ela e r e s vol um e is co m pl et e d by a n a pp en dix d ea l

’
.

in g with C a tholic philosophy in t h e U ni t e d St a t e s This p a rt .

O f t h e wo r k O f t h e l ea rn e d D o m i n ic a n co n t a i n s i n t ere sting de

t a il s ou t h e n eo— Schol a stic r eviv a l in thi s count ry .

Schol a s tic p r i n cipl es h a v e a lso fo u n d a bl e d e f en d er s in ou r

s ec u l a r cl ergy .

G enn a r o Lu igi V i n c en z o de C oncilio bo r n a t N a pl e s ( It a ly ) , ,

in 1 8 3 5 a n d f or a sho rt t im e p r of e sso r O f dog m a tic th eology

, ,

logic a n d m et a physics in S e ton H a ll Coll ege S o uth O ra ng e , ,

New J e r s ey p u blish e d b e sid e s a t e x t book on Schol a stic phi

, ,
-

lo sO p h y ( E lem en ts of I n tellec tua l P h ilos op h y a th eo ,

 242

F r om s u ch f a cts O f e x p er i en c e h e d er iv e s by a p roc ess O f r ea son ,

in g h is syst em a s t o t h e n a t u r e O f t h e so u l
, .

I n a g r eem en t with t h e Schol a stic t ea chi n g h e prov e s t h e ,

p r i n cipl e O f ou r b o dily a n d m en t a l en ergi e s to b e on e a n d s im ~

l e sp i r it u a l a n d i m m o r t a l
p ,
.

Schol a stic psychology is s tu di e d in co n n ectio n with a ll a dv er s e

t ea chi n g s . A ll a n ci en t a n d m od er n syst em s co n ce rn ing t h e
p r i n cipl e O f lif e in m a n a r e disc u ss e d with a r em a r k a bl e eru di
tio n a n d b r o ught f a c e t o f a c e with t h e Schol as tic th e or i es .

Th e i n a d e q u a cy O f M a t er i a lis m a n d P ositivis m i s v ery a bly

po in t e d out T h e wo r k a lso co n t a i n s v a l ua bl e ch a pt er s on t h e
.

div er s e fo rm s O f P a nth ei sm a n d M on i sm So m e co n cl u sio n s O f .

t h e a u tho r do n ot s e em how e v er p er f e ctly j u stifi a bl e

, He r e
, .

s opi n io n th a t we know ph en o m en a
’
j e c t s,
f or e x a m pl e K a n t ,

o n ly ,
a n d n ot t h e thi n g in its elf o n t h e g r o u n d th a t s u ch a n
- -
,

o pi n io n i s oppos e d to t h e d a t a a n d m e thods O f physic a l sci e nc e :

Sci en c e s a ys h e d ea ls with r ea l thi n gs T h e a x io m s a n d

, , .

r u l e s O f m a th em a tic a l s c i en c e m u st b e v er ifi e d in co n c r e t e O b

j e c t s in or d e r th a t t h e c a lc u l a tio n s fo u n d e d u po n th em m a y ha ve
”1 3
a n y v a lidity Th e s a m e i s t ru e O f ch em ist ry a n d O f physics
. .

Thi s O bj e ctio n wou l d b e p er f ectly v a l id i f K a n t f a il e d to rec

og n iz e in t h e ph en o m e n a a n O bj e ct iv e e l em e n t B u t this is n ot .

t h e c a se .Th e ph en o m en o n i s s u bj ectiv e in so f a r a s th e o u tsid e

r ea lity t h e obj e ct i s cl oth e d with t h e con ditio n s O f o ur s en si
, ,

b ilit y a n d O f our u n d er st a n di n g ; b u t it is a lso O bj e ctiv e i n a s ,

m u ch a s it is c a u s e d by th e thi n g in i t s elf - -
.

We a re with rega r d to th e thi n g in it s elf in t h e s a m e posi

,
- -
,

tio n a s a p er so n wi th a p a i r O f col o re d gl a ss e s wo u l d b e with

re g a r d to t h e colo r O f a l a n dsc a p e A ltho ugh su ch a p er so n .

wo u ld n e v er k n ow t h e colo r O f t h e l a n dsc a p e a s i t is in its elf ,

h e wo u l d n e v e rth el e ss b e a bl e to poss e ss a r ea l sci en c e O f colo r ,

to fo rm u l a t e l a ws which wo ul d b e co n ditio ne d by th e O bj e ct a n d
,

in h a rm o n y with its m a n if e st a tion s .

1“
Dr i s c o ll , Th e S ou l p , . 40 .
 24 3

Th e a im O f the tr ea ti s e on G od i s th u s set fo rth in th e pre f a ce

Th e co n sid era tio ns a dd u c e d a re t h e h e ri ta ge of Chr isti a n
Phil osophy h a n d e d do wn by t he pens O f St A u gu stin e a nd St . .

Thom a s Th e m a r v elo u s a dv a n ce in t h e sci enc es f u rni she s in

.

c rea se d da ta f or a rg um en t a n d ill u st ra tion Th e q ues tion is .

c onsid e r ed un d er a ll a sp ects A ll so u rc es O f kn owl edge a re in

.

ves t ig a t ed H isto ry La n gua ge P sychology Ethics t h e P hys

.
, , , ,

ica l sci en c es ea ch co m e s with its sp eci a l t e sti m o n y T h e a im is

, .

sim ply t o coll ect th e da ta a n d show the i r hea ring on th e id ea O f

G od ; t o a n sw er t h e q uestio n : W h a t i s m ea n t by G od a n d h a s ,

t h e i d ea O f G od a n O bj ectiv e v a l idity ?

Lik e a ll Schol a stics Mr D r iscoll re j ect s t h e o n t olog

m od ern , .

ic a l a rg um en t in it s o r igi n a l sh a pe a s w e ll a s in t h e f or m i t h a s
,

a ssum e d in t h e h a n ds O f t h e n e o H e g e li a n scho o l He a lso -

.

rej ects t h e th eo ry O f di r ect i n t u itio n O f t h e D i v i n e B e i n g a dvo ,

ca te d by H a rr is W ilso n C a i r d a n d oth e r n on C a tholic w r it e r s

, , ,
-

O f t h e p re se n t da y He r ega r d s a s v a li d t h e a rg um en t s f r om
.

u niv er sa l co n se n t f r o m t h e m o ra l li f e f r o m t h e co n tin g e n cy o f
, ,

livi ng be in gs from a fi rst c a u s e f rom m o t io n f rom th e o rd er

, , ,

O f t h e un ive rs e He a lso a cc e pts th e O ld a rg um e n t dra wn f rom

.

t h e n a t ur e O f t ru th fi rst p r opos e d by St A ug us ti n e a n d r ec e n tly

,
.
,

r e vi v e d by Josi a h Royc e He cl ea rly poi n t s out how e v e r th a t

.
, , ,

in t h e h a n ds O f Mr Royc e th e a r gum en t loses its v a l ue a n d

.
,

involv es a p e ti t io p r in c ipi i :
W ha t is ( f or Royc e ) t h e t est O f s u bj ec t iv e t ruth ? N o t c o n
fo rm ity with e xt e rn a l rea lity Thi s h e exp re s sly rej e c ts B ut . .

co n form i ty with a high er i n tellige n c e H en c e h e is a di scipl e .

O f B e rk el ey He nc e h e f a ll s i n t o a p e titio p ri n cip ii He s e ts
. .

forth with t h e d a ta O f co n scio u sn es s to r ea so n God s e x ist e nc e a s ’

a bsol ut e T ru th Y e t h e pos tu l a t es t h e ex ist en c e O f t h e A ll

.

Knowe r or A ll E n fold e r to j usti fy th e v era city O f t h e d a ta

-
.

This wa s t h e m ista k e o f Desca rt es ”15

.

Mr D riscoll
.
,
as we h a v e see n h a s b ee n ,
stu d en t in th e Ca th o
a

lic U n iv er sity . This un iv er sity , th e fi rst ston e O f whi ch wa s

” i
Ibd .
,
p . 79 .
 2 44

l a id on Ma y 24 1 8 8 8 in t h e p r ese n c e O f C a r din a l Gibbo n s fo ur

, , ,

a r chbishops tw en ty on e bishops a n d n um er o u s em in en t m en
,
-
,

a m o n g who m P r e si d en t Cl e v el a n d h a s cont r ib u te d to n eo ,

Schol a stic lit era t ure n um e ro u s a rticl e s in a pe riodic a l p ubl ic a

tion t h e Ca th olic Un iversi ty B u lletin Th e m ost emi n en t con
,
.

t r ib u t or s h a v e b een E dw a r d A P a c e E d m u n d T Sh a n a h a n a n d
.
,
.

W ill i am T ur n er ( cf B ibliogr a phy ) . .

Mr T ur n er h as a lso p u bli sh e d v a l u a bl e a rticl e s a bo u t t h e

.

M i ddl e A ge s in oth er r evi ews su ch a s t h e A m erica n Ca th olic ,

Q ua r ter ly th e P h ilos op h ica l R evi ew a n d t h e N ew York R evi ew

, .

H i s g rea t e st titl e to th e gr a tit u d e O f a ll st u d en ts O f phil osophy

is how e v er his His tory of P h ilos op h y p ubl ish e d in 1 9 0 3 This
, , , .

wo r k h a s b een grea tly p ra is e d a n d with j u stic e It e xpos es with

,
.

a r em a r k a bl e e r u ditio n t h e philosophic a l syst em s O f a n ci e n t a n d

m od ern ti m e s M o re p er f e ctly th a n a n y oth er si m il a r wor k it

.
,

con d en s e s in a f ew p a ges t h e spirit a n d th e doct r i n e s O f e a ch

, ,

philosoph er it st u di e s Mr T u rn er d evot es a sp e ci a l a tt en tion

. .

to th e s tu dy O f th e M iddl e A ges O f t h e 6 7 4 p a ges which t h e .

,

wo r k co n ta i n s 1 8 5 a r e d e vot e d t o Schol a stic philosophy

, .

M en ti on m u st b e m a d e a lso O f two i m po r t a n t wo rks w r itt en

’
a s dis s er t a tio n s f o r t h e D octo r s d e gr ee Th e fi r st O f th em i s .

R e lig ion a n d Mora li ty w r itt en in 1 8 9 9 a t t h e C a tholic U n iv er

, ,

s it y by J a m e s J F ox
,
T h e wo rk i n spi re d by t h e p u r e st Tho m
. .
,

i st ic e thic a l p r i n cipl e s st r iv e s to b a s e u po n hi sto ry a n d r ea son

,

t h e th e sis th a t re ligio n a n d m or a l ity a r e n ece ss a r ily co nn ect e d .

Th e oth er wo r k Th e K n owa b len es s of G od

,
w ritt en a t
N ot re D a m e U niv er sity by M a tth ew Sch um a ch er i s on e O f t h e ,

m o s t i m p or ta n t co n t r ib u tio n s O f ne o Schol a sti ci sm to th e fi eld -

O f N a t u ra l Th e ology .

S E CT I O N 2 .
— T I I E N EO S CH O L A S TI C REVI VA L
-
IN C A N A DA
philosophy O f St Tho m a s A q u in a s fo rm s th e b a sis O f a ll
Th e .

philosophi c a l t ea chi n g in t h e C a thol ic inst itu tio n s of C a n a d a .

A lon g ti m e b e fo re th e pro m ulga tion O f t h e en cyclic a l E t ern i

P a tris Thom ism wa s a l rea dy t a ught i n th e Coll ege O f St Hy a
, .
 24 6

re ga r d to t h e o r igi n O f our id ea s A s h e insists m o re th a n .

Schol a stics u su a lly do u po n th e a ct ivity e ss en ti a l to s ubst a n c e

,
16
,

a n d m a i n t a i n s not o n ly th a t s u bsta n c e a cts b ut th a t wh a t e v e r ,

a cts i s a s u bst a n c e
1 7
h e is le d to t h e a ss er tio n th a t t h e sou l is
,

a fo r c e t h e v er y e ss en c e O f which is th a t it sho u l d thi n k u n d e r ,

”1 8
st a n d k n ow wil l
, tha t it m u st th er e fo re n ec ess a r ily k n ow its
, ,

o wn e x ist en c e a n d som e thi n g a bo u t h a ppi n e ss a n d pos se ss by , ,

t h e s a m e f a ct two i de a s which a r e i f not i n n a t e a t l ea st co e v a l

, , ,

with th e so u l .

Th e thi r d p a r t O f t h e P hi los op h y of t h e B ib le is d e vot e d to

t h e st u dy of c e r t a i n q u estio n s whi ch h a v e a n i n ti m a t e co nn e c
tio n with o n tology a n d h a v e n ot b een st u di e d in t h e two p rec e d
ing p a r ts : s p a c e a n d ti m e c er titu d e re ligio n r e v el a tio n t h e
, , , ,

r e l a tio n O f f a ith a n d r ea so n e t c ,
.

O B r ie n is a n en th u si a stic a d m i r er O f M e di ae v a l philosophy
’
.

He is co n vi n c e d th a t m a n y p r of esso r s who a re n ow e x toll e d a s

p r odigi e s O f l e a rn i n g wou ld h a d th e i r lot b een c a st in th e O f t
,

”1 9
r e vil e d m iddl e a g e s h a v e b een co n sid e re d noisy school boys
,
-
.

I n h a rm on y with t h e Schol a stic p r i n cipl e O f t h e u n ity O f

t r u th h e m a i n t a i n s th a t th ere c a n b e b ut on e t ru e s yst em O f
,

philos ophy a n d go e s eve n f a rth er th a n m ost O f t h e ea rly n eo

,

Schol a stics in his con t em pt u ou s dis r esp ect for m od ern thi n ki n g .

L et itd er stoo d f ro m t h e o u ts et s a ys h e th a t we d en y
be un , ,
“

t h e titl e O f P hi losoph er to t h e fo u n de r s O f sch ools O f err o r .

T h e m a n who a s a g en er a l r u l e bl u n d er s in t h e a rt h e p r of esse s
, ,

to follow i s n ot c a ll e d a t ra d es m a n b u t a botch er ; why th en

, , , ,

c a ll m e a n i n gl ess sc r ibbl er s P hilosoph er s ? Th ey a r e lit era r i

”2 °
f un gi .

And if we wish t o k n ow m o re d e fi n itely who t h e se m ea n ing

”
l e ss sc r ibbl er s a re we sh a ll p erh a ps b e a stonish e d to fi n d
,

a m o n g th e m :

P h il o s o p h y O f t he Bibl e p p
,
. 5 6 , 5 7 , 1 62 .

"
1
I b i d pp 8 1
.
, .
, 83 .

”
I b id p 1 1 0
.
, . .

1°
I b id p V i
.
, . .

”
I b id p 3 .
,
. .
 24 7

Ph ilosophic q ua cks s u ch ,
as H egel K a nt
, ,
D a rw in , a nd id
en us om n e ;
21
g
Spi n o za who ga v e su ch a p r oo f O f m ent a l a b erra tion th a t
,

a school boy who wo ul d b e gu ilty O f s im il a r co n tra dictio n s w ou ld

-
,

m ost su r ely b e doo m ed to lose hi s fi r st holid a y a nd oblig e d to ,

writ e fi ve h un d re d ti m es : I dem non p otes t si mu l es s e e t n on

22
ess e ;
“
discipl es O f t h e t ra n sc en d en t a l G erm a n sch ool wh o
Th e , ,

l ull ed i n to a se m i so m n ifer o u s st a t e by l a ger b ee r a n d str o n g

-
,
” 28
ciga rs t a lk m isty things which th ey c a ll t ra n sc e nd ent a l
, .

Lo u is A ctua l presid en t O f th e U n iv er sity La v a l

. Pa q u e t , a ,

p ublish ed in 1 8 8 8 in t h e re vi e w C a na da f ra n ga is O f Q ueb e c
, , ,

a n i m po rta n t a rticl e en titl e d : Ros m ini e t s on s y s t em s in which

, ,

h e re f u t es t h e Rosm ini a n doct r i n es by t h e p ri n cipl es O f Schol a s

tic philosophy .

A f ew y ea r s l a te r M gr P a q u e t p ubli sh e d t h e fi rs t v ol um e s
,
.

O f t h e wo r k u po n which his f a m e chi e fly r e s t s h is D is p u ta ti on es ,

th eolog ic ce which fo rm a l ea rne d co m m en t a ry on St Thom a s s

, .
’

S u m m a T h eo log ic a Th e fi rst e ditio n O f t h e w o r k wa s p u b

.

lish ed in Q ueb ec b etw een t he y e a r s 1 8 9 3 a n d 1 9 0 3 A s ec o n d .

e d ition is n o w b e i n g m a d e a t Ro m e .

Men tion m u st a lso b e m a d e O f B ro t h er Sy m ph or i e n Lo u i s O f -

,

t h e C hristi a n Schools who p ubl ish e d i n M o nt r e a l in 1 9 0 5 a, , ,

te x t book on Schol a stic m e t a physic s ( P r é c is de Mé ta p h y s iq u e )

-
.

A m o ng th e rec en t d e fen d ers O f Tho m i sm in C a n a d a n o o ne ,

p erha ps h a s s er v ed t h e Schol a stic ca u s e with a g rea t e r dis t inc

tion th a n Al e x a n d er Ma c D ona ld a ctu a l Vic a r G ene ra l O f A n t i ,

go n ish a n d recto r of St A n d rew s ( N ov a Scoti a ) . .

Bo rn in S W M a bo u C a p e B re to n on F eb ru a ry 1 8 1 8 58
. .
, , , ,

Mr Ma c D ona ld stu di ed a t S t F ra n cis X a vi e r Coll ege ( A n ti

. .

goni sh ) a n d a t t h e P ro pa ga n d a in Rom e wh er e h e wa s th e , ,

d iscipl e O f t h e f a m o us C a rdin a l S a tolli A fte r b eing ord a in ed .

,

in 1 8 8 4 h e ta ught phi losophy for nin etee n y ea rs in St F ra ncis

, .

"
I b id .
, p . 84 .

”
I bi d .
, p . 42 .

"
I b id .
,
p . 19 .
X a vi er Coll ege D ur ing this
.

ch a m pion O f t h e S chol a stic p r i n ciple s in n um ero u s a rticl es ,

which a pp ea r e d in t h e Cas ket O f A n tigonish or in oth e r p er iod

, ,

i c a l p ubl ic a tions ( cf B ibliogra phy ) M r Ma c D on a ld is a lso

. . .

t h e a u tho r O f s e v era l im porta nt works in th eolog y su ch a s Th e

,

S a c rifice of t h e Ma ss ( N ew Y o rk Th e S a cra m en ts ( New

Y ork ,
with whi ch this e ss a y i s n ot dire ctly conc ern ed
.
 2 50

A LV ARAD O , O P . .
, FRAN CI S C O . C t
ar as de l F il os o fo Ra n ci o . 2 v ol .
,
M a d r id ,

1 8 51 —5 2 .

A L V ARE Z , NR I QUE E l em e n t os de F ilos o fi a y M or a l B og ot a 1 8 8 4

E . .
,
.

A N G ELERI . R os m i n i e p a n t e i s t a ? R i s p o s t a de l S a c P ro f A ng e le r i . .

a ll O p u s c u lO d e gl i U n i ve r s a l i de l P
’
M L ib e ra t o re V e ron a 1 8 82 . . .
,
.

U m a r tic o l o d e ll a C i v ilt a c a tt o l ic a c o n t r o n u O p u s c o l o R o s m i n i e ,

p a n t e i s t a ? e s a m i n a t o d a ll a u t o r e de ll O p us c olo m e d e s i m o 1 8 8 2 ’ ’
. .

A N G E L I CU S P ,
A v é g t e le n B Olc s F o ly 1 8 9 1
. . . .
, .

A N H AU P E L G ,
A z a kt u s é s a p o t e n c ia r OI
. B o lcs P o ly 1896 . . .
, .

A RB O I S Y TO R E n s a y o de F i s ica y Q u im ic a t r a n s ce n de n t a l B a r ce l on a
. .
,

1 8 79 .

A RN A I z , M AR C EL I N O E l I n s tit u t o s u p e r i or de F ilos ofi a ( E s c u e l a de
.

S a n t o T o m as de A q u i no ) e n la U n i v er s id a d Ca t olic a de L ova i na .

M a dr id 1 9 0 1 , .

L a Ne O E s c o l as tic a a l c o m e n z a r e l s igl o XX
-
Ci u da d de D i os 1 9 0 2 .
,
.

L o s f e n Om e n O s p s i c O lOg i c o s C u e s ti on e s de p s ico l ogia c o n te m .

p o r f me a M a d r id Tip d e l.S a g r a d O C o r a z on 1 9 03 , .
, .

E l e m e n t o s de p s ic o l og ia f u n d a d a e n la e xp e r i e n ci a L L a Vida . :

s e n s ibl e M a d r i d Ta b a r e s 1 9 0 4
.
, , .

A b u s e de la s m e t a f o r a s e n la s ci e n ci a s p s ic o lOg i c a s Ci u d a d d e .

D i os , 1 9 0 5 .

M on s . D . Me r ci e r P r i m a d o ,
de B é lgic a . Su O b ra fi lo s Ofi c a . Ci u da d
d e D i os , 1 9 06 .

P r a g rna t i s m oy H u m a n i s m o Cu lt u r a es p a no la 1 9 0 7 .
,
.

A S I N Y PALA CI O S MIG UEL Alga z e l D og m at iea M o r a l A s c étic a Con

, . .
, , .

p r ol ogo d e M e n e n de z P e l a y o Z a r a g o z a C om a s 1 9 0 1 .
, , .

E 1 A v e rr o i s m o t e o l ogic o d e S a n t o To m as d e A qu i n o Z a r a go z a . ,

1904 .

S en s da m o t Te h a f ot d a n s le s oeu v re s d E l G h a z a l i ct d A v e rr oe s ’
-
’
.

T r a d u i t p a r J R ob e r t Alg er J ou r da n 1 9 0 6 .
, , , .

L a P s ic o l o g ia s e gun M o b idi n A b e n a r a b i P a r i s L e r ou x 1 9 0 6 . , ,
.

L a i n di f e r e n ci a r e l igi o s a e n la E s p a na m u s u l m a n a s eg fm Ab e n
‘

h a z a m h i s t o r i a d o r de la s r e l igi o n e s y la s s e ct a s
, M a d r id I m p .
, .

I b e r ic a 1 9 0 7 , .

De s c r ipti o n d u n m a n u s c r it a r a b e ch r é ti e n ( E xt r a it d e l a R ev u e
’
-

de l O r i e n t c h r é ti e n Pa ri s 1 9 0 7
’

, , .

O C T AV E Albe r t ls G ra n d P a r i s 1 8 7 0
’
D A S S A I L LY , . .
, .

A S TB O M O F F J I n t r o d u c t i o a d i n t e llig e n da m do c t r in a m A n g e l ici D oc
, .

t o r i s R o m fe 1 8 8 4
.
, .

A UBR Y J B M el a nge s de p h iI O S O p h ie c a t h o l i que lo c a r t és i a ni s m e le

, . .
, ,

ra ti o n a l i s m e e t la s c o l a s ti q u e P a r i s R e t a ux 1 8 9 5 .
, , .

D E A U G U S TI N I S S J A RM I LI U S D e D eo U n o se cu n d u m N a t u ra m
, . .
, . .

P r aele c t i o ne s S c h o la s t ic o D og m a t ic ae q u a s i n C o ll egi o SS C o r di s -
.

a d W o od s t o c k h a b eb a t ; N e O E b o r a c i B e nz ig e r 1 8 8 4 -
, , .
A VELI N G , FRAN CI S C h r i s ti a n P h il os o p hy D ub lin Rev 1 9 02
. . .
, .

Th e Agnos tici s m O f F a it h D u b lin R e v 1903 . .

, .

Th e P hi l o s o p h y O f He r be rt Sp e n ce r D u b lin R ev 1 9 0 4 . .
, .

The La n gua g e O f t h e Sch oo l s D u b lin R ev 1904 . .

, .

P hi l o s o p h y Q ue e n a n d H a n dma id e n D u b li n R ev 1 9 0 5
, . .
, .

Th e I m m o rt a l ity O f t h e So u l Lo nd on a nd E di nb u rg h S a nd s 1 9 0 5 .
, ,
.

Sci e n ce a n d Fa it h Lo nd on a nd E di nb u rgh S a nd s 1 9 0 6 .
, , .

The G od O f P h i l os o p h y Lo n d on a n d E di n b u rg h Sa n d s 1 9 0 6 .
, , .

Th e P r o g r e s s O f Th o ug h t a n d t h e C a t h o l ic F a it h A m er O a t h . . .

Q ua r t 1 9 0 7 .
, .

Th e T h o ug h t V a l u e O f P r oo f : a n E i r e n ic o n
-
A m e r Ca t h Q uar t . . .
,

19 0 7 .

A ZARI A S B RO THER Th e De v e l o p m e n t O f O ld E ngl i s h Th o ug h t

, . . 3 ed

Ne w Y o r k Appl e t o n 1 8 9 0 , , .

A r i s t o tl e a nd t h e C h r i s ti a n C h u r c h L on d o n Ke ga n P a u l .
, , CO .
,

1 889 .

Me d ize v a l Uni ve r s ity Li f e . A m er . C a th Q ua r t 1 8 9 3

. .
, .

U n i ve r s ity C ll g o e es : the i r or igi n a nd t he i r m t h od e A m er C a th

1 8 9 3—
. . .

Q ua r t .
, 4 .

E s s a y s p h il o s o p h i ca l C h ica go 1 8 9 6 .
, .

B A CK J os
, De s Albe r t u s M a g n u s Ve r h ii lt n i s z u
. s de r E r ke nn t n is s le h re
de r G r i e c h e n Ro m r A r a be r u n d J ud e n ,
e , . W i en ,
B ra u m u lle r ,
188 1 .

Fe s t re de z um 6 0 0 j ii h r ig e n J u b ilii u m Albe r t s ’
de s G r o s se n . A ug s

b u rg 1 8 8 1 , .

DR BA CKE B , S T AN I S LAU S I n s t it u t io ne s m e t a p h y s ic ze s pe ci a l i
S J . .
, . s .

P a r i s De l h o m m e,
B r igu e t 1 8 9 9 —1 9 0 5 ,
.

B A CO N RO G ER
, e dit
Je bb O p u s m a j us Lo n d on 1 7 33 ; e d B re we r
. .
, , , .
,

O p u s te r ti u m O p u s m i n u s C o m pe n d i u m P h ilO S O p h iaa L o n d o n
, , , ,

1 8 59 ; e d B r idge s O p u s m a j u s O xf o r d 1 8 9 7
.
, , , .

DE B u rrs MAUR I CE Le s b a se s de la m o ra l e e t du d ro i t Pa r i s Alca n

, . .
, ,

1 8 9 2 ; Sp a n by G o nza l e z Ca r re fi o M a d r i d 1 9 0 7

fl
. .
, ,

B AEU H KEB CLEME N S , Da s P ro bl e m de r M a te r i a i n de r g r i e c h i s c he n

.

P hi lOS O p hi e M un s te r A sc h e ndo r 1 8 9 0 .
,
'

, .

A ve n ce b ro lis ( I b n Ge b i ro l ) F o n s Vitie E x a ra bic o in l a ti num .

t ra ns la t us a b J o h a n na H i s p a no e t Do m i ni c o G u ndi s s a lino ( Be i
t rii g e ) . Mtin s t e r , 1 89 2 9 5 -
.

E in T r a c t a t ge ge n die A ma lr icia ne r a us de m A n fa ng de s X I I I .

Ja h rh P a d e rbo rn 1 8 9 3
. , .

Ha n d s c h r i ftlic h e s z u de n W e rke n de s Al a nu s F uld a 1 8 9 4 .

, .

Die I m po ss ibili a des Sigo r vo n B ra b a n t ( Be it rage ) M uns t e r 1 8 9 8 .

, .

Do m i n ic us G undis sa lin us a ls phil oso phi s c h e r Sc h r i fts t e l l e r Mil n .

 252

P h i l os o p h ic de s Mitt e l a lt e rs . T e xt e u nd U nt er s u c h u n g M un te
. s r,

1 89 1
H A Alcu i n d L h K l d G
B A H BDT, . . er e re r ar s es r os s e n . L a u en b u rg 1 8 6 1 , .

B A ILLE LO U I S Sci n c t R ligi n Q u t

, . e e e e o .
’
es -
ce q u e la s ci e n ce . Pa r i s ,

1906 .

G e n ese p re m i er s p r i n ci p es R ev d e P h i los 1 9 0 7
de s . . .
, .

L a q u e s ti on du m ixte R ev d e P h i los 1907 . . .

, .

B ALLER I N I G I U S E PP E A na l i s i del s oci a l i s m o con te m p o ra ne o 4 cd

, . . . .
,

Si en a S B e rna r di no 1 9 0 1 ; S p a n by Cr u sa t de E gu il a z M a d r id
, .
,
.
, ,

Roj a s 1 90 2 , .

I l d og m a E u c a r i s tic o L a s ci e nz a i n c r e d u l a e la fi lo s o fi a t om i s tic a
. .

M onz a 1 9 00 , .

I ] p r i n cipi o di c a u s a l it a e l e s i s t e nza di D i O di f r on t e a ll a s ci e n za
’

m o de r n a F i ren ze l ib F i or en ti na 1 9 0 4 ; 2 cd 1 9 0 8
.
, .
, . .
, .

L a c on os c e n z a d e l l a l di la L a di m o s t r a z i o n e de l l a l di l a
’ ’
S c uo l . . .

c” 1 907 .

B ALLO U H P h il o s o p h y a nd d o ct r i ne s O f E r igen a Un iv Q ua r t vi i 9 0
, . . . .
, , .

B AL ME S J A I ME El C r it e r i o M a d r i d 1 8 42 ; F re n ch by E M a ns e
,
. .
, .
,

P a r i s 1 8 50 ; E ngl Ne w Y o r k 1 8 7 5 ; E ngl by W m M c D ona ld

,
.
, , .
, .
,

D ubl i n 1 8 8 2 , .

F i l o s o f ia f un d a m e n t a l 4 VO L B a r ce l on a 1 8 4 6 ; 7 cd 1 8 9 8 ; .
, , . .
,

F r e n c h by E Ma ne c 3 V O L P a r i s 1 8 5 2 ; E ng ] by He n r y F
.
, , ,
. .

B rown s o n ( w it h I n t r o d u cti o n by O A B r owns o n ) 2 VO L New . .

, ,

Y o r k 1 8 ; G e r m a n by L o r m s on 4 VO L Re ge n s b u rg 1 8 55—56
, , , , , .

C u r s o d e fi lo s o f f a e l e m en t a l M a d r id 1 847 ; 9 cd B a r ce l ona 1 8 9 9 .
, . .
, , .

C u r s u s p h iI O S O p h ise e lem e n t a r is 2 VO L B a rc in on e B ru s i 1 8 4 8—50 .

, , , .

C a r t a s a n u e s c é ptic o e n m a t e r i a de r e l igi on M ex ic o 1 8 4 9 .
, .

S e l ect a c ole c c iOn d e e s c r it o s del S r D r D Ja i m e B a l m es Mex ic o . . . .

,

1 8 50 .

c r it os p o s t u m o s d e r S r D r D Ja i m e B a l m e s M exic o 1 8 5 1
Es . . . .
, .

B ALT HA S AR N IC O LA S L e P r o bl em e de D i e u d a p res la P h i lO S O p h ie
, .
,
’

nou v l l e R ev N é O S co l 1 9 0 7—8
e . .
-
.
, .

B ALTU S URRA I N L ide a lis m e de s a i n t A ugu s ti n e t de sa i nt T h om a s

,
.
’

’
d A q u in R ev . . béné d .
, 1 897 .

i ’
D e u d a r es u p H gue s de St V icto r R ev b éné d 1 89 8 . . . .
, .

U ne a p o l ogi e p r o te s t a n te de s a i nt T h o m a s d A q u i n
’
. R ev . b é né d .
,

1 89 8 .

B ARA C H C ARL SIG MUN D

, JO HAN N WRO BEL . B er n a r di S ilve s t r i s De
M u n di Unive r s it a t e , s ve i M eg a cos m os e t Mic r oc osm os . I nns b ru c k ,

1 8 76 .

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, . St T h om a s s L a t e s t C r itic
.
’
. A m er . Oa t h . Q ua r t
1885 .

Th e F o r ce Of P r i n cipl e s . A m er . O a th .
Q ua r t , 1 890 .

‘
Th e wo r k s
b e l o ng i n g to t h i s co l l e cti on a re ma r k d e : ( Be i t r ii g e ) i n
our Bibl i og ra p h y .
B EA U S S I RE , E M I LE D J B a l m e s R ev Mode rne 1 8 69 . . . . .
,
.

B E CC AR I A P S a ggi o di fi lo s ofi a it a l i a n a e t om i s t a T o r i n o 1 8 8 9
, . .
, .

S a ggi o di fi lo s ofi a m o ra l e S B en ign o C a n a v e s e 1 8 9 1 . .
, , .

B E C ELAERE O P L A S u m m a r y E xp o s iti on o f St T h oma s

'

VA N ,
. .
, . .

A qu i n a s s P h il os o p h y O f K n owl e dge P h i los R ev 1 9 0 3

’
. . .
, .

L a p h iI O S O p h i e e n A m é r i q u e d e p ui s le s o r igi n e s j u s q u a n os j o u rs
’

( wit h I n t r o d u cti o n by J o s i a h R oyce ) Ne w Y or k E cl e ctic P ub .

, .

CO .
, 19 04 .

B E CKER B LA S D e r S a t z de s h l A n s e l m C re d o u t i n t ellig a m i n
, JO S . . . : ,

s e i n e r B e de u t u n g u n d T r a g w e it e P h i lo s J a h r b 1 9 0 5—6 . . .
,
.

B ED ER D e A n s e l m C a n t Lu g d B a t a v 1 8 3 2
. . . . .
, .

B EER PE T ER Le b e n u n d W i r k en de s Ra bbi M ose s b en M a i m on P r a g

, . .
,

1 8 34 .

B E GI N Sci e n c es n a t u r e ll es du m oye n ag e P a r i s 1 8 5 1
. .
, .

B EN I S C H A Two l e ctu r es on t h e l i fe a n d wr iti ng s O f M a i m on id es

, . .

L on d on 1 8 4 7 , .

B E N YA CS J A k e r e s z ten y s z oc ia liz m u e l B u d a p e s t 1 9 0 5
, . .
, .

B EN Z O N I R L a fi lO S O fi a de ll A c a de m ia R om a n a di S a n T o mm a s o
, .
’
. .

R ev . i t a l di fi lo s .
, 1 886 .

B ER G EMAN N . Der s ch o l a s ti s c h e St a a t s g e da nke . Ph . Wo c h ens ch r if t u .

L i t t e ra t u r -
Z e i t u ng , Bd . 3, 1 9 0 6 .

B RE G O N Y A E s t u di o s c ri t ic os a ce r ca de la s O b ra s de S t o
VA S Q U E z , . .

To m es d e A q u i n o M a d r id 1 8 9 9 .
, .

S T B ERNAR D O p e ra P a r i s 1 8 3 9 L y on 1 8 4 5 ; e d J M M a nde rn a c h
. .
, , .
, . . .
,

t o m 1 T re v 1 8 6 1 ; F r e n c h by A Ra v e le t P a r i s 1 8 65 ; by C h a r
.
, .
, .
, ,

n t ie r 8 V O L P a ris 1 8 7 3 S we di s h by H W i e s e lg re n St o ck
p e ; , , , .
,

h o l m 1 844 , .

B ERN I E S V IC TO R I m m a t é r i a l it é e t m a t é r i a l i t é de l am e h u m a i n e R e v
, .
’
. .

de P h i lo s .
,
190 1 .

Spi r i t ua l it é et i mm or t a l it é P a r i s Bl on d 1 90 1 .
, , .

s co l a s ti q u e e t 1 I n t e lle ct u s a g e n s
"‘
d e P h i lo s
’
L A b s t ra c t i o n . R ev . .
,

1 9 04 .

L
’
O r ig i neid ée s R ev de P h i los 1 9 0 6de s . . .
,
.

B E RT I I A U M I EB H i s t o i re de s a i n t B on a vent u re Pa r i s 1 8 58 Ge rma n
. .
, . ,

R eg e n s b u rg 1 8 63 , .

B ER T H I ER O P J J T a b u l ae sy s t em a t icae e t s y nO p t i caa t ot ius Summ as

, . . .

Th e o log i ca : j u s t a ip sa m m e t D o ct o r i s A n g e l ici m et h o dum s t r ic t iu s

e t c la r i u s e x a c t ae F r ib u rg i He lv e t io r u m e d a lt e r a 1 8 9 3 .
, .
, .

Ta b u laa s y s t e m a t icaa e t sy n O p t icee t o t iu s S u m m a; c o n t ra G e n ti l es .

Pa r i s 1 9 0 0 , .

L é t u de de la S o mm e T h éo l ogi qu e d e sa i n t Th om a s d A q u in Pa r i s
’ ’
.
,

2 cd 1 9 06
. .
, .

BERT I N A RI A F 1 1 p r o bl e m a c a p it a l e d e ll a Sc o l a s ti c a
, . R i v i t a l di . . .

fi lo s .
,
1 8 89 .
 va n i
Pa r i s Le t o uze y A n e 1 902
.
, , .

P hilos o p hi c e t P h il oso p h es E ss a i s de c r iti q u e p h il oso p h i q ue . .

P re m i ere eerie P refa ce p a r l a bbe G u i be rt Pa r i s Le t hi e lle ux .

’
.
, ,

1 9 04 .

L tte re de F ra n ce L a gon i a de la m ora l e

.
’
. Rev . Né o S co l -
.
,
19 06 .

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.
’
. R ev . N é o S co l -
.
, 1907 .

BE S B ME B , S J . J S t o ru nge n im See l e n l e be n
. . F re ib u rg i B - -
.
,
H d er er,

19 0 5 .

Sc h o l a s t ik un d m od e rne Ph ilO SO p hi e . S t mm en i o us Ma r ia -
Le a h , c
19 07 .

B ET HUNE L e nse ig nement de la p h ilO S O p h ie t h o m i s t e a l u n i e r s ite

.
’ ’
v

ca t h o li q ue de L o uva i n Lou va i n 1 8 8 7 .
, .

B E VILA C QUA V I RG I LI O C on f r on to d e ll e d o tt r i ne de i Ros m i ni a n i e de i

, .

Ne o t om i s ti V i ce nza 1 8 82 .
, .

B EYS EN S J TH , De O nt wikke li ng s g e s ch ie de n is de r o rga n i s c h e s o o rt e n

. . .

v a n h e t s ta n dp un t de r S c h o la st ie ke W ij s b e g e e r t e L e i de n Th o n .
, e

v ill e 190 2 , .

C r i te r i o l ogi e O f de Le e r o ve r wa a rh e id e n z eke r h e id Le ide n Th eo n .

,

v i ll e 19 03 ,
.

O nt o l ogi e O f A lg e me e ne Me t a p h y s ic a A m s t e r da m V a n L a n g e n .
,

h uy s e n , 1 9 0 4 .

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1906 .

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o r iee n , G od s b e wij ze n . A m s te r d a m ,
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B I A N CB I , O P . .
, R AI MUN DO . De Co n s t i t u t io n e m o n a r h c ica E c c le s im et

de I n f a llib ilit a te R o m a n i P o n t i fi c is j u xt a D . T h o m a m A q u in a t is

j
e us q ue c h o l e m Romaa 1 8 7 0 s , . .

BI ERBO W ER A St Th om a s A q u i na s Ne w E n g la n de r 1 8 8 3
, . . .
, .

B I G UET .P h il o so p h e s m od e rne s e t p h i l os o p h e s s c o l a s t i q ue s . c
S ie n ce
ca t h 1 90 6 .
, .

BI R AR I F A z i dea lizm us t tirt é net e B u d a pe s t 1 9 0 0

, . .
, .

A lé le k mi be n lé te A r is t o t e le s né l B b lcs F o ly 1 9 0 1 .
’

. .
, .

Az e mbe r i é rt e le m A r is t o t e le s nel B Olcs 1903

‘

. . .

Bi llia , L M . . Di a lc u ne c o n t r a diz io n i de l n eo o m s m o t i . N uo vo R is e r
g i m en t o , 1 8 9 7 9 8
-
.

L
’
Ago s ti no T o ri no 1 89 9
es ig l io di 8 . .
, .

BILLROT H J G F De A ns e l m i Ca nt ua rie ns is
, . . .
p ro s log i o et m o n o log io .

L i p s iw, 1 8 3 2 .

BI N D EL , R . D ie E rk e n nt n iss le h re H ug o s
’
vo n St V ic t o r
. . P rog . de s
Rea lgymna s i um s zu Q ua c ke nb r tlc k 1 8 8 9 , .

B I TTCH ER, H . Da s Le be n de s Pe te r A b h la rd . Z ei t s oh .
f . h is t or . Th e o l .
,

1 8 69 .
 2 56

B LAN C E LIE
, . T r a it é d a l ib re a rb it rc . Ly o n 1 8 8 6 , .

T ra it é de p h il os o ph i c s co l a s ti qu e . Ly o n, V it t e , 1 8 89 ; 2 . cd .
,
1 89 3 .

H i s t o i r e dela p h ilO S O p h ie p a r t ic u lier e m e n t de la p h ilo s op h ic

et c on

t e m p ora in e y on a n d . L Pa r i s , 1 8 9 6
Mel a ng es p h il o s o p h i qu es L y on a n d P a r i s 1 8 9 7—
.

1 9 00 .
, .

O p u s cu l e s p h i l o s o p h i q u e s Ly o n a n d P a r i s . .

M a n u a l e p h il os o p h i es s c h ola s t icae 2 VO L L yo n V itte 1 9 0 1 .

, , ,
.

La Vé r ité S a d efi n iti o n e t s e s e s p ec e s
. R ev d e P h i los 190 1 . . .
, .

D icti o nna i re de p h ilO S O p h ie a n ci e n n e m od e r ne e t c on t em p ora i ne , .

P a r i s Let h ielle ux 1 9 0 6
, , .

L a f O i e t l a m o ra l e c h r é t i e n ne P a r i s L e t h ielleu x 1 9 0 7 ‘
.
, , .

B LAN C E LI E AN D H U G UE S VA G A N A Y Rep e r t oi re bibl i og ra p h i que de s

, ,
.

a uteurs et de s o u v ra ge s c o n t e m p o ra i n s de l a n gu e f r a n ca i s e o u
l a ti ne P a r i s V ic e t A m a t 1 9 0 2
.
, , .

BL AN C HE A S u r 1 u s a g e de l é v ide n c e c om m e s u p r em e c r it é r i um R e v
’ ’

—
. . .
,

t hom .
,
19 03 4 .

D E BLAN C HE R A FF I N A B a l m es sa vie e t s e s ouv ra ge s P a r i s 1 8 4 3 ;

-
, .
, . .
,

G e r m a n by F X K a r k e r R ege n s bu rg 1 8 52 . .
, , .

B LO C H M O I S E
,
L e l i v re de s p r é c e pt e s p a r M o i s e b e n M a i m o n p u bl i é
.
,

d a n s l o r igi na l a ra be P a r i s 1 8 8 8
’
.
, .

B O EDDE R S J B ERNAR D
,
. N a t u r a l T h eo l og y
.
,
N e w Y o r k B e nz ig e r 1 8 9 1 ;
. .
, ,

L o n do n L ong m a n s G ree n CO 2d e d 1 8 9 9
, ,
.
, , .

P s y c h olog ia n a t u r a l i s s i ve p h il o s o p h i a de a n i m a h u m a na F r ib u rg i .
,

1 894 ; ed . 19 06 .

Th e o l og ia t u r a l i s s i v e p h il os o p h i a de De o F r ib u rg i 1 8 9 5
na .
, .

B O LLE A L C ,
I I m i s tici s m o di s B o n a ve n t u r a s t u di a t o n e ll e s u e a nt e
. . .
,

c e de nze e ne ll e s ue e s pl ica z i on i Tor i no C l a u s en 1 9 0 1 .

, ,
.

BO N A CI N A C D ott r i n a di s a n To m m a s o d A q u in O s ul c on c o rs o g ene ra ls ’
.
,

di D io ne ll a x io n e c r ea t a Mil a n o 1 8 8 9 ’
.
, .

B O N A TE LL I L a p s ic o l ogi a di D M e r ci e r
. R i v fi los 1 9 00 . . / . .
,
.

S B O NA VEN T URA O p e r a ; e d A C P e lti e r 1 5 VO L P a r i s a nd B e sa n

. . . . . .
,

c o n 1 8 6 4 — 7 1 ; e dit a s t u di o e t c u ra PP Co lleg i i a S B o n a ve n t u ra
,
. .
,

Ad C l a ra s A q u a s p r op e F lo re nt ia m 1 8 8 2—9 8 , , .

D e h u m a n se c og n it io n is r a ti o n e a n e cdo t a q uaed a m S e r a p h ic i D o c t o r i s
S B o n a v e n t u rw e t n on nu llo ru m i p s iu s dis c i p ulo rum Ad C l a ra s
. .

A qu a s p r o p e Flore nt ia m 1 8 8 3 , , .

T r i a O p u s c u l a B r ev iloq uiu m I ti ne ra r i u m m enti s i n D e um a t D e

.
,

r e d u c t i o n e a r ti u m a d t h e o lo ia m e dit a s t u di o e t c u r a PP Co lle
g g , . .

a S B on a v e nt u r a Q u a r a c c h i 1 8 9 0
. .
, .

B O N G H I L u lt im a e n cicl ica e il p en s i e r o del p on t e fi ce Nuo va A n t o log ia

.
’
.
,

l i v, 1 8 8 5 .

B O N I T O De l l a fi lo s ofi a di a l e ttic a s uO s c o p o e d im p o r t a n za
.
,
’
c o ll a g g i u n t a

d e l l e re g ol e a he n c o n d u r re le di s p u t e fi los o fi ch e e t e o l o ic he g
.

Si e na S B e rna r di no , . .
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DE B O YLE S VE, S J . .
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d é t u de s et de l e ct u re . 4 . cd P a r i s
.
, ,

H t a on, 1 8 84 .

S a i n t T h o m a s on 1 A nge de l E c ole P a r i s 1 8 8 6 ,
’ ’
.
, .

B RAM C De r h l B o n a ve n t u r a a ls Mys ti ke r K a t h o li k B d L V I I I
, . . .
, .
,

M a i nz 1 8 8 7 , .

B RAN N HENR Y A Th e Spi r it u a l ity a n d I mm o r t a l ity O f t h e H um a n

, .

S ou l A R e ply t o t h e M a t e r i a l i s t s N e w Y o r k C a t h P ubl ic
. .
, . .

S oc . CO .
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1 8 85 .

B RAUN FR ID ER IC U S
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1 8 52 .

VO N B REN T AN O ,
E . Alb e r t u s M a gn u s , O r d e nsm a nn, B i s ch o f un d G e le h r
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B RE S C H ,
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1 8 57 .

B RE S S O LE S . E tude s ur lo t r a it é de s l O i s de sa n i t T h om a s d A q u in
’
. Re v .

d e leg i s la t i o n d e To u lo u s e , 1 8 53
’
de l A c a d . .

B R IC E NO S E C UN DI
,
L ig b NO F i lo s o f f a de Sp e n c e r
e ro s a p u n t o s s o r e la
.

c o m p a r a da c on la F i l o s o fi a E s c o lfxs t ic a Le On 1 8 9 4 .
, .

O pu scul um D e q u a r t a fi g u ra s y llog i s t i c a
. L e on 1 9 0 4 .
, .

L a d o ct r i n a d e l A n g é l ico D o ct o r s o b re la I n m a c u l a d a C o n c e pci on
de la M a d r e d c D i o s E s t u di o F ilO S Ofi c O Te o l ogic o L e On 1 9 0 4 .
-
.
,
.

R e s p u e s t a a la s O b s e rv a ci o n e s a c e r c a de l O p iI s c u l O L a D o ct r i n a
‘

d e l A ng é l ic o D o ct o r s ob r e la I n m a c u l a d a C o n c e pci on de la M a d re
de D i os l a s c u a l es f u e ro n p u bl ica d a s p o r l a r e v i s t a R a z on y Fé
, ,

en e l a r t ic u l o S a n t o T o m as y la I n m a c u l a da C on c e pci on L e On ,

1 905 .

BRI N P M . . M e t h o du s a n a ly t ic O -
s y n t h e t ic a in s c ie n t ii s m et a p h y s i c i s .

De i n t e llec t u a li s m o j u xt a m e n te m Syll a bi v a t ic a n iq u e c o nc ilii

a dve r s u s e r r or e s p h il o s O p h ic o s -
p r e cip u e r a t ion a li s m um p o s it iv is ,

—
,

m um e t n o va m c r it i c e m . 3 V O L, 1 8 74 76 .

H i t i g e e l d l p h il
s o re n ra e e a O S O p h ie . 3 V O L, 1 8 82—86 .

B RO CK H O F J O S D i L h d
E, . e e re es hl . T h om a s v on de r E r k e nn b a r k e it
G tt J h b Ph
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1 89 1 .

D E B RO G L I E . Le p o s iti v i s m e et la s ci en ce e x pé r i men t a l e . 2 V O L, Pa r i s ,

V i c t o r i o n, 1 8 8 1 .

La M o ra l e D i eu s es p r i n cip e s e t s e s c on s eq uen ce s Pa r i s 1 8 8 6
s a ns , .
, .

L a r ea c t io n c o n t r e le p o s iti v i s m e Pa r i s P l on 1 8 9 4 .
, , .

Le s c o n d iti o n s m o d e r n e s de l a cc or d e n t re la f o i e t la ra i s o n Pa r i s ’
.
,

Bl o n d 1 9 03 , .

B B U N H E S G ABR IE L L a f o i c h r éti e n n e e t la p h ilO S O p h ie e u t e m p s de la

‘

fl
, .

r e n a i s s a n c e c a ro l i n gi e n n e Pa r i s 1 9 0 3 .
, .

B U C H W ALD De r L og O S b eg r i d es J o h a n n e s Sc o t u s E r ig e n a Le ip z ig '

. .
,

1 884 .

B U K O F Z E R, J . M a i m on ide s i m Ka m p f m it i
s e ne m ne u e s e n t Bi og ra p h e n ,

P Be e r. . B e r l i n 1 8 44 , .
BU L L I A T , G Th . e sa u ru s p h ilO S O p h ia! t h o m i st i cw se u
te xt us p h il o s e lec t i

so p h i c i e x 8 Th omas A q O pe r ib us de p ro m p t i e t se c un d um o rdi ne m
. .

i n s c h o l i s h odi e u s u r pa t um d is po s it i Na n n e t is 1 8 9 9 ; P a r i s .
, ,

Am a t 19 0 0

fl
, .

B ULL IN G ER A NT P h a n t a s te re i O d e r Sc h w i nd e l ? F ra ge a n den Ne ns e b o
,
.

la s t ike r D r M G l os s ne r b e t re e n d se i ne K r itik de r vo n m i r ve r
'

. .

t re t e ne n P h il o so p h ic M anch e n 1 8 9 7 .
, .

Ma in l e t z te s W o rt a n de n Ne us c h o la s t ike r D r M G l os s n e r . . .

Miin c h e n Ac ke rm a nn 1 8 9 9 , , .

B U LLI OT La t h eo r i e d es ca t ego r i e s d a n s la p h ilO S O p h ie pé r i p a t é t ie ie n ne

. .

H i s t o i re e t c r iti q ue Co ngr es s c ie nt if i n te r n de s ca t h o l i q ues . . .

,

1 89 7 .

B ULLON FERN A ND EZ E E n s a y os de c ri tica fi lO S Ofi ca E l a l m a de los , . .

b rut o s a nte lo s fi lOS O f o s es p a fi ole s M a d r id H e rn ande z 1 8 9 7 .

, ,
.

J a i m e B a l m e s y s u s O b ra s R ev C o n t e m p o r a ne a 1 9 0 3 . .
, .

B ULO W G EO RG De s Do m i n ic us G un dis s a lin u s Sc h r i ft v o n de r U ns te rb

, .

li c h ke it de r S ee l e ( B e it r ag e ) M ti n s t e r 1 8 9 6 .
, .

B U O NP E N S I E RR O P H Com m e n t a r ia in I P S um m ze Th e o log icse S

, . .
, . . . .

Th o mas A q u ina t is O P a q u I a d q u x x i ii Ro s 1 9 02 . . . . .
, .

B U BGO G N O N I Le d o tt r i n e fi lo s o fi c h e d i S B o na v e n t u ra
. B o l o gn a 1 8 8 1 . .
,
.

B URN S C E CIL DE LI S LE T h e C a t h ol ici z i ng O f P h i l o s o p h y N ew Y or k

, . .

R ev .
,
1 90 7 .

B URO LA PAO LO T r a tta t o de ll a c o no c e n za i n t e ll e tt ua l e d e l P L ibe ra

, . s .

t o re n ell a p a rte eh e r igu a r d a il Ro s m i n i a l T ib u na l e de ll A ut O

, r
’

r it a Lu cca 1 8 57
.
, .

B UBO N I G I U S EPP E R o s m i n i e S a n To m m a s o To r i no 1 8 7 8
, . .
, .

R i s p o s ta a l Pa d r e Co r n o ld i di C di G i n d i f e s a de ll e no z i o n i di . .

o n t o l ogi a se c o n do R o s m i n i e S a n T o m m a s o T o r i no 1 8 7 8 .
, .

La T r i n it a e la C r e a z i o n e n u o v i c o n f ro n ti t ra R os m i n i e S To m : .

ma s o T o r i no 1 8 7 9
.
, .

B U RR I A NT Le te o r i e p o l itic h e di S a n T o m m a s o e il m o d e r no di r itt o
, .

p ubbli co Pa r igi 1 8 8 4 .
, .

B U BCO M AB I F A S B o na v nt u ra o rdi n i s f ra t ru m m i no ru m m i ni s te r
,
. . . e

ge ne ra l i s R omte 1 8 7 4 .
, .

CA CR E UX De la p h i lO S O p h ie de sa i n t Th o m a s
. P a r i s 1 8 58 .
, .

CA G I O AS R AFAEL , C a n to a la Be l l e za Un c r i s ti a no y un p l a ton i co
. . .

Mexi c o ,
18 8 9 .

O b ra s de Ra fa e l Ca g ig a s , P h r o .

To m o l Pc ns a m ie nt os . .
 2 60

CA J ET A N U S O P , T H O MA E VI O Co mment a ria in S umm a m T h eo l o

. . S D . g
i ca m S T h o m as A q ui n a t i s Ru r s u s e dit a c u r a
. P ro s p e r i y r ic , . H . . L
1 89 1 B .

J E lem ent a p h ilO S Op h iee s ch ola s t i cse 2 cd T ou rna i 1 8 9 5

CA M B I ER, O . . . . .
, , .

C ANALEJ A S F D E P La s do ct r i na s del docto r i l um i na d o R a i m u n do

, . .

L u li O , 1 2 7 0 - 1 3 1 5 .

C ANELLA G D , . el p robl em a d egl i u n i ve rsa l i e de l n om n a i l i smo ne ll a

p im f r a a se de l l o ro s vo lgi m e n t o s t or ic o . S c uo la O a t t o li oa ,
1 9 06—7 .

D A C AP ANN O R I B ERNARD O S u ll i n s egn a m ent o ros m i n i a no Lu cc a 1 8 54

,
.
’
.
, .

C AP ELLO F C enn i s t or ici e c r itici s u ll O r ig in e e n a t u ra de ll a fi lO S O fi a

, .
’

s c o l a s tic a To r in O 1 8 7 9 .
, .

P r i n cipi i di fi los ofi a s e con d o S a n T omm a so R a s s eg na na z 1 8 9 0 . .

, .

CAP PO Z Z A F , S u ll a F ilO S O fi a de i Pa d r i e Dott o r i de l l a C h i e s a e i n

.

i s p e c ia lt a di S a n T o m m a s o i n o pp os i z i o n e a ll a F ilo s o fi a m o d e r n a .

1 8 68 .

CA P P ELL A Z Z I , A ND REA G l i e l e m e nti de l p en s i e r o St u di o di p s ico l ogi a

. .

e i de o l ogi a s e c on do la d ott r i na di S To mm a s o d A q u inO C re m a .

’
.
,

1 888 .

Le m o d e rn e l ib e r t a es a m na i te s e on c do i p r i n ci p i i de l l a fi lo s o fi a
s c o l a s tica . C r em a , Ca zz a m a li, 1 8 9 0 .

L U lt im a
’
C itic di Au n i F n chi c
r a so o ra om p n di a t
e a . P a r te 2 . De l
s en ti m e o re a o er nt C m B ll i 1 89 1
.
, , .

La d o tt r i na di S Tom m a s o s u l l a c on os c enz a . che D io h a d e ll e c ose .

P a rm a 1 8 9 3 , .

1 1 p r i n cipi o e t ic O e i l p r i n cipi o gi u r idic o c o n s id e ra t i ne l c on ce tt o

s c ie n z i a le e n e ll a m a n i f e s t a z i o n e s t o r ica L o di 1 8 9 4 .
, .

S a n T o m m a s o e la s c h i a v i t u C r em a 1 9 0 0 .
, .

L a p e r s o n a n e l l a d o tt r i n a di S a n T o m m a s o d A q u i n O e l O d ie rn O
’ ’

m o v i m e n t o i n te ll e tt u a l e Si e na S B e rna r di no 1 9 0 0 .
, .
,
.

F i lo s o fi a s o ci a l e Q u a l e s e d e o ccu p a la s oci o l ogi a ne ll a ge ra r c h i a

.

s c ien t ifi ca Si ena s B e rna r di n o 1 9 0 2

.
, .
, .

L a d o tt r i n a di S a n T omm a s o ne ll a S o ci o l ogi a m o d e r n a P a rt e 1 . .

S o ci o l ogi a e con om ics B it o n t o tip V e s c ov i l e 1 9 0 2 .

,
.
, .

L e q ue s ti o n i m o d e r n e Si e n a s B e r na r di no .
, . .

S o ci o l ogi a ci v il e Si e n a S B e r na r di n o .
, . .

L a s u p e r i o r it a e l i mm a ne nz a d e l S a c e r do z i o c a tt o l i co Si ena s
’
. .
,

B e rn a r di no .

Q u i e s t : St u di o c om p a ra ti vo t ra 1a 2 qu e s ti o ne d e ll a S o mm a Te o .

l ogi ca di S a n T omm a s o e le c oncl us i on i di s i s t e m i fi lo s ofi c i .

C re m a , 1 9 03 .

C APP ELL I c on ce tt o d e l l a v it a sc ien t ifi ca m e nt e e m o ra l m en t e c ons id

. Il ~

e ra t a Si e na S B e rn a r di no
C AP REO LU S D e f e n s ione s Th eo log iaa D i v i Th omas Tou rs 1 900—
. .
.
,

. 2 .
, .

C ARB O NEL H i s t o i re de la P h il o s op h ic P a r i s 1 8 83
. .
, .
 2 62

CA TH BEI N , S J . .
,
V IC TO R . D e r S o c ia li s m u s . E i ne U n te r s u c h u n g i
se ne r

G l ge n u nd s ei ne r Du r c h f ii rb a r ke it F re ib u rg i B 7 ed
ru nd a .
- -
.
,
.

1 8 9 8 ; Sp a n by E V o g e l M a d r id 1 8 9 1 ; by S a bi n o A zn a r e z S J
. .
, , , . .
,

B a r c e l ona 1 9 0 7 ; E ng ] by Ja m e s C onwa y N e w Y o r k 1 8 9 2 ; I t a l
, .
, ,
.

by G Ce c c o n i To r i n o 1 8 9 8
.
, , .

D a s P r i a t g r u n de ig e n t h u m u n d s e i n e Ge g n e r
v F re ibu rg i B 1 8 9 2 .
- -
.
, .

P h il o s o p h i a m o r a l i s in u s um s c h ola r u m F r e ib u rg i B He r d e r .
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.
, ,

1 89 3 . ed . 1 9 00 .

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P h i los . J a hr b .
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1 896 .

De r B eg r i fi de s s ittl ic h
'

Gut en . P h i lo s . J a hrb .
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Re h .

u ng de r G run db eg r i ff e de r R e c h t s o r d nu n g F r e ibu rg H e r de r .
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190 1 .

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, , .

D ie k a t h o l i s c h e M o r a l i n i h re n V o r a u s s e t z un ge n u n d i h r e n G r u n d
l i n i e n F re ib u r g H e r d e r 1 9 0 7
.
, , .

CA U S ET I E
’ ‘
S a i n t B e r n a r d a n d h is W or k T ra n s ] f rom t h e F re nc h by
. . .

A B u r d e r L on d on 1 8 7 4
. .
, .

C AV ANA G H O P P I U S Th e L i fe o f St Th o m a s A q u i n a s t h e An ge l ic
,
. .
, . .
,

D o ct o r L o n d o n B u rn s O a t e s
.
, .

D E CEB A LLo s FERNAN D O I n s a n ia s o de me n c ia s de los fi 16s o f o s c on

,
.

f un d id a s p o r la s a b id u r I a de la C r u z O b ra i né dit a p u bl ic a d a p or .

D Le é n C a rb o n e r o y S o l M a d r id P e r e z D u lru ll 1 8 7 8
. .
, , .

G RI LLI ER H L e p r o bl eme s pi r it u a l i s t e ; l e x i s t e n c e de l a m e Pa r i s ’ ’
,
. .
,

B e a u ch e s n e 1 8 9 3 , .

CERU TT I FRAN C D e p r in c ip ii p e da gogic o s o ci a l i di S a n T o m m a s o

, .
’
-
.

T o r i n o 1 89 3 , .

C HAB I N S J P L es v ra i s p r i n cip e s d u d ro it n a t u re ] p o l iti q ue e t

, . .
, .
,

s o ci a l P a r i s B e r c h e T ra l i n 1 9 0 1
.
, , .

C HARLE S E M I LE R oge r B a con : s a v ie s e s o u v ra ge s s e s d o ct r i ne s

, .
, , ,

d a p res des t e xt e s ine di t s P a r i s 1 8 6 1

’
.
, .

CH A B M A A ,
S a i n t A n se l m e C a e n 1 85 4
. .
,
.

CH AB O U S S E T A L e P r ob lem s m é t a p h y s i q u e da Mixt e
,
. R ev de P h i los . . .
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1 9 03 .

C HA T AR D FRAN CI S SI LA S Th B u t S u l
,
. e r e- o . Oa t h Wor ld 1 89 3.
, .

C HEV AL I ER C U J S i n t T h m d A q u in
, . . . a o as
’
: b i o bibl i o g r a p h i e
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M on t e .

bo u rg 1 8 8 3 , .

C a t a l ogu e c r iti q ue d e s mu v r e s de sa i n t T h om a s ’
d A q u in . Ro m e,
1 887 .

C H IE S A L, . La Bi o m e cc a n ic a ,
i l N e ov i t a lis m o e il V it a l i s m o t ra di z i on a l e .

R o m a , 1 900 .

La ba s e de ] re a l i sm o e la c r itica neo- k a n ti a na . R om a , 1 9 0 1 .

CH O CAR N E . S a i n t T h om a s ’
d A q u in et ] e n cycli q u e de
’
L eo n XI I I . Pa r i s ,

1 8 84 .
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sc i e c c les 1897 .
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De la no ti o n d o r d re p a ra l l él i s me d es t ro i s o r d res de l et re d u vra i
’ ’

, , ,

d u bi e n Pa r i s Le t h ielle ux 1 8 99 .
, , .

La m ora l e s t o i c ie nne e n f a ce de la mo ra l e c h r é ti e nne Pa r i s Le t h ie l .

,

l e ux 1 8 9 9 , .

La p s yc h o l ogi e de s é l us Pa r i s Le t h ie lle ux 1 9 0 1 .
, , .

La p s yc h o l ogi e du P u r ga t o i re P a r i s Le t h ie lle u x 1 9 0 2 .
, , .

La p s yc h o l ogi e du C h r i s t P a r i s Le t h ie lle ux 1 9 0 3 .
, , .

Ue be r Al be rt d G r o s s e n He nt s c h e l s Ja nu s B re s l a u “
CH O ULA N T
’
. . . ,
,

1 8 46 .

CHREI I E N ,
’ '
A . E t u de s sur le m o u ve m e n t n eo - t h o m i s te . Re v . int . de
t h eo l Be rne 1 8 9 9 , .

CHR I S T LIE R, THEO DO R Le be n . und L e h re d e s J o h a nne s Sc o t u s Er ige na .

G th o a, 1 8 60 .

Cn a r s os ro u , B RO T HER E l e m e nt a ry C o u rs e o f C h r i s ti a n P h il s o p h y . o .

B a se d o n t h e p r i ncipl e s o f t h e be t s c h o l a s tic a u t h o r s A da pte d s .

f ro m t h e F r e nc h o f B ro t h e r Lo u i o f P o i s s y by t h e B ro t h e r s o f s

t h e C h r i s ti a n Sc h oo l s Ne w Y o r k O S h e a 1 8 9 3
’
. .
, ,

The Th e i s tic A rg u m e n t o f St T h o m a s P h il Re v 1 8 9 4 . . os . .
, .

E le m e n ta P h ilo s O p h ica Sc h o l as tica P a r s P r i o r N Y C P ro '

. . . . .

t e c t o ry , 1 8 9 7 .

C H UR C H G W S i nt A n l m L nd
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CI OO H I TTI S U B I A NI , FI L
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So p ra Ra i m u ndo S a b u nda t e o l og o fi lo s o f o e .
, ,

m e d ico d e l s e c o l o X V A q u il a 1 8 89 .
,
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M e l c h i ore C a n o te o l ogo e fi lo s o f o de l s e c o l o X V ] e la s u a O pp o s i .

z i o ne a ll A r i t o t e lis m o de ll a s c o l a tic a A q u i l a ti p A t e r nina

’
s s .
, .
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1 89 1 .

CI CO CN A N I , F M S u ll a v it a e s u ll e o pe re d i S a n To m m a s o d A q u ino
. .
’
.

V e ne z i a 1 8 7 4 , .

D A C I VE Z ZA M AR C ELLI N O De ll e d o tt r i ne fi lo s o fi c h e de l S D S B o na
, . . . .

ve n t u ra G e n ov a 1 8 7 4 .
, .

C LAR KE S J R IC HAR D F Th e Exi s te nce o f G od A D i a l o gu e Ne w

, . .
, . . .

Y ork Be nz ige r 1 8 8 7 , , .

A Sk e ptica l D iffi c ul ty a ga i ns t C rea ti o n A m e r O a t h Q u a r t 1 8 8 7 . . .

, .

Th e Ce n t ra l E rror o f M od e r n P h il os o p h y A m er Oa t h Q ua r t 1 8 8 8 . . .
, .

I n d u cti o n An ci e n t a nd M od e rn A m er Oa t h Q ua r t
, 18 88 . . .
, .

Lo gi c Ne w Yo r k Be nz ige r 1 8 8 9 ; Lo nd on Lo ng ma ns G ree n 8: CO
. , , , ,
.
,

O n t h e O b s c u r ity of F a it h . A m er . Oa t h .
Q ua r t , 18 93 .

C LEME N S F J ,
. . De S c h o la s t ico r u m se n t e n ti a . P h ilos O p hi a m e s se Th e o
l ogi ca a nc illa m . Co m me n ta t io . Mo na s t e r i i G ue s t p ha loru m 1 8 57 , .
 2 64

CO CO NN I ER ,
O P . .
, THO M . L am e
’
h um a i ne , s on e xi ste n ce ct sa na u re t .

Pa r i s 1 89 0 , .

Le v ra i t h om i s t e R ev Th o m 1 8 9 3 . .
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CO FFE Y P A New B ook on Sc h ol a s tic P h il os op h y

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,

1 907 .

CO LVE NERI U S . A n f ange w i s s ens ch a ftl ich er

D ie Na t u rge s ch ic h t e u nd

n a t u r h i s t o r i s c h e r Abbild u n g im c h r i s tl ic h e n A b e n dla n de . L ip z ig
e ,

1 8 56 .

CO M RE S , J L E M ILE L a P s ych o l ogi e dc sa i n t T h om a s d A q u in 1 8 60

. . .
’
. .

CO ME LLA S Y GLUE T A N TO N I O De m on s t r a c ié n de la a rm onia e nt re la

, .

r e l igi on c a t oli c a y la ci e n ci a B a r ce l ona 1 8 8 0 .

, .

I n t ro du c c i On a la fi lo s o f ia 6 s e a d o ct r i n a s ob r e l a di re c c i On a ] id e a l ,

d e la ci e nci a B a r c e l on a 1 8 8 3 .
, .

CO MMER E RN ST D ie p h il o s o p h i s ch e W i s se n s ch a ft B e r li n 1 8 82
,
. .
, .

Sy s te m de r P h ilo s oPhi e P a d e rb o rn 1 8 8 3—8 6 .

, .

L ogik ( a ls L e h rbu ch da rg e s t e llt ) Pa de rb o r n 1 8 9 7 .

, .

D i e i m m e r wii h r e n de P h i los 0 p h i e W i en 1 8 9 9 .
, .

CO M PA G N I O N J C r it i que t h om i s t e du t h om i s m e P a s de C a l a i s 1 9 0 7
, . .
- -
,
.

D E C O N CI LI O J C a t h o l icity a nd P a nt h e i s m Al l T ru t h or n o T r ut h
,
. . .

N e w Y o r k S a dl i e r 1 8 7 4 ; 11 c d 1 8 8 1 , , . .
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Th e E l e m e n t s o f I n t e l l e ct u a l P h i l o s o p h y N ew Y o r k S a dl i e r 1 8 7 8 .
, , .

Th e D o ct r i n e o f St T h om a s o n t h e R ig h t o f P ro p e r ty a n d it s Use
. .

New Yo r k Pus tet 1 8 8 7 , , .

Sci e n ti fi c a nd M et a p h y s ic a l C os m o l ogy A m er E ec les R ev 1 8 9 2 . . . .

,
.

CO N TE S TI N G L e m a t é r i a l i s m e e t l a n a t u r e dc l h o m m e P a r i s B lo u d ’

, . .
, ,

1 9 00 .

La P ro v ide n ce C on s e rv a ti on de s et r e s c r éés G ouve r ne m en t du

. .

m o n de R é p a r titi o n d es bi e n s e t de s m a u x
. P a r i s B lo u d 1 9 0 1 .
, , .

CO N T I A U G U STO E v id en za A m o re e F e de o i c rit e r i i de l l a fi lo s o fi a
, .
, ,
.

F i r e n ze 1 8 58 , .

St o r i a d e l l a F ilos o fi a F i r enz e 1 8 64 ; 3 cd 1 8 8 2 ; F re n c h by Le on .
, . .
,

C o ll a s 1 8 8 1 , .

L a fi lo s o fi a d i D a n t e F i r en ze 1 8 65 .
, .

I l V e r o n e ll O r din e F i re n z e 1 8 7 6
’
.
, .

CO N T Z E N Z u r W u r d ig u ng de s Mitt e l a lt e r s m i t b e s o n d e r e r Be z i e h un g
.

a u f di e St a a t s l e h re de s h l T h o m a s v o n A q u i n Ca s s c ] 1 8 7 0 . .
,
.

C O N W A Y S J J AME S Th e T rue I d ea of t h e B ea u ti f u l A m er Oa t h
,
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Q ua r t ,
1 885 .

T F u nd a m e n t a l P r i n ci p l e s o f C h r i s ti a n E thic s C h ic a go Mc
he .
,

B r id e 1 8 9 6 , .

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, . .
, .
-

oph y N e w Y o r k C a t h P ub S o c 1 8 9 2
.
, . . .
,
.

A B r i e f Te xt b oo k o f M o r a ] P h i l os o p h y N ew Y o rk C a t h B k CO
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.
, . .
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1 89 6 .

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 2 66

CO RN O LDI , S J G I O V ANN I M AR I A I l tt M z
. . se e ar o 1 8 80 , i i fi los ofi
oss a a i
pi di di L
e XI I I i t t d ll fi l
eo n e , r s o ra o re e a os ofi a . B o l ogna 1 8 8 0 ,
.

La fi lo s o fi a c l tica
s o as s p e c u l a ti va di Sa n Tomm a s o d A q u ino
’
.

B o l og n a 1 8 8 1 , .

D e i p r i n cipi i fi s i c o r a z i on a l i c d o S T o m m a s o d A q u in o Com
’
-
s e on . .

De p r i n cipi i s n a t u res B o l o gna “ ”

m e n t a r io de ll O p u s c u lo
’
.
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1 88 1 .

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’
.

B e f a n i, 1 8 8 1 —83 .

A n tit e s i d e ll a d o tt r i na di S T o m m a s o c on q ue l l a de l R os m i n i . .

P r a t o G i a c h e tti 1 8 8 2
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’ ’
.
, ,

De l s e n s o c o m u n e e de l s e n s o f o n d a m e n t a l e de l R o s m i n i Roma .
,

B e f a n i, 1 8 8 2 .

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L i n t e llc t t o R o m a , B e f a n i, 1 8 8 3
’
a g e nt s . .

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L a fi lo s o fi a d i S T o m m a s o e l e p o c a p r e s e n t s P ra t o G i a c h e tti
.
’
.
, ,

1 8 86 .

E s or d i o d e l c on c e tt o d i D io . R om a , 1 8 8 7 .

La C r ea z i on e . R o m a , B e f a n i, 1 8 8 8 .

La D i v i n a C o m m e di a di D a n t e Al ig h i e r i , c ol c om m e nt o di G M . .

Co r n o ldi . R o m a , B e f a n i, 1 8 8 8 .

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s .
,
.

E s a m e c r itic o d c ] t ra d u ci a n i s m o R om a B e f a n i 1 8 8 9 .
, , .

La v i s i o n e d e ll e s se n z a di v i n a Roma B ef a ni 1 8 8 9
’
. .
, ,

Q ua l e s e c on d o S T o m m a s o s ia la c o n c o r di a d e l l a m o z i one di v i na
.

c o ll a l ib e r t a u m a na 3 c d R o m a B e f a n i 1 8 9 0 . . .
, , , .

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Lon d on 1 8 9 3 , .

P a r t e n i o La c r e a z i o ne e la inm a c ola t a C on ve rs a z i o n i s co l a s tic h e

. . .

R o m a , B e f a n i, 1 8 9 1 .

D EL C O RO NA P A ,
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m a s o d A q u in o F i re n z e 1 8 7 4
’
.
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’ ’

m e n t o m e d ic Si e na 1 9 0 7 .
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s o c ia li , 1 9 0 0 .

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~
J U LI U S P h i l os o phi a m ora l i s s ins t it u t ione s
S J . .
, . .

e t h i caa e t j u r i s n a t u r es se c u n d u m p r i n cipi a p h il o s o p h i se s ch o l a s

ticas p raes e r ti m S T h om as S ua re z ct D c L u g o m e t h o do s ch o l a s tica

, .
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.
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 O e ko n o m ie . Be it rii g c Sy t
zu ti
e inc m s em de r Na ona l -
Oc ko no m ie
i m Ge is t c de r Sc h o l a s t ik F re ib u rg H e rd e r 1 8 8 8
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,
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J d e s S a va n t s 1 8 4 8 . . , .

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l oso phi es p ro f e s so rib us in Co lleg iis E xze te ns i ct S t o ny h urs t e ns i

S J ; F re ibu rg H e rd e r 1 8 9 3 9 5 ( C f Boe dde r Ca t h re in F r i ck
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1 876 .

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XIV . P a r i s Alc a n 1 9 00
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XIV . s i ecl e . R ev . de
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‘

DE L AUNA Y D S a n cti T h om as de o r ig ins ide a r u m doct r i n a P a r i s 1 8 7 6

, . .
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,
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,
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,
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’

se i n e r T h e o log ia A r c h f Li t t er a t u r a n d K i r c h en g es c h i c h t e d es . . .

Mi t t e la lt e r s 1 8 8 5 , .

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1 8 85 .

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, , ,

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de la m é t a p h y s i q u e s c o l a s ti q u e d a p r es le s r c n se ig n em s nt s ds s
’
,

p r i n cip a u x d o ct e u r s 2 v ol P a r i s L e t h ie lle u x 1 9 0 6 . .
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’
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—
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s e i n e m W e r k e Dc D i v i s i o ns N a t u r aa l ib r i V L e ip z ig 1 9 0 2 .
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fl
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, .
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'

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'

, .

D ie P h il o s o p h ic ds s T h o m a s vc n A qu i n o k r iti s ch g ewllr digt .

Le i p z ig 1 8 8 9 , .

FR O ST F Th e A rt dc Co nt e m p la c io o f Ra m on Lu l] p u bl i sh e d w it h
, .
,

a n i n t r o d u cti on a n d a s t u d y o f t h e l a ng u a g e o f t h e a u t h o r B a lti .

m or e , 1 9 0 3 .

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G A RRYL , F R Z u m B s g r ifi ds s Ab s o l u t en
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G AL DI F M
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19 0 3 ; 2 cd 1 9 0 5 . .
, .

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fl
.
, .

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, . .
-

c c n t ins n t u r te r m i n i d s fi n it ion s s d is t in ct ion e s s t e a t a a B , ,

'

J oa n n e Dun s S c o t c D o c t o r s S u b t ili Q ua r a c ch i 1 9 0 6 .
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, . .
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’
. . .
, ,

L a M a ti ere e t la Vi e Pa r i s 1 8 8 5 .
, .

Le s p u i s s a n ce s d s I Am e P a r i s 1 88 6 ’
. .
,

L a c c o r d du l ib r e a r bit r e a ve c l a p r e s ci e n c e s t l a c t ic n dc Di e u
’ ’
.

A n n P h i los . . ch r .
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1 89 3 .

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P h ilo s c p h ie de sa n i t Th om a s : La N a t u re Hum i n a e . Pa r i s , L e t h ie l
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1 9 00 .
 2 78

G ERDI LI US , H S
I n s t it ut ion e s p h ilo s op h ica
. . H S Gs dilii in u
. . r s um

s e m in a r i o r um , nu n c r i m u m e dit es s t u di o p C l i V c ll n a ro er e c e s od .

B a r na bit a . R oma ,
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G ERRARD T H O MA S J D i i n P
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D ic h ot om y : a Stu dy i n Newm a n a n d A qu i na s N Y R ev 1 9 0 8 . . . .
,
.

G ET I N O O P L G A La S umm a c o n t ra G e n t e s y e ] P ugi o F i de i ;
, . .
, . . .

c a r t a s in s ob r s a D M A s f n y P a la c ic s Ve rg a r a 1 9 0 5 . . .
,
.

G EY S ER J W is s rklar t Th om a s vo n A qu i n u n s er e W a h rneh m u ng ds r
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A u s s enwe lt ? P h i los J a h r b 1 8 9 9 . .
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L eh r bu ch ds r a llge m e i n en P s ych o l ogie M un s te r 1 9 0 8 .

, .

G I BBO N S J C Th e P h il os o p h y o f t h e H um a n S ou l L on don S a nd s
, . . .
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1908 .

G I E S W EI N, A . Az o s s ze h a s o n li t o ny e lvé s z s t f 6 p rob lé m Ai . G y Or , 1 8 9 1 .

B s s z ed es g on do lk o z as B clcs P o ly , 1 8 9 2
’

. . . .

Mit t a r t s u n k a s p i r it i s z t iku s j c le n s é g e k o bj ek ti v v a l odi s i g ar on

B a les F o ly . .
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1 90 4 .

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G ERAR D G . r un dr i ss ds r Stil i s ti k P os ti k , und A e s t h e t ik .

1 89 7 .

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H d er er , 1 9 00 .

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. .
, . .
,

1 8 8 7 ; 2 cd 1 8 9 1 ; 1 e d dc B og o t a ( w it h I n t r o d u cti o n by M a r c o
. .
, . .

F S u are z ) 1 8 9 3
.
, .

E l e m e n t o s dc Etic a y ds De r e c h o N a t u ra l S a nti a go de C h il e .
,

1 889 ; 3 c d B a r ce l ona 1 8 9 4
. .
, ,
.

G LO SS NER MIC HEL D ie L eh re dc s h l T h om a s v om We s s n ds r gottl i eb e n

, . .

G n a de M a i n z 1 8 7 1 .
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D a s o bj e cti ve P r i n cip d e r a r i s t o te l i s c h s c ola s t i s c h s P h il os o p h ic -

,

b e s on de r s Alb e r t s ds s G r Le h re v om obj e ct Ur s p run g ds r i n te l . .

] e c t u s lls n E r k en nt n i s s R e ge n s b u r g 1 8 8 0 .
, .

D e r m o d e r ne I d e a l i s m u s M iin s t e r 1 8 8 0 .
-

, .

D a s P r i n ci p ds r I n di v id u a ti o n n a ch d s r L e h r e ds s h ] Th om a s u n d

fl
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o ph i c J a h r P h s p Th
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D i e m o de r n e Ph ilo s c p h ie F ra n k f u r t a M 1 8 8 9 .
- -
.
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Die p h i lO S O p h i s s h s n R e f or m v s r s u c h s d s s N ik o l a u s C u sa n u s u n d
M N iz oliu s J a h r P h 3 17 Th 1 8 89 9 0
. . . . . .
,
-
.

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—
. . . .

Ja hr . Ph . sp . Th .
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‘

i n ds r n eu e n u n d n e ue s e n t P h ilo s c p h ie . P a de r
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'

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G ME I NER JO HN , M od e rn Sci en ti fi c V i e ws a nd C h r i s ti a n Do ct r i nes

.

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, , .

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,
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.

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, .
’ ’
.
,

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,
'

p rovoq u e Pa r i s Bea u ch e sne 1 8 9 5 .

, , .

D i a l ogue s p hiloS O p h i co t h éo l ogi q ue s s ur la P r ov ide n ce Pa r i s -

.
,

Bea u c h e s ne 1 8 9 6 , .

L I m a g in a t i o n e t le s sta t s p r é t e r na t u re ls et u d e p s yc h o p h y s i o
’ -
,

l ogi qu e e t m y s ti qu e Bl o i s 1 8 9 9 .
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. .

F ra nci a R ev de A ra g é n 1 9 0 3 . .
,
.

La fi lo s o f f a e s co l as tic a e n A ls m a n ia y o t r o s p a isc s R e v d e A ra g é n . .
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1 9 03 .

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La e scu c la fi lc s cfi ca d c L o va na i . R ev . d e A r a g cn , 1 9 0 3 .

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19 07 .

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, , .

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, . . s

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, .

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. .
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, ,
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-
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, .

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.
, . .
, , .

P hi l oso p hi a e ls m e nt a ria a d u s um a ca de m ica a c p ra s s rt im e ccl es i a s

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, , .
,
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—
. . .
, ,

G dc Pa s ca l Pa r i s 1 89 0 9 1
.
, ,
.

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, , .

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. M a d r id 1 89 1 .
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, .
’
s . .

de P h ilo s 1 906 .
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.

T ugen de n mit Z ug run dl eg ung de r Tug endlc h rc ds s Th o ma s v

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A q ui n K i e l 1 8 4 0 .
,
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T h oma d o gma ta log i ca m p h y s ica m m o r ul e m s t m e t a p h y s ica m

, , ,
 28 0

GO U I N A E l m n t d P h il
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GO UJ O N H K n t t K nt i t
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‘
. .
, ,

Leas e n n em s i d e la r a i s o n la h ilO S O p h ie de la v o l o n t é s t l a c log i e

’

fl
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D i e p h ilO S O p h i s c h e u nd th e o l ogi s c h e E r ke nn t n is s le h r e d s s K a r di n a l s
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, .
’

d A q u in o Na p c li, 1 8 7 7
’
. .

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.
, .

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-
.
,
.

G RI M M I CH ,
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B J F u s s Re gen s b u rg 1 8 9 7
. .
, , .

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s c h oo l Am ste r da m 1 9 0 0 .
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d r uk U t r e cht 1 9 0 7 .
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, , .
, ,

1 890 .

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,
HERMAN N
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D a s Ver h ii lt n is s ds s T ho m a s v on A q u i no z u m J u de n t h u m u n d z u r

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, .
,

d oo r G Si m e on s B rugge 1 9 0 7 . .
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. .
,
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, . .
, .

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, . . . .

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F r e ib u rg H e r de r 1 8 9 4—
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’
.
.
, ,

L e s P re u v e s d e l ex i s t s n cs d s D i eu A p r o p os d un l i vre r é cs nt s u r
’ ’ ‘

—
.

l e x i s t e n c e de D i e u N 7
’
R ev é S
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,
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K AM P MAN N P h il o s o p h i a a nge l ico s e r a p h ic a Q ua ra cc h i 1 8 9 6

.
-
.
, .

KA N TO RO W I CZ H Albe r t u s G a n dinu s u nd da s St r a f re ch t ds r Sch o

, .
~

l a s ti k B e r l i n G u tt e n t a g 1 9 0 7 if
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, , .

KAR M A N P A n y a g é s s z s llem
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K AU F MAN N DA vI D Stu di e n ub s r S a l om on I b n G a b i rol B u da p e s t

, . .
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1 899 .

K AU F MAN N , N IK O LAU S . Ve rv o l lk om m nu n g de r a r i s t o t s li s ch e n Na t ur
p h ilo s 0
p ie
h . Lu c c r n , 1 8 8 3 .

Be d eu t u ng e i ns s p h il o s 0 p h i s c h en P r i n ci pe s : De r Akt i s t f r li h e r a ls

die P o te n z . Luc e rn , 1 886 .

D ie E rk e nn t n i s s le h re ds s h l . T h om a s v on A qu i n und ih r c B e de u t u n g
i n der G g nw t
e e ar . P h i lo s . Ja hr b 1 8 89 .

B e de u t un g ds r P h ilo s c p h ie in de r G g nw te e ar . F ra nk fur t a - -
M
1 889 .

Da s Ca u s a l it at p r inc ip und s e ne i B e de u t u ng f ii r d ie P h ilo s c p h i e .

F ul d a A ct ien dru cks rei 1 8 9 1

, , .

D ie t e l eo l ogi s ch e N a t u ra u fi a s s ung ds s A r i s t o t e l e s u n d i h re Be de u
'

t un g i n de r Ge ge nwa rt P a d e r b orn 2 cd 1 8 9 3 .
, . .
,
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E l e m e n t s ds r a r i s t o t s l is c h en O n t o l o gi e Mit B e r iick s ic h t igu ng ds r .

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KE U LLER ,
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S a i n t T h o m a s D e K a t h c li e k 1 8 9 7
. . . .
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KI LG E N S TE I N J A K O R D is G o tte s l e h r e ds s H ug o vo n St V i ct o r n s b s t
,
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s i n e r e i n l e it e n d e n U n t e r s u c h u n g ii b s r H ugo s Le be n u n d s e i ne ’

h e r v o r ra g e n d s t e n V Ve rks W ii r z b u rg 1 8 9 8 .
'

, .

K I SS J
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X I I I L e o k Orls vs le a k e re s z t en y s ze lle m ii b Olc s elct vi s s za al
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li t fi s a é r d e k s b e n B Olc s F c ly 1886
’

. .
. .
,

A s z s rv s t le n t e s te k lé ny e g é r ii] . B b lcs
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. F o ly .
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R Ov id t s é k c z t a t o a s c h o l a s tic u s b b lc s s ls t r b l . B clcs
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. F o ly .
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A ] é n y f og a lm a r OI B Olc s F o ly , 1 8 9 2 .
’

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A lé n y f 6e lvs i r 6 1 Lé n y e g é s lé t ez é s B c lc s . . . P o ly .
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r
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V o r ze it I n s b ru ck 1 8 60 — 1 8 7 8—
. .

D ie P h ilo s c p h ie d s r 63 ; 2 cd 79 ; .
, . .
,

I t a l by R e i s a c h a n d C u r ci R o m a 1 8 66
. F r e n ch by C S ie rp , , .
,

P a r i s G a u m s 1 8 6 8—7 0 , , .

L o n t o l og i s m o 9 1s s e tt e t e s i c e n s u r a t e d a ll a S a c ra I n q u i s i z i o ne
’
.

R o m a , 1 86 7 .

B s ila g s n We r k e n ub s r die T h e o l ogi e u nd P h ilos c p h ie ds r

zu de n
V o r z e it E r s t e s He ft Ue b e r die Ve ru r t h e ilun g ds s O nt o lo i s m u s
. : g

d u r c h de n H St u h l M un s t e r 1 8 68 . .
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2 H e ft . Z u m e i n e r R e c h t f s r t ig u ng : Mii n s t e r 1 8 68 .
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2 Z u r Le h re v o m G l a u b en
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Ue b e r de n U r s p r u n g d e r m e n s c h l ic h e n Se e l e Z ei t s c h f ka t h . . . .

Th e o l VII .
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K N A B E N H A U ER S J J D a s Z e ug n is s ds s M s n s c h s ng e s c h le c h t s s f ii r dis
,
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U n s t e r bl ic h k e it ds r See l e F r e ib u rg 1 8 8 8 .
,
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K NAUER V , G r u n dl i n i e n z u r a r i s t o t e l i s ch t h om is t is ch e n P s ych o l ogi e

.
-
.

W i en 1 8 8 5 , .

K NE I B PH I L IPP
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M a i nz K i r ch h e i m 1 8 9 9 , , .

D ie U n s te r blic h k e it ds r S ee l e be w i e s e n a u s de m h b h s r e n E r k e nn e n ,

u nd Wo l l e n E in B e it r a g z u r Ap o l og e ti k u n d z u r W ur dig un g de r
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t h o m is t i s c h e n Ph ilo s c p h ie W i e n M a ye r 1 9 00 .
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K N OO DT PE TER, Dis T h o m a s E n cy c li ca L e o s X I I I v o m 4 A u gust 1 8 7 9

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V o rt ra g ge h a lt e n zu B o n n a m 1 4 Fe b ru a r 1 8 8 0 B o nn 1 8 8 0 .
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Mitte l a lt e r s G re i fswa ld 1 8 9 7 .
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, . .
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A vi lag t a n i es c elta ni é rv ert s lms u sh an y e llenve t é s e lls n B ales . .

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, . .
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. .
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I s ten m li k bd é sc a t s r e m t e t t vi lag b a n B c lcs F o ly 19 02

‘

. . . .
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KRAU S E J O S B ona ve nt u ra de o r igi ns s t v ia c og nit ion is int e lle c t ua lis

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d oct r i na a b o nt o l ogi s m i n o ta d e fen sa Mo na s te r ii 1 8 6 8 .

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Die Le h re d s s h ] B o na v e n t u ra li b s r d N a t u r d e r kOr p e r l u . . . .

ge i s tig e n W e s s n u n d i h r V e r h i
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, . .
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, . . .

f r o m t h e F re nc h by A Le i mb a c h ) Fu l da 1 8 94 . .
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Q u s st cc q ue ls m oy e n (1c
’
-
B rux e llc 189 8 s, .

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L A R O U SS E S J , . .
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, .

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,
. . . .
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D E L A N T S H EE RE L Du bi e n a u p o i n t dc vu e on t o l ogi que s t m ora l

, . .

L ouva i n 1 8 8 6 ,
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L ob j s c t iv it e ds la c on n a i s s a n c e B ru x e ll e s 1 8 9 0
’
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LA N Z I L LI , S J . . In Cos m olog i c i s Q ua s t i on ib u s Co m p a ra t io . Va ll ib u s
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E
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Pa r i s 1 9 0 0 , .

Le m o uve m e nt c a t h o l i qu e k a n ti e n e n F r a n c e a l h eu r e p r ese nt s
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Essa i p syc h ol ogi e ds s a cti on s h um a i ne s d a p res le s s ys teme s ’

s ur la
d A r i s t o t s e t d e s a i n t Th om a s d A q ui n Pa r i s 1 8 8 3
’ ’
.
.
,

L E CO Y D E LA M AR C HE ALBER T Le t r e i z iem e s i ecl e l itt é r a i re s t s c ie n , .

t ifi q u s N cd L i ll e D e s clee 1 8 9 6
. . .
, , , .

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, . .
,
.

La b et s s t l h o mm e L ouva i n 1 8 8 6 ’
.
, .

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d s s u n i ve r s a u x Tr a v e t Mem d e l Un i v de Li lle 1 8 9 8
’
.
. . .
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D E LEHEN S J P E I n s t i t u t ion e s L ogica a d u s u m p r a le c t ic n u m

,
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a cc o m m o d a t es s t i mm a c u l a t a d e i p a ra di ca t a B ls s i s G i r a u d .
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1 8 60 .

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, S J . .
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s c h o l a s ti s c h e r G run dl a ge zu m G s b r a u c h e a n h Oh s r en Le h re n
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LEHM K UHL S J A U G
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1906 .

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se n

G y m n a s i um s z u S e eh a u s e n i d A lt m 1 8 7 8—
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82 . . .
,
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L E M A N N A U G U ST I N S a l om o n s t s a i n t Th o m a s d A q u in L y o n V itt e ’
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LI BE BA T O RE , S J . .
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1 8 58 .

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R om a , 1 8 6 1 .

R i s p os t a l e tt era a n on i m a S op ra la te o r i a s co l a s ti ca d e ll a
a d un a

c om p os i z i o n e s o s t a nz i a l e de i c or pi R om a 1 8 6 1 .
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De ll u o m o
’
V 1 De ] com p o s t o u m a n o V 2 D c ll a n im a u m a na
. . : . . :
’
.

R om a 1 8 62 ,
Sp a n B a r c e l on a 1 8 8 2 ; F re n c h by De s h a ye s .
, , ,

Pa r i s Be r ch e T ra l i n 1 8 8 5
, , .

L a F i los o fi a d e ll a D i v i n a C o m m e di a di Da n t e Al ig h i e r i (I n .

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’
L a u t oc r a z ia d s ll s n t s C om m e d i a in t r s a tti N a p o l i 1 8 8 0 ’
. .
, .

D e gl i u n i ve s a l i C o n f u t z i o n e de ll a fi lo s o fi a R o s m i n i a na di fesa
r a

F e r r e R o m a 1 8 83 —
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da M o n s .4 ; Sp a n by F ds P R ib a s y .
, . . .

S e r ve t B a r c e l o n a 1 8 8 8 ; E ng ] by E H D e r i n g L o nd on 1 8 8 9
, , . . .
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L IEBNER A H u go v o n St V ict o r u n d die t h e o l ogi s ch e n R ich t unge n

,
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s e i n e r Z it L e ip z ig 1 8 3 6 e .
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a u m o y e n ag e Pa r i s 1 8 8 0 .
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L s Q u e s ti o n s d i s p u t ée s t r a i t s ds l et r e s t ds 1 s s s s n c s
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e B a r ] e D uc ,
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’
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To r i no 1 8 7 3 , .

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.
’
.

Na p ol i 1 8 8 0 , .

L I MB O UR G S J M A X De di s ti n cti on s e s s en ti a a b ex is t e n t ia Re ge ns
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b u rg 1 8 8 3 , .

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Z e i t f h a t h Th eo l . . . . . .
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1 89 2 .

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1 902 .

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] e h re . M iin c h e n '

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LO E WE D K m pf zwi ch n d m R l i m u
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Mitte l a l t e r s e i n U rs p r u ng u n d se i n Ve r l a u f P ra g 1 8 7 6
, , .
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L O REN T Z F A lcu in s L e be n Ha lls 1 8 29 ; E ngl by J M Sl ee Lo n d on

,
. .
, . . .
, ,

1 8 37 .
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t e m S Th o m a A q u in a t i s . F i re nz e 1 9 00 .
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p h y s ic s a n d E t h ic s 2 cd B a lti m o re 1 8 8 3 . . .
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LO WEN T HAL A LB Do m i ni cus G u n disa lv i u n d s e i n p sy c h o log is c h cs

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Co m pen di um E in Be it ra g zu r G e s c h ic h te de r p h il s 0 p h is c h e n
. o

L ite ra t u r b e i A ra be rn J uds n u nd C h r i s te n Be r l i n 1 8 9 0 ,
.
, .

P se udo A r i s t o t e l e s lib e r d ie Se e l e s i ne p s yc h o l ogi c h e Sc h r i ft de

-
: s s

X I J a h r h un d e r t s u nd i h r c B e z i e h u ng z u S ib n G a b i ro l
. B rl i n . . e ,

M a y e r M li lls r 1 89 1 , .

LO Z AD A N IC AN O R F ilo s o f f a c a t olica Ap u nt e s ds leg ica co s m o l og i

, . .
,
a

y p s ic o l o gia p a r a lo s a l u m n o s d l Se m i n a r i o C o ncil i a r M exic o

,
e . .

1 8 80 .

LO ZAN O Y R UB IO T
,i a l écti ca o b re v e in s t u c c iOn p a
. La s a r ma s de d ,
r ra

lo s a ct o s s s c o las t ic o s e n c a t s d a s y a c a de m i s Ap é nd ice s o b r e . rs

la s l e y e s de l s il ogi m o Ma d r i d 1 8 9 4 s .
,
.

LUB RI CH A , Te r m e s z e t b ii lc s e ls t
. B u da p e s t 1 8 9 0 . . .

Ne v e lé s t u do m an y é s a b ii lc s e ls t B u da pe s t 1 8 9 1 .
, .

LUD EW IG S J KARL D i S u b t a nz t h e o is b i Ca t s iu s iin Z u m m e n

, . .
, . s s r e r s sa

h a ng m i t ds r s c h o l a s ti s c h e n u n u e re n P h i l o s o p h ic F u l da 1 8 9 3 . e .
, .

L UL L R AM ON O b ra s ds Ra m o n L u ll L ib re de l ge n til e 10 3 t rs s s a v is
, . . :

l ib re dc la p r i m e ra e se go na i nt e n c io ; l ib r e ds m il p ro e r bi e v .

Te xt o s o r igi na l e s p ubl ica do s e il u s t ra d o s c o n no t a s y v a r i a nt e s

p o r J R o se ll e P ro l og o y gl o sa r i o de M O b ra do r y B e n na s s a r
. . . .

P a l ma dc Ma lo r ca Co lo m a r 1 8 8 6—1 9 0 1 , ,
.

L UQUET G H A r is t o t e e t l Un i e rs it e dc Pa r i s pe nd a n t lc X I I I s i ecl e
, . .
’
v . .

Pa r i s Le roux 1 9 0 4 , , .

LYO N S . La S o m m e de s a i n t T h o m a s d A q u in r e u m es e n t a bl a u x
’
s e

s yn o pti q u es N ic e .
,

MCC ABE J O S Pe te r Ab e l a r d Lo n d o n D uc kwo r t h 1 9 0 1

, . .
, , .

M A C DO NALD ALE X E vo l u ti o n a nd t h F a t h e r
, . The Ca s k e t ( A n ti e s .

go n i s h ) 1 8 9 5 , .

St Th om a s a nd E vo l u ti o n Cas ke t 1 8 9 6
. .
, .

De ve l o p men t not Evo l uti o n Oa t h Wor ld 1 8 9 6 . .

, .

St Th oma s o n t h e M e mo ry E cc les Rev 1 9 0 2

. . . .
, .

B r id gi ng t he G ra ve E cc l s Re v 19 0 2 . e . .
, .

Th e P s yc h o l o g y o f o u r Spi r it ua l C o n ce p ti ons D o lp h i n 1 90 5 ; .
,

St Th o m a s
. a nd t he E uc h a r i s tic Sac r i fi ce . A m er . Oa t h .
Q ua rt .,
 29 6

M A C DO NALD ALE X St Th om a s a n d t h e V i rgi n B i r t h Q u es ti ons of

, . . .

t h e Da y Vol 1 C P A P u b CO Ne w Y or k , .
, . . . . .
, .

Th e E t h ic a l A s pe ct o f B r ib er y Q ue s ti ons of t h e D a y Vol 2 ; .
, .

C P A P ub CO New Y or k
. . . . .
, .

Th e I m a gi na t i on Q u e s ti on s o f t h e D a y Vol 2 ; C P A P ub CO .
, . . . . . .
,

N ew Y o r k .

MC DO NALD WALT ER Th e C o n s erv a ti on o f E ne rgy a n d t h e V it a l

, .

Acti v ity of O rga n i s m s D u b lin R ev 1 9 0 2 . .

, .

Th e Ne w K n ow l e dge a n d t h e O l d P h il o s o p h y N ew Y or k R e v 1 9 05 . .
, .

MC N ABB O P V I N C EN T L ogic a n d F a it h N ew Y or k R e v 1 9 0 5—6

,
. .
, . . .
, .

Sc h o l a s tici s m a n d t h e M o de rn M e t h o d A m er E c c les R ev 1 9 03 . . . .
,
.

MCSO RLE Y ,
JO S E P H Th e C h r i s ti a n I d e a o f Ju s ti ce a n d E q u a l ity . .

Oa t h . Un i v B u ll , 1 8 9 8 . .

H g
u o S a in t V ict o r My s tic D o lp h in 19 02
of -
, .
,
.

M AD ER D O r a ti o ds ] a u dib u s T h o m a A q P ra g a 1 8 7 0
, . .
,
.

D E M AD URE I RA B A C om p e n di o d s p h ilos c p h ia e l e m e n t a r co n fo rm s
, . .

a o p r og r m m a offi ci a l d s 1 8 9 5 Co i m bra 1 8 9 6
a .
, .

M A G E VN E Y S J E U G ENE
,
C h r i s ti a n E d u ca ti on in t h e D a r k Ages
. .
,
.
“
.

A m e r O a t h Q ua r t 1 89 8
. . .
,
.

M AHER S J MIC HAEL P s yc h ol og y Ne w Y o r k B en z ige r 1 8 9 1 ; 5 c d

,
. .
, . .
, ,
. .
,

L on d o n L ong m a n s G ree n CO 1 9 0 2 , ,
.
,
.

M A I M O N ID E S P e r u s ch M a Mi s c h na G e rm a n by R I F ii rs te n t h a l
.
-
. . . .

B re s l a u 1 8 42 , .

Ya d Ha c h a z a k a h o r Mi s c h n s T or a h H eb rew a nd E ng ] by H H . . . .

B e r n a r d Ca m b r idg e 1 8 32 ; H e b r a nd Ge rm by E M a h l e r W i en
, . . . .
, ,

1 8 8 9 ; G e r m by E S olowe iczy k KOn ig sb e rg 1 846 ; E ng l L o n d on

'

.
. .
, , , ,

1 8 3 8 ; n cd 1 8 63 . .
, .

M o r e n s b u c h im ( G u ide o f t h e pe rpl e xe d ) A ra b a nd F re n ch by S . .

M u n k P a r i s 1 8 55—56 ; H e b r a n d G e r m by S Sch ey e r F ra n k
f u r t 1 8 30 —
, , . . .
,

3 8 ; G er m by R J F ii r s t s n t h a ] K ro t o s c h i n 1 83 8 ;
I t a l by D I M a rc ni L i vo r n o 1 8 7 0—
l

, . . .
, ,

. 7 1 ; E ng ] by M F r ie dlii nds r
. .
, , . .
,

L o n do n , 1885 .

Ki d d u s c h H a c h o ds s c h . Ueb e r s e t z t und s r li u t s r t v . E . Ma h l er .

W i e n 1 8 89 , .

M A I S O NNEU V E L , . Un c a r di n a l p h i l o s o p h e , Mg r . Me r ci e r . Bu . l . e ee l .
,

1907 .

M AM I N I C I n t o r no a ] l ib ro del P ro f C P a s s a g lia i ntit o l a t o La

, . . .

d tt r i na d i S a n T o mm a s o s e c on d o l e n c i clica di Le o ne X I I I
’
o .

To r i no 1 8 8 1 , .

M AN CI N I HI ERO N Y M O M AR I A Ele m ent a p h il os o phi a a d m en t em D

, . .

T h o m a A q u ina t i s a d t r i e nn i u m a cc o mm o da t e R om a P r op e .
,

ga n d a 1 89 8 , .

D E M AN D A TO S J P I U S I n s t it ut ione s p h ilo s o ph ic a a d no r m a m doc

,
. .
, .

t r i na A r i s t ot e lis et S Th o m a R om a 1 8 9 4 . .
,
.

Le s p e ci e o rg a n ic h e s e c o n d o l a d o tt r i n a di S a n T o m m a s o e la
m o de r n a te o r i a d egl i e v o l uz i o n i s ti Ro m a B e f a n i 1 8 9 5 .
, , .
 29 8

M AR TI N P A s z é p s é g f og a lm ar Ol B Oles F c ly 1 8 8 6
,
. .
‘

. .
, .

S z e n t Ta m as es K a n t B clc s F o ly 1 8 8 7 .
'

. .
,
.

M AR T I NEZ M AR C ELI N O F r a y L u i s ds Le On y la fi los of f a e s p a nol a dc ]

, .

s igl o X VI M a d r id 1 89 1 .
, .

M AR T I NE Z N U NEZ Z A C ARI A S I d e a s I m agen e s y S ens a ci on es Ci ud a d

,
.
, .

d e D io s , 1 9 0 7 .

Es t u d i os b iolOg i c c s M a d r id S a e n z de J ub er a 1 9 0 7 .
, , .

D E M ATT I A G La m e n te di S a n Tom m a s o i nt o r no a ll o r ig ine ds ll a n im a

,
.
’ ’
,

s u a u n i o ns c o l c o r p o e d o r ig in s d e l l e i d e s N a p o l i E r r ic o 1 9 0 0 .
, ,
.

M ATT I U SS I G U I Do P r i m a t o d e ll a v o l on t a S cu c la ca t t 1 9 0 6
, . . .
, .

A n c o r a la v o l on t a n s ] p en s i e r o del V e n e r a bil e D un s S c ot c S eu c la .

ca tt 1906

fl
. .
,

MA U M U S O P ,
. .
, V . S a i n t T h om a s ’
d A q u in st la p h il o s c p h ie c a r t é s i enne .

P a r i s Le c o r s 1 8 9 0 ,
'

, .

L e s P h il o s o p h e s c o n t e m p o ra i n s P a r i s L s c o fi rs 1 8 9 1 '

.
.
, ,

Le s d o ct r i n e s p o l iti q u e s ds s a i n t T h o m a s d A q u in t h om
’
. R ev . .
,

1 893 .

M AURA J UAN I m p o r t a n ci a d c la r e s t a u r a c iOn ds la fi los c f ia e s c o l as tic a

,
.

e n e s t o s ti e m p o s Al ic a n t e S e v a 1 8 9 0 .
, , .

M AURA Y G ELABER T E l o pti m i s m o ds l B Ra i m u nd o L u l i c B a r ce l ona . . .

,

1 904 .

M A U RE N B RE CI I E R T h o m a s von A q u i n o s St e l l ung z u m W i r t h
,
MA X .
’

s c h a f t s le b n s e i n e r Z e it L e ip z ig 1 8 9 8s .
, .

M AUR O S J S Y LVE S TB O Q ua s t ion s s P h ilo s o p h i ca a u ct ors S M a ur o

,
. .
, . .

S J p r s b y t s ro o l i m i n C o l l egi o R om a n o P h il os o p h i a ct S
s

fl
. . .
,

T h e o l og ia P o f es s o rs ed n ov i s s i m a cu m e p i s to l a a R P M
r , . . . .

L ib e ra t o rs p ra f a t a P a r i s i i s Ls co r e 1 8 7 6 .
,
'

, .

M AU S BAC H J O S Ch r is t e nt h u m u n d W e lt m o ra ] 2 Vo r t rii g e iib e r da s

, . .

Ve r h a lt n i s s ds r c h r i s tl i c h e n M o r a l z u r a n tik e n E t h i k u n d z u r
we ltl ic h e n Cu lt u r M iin s t e r A s c h s n do r fi 1 8 9 7
'

.
.
, ,

D e r Bs g r i fi d s s s ittl ic h G u t s n n a c h d hl T h o m a s v on A q u i n o
'

. . .

F r e ib u rg 1 8 9 8 ,
.

D i v i T h o m a A q u ina t i s d e v o l u n t a te ct a pp e tit a s en s iti vo d oct r i na .

Pa de rborn 1 9 0 1 , .

D ie k a t h o l i s c h e M o r a l i h r c Me t h o d e n G r u n d s ii t ze u n d A u fga be n , ,
.

K iiln ,
190 1 .

D ie St e ll u n g T h om a s v on A q u i n z u M a i m o n id es in de r
ds s hl .

L eh r e v on de r P ro p h e tic Th eo l Q ua r t lxxxi . . .
, .

M A XW ELL H R oge r B a c on B la c kwoo d s Ma g cl v i

, . .
’
.
, .

M AZE LLA S J C AM I LLU S D c D e o C re a nt e P ra ls ct ic nes S c h ola s t ic o

,
. .
, . .

D ogm a tica qua s i n C o ll egi o SS C o r di s Je s u a d W oo d s t ock .

m a xi m a s t u dio r u m D o m o S o c Je s u i n F o e d A m e r i ca Se pt . . .

S t a t ib u s h a b e b a t W oo d s t o ck 1 8 77 ; e d Ro m a 1 8 9 3 .
, .
, .

M E DIC U S FR I T Z E in W o rt f ii h rs r ds r N eu s c h ol a s ti k u nd s e i ne Ka n t
, .

k r iti k Ka n t s t u di en 1 90 1 .
, .
M EHREN A F M La p h ilosc p h ie d A v icc nne I b n Si na ex poses d a p res
, . . .
’
,
'

ds s d oc ume n t s i n ed it s Lo uva i n 1 8 82 .
, .

Les ra pp o r ts de la p h ilosc p h ie d A v ice nn e a ve c I I s la m Lo uva i n ’ ’

.
,

1 883 .

E t u d es s ur la p h ilo s c p hi e d A v i ce nn c
’
co n ce rna n t s on ra p po rt a ve c
ce ll s d A v i ce nn s e t G a z za li
’
i n 1 888
o u va . L , .

M E IER H Ka u sa litii t un d I de nt it ii t P h i lo s J a h r b 1 90 7
, . . . .
, .

MEN DIV E S J J C u rs o c om pl e to dc fi lo s o f f a Ma d r id 1 8 8 6
, . .
, . .
, .

I n s t i t u t io ne s p h il os o p h i a s c h o l a s ti ca a d m e n te m D i v i Th o m a a c
S ua r e z ii Va llis o le t i C ue s ta 1 8 8 6—
. 88 , , .

La r e l igi o n ca t Oli ca v i n di ca d a de la s i m p os t u ra s ra c ic na lis ta s ( co n

nu p r ol og o dc D J M O r ti y La r a ) M a d r id 1 8 8 3 . . . .
, .

MEN E CH I N I D e l v e r o d e l b u c n o e d e l b e ll o
. Na p o l i 1 8 7 9
, .
,
.

MENZEL . Do ct r i na J Sc o ti E r ige na c u m c h r i s ti a n a c o m p a ra t a . .

B a u t ze n 1 8 69 , .

ME RCI CH M , U t rum i n di a l e cti sa a r i s t o t e l ica rs c t s d i t i ng u a n t u

. s r

fi g u ra m o di q ue s y llog is m i F re ib u rg i S i m p S P u l 1 8 9 8 .
- -
.
,
. . a , .

M ER C E R D ES IR E D i s co u r s d o u v s r t u s d u c o u s de p h ilos c p h ie de
, .
’
r r

s a i n t Th o m a s L ouva i n 1 8 82 .
, .

Le d ete r m i n i s m s m éca n i q u e e t le l ib r e a r b it r Lo u v i n 1 8 8 4 c . a . .

S omm a i re d u c o u rs de p h ilo s c p h ie s e l o n s a i nt T h o m a s d A q uin ’

,

p r o fe ss e a l Un iv de Lo u va i n T h éo d i cée 1 8 8 4 ; C os m o l ogi e 1 8 8 7 ;
’
. .
, ,

M o a l e g enera l s 1 8 9 0 ; No ti on s d O nt c log ie 1 8 9 0
r ,
’
, .

Le co n s d o u rt u re dc l ec o l e s u p er i u r s d c p h ilo s c p h ie a ] Un i v
’ ’ ’
ve e .

d e Lo u a i n L ill e 1 8 9 0
v .
,
.

Le e d e ux c r iti q ue s dc Ka n t Pa r i s 1 8 9 1 .
, .

Ra pp o rt s u r les et u d e s s u p er i e u re s d c p h i lo s c p h ie Lo u a i n 1 8 9 1 ; . v
,

S p a n L i ma i m p dc El O b re ro 1 9 0 2
.
, , .
,
”
.

La p h ilos c p h i e neo s c o l a s ti q ue R e v Né c S oo l 1 8 9 4 -
. .
-
.
, .

Le s o r igi n e s d e la p s yc h o l o gi e c o n te m p o r a i ns Lo u va i n 1 8 9 7 ; .
,

Po l i s h by W Ko s ia k ie wic za W a r s za wa 1 9 0 0 ; Sp a n by A rna iz
.
, , .
,

Ma d r id S a s nz dc J u be ra 1 9 0 1 ; I t a l by A Mc s s ina R o m a
, , . .
, ,

Des c le e , 1 90 3 .

D i s cu s s i o n de la t h eo r is ds s t ro i s v er ites p r i m iti ve s . Re v . Neo

S cc l , 1 8 9 7
. .

La d efi n iti on p h il os o p h i q ue de la v ie cd L o uva i n 1 8 9 8
. 2 . .
, ,
.

La p sych o l ogi e dc De s ca r te s s t l a n t h ro po log ie s co l a s ti q ue

’
. Re v .

N eo S c o l , 1 8 9 8
-

—U
. .

E coo l
“ ”
’
a la rm c a la r me Neo -S oc k, 1 8 9 9
’
n c ri d . R ev . .

C ite i o l gi e gene l
r r o t ra it e gene ra l dc la ce r tit ude Lo uva i n
ra s ou .
,

1 8 9 9 ; 5 cd 1 9 0 6 ; P o l i s h by W Ko s ia kic wicza a nd A K ra s no
. .
, . .

wo ls kic g o W a rs za wa 19 0 1 ; Po rt ug by Da nta s Pe re i ra Vizs u

, , .
, ,

1 9 04 .

La no ti on de la ver i te . L o u va n , i 1 90 0 .
 30 0

M ER CI ER DES I R E La p e nsee ct la loi dc la c on s e rva ti on de l ene rgi e

, .
’
.

L o u va i n 1 9 0 0 , .

Le bil a n p h il os o phi q u e du X I X s iec ls Lo uva i n 1 9 0 0 . .

,
.

M ER TEN J Ue b e r dis B e d eu t ung ds r E rke nn t n is s le h r e ds s h l A ugu s

, . .

t i nu s u n d ds s h l Th om a s v o n A qu i no f ii r den g s s c h ic h t lic h s n .

E n t w ickl u n g s ga n g ds r P h il os o p h i c a ls r e i ne r Ve r nu n f t wi s s e n
s c h a ft T r i e r 1 8 65 .
, .

MEU FF E L S H UBER T A p r op o s d u n m o t n ou vea u Q u in z a i n e 1 9 0 1

, .
’
.
,
.

U n p r obl em s a r e s o u d r s d a n s q u ell e l a ngu e d o it et r s d onn e l e n ’

:

s e ig n s m e n t dc la p h ilo s c p h ie d a ns le s s ém i n a i re s R ev N é c . .

S co l .
,
1 9 02 .

ME UR I N , S J . .P o r t L ou i s 1 8 9 1
,
L EO . E thic s .
-
, .

M E Y ER S J
, TH E O D . I n s t it u t io n e s j u r i s n a t u ra l i s s s u p h il o s o p h i a
.
, .

m o r a l i s s e c u n d u m p r i n ci pi a S T h om a A q u ina t is F r ib u rg i . .
,

H e r de r 1 8 8 5 II , .

M E Y NELL C HARLE S P a d re L ib e ra t ors a n d t h e O n t ol ogi s t s L on d on

, . .
,

1 8 68 .

M E Z AR D ,
P M e d u ll a S T h om a A q u ina t is s c u m e dit a t ion e s e x
O P . .
,
. .

O p e r ib u s S T h o m a de p r om p t a P a r i s Le t h ie lleu x 1 9 0 7
. .
, , . .

M E Z Z E RA G I U S R i s p o s t a a l l ib r o d e l G M Co rn o ld i I l R o s m i n i a n
, .
“
. .

i sm o M il a n o 1 8 8 3
.
”
, .

MIC HAEL S J E Albe r t ds r G ros ss Z ei t s c h f h a t h Th e o l 1 9 0 1

, . .
, . . . . . .
, .

G e s ch ic h te ds s d eu t s ch en Volks s v om 1 3 J a h r h b is z u m A u s ga ngs . .

ds s Mitte l a lt e r s F r e ib u rg H e r de r 1 9 0 3 If .
, , .

MIC HAU D G u ill a um e de C h a m p e a ux P a r i s 1 8 67

. .
, .

MIC HEL A N TO N D ie K o s m o l ogi e ds s Mo s M a i m on ide s u n d ds s T h o m a s

, . .

v o n A q u i n o i n i h re n g e g e n s e itige n B e z i e h u ng e n P hi los J a h r b .
,

—
. .

1 89 1 92 .

MI CH E LI S ,
FR IE D . B em e r k ung en z u ds r von J Kls u t g en v s rt h s idigt e n .

P h ilo s c p h ie ds r V o r z e it F re ib u r g H e r d e r 1 8 6 1 .
, ,
.

MI CH E LI TS CH ,
A . At om i s m u s H yl e m o r p h i s m u s u n d Na t u rw i s s e n s ch a ft
,
.

G z ra ,
189 7 .

MI ELLE P , . De su b s t a nti a c o r p o r a li s v i ct ra ti ons c

se un dum A r i s t o te l i s
d o ct o r u m q u s s c h o] a s t i c o r u m s e nt e n t ia m . Li ng o n i s , 1 8 9 4 .

LaM a ti ere p re m i er e s t l et e n du s F r ib o u rg 1 8 9 8 ’
. , .

Le s p o s t u l a t e dc l idea li s me s t la t h eo r ic ds la c on n a i s s a n ce
’
.

P en s é e c on t e m p 1 9 0 7
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1 89 4 .

PEREZ PO N CI AN O
, i s c u r s o a ca dé m ic o p ro n u n ci a d o n la o l e m n e D is
. D e s

t ri b u c i On d e P re m i o s la n o c h e de l 2 7 d e Ag o s t o d e 1 8 8 0 ; y u n a
b re ve no tici a de la Aca d e m i a F ilo s Ofi c O Teo l ogi ca de S to To m as -
.

d e A q ui no Le on 1 8 8 0 .
, .

PER LE S J D ie in e i ne r M llnc h e ne r Ha nds c h r i ft a uf ge f u nde ne e r s te

, .

l a te i n i sc h e Ueb e rs e t zu ng de s m a im o n idis c he n F li h re rs B re s l a u .
,

1 8 75 .

P ERU J O , N I ET O ALO N S O . Le xi co n p h ilo s c p hi co t he o log ic u m in q uo -

s ch o
] a s t ico ru m v oca b u la , loc u t io nes , te rm i ni , di s t i nc t io ne s , e fl a ta et

a x i o ma ta , de c la r a nt u r et e x p l ica nt u r ; ex o pti m i s q ua h uc u s q u e

p rod ie ru nt lit t e r a l it e r co m p ila t u m q u a m p lu r i m i sq u e vo c ib u s et

PES C H
PE S C H
,

S J
,
a d no t a t io n ib us a u c t u m

S J .

HE I N R
.
.

.
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.

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,
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sc h a f t s o r dn u ng 2 cd F re ib u rg He rd e r 1 9 00 . . .
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, . . D ie P hil o s o p h i e de r V o r ze it i n i h re r Be d e u t u ng
, .

f ur die Z u k un ft 1 8 75 . .

Die s c h o l a s ti s c h e B ild un g s m e t h o d e 1 8 75 . .

Die Ha ltl o s igk e i t de r m od e rne n W i ss e n c h a ft Kr iti k de r Ka n t sc h e n s .

’

Ve r nun f t k r it ik F re ib u rg 1 8 77 s .
, .

Die Te l eo l o gi e in de r m it t e l a lte r l i ch e n Na t u rp h ilo sO p h ie 1877 . .

Das We lt p h ilno me n c ine e rk enn t ni s t he o re t St u di u m F re ib urg , . . ,

188 1 .

D ie g ro s se n We lt rii t h se l . P h il o so phi c d c r Na t u r F re ib urg .

, 188 3
84 ; 2 . cd .
,
1 8 92 ; Sp a n . by E Vog c l . a nd J M O rti y La ra
. .
, 1 8 90 .
 30 8

PE S C H S J ,
TI LMANN C h r i s tl ich e Leb en s p h ilO S O p h ie G e d a nk en tib e r
. .
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r e l ig iii s e W a h rh e it en W e it e re n K r e i se n da rg eb o t e n 5 e d .
'

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F re ib u r g H e r d e r 1 9 00 ; F r e n ch by Bi ron P a r i s Let h ielle ux 1 9 0 1

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I n s t it u t i o ne s phil os o phi a n a t u r a l i s s e c un d u m p r i n cipi a S Th o m a .

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.

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-
.

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.

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,

l e ux 1 8 9 7 , .

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.
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.
.
,

S u l l e d o tt r i ne id e o l ogi ch e del P G M Co r n oldi d C d G e s u ll e . . . . . . .

a cc u s e d O n t O log i s m O e p a n te i s m o c o n t r o la t e os o fi a di A R os m i n i
’
.

o s se rv a z i on i L u cca 1 8 8 3 .
, .

PE T RO N I O I n S u m m a m c a t h ol ic a fi de i c o nt ra Ge n til e s e luc ida t ione s

.
.
.

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PET Z F R P h i l o s o p h i s c h e E r Or t e r ung e n ij b e r die Uns t e rbl ich k e it de r

,
.

m e n c h l i c h e n Se e l e
s M a i nz 1 8 79 .
, .

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, .

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P r og r a m m D ill i nge n 1 8 7 9 , , .

Albe t u s de r G r o s s e E i n e Bi og ra p h i e F e s t s ch r i ft D ona u wfi rt h
r ,
-
.
,

1 881 .

H i ch e B e z i e h u ng z wi s c h e n Sch o la s tik u n d m o de r ne r N a t u r
a rm on s

wi s s e n s ch a ft m it b e s o n d e r e r R iic k s i c h t a u f Alb e r t u s M a n u s g
,

St T h om a s v o n A q u i n u n d die VVo r t e d e r E nzykl ik a A e t e r n i

.

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,
.

D i e L e h re v o n de r See l e a l s W e s e n s f o r m b e t r a c h t e t v o m G e s ic h t s ,

p u n kt e de r Ku n s t u n d A e s t h e t ik J a h r b P h Th 1 8 8 8—
9 . . . .
,
.

E in A rg u m e nt d e s h l T h om a s f ii r die E i n h e it de r S ee l e i m Me n .

s ch e n be l eu c h te t du r ch Ta t sa c h en de r P ny s ik P s ych ol ogi e u n d
, ,

My s tik J a h r b P h s p Th 1 8 8 9 . . . . .
, .

A n a l ogi e n zwi s c h e n N a t u re r k e n nt n i s u nd G o tt e s e r k e nn t n i s den ,

B e we i se n f ii r d a s D a se i n G o tt e s un d na t u rwi s s e ns ch a ftl ich e r

B e we is f ii h r u ng m it B e z u gn a h m e a u f K a n t s K r iti k de r G o tt e s
b ewe i s e P h i los J a h r b 1 8 9 0— . 91 . .
,
.

P s yc h o l ogi s c h e L eh r en de r Sc h o l a s ti k b es t ii t ig t un d b e l e u ch te t d u r c h
T h a t s a c h e n de r k a th o l i s c h r e lig i os e n My s tik J a h r b P h s p Th -
. . . . .
,

1 89 1 .
 310

P I CA VE T , FRAN CO I S . R o s ce lin , p h il oso phe et t h eo l ogi en . I mp . na ti on a l e ,

1 896 .

Le s di s c u s s i o n s
l ibe r t é a u t e m p s de G o tt s ch a l k de Ra b a n
sur la ,

M a u r d Hin c m a r e t de Jea n Sc o t P a r i s P ica r d 1 8 9 6

,
’
.
, , .

L a re n a i s s a n c e de s é t u de s s c o l a s ti q u e s R ev b leue 1 8 9 6 . .
, .

G e rb e r t n u p a p e p h il o s o p h e d a p r es l h i s t o i re e t d a p r es la l eg e n d e
’ ’ ’
.
,

P a r i s L e r ou x 1 8 9 7 , ,
.

E n t r e ca m a r a d e s Pa r i s 1 9 0 1 .
, .

L a v a l e u r de la s c o l a s ti qu e ( I n Bibl du C o ng I n t e rn de P h il o s . . . .
,

t . Pa r i s 1 9 0 2 , .

T ra v a u x d e n s e m b le s u r la s c o l a s ti que et le neo t h o m i s m e R ev
’
-
. .

P h i lo s .
, 1 902 .

E s qu i s se d un e h i s t o i r e gen era l e et c o m p a r ée de s p h il o s o p h i e s
’

m é di év a l e s P a r i s Alc a n 1 9 0 5 ; 2 e d 1 9 0 7 .
, , . .
, .

D eu x di re cti on s de la t h eol ogi e c a t h o l i que a u X I I I s i ecl e S a i n t . .

T h om a s d A q u in e t R oge r B a c on R ev d e l h is t d es r e lig io ns
’
. .
’
.
,

1905 .

L
’
e n s e ig n e m e n t c o m p a r ée de s p h il o s o p h i e s
d e l H i s t O i re
’
g én é r a l e et

du m oy e n ag e

s u r R oge r B a c on
P a r i s L ib g e n de D ro it 1 9 0 6

R ev 12 e ns 19 07
.

N O S v i e u x m a i t r e s P i e r r e d e M a r ic o u r t le P ica r d e t s o n i n ue n c e ,

.
,

. .
.

.
,
.

.
,
, .

,
fl
P I CCI RE LLI S J J M D e D e o D i s p u t a t ione s Met a p h y s ica
, . .
,
. L ut . . .

P a r i s Le c o fi re 1 8 8 5,
'

, .

D i s q u i s iti o m e t a p h y s i c o t h e o log ica c r itic a de di s t in c t ione a c t u a t a m -

,

i nt e r e s s en t ia m ex is te n t ia m q u e c rea ti e n ti a i nte rc e n de nt e a c ,

p ra c i p u e de m e n t e A nge l ici D o c t o r is ci r ca e a m de m q u a s t io ne m .

P a r i s Le c off r e 1 9 0 6
, , .

P I CH ERI T L P C a r b one l l e et I E n cy c liq u e ! E te r n i P a t r i s ’

,
Le R . . . .

A ng e r s 1 8 8 3 , .

P I DA L Y M O N A LE J AN D RO Si s t em a s fi lo s Ofi c o s M a d r id 1 8 7 3
, . .
, .

S a n t o To m as de A qu i n o s u v ida h i s t o r i a de s u s r e l i qu i a s s u s O b r a s , , , ,

s u d o ct r i na s u s d is c i p u l o s s u s i m p u gn a d o r e s
, s l s igl o XI I I la , , ,

O r de n d e S a n t o D o m i ng o e t c M a d r i d 1 8 75 , .
, .

D i s c u r s os lei dos a n t e 1a R ea l Ac a d e m i a de la s ci e n ci a s m o ra l e s .

M a dr i d 1 8 8 7 , .

P I ER S O N A LLAR D D i s q u i s iti o h is t o r i c O d ogm a tic a de re a l i s m o e t n om

,
.
-

i n a li s m o q u a t e n u s v i m h a b u e r i n t i n p r a c i p u is p la c it i s t h e o l og i a
s c h o l a s tic a i n d e a b A n s e l m o u s q u e a d G u li el m u m a b O c c a m o
, .

Tra j e c t i a d R h e n u m , 1 8 54 .

P IE T R O P AO LO F L a n im a ne l m on d o gr e co e ro m a n o ne l m e di o evo e
, .
’
,

n e ll a fi los o fi a m o d e r n a R o m a Ca p a c c in i 1 8 9 8 .
, , .

P IG NAT AR O S J F E LI O E De De o C re a t or e Com m en t a r i u s i n I P
, . .
, . . . .

S um m a Th e o log ic a S T h om a R om a 1 8 9 4 . .
, .

P ILLET A D e S T h o m a o m n i u m s c h ola ru m c h r is t ia na ru m p a t rono

, . . .

R ev . 80 . ec c l .
, 1 89 9 .

PLA SS MAN N H ,
. E . Die Sch u l e de s hl . Th oma s von A qu i n o . So e s t ,

1 8 5 7—62 .
PLA SS MANN H E D ie Le h re de s h l Th oma s v on A q u i no fi be r d ie
, . . .

Be s c h e id e n h e it un d De m ut h Pa d e r bo rn 1 85 8 .
, .

PLA TER S J C HARLES A Sta rti ng po i n t in E t h i cs Ne w Yor k R ev

, . .
, .
-
. .
,

19 0 7 .

PL U MTBE, E . H
ge r B a c on Con t e m p Re v 2 3 64 . Ro . .
, .

P LU Z A N S KI E E s sa i s ur la p h i lo s o p h ic de D uns Sc o t
, . P a r i s Th o r i n .
, ,

1 8 8 7 ; I ta l by A Al i a n i F i re nze 1 8 9 2 . .
, , .

PO HL KARL D a s Ve r b alt nis s de r P h ilom p h ie zu r T h e o l ogi e be i R oge r

, .

Ba co n Ne u s t re l it z 1 89 3 .
, .

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, . .

P h i lo s J a h r b 1 89 3 . .
, .

PO LAN D S J W ILLI AM Th e W ea po n s o f S o ca l l e d M ode r n Sci e n ce

,
. .
, .
-
.

A m er Ca t h Q ua rt 1 8 8 8 . . .
, .

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Ca t h Q ua r t 1 8 89 . .
, .

F u nd a m e nta l E t h ic s A n e t h ic a l a na lys i s co nd u cte d by wa y o f .

,

q u e s ti o n a nd a ns we r f o r u se in cl a s se s o f M o ra l P h i l os o p h y .

Bo s t on Sil ve r B ur de tt 1 89 4 , , .

La w s o f Th ought o r F o r m a l L ogic N e w Y o r k a nd B o s t o n Sil ve r .

,

B u r d e tt 1 8 9 4 , .

Ra ti o n a l P h i l o so p h y T h e T r u t h o f T h o ugh t o r M a te r i a l L o gic . .

A S h o rt T rea ti s e o n t h e I n iti a l P h i l o s o p h y t h e G rou ndwo r k ,

Ne ce s s a ry f o r t h e C o n s i s t e n t P u r s u it o f K n ow l e dge Ne w Y o r k .
,

Sil ve r B u r d e tt 1 8 9 6 , .

M od e rn M a t e r i a l i s m a nd it s M e t h od s in P s yc h o l og y A m er E cc les . . .

R ev .
, 1 89 7 .

PO LO N I NI ,
C ARLO
Acco r d o de l l e d o tt r i ne d e l l a b a t e R o s m i n i
.
’
co n q u e ll e
di Sa n To m m a s o d i m o s t ra t o P a ra bi a go 1 8 7 9 .
, .

POO LE I ll u s t ra ti o ns o f t h H i s t o ry O f Me dia va l Th o ug h t
. e . L o ndo n ,

1 8 84 .

Po pe Le o X I I I a nd M ode rn St u di e s D u b lin R ev 1 8 8 0 . .
, .

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, . .

Th o m a s v o n A q u i n J a h r b P h 8 p Th 1 8 9 1 . . . . .
, .

Da s Sy s te m de r t h eo l ogi s c h e n S u mm a d e s h l Th o m a s vo n A q u i n . ,

O d e r ii b e rs ic h t lic h e r un d z usa m m e n b ilng e nde r Ab r i ss de r S u m m a

t h eo l m it Anme rk u nge n u nd E rkla ru ng e n de r t e rm i n i t ec h nic i

. .

L u ce rn 1 8 9 4 ; 2 cd 1 90 3 , . .
, .

PO RTU G AL J M DE J E l A m a bl e J es us e n lo s m i s t e r i o s de e u D i v i no
, . . .

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, .
,
.

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,

gra titu d a l D i v i no Re d e nto r de lo s H o m b re s a l te rm i na r e l s igl o

XIX M a d r id 1 9 0 0.
, .

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.

PO S C H J A z idO e lmé le t e B uda pe s t 1 8 9 8

, . .
, .

PO S PI S I L P h ilosc p h ie na c h de n G ru ds il t ze n de s h l T h o ma s vo n Aq ui no
. . .
 312

P O TTER S P C om p e n di um p h il os o p h i a m o ra l i s s e u e t h ica se c un d u m
, .

p r i n cipi a S Th om a a d u s u m s c h ola r u m B re da 1 8 9 2 . .
, .

F O U C HE T F A H i s t o i re de s s ci e n ce s n a t u r e lle s a u m oye n ag e o n Al be rt
, . .

ls G r a n d e t s on ép o q u e c o n s i d é r é s c omm e p o i n t de d ep a r t de
l ec o l e e xp é r i m en t a l e P a r i s 1 8 53
’
.
, .

D E P O U LP I Q U ET F R A Le p o i n t ce n t r a l de la c on t r ove r s e s u r la dis
, . .

ti n cti on de l e s s e n ce et de l e x is t e n c e R ev N eo S ea l 1 9 0 6 ’ ’
. .
-
, .

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,
. .
,
. .
-
. . .

Ca t h Q ua r t 1 8 89
. .
, .

D EL PRAD O O P N De Ve r it a t e f u nda m e n t a li p h il o s op h i a c h r i s ti a n a
,
. .
, . .

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,
1 89 9 .

Ch a r a c t e r e s e s se n t i a le s p h y s ic a p ra m ot ion is j u xt a do c t r i n a m D iv i
Th om a . J a hr b P h . . sp . Th .
,
190 1 .

D e d i ve r s i s p e r f e ct io n i s g ra dib u s i n p h y s ic a p r a m o t io n e . J a hr b .

P h s p Th , 1 9 0 1 —
. 2 . . .

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o l ibe r i a r bit r i i c u m di v i na m o t ione j uxt a doc t r ina m
or a

D T h om a e t S A u g u s ti n i D iv Th o m 1 9 0 2
. . . . .
,
.

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,
. .
, .

P RA N TL KA RL
,
D e r U n i v e r s a l i e n s t r e i t i m 1 3 u n d 1 4 J a h r h u n de r t
. . . .

S i tz ber . A ca d . l Vi s s . Miluc ke n
p hi l , . CL, 1 8 6 4 .

G c h ich t
es e de r L gi k o i m A b e n d la n de . L ip z ig 1 8 55—7 0
e , .

Mic h a e l P s e llu s P e t r u s Hi s p a n u s
u nd . L ip z ig 1 8 67
e , .

P RE G ER, W I LH . G e s c h ic h t e de r de u t s c h e n M y s tik im Mitt e l a l te r .

M ii n c h e n ,
1 8 74 .

PRE STO N T S G o d a n d R ea s on : L e ct u r e s u p on t h e P r i m a ry T ru t h s
, . .

o f N a t u r a l R e l igi o n Ne w Y o r k C o ddi n gt o n 1 8 8 4 .
, , .

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,
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. 5 ed Na p o l i . . .
, ,

1 8 7 9 ; Sp a n by G a bi n o Te j a d o M a d r i d 1 8 66 .
, , .

L a M e t a ns ic a d e ll a m or a l e N a p o l i 1 8 65 .
, .

G i o be r ti e la s co l a s tic a S cie n z a e F e de xxxv i i .

,
.

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.
, .

S ull o p p o s t o i n di r i zz o d e ll a fi lo s o fi a s c o l a s tic a e m o d e rna c on s id

’

e ra z io n i s t o r ic o c r iti c h e N a p o l i 1 8 68 -
. .
,

L O He g h e llia n is m o c o n s id e r a t o i n s e e ne l s u o s vo lgi m e n t o s t or i co .

N a p o l i 1 8 68 , .

P r i n cipii di F ilo s o fi a de l D i r i tt o Na p o l i M a n f r e di 1 8 7 2 .
, , .

P RO H A S Z K A O A c a u s a f o r m a l is gy oz elm e a m o de rn t e r m é s ze t b Olcse let

, .

f OlOt t B Olc s F o ly 1 88 8
'
'

. . .
, .

A z é rt é ke k r e a liz m u s a B Olcs F ol 1 8 89
’

. . .

I s t en é s a v i lag . Es z t e r go m ,
189 1 .

A sza ba da k a ra t é s a t e s t m o z g as i m e c h a n iz m u s . B o las . F ol 1 89 4 .

F Old es é g . Esz te rg om , 190 1 .

PRO S P ER P H L
’
e x p os i t io n l ittera l e et d oct r i na l e de la S omm e t h e

fl
. .
,

o log iq u e de sa n i t T h om a s d A q ui n ’
. L i e r re Va n I n 1 8 9 4 , , .

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~
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d om a n de e r ip o s t e a l l u s o d egl i a l u n n i de i Se m i na r i I n s tit u t i ,
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’ ’
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Q ue s ti o ns re ligi e u se s e t s o ci a l e s de n o t re te m p s Ver it é e r r u r .
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O pi n i o n s l ib re 2 e d Pa r i s 1 8 8 8 s . .
,
.

SC ARPA T I PA S Q A nt ro po l ogi a i nse gn a ta ne l l S o m m a di S a n To m

, . a

m a so d A q u in O d e p o s t a n e l l e s ue p a r ti p r i n ci p a l i a q ua d i
’
e s r

s i no ttici e i n f o r m a s ill ogi s tica Na p o li ti p P re te 1 8 8 9 .

, .
, .

SC HA C H TER M AZ a k a ra t s za b a d ag a rol B u d a p e s t 1 8 8 9
, . s .
, .

SC HA UB D ie Eig e nt h u m s le h re na c h T h o m a s vo n A q u i n u nd de m m o d
.

e rne n S o z i a l i s m u s m it b s o n de re r B e r li c k s ic h t ig u ng d e r be id e r e

se itig e n We lt a ns c h a u ung e n F re ib u rg H e r d e r 1 8 9 8 .
, , .

SCH E YER SI M O N B , Da s p s yc h o l ogi s c h e Sy s te m d e s M a i m o n i de s

. .

F ra nk f urt 1 8 4 5 , .

SCH I A VI LO RENZO De l l e ra gi o n i i n ti me c h e e s i t o no t ra la fi los o fi a di

, . s

A r i t ot e l e e ]e d o tt r i ne di S a n T o m m a s o e di Da nt e To r i no 1 8 7 1
s .
, .

P ro pe d e utico a ll o s t u di o d e ll a fi lo s o fi a 2 e d T o r i no 1 8 7 9 . . .
, , .

Lo gi ca se co nd o la s c uo l a di S a n T o mm a s o a d us o d e gl i s t u de n ti c h e
s i ni z ia n o n e l l a fi lo so fi a P a do va 1 8 9 8
’
.
, .

S O I I I rr I N I S J B A
, Lo gi ca ge ne ra l i s I ns t it ut io ne s q ua s in Wood
. .
, . .

s t oc ki e n s i C o ll e gi o SS C o r di s a d sc ho ] a s t ic os S J t ra deb a t . . . .

Ex t y p is Co lleg ii, 1 8 7 3 .

S . H m i n d u u m t udi
Th o ma A q ui na tis T ra cta t us de o e a s s osa j uve n

t ut i mm d t u W d t c k M y l nd i 1 8 8 2
s a cco o a s . oo s o a r a a , .

S Th m A q ui n t i T c t t u d M t u H m i n i in D um
. o a a s ra a s e o o s e a d us u m

j u nt ut i mm d tu
ve W d t ck 1 8 8 3 s a ceo o a s. oo s o , .
 3 20

S CH I FFI N I , S J S AN CT U S P r i n cipi a p h ilo s op h ica a d me n te m A q ui na t i s

. . .

A u gu s ta Ta u r i no rum S pe i ra n i 1 8 8 6 ; 2 e d 1 8 9 4 , , . .
, .

D i s p u t a t i o n e s m e t a p h y s i ca s pe ci a l i s Au gu s ta Ta u r i noru m S pe i .
,

ra n i 1888 , .

I n s t it u t ion e s p h ilo s c p h i ca a d m e n t e m A q u in a t i s t r ib u s v olum i n ib u s

j a m e vo l u ta a b e od e m a u c t o re n u p e r in c om p e n di u m re d a cta
,
.

A u g u s t a Ta u r i n o r u m 1 8 8 9 , .

D i s p u t a t ion e s p h il o s o p h i a m o r a l i s 2 v ol A ugu s t a Ta u r i noru m . .

, ,

1 89 1 .

SC H ILT Z PE T R, . Sum m a
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in u s u m S e m in a r i i L u x e m b u r g i s u x e m b u r g , 1 8 9 4 if L . .

SC H I N D ELE S T B e it rag e z u r e a
, . s e s W il h e l m v on A u ve r gn e
-
M t phy i k d .

I n a u gur a l di s s e r ta ti on Miin ch en 1 9 0 0 .
, .

Z u r Ge s c h ic h t e d e r U n t e r s c h e id u n g v o n We s e n h e i t u n d D a s e i n in
de r Sch o l a s tik M ii n c h e n H o fb u ch d ru ck e r e i 1 9 00
.
'

, , .

D ie a r i s t o t e l i s c h e E t h ik D a r l e gu ng u n d K r itik i h re r G r u ndg e .

d a n ke n P h i los J a h r b 1 9 02 3
. . .
,
-
.

S CH I O PP A LO R ,
L a p s ic o l o gi a t o m i s tic a e la m o de rn a p s i ch i a t r i a
. .

N a p o l i P i s a n z io 1 8 9 5 , , .

SC H LO SS ER FR CH R Ab al a r d u n d Du l ci n Le b en u nd M e i n u ngen e i ne s
, . . :

S c h wa r m e rs u n d e i n e s P h i lo s O p h e n G o t h a 1 8 0 7 ; Pa r i s 1 8 39 .
, , .

SC HM ID A LO Y S D ie t h om ist is c h e u n d s c ot is t i s eh e G e wis s h e it s le h re
,
. .

D i ll i nge n 1 8 59 , .

D ie p e r i p s c h o l L e h r e v o n d e n G e s t i r ng e i s t e r n A t h a e n e u m
.
-
. .

( M ii n c h e n ) , 1 8 62 .

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D a s Ca u s a lit a t s p r ob le m . P h i lo s . Ja hrb .
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1 896 .

SC HM ID FRANZ
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1 8 89 .

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1 890 .

D e r B e g r i fi de s
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W a h re n . P h lo s i . Ja hrb .
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SC HM ID T H E I NR IC H
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S CH M I EDL , A . St u di en ii b e r j ii dis c h e , i n s o n de r s j ii d i s e h -
a ra bi s c h e
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1 8 69 .

S CH M I I
’ '
A Z we i n och u nbe nii t zt e H a n d s ch r i ft e n de s Joh a nnes Sc ot u s
T, .

E r ig e n a B a m b e r g 1 9 00 .
, .

S CH M I T I J
’ ‘
Hege l dia lekt ikaj ana k t it ka B u da pe s t 1 8 9 2
, . .
,
.

S CH M O LDE B S D o c u m e n t a p h il os o p h i a A ra b u m B onn 1 8 3 6
. .
, .

E s sa i s u r le s éc o l es p h i l o s o p h i q u e s c h e z les A r a b e s e t n ot a mm e n t
s u r la d o ct r i ne d A l a z za li P a r i s 1 842 ’
g .
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S CH M O L LE B L Di e s ch o l a s ti s ch e L e h re v o n M a t e r i e un d F o r m
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di n g s d a rge s t e llt m it R iic ks ieh t a u f die T a t sa ch e n un d Le h re n

de r N a t u r wi s s e n s c h a ft P a s s a u 1 9 03 .
, .
 3 22

SC H UT Z ,
L U D W IG . T h o m a s L e xic on -
. S a m m l ung Ueb e r se t z u ng ,
u nd

E r kla r u n g de r in s am m t l . W e r k e n d e s h l Th o m a s v o n . Aq .

k omm e n de n Ku ns t a u s dr ii cke u n d wis s ens ch a ft l A u s sp r ii eh e

vor . .

Pa d e r b o r n 1 8 8 1 ; 2 e d 1 89 5 , . .
,
.

U e b e r W i s s e n s c h a ft u nd O fi e nb a r un g
'

1 884 . .

D e r h l T h o m a s u n d s e i n Ve r s t an dn i s s de r G r i e c h i s c h e n
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J a hr b .
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1 89 5 .

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SC H W AL M O P M E L a p r O p r iet é d a p r es la p h il o s o p h i e de s a i n t
,
. .
, . .
’

T h om a s R ev t h o m 1 8 9 5 . . .
, .

L a c t i o n i n t e l l e ct u e l l e d u n m a i t re d a p r es s a i n t T h o m a s
’ ’ ’
R ev . .

t h om .
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S CH W E TS . V i e nn a 1 8 7 3
I n s t it u t i o n e s p h ilO S O p h i c a .
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SCO TU S JO ANNE S UN S
,
p Di a E di ti o n ov i s s i m a j uxt a e d i
O e ra o m n . .

t ion e m W a dd ing i a PP F ra n ci s c de O b s e r v a cc u r a t e r e c og n it a . . . .

2 6 vo l i n 4 P a r i s i i s V i v e s 1 8 9 1
.
-
, , , .

S EC R ET AN C HAR LE S La r es t a u ra ti on du t h om i s m e R e v P h i los 1 8 84
, . . . .
,
.

S EE RE R G R E I NH O LD
,
D ie Ve r s Oh n u n g s le h re de s Ab a l a r d u n d d ie E e k am p
.

f u ng de r se lb en d u r ch d h l B e r n a r d Mi t t u N a e h r f d e va ng . . . . . . . . .

K i r e h e i n R us s l .
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1888 .

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S E G URA A N D R ES D i s c u r s o p r on u n ci a do e n la s o l e m n e D is t r ib u c iOn
, .

d e P re m i o s de l S e m i n a r i o C o n cil i a r d e L e on a no de 1 8 7 9 L e On , .
,

1 8 79 .

S EIP EL ,
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D ie L e h re v on de r .

P e t r us L o m b a rdu s B iic h e r n de r S en t en ze n un d i n de r S um m a
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S EMER I A G I O V ANN I Sci e n za e F e de e i l l o r o p r et e s o c onfi it t o L a

, . .

C r itica d e l l a Sci e nza R om a P u s t e t 1 9 0 3 .

, , .

S E N T RO U L C L O b j e t de la m é t a p h y s i q u e s e l o n K a n t e t s e l o n A r i s t o t e
’
. .
,

L ou va i n 1 9 0 5 , .

V r a i t h o m i s m e c on t re v ra i k a nti s m e R ev Né o S eo l 1 9 0 6 . .
-
.
, .

L e s u bj cti v i s m e k a n ti e n R é p o n s e a M l a bb e F a rg e s R e v t h om
’
e . . . . .
,

1 907 .

S ERTI LL A N G E S , O P . .
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’
e x is t e n c e de D i eu et l ete r
’

n it é d e R ev t h o m 1 8 9 8
d u m on . . .
, .

L a r t e t la m ora l e P a r i s B lo u d 1 8 9 9
’
.
, , .

N o s vr a i s e n ne m i s R ev t h om 1 9 02 . . .
, .

Le s b a se s de la m o ra l e e t le s r ec e n t es di s c us s i on s R ev d e P h i los
—
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1902 3 .

L
’
id es de sa n cti on p e u t e ll e -
s erv r i a p r o u ve r D ie u . R ev . them
1 9 03 .

L ’
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1 9 0 4- 5 .
 3 23

S ERT I L LA N G ES , O P . .
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P e rr i n 1 9 04 ; , 11 cd . .
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La co n n a i s sa n cc de Di eu . R ev . dc P h i los .
, 1906 .

L id ec
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de c rea ti o n da ns sa nt i Th o m a s d A q u in
’
. Re v . s ci .
p h los i . et

t heo l .
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L Rm e
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et i t T h o ma s d A q u in Re v de P h i los 1 9 0 8
la v ie se o n s a nl ’
. . .
,
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S ES T ILI JO A C H I M D e Syl ve st ri s Com m ent a r ia in l ib ros q ua t uo r

, . .

co n t ra G e ntil e s S Th oma A q u ina t is Rom a 1 8 9 8 . .

, .

S EYERLE N R UD ,D ie ge ge ns e iti ge n B e z i e h u ng e n z wi s c h e n a b e n dl an d
.

i sc he r un d m o rg e n dla n dis c b e r W i ss e ns c h a ft m it be so n d e re r R ii ek ,

s icht a u f S a l o m o n ib n G a b i r o l u n d s e i n e p h i l os o p h i s c h e B e de u

t ung Le ip zi g Ka u f m a nn 1 9 00
.
, , .

S H AH AN TH O MA S J Th e Mi ddl e Age s Ske tc h es a nd F ra gm e nt s N e w

, . . .

Yo r k B e nz ige r 1 9 0 5, , .

S I I A N A H A N E D MU ND T ,
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ne s s . Ca t h . Uni v B u ll . .
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1 89 6 .

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Th e I d e a o f G o d in t h e U n i v e r s e Ca t h Un i v B u ll 1 8 9 8 . . .
, .

T h e F a ll a cy in E v o l u ti o n Ca t h Un iv B u l l 1 9 0 1 . . . .
,
.

Th e L a n gua ge O f E vo l u ti on Ca t h Un i v B u ll 1 9 0 1 — 2 . . . .
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S HEA G EO RG E S om e F a ct s a n d P rob a bil iti e s Re l a ti ng t o t h e Hi s t ory

, .

o f J o h a nn e s Sc o t u s s u r n a m e d D u n s a n d c o nc e r n i ng t h e g e n u i n e

n e s s O f t h e S p a g n o le t t o P o rt r a it b e l o ngi ng t o t h e G e n e ra l T h e o

l o ica l Se m i n ry O f t h e U S C a m b r idg e R i ve r i de P re s 1 8 9 0
g
a . .
,
s s, .

S H I RLE Y WALTER WADDI N G TO N Sc h o l a s tici s m A l e ct u re d e li ve re d

, . .

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, .
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CO .
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,
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A q u i no G o t h a 1 8 8 4 .
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Ue be r d ie E n t s te h un g de r Te r m i n i na t u ra na t u ra n s un d na t u ra

na t u ra t a A r c h G es c h P h i l s 1 8 9 0
”
. . . o .
, .

O eea m s E r ke nnt n iss le h re in i h re r h i s to r i s c h e n S t e ll ung A rc h

’
. .

G ee c h P h i los 1 89 7 . .
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,
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, , .

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,
. .
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.
, .

S I G H A RT J O A C H I M
,
Al b e rt us M a gnus se i n Leb en und s e i ne W i sse n
.
,

s c h a ft Re g ns b u rg 1 8 57 ; F re nc h Pa r i s 1 862 ; E ng ] by D ixo n
. e , , , .
,

Lond on 1 8 7 6 , .
 3 24

S I G NO B I E I L O , NU N TI O . Le xic on P e r ip a t et ic u m Ph ilo s O p h i co Th e olog ic um -

s c h o ] a s t i c or u m d is t in c t i o n e s
'

in q u o et efi a t a p ra c ip u a e x p li ca n t u r .

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, .
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St a a t His t J a h r b v ii . . .
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.

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. .
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,
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’
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, . .

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, ,
.
,

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”
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, ,

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 3 26

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. .
, .

De S An se l m i de l ib e r i a r bit r i i n ot ion e s en te n ti a
. . I nd . lee t .

M on a s t er p er m ens es . fes t iv ,
1 871 .

D i e t h om i s t i s ch e Lh e re v om W e lt a n f a n g e in i h r em ge s c h ichtl ich e n
Zu s a mm en h a n gs . K a t h o li k, 1 8 8 3 .

G ch ich t d
es e e r n e ue r e n P h i l os o p h i e v on B a co un d Ca r t es iu s b i s zum

G g nw t e e ar . 2 v ol .
,
1 883 .

L h b u ch d
e r Ma i nz 1 8 89 er A e s t h e t ik .
, .

G ch ich t d
es e er c h r i s tl ich e n P h il os op h i e z u r Z e it de r K i r ch e nv at e r .

M a i n z K i r ch h e i m 1 8 9 1 , , .

G ru n z iig e d e r P h il o s o p h ic 1 892 . .

G ru n dg r i s s d e r Ge s c h ic h te d e r P h ilO S O p h i e 1 89 4 . .

L eh r b u ch de r Ap o l oge tik M a i n z K i r ch h e i m 1 8 95 .
, , .

Dr . Alb e r t S t Ockl D om c a p it u la r un d Ly c ea lp r o f es s o r in E ich s t att

, .

E i n e L e b e n s s ki zz e Ve r fa s s t v on e i ne m s e i ne r S ch iile r Ma i n z .
'

. .

1 896 .

S T O LZ LE , R EM IGI U S Ab l d
. ae a r s v e r or e n l g egl a u bte r Tr a c t a t De un it a t e

et t r i n it a t e di v i n a ”
His t or J a h r b d G b r r e s g es e ll , xi ; M ii n ch e n
’

. . . . .
,

1 89 0 .

A b a e la r d o . 1 121 zu S o is s c n s v e r u r t h e i lt e r T r a ct a tu s de un it a t e e t
di v i na A u fge fu n d en un d
t r in it a t e . e r s t m a l s h e r a u s ge ge b e n F re i .

b ur g i B He r d er 1 8 9 1 - -
.
, , .

S t o ny h u rs t P h il o s o p h ic a l S e r i es C f B oe dde r C l a rk e M a h e r R ick a by . .
, , ,
.

S TO RR S B e r n a r d O f C l a i rva u x N ew Y o r k 1 8 9 2
. .
, .

S T OSS EL D S a l o m o b e n G eb ir ol a ls P h i l o s o p h u nd F Orde re r de r Ka b
,
.

b a l a d a rge s t e l lt Le ip z ig 1 8 8 1 .
, .

S T RA TER H ERMANN E in m o d e rn e s M ora l s y s te m P h i lo s J a h r b 1 9 0 1

, . . . .
,
.

S TRAUB S J A N TO N Die A s e it at G o tt e s P h i los J a h r b 1 9 0 3

, . .
, . . . .
, .

S T RAUB J O H D e r t e l e o l ogi s ch e G o tt e s b e we i s u n d s e i ne G e g ne r W ii rz
,
. .

b u rg S t ii rt z 1 8 9 4—9 5 , , .

Ge w i s s h e i t u n d E v id e n z de r G o tt e s b ewe i s e P h i lo s J a h r b 1 8 9 7 . . .
, .

S TRO BEL A Di e L e h r e de s s e l Alb e rt u s M a gnu s ii b e r da s G ew i s s en

, . . .

Si g m a r i nge n 1 9 0 1 , .

S TU CK N EB J A Z é le t e lv eg y s é g e a z e m b e r b e n
, . B a le s F o ly 1 9 00 . . .
, .

E lct es o n t u d a t B b le s F o ly 1 9 02
'

.
. . .
,

A Z On t u da t la n a p s y c h olog ia b a n B a les F o ly 1 9 03
S UAREZ S J FRAN CI S C U S O p e r a 2 6 v ol Be s a n con a n d P a r i s 1 8 56—
.
. . .
,

,
. .
,
62 . . .
, ,
.

O p u s c u l a s ex i n e dit a B r u xe ll e s 1 8 59 .
,
.

S U CO N A Y VALLES Me t a p h y s i c a a dnot a t io ne s T a r ra g ona 1 8 8 3

. .
,
.

P h i l o s o p h i a I n s t i t u t i o n e s T a r r a gon a 1 8 8 6 .
,
.

S ULLIV AN J M a r s igl i o o f P a d ua a nd W i ll i a m o f O ek a m A m er His t

, . . . .

R ev .
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S URA N YI J , . J oh n St u a r t Mill s za b a d s fi gt a n a . B b lc s
'

. F o ly 1 9 00 .

S U T AK J , . G e o m e t r ia i A x i Om ak . B ales . Ro ly .
, 1898 .
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phi l oso p h i s c h e n Bewe i se f li r die Uns t e r bl ic h Ge i s ti gk e it un d di e
ke it de r me ns chl ic h e n Se e l e P h i los J a h r b 1 8 9 8 . . .
, .

SW EETS ER S Aba i l a r d a nd Be r na r d B i b lia t h S ac ra x vi i

fl
.
, . . .
,

S W IT ALS KI B W De s Ch a lc idi us Com m ent a r z u P l a t o s Ti m ii us

, . .
’

( Be i t rage ) Mllns t e r A s c h en do r
'

19 02 .
, ,
.

Da s Le ben de r See l e B ra un s be rg 1 9 0 7 .
, .

DE SY LVE ST R I S O P FRAN C ( Fe r ra r ie n s is ) Co mm e nt a ria in l ib ro s

,
. .
, . .

I V co n t ra Ge n ti l e s S T h o m a de A q u i n o E d n o v i s s i m a c u ra . . .

J Se s til i Ro ma 1 8 9 8 ii
. .
, .

S YM P H O RI EN LO UI S FR ERE P reci s de M ét a p h y s i q u e Mo nt rea l 19 0 5

-
, . .
, .

S ZAB O J A j e lle e ] B les F o ly 1 8 9 7

, . . a . .
, .

S ZAB O M A lele kt a n a la p vo na la i S ze g e d 1 8 8 7
, . .
, .

S ZABO S A mozg as es a m oz di t as leny t a n i ismc r te t e e B les F a ly

, . s . a . .
,

1890 .

S Z EKEL Y G A q ua lit a t io
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S Z EKELY S T B elc se le t es
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BOlc se le t es t h e o log ia . B eta s . F o ly .

, 188 9 .

AZ a ny a g ny i lv a n u las a i es e r Oi . B alcs
’

. F a ly .
,
1 8 9 3,
Os z tiin B alc s F a ly 189 7
’

es es z . . .
, .

E s z es Os zt On . N a gy v ara d , 1 8 9 8 .

S Z I LVEK , L Pl t . a o va gy A r is t o t e ls z ? B a le s . F a ly .
, 1889 .

A ]e l ki t e h e t s eg e k lo c a liza t io j ar O] . B ales
'

. F a ly .
, 189 1 .

F iz ika es m e t a fi z ika . P é c s , 1 89 4 .

A h y p n o z i s i s me r te t es e es m a gy a r aza t a B a les F a ly . . .
, 1899 .

A s zoc iald e m o k r fi c ia v a esa B ale s F a ly , 1 9 0 5 ll . . . .

S Z I TI N YA I , E . Lele k t a n es L og i ka . B uda pe s t , 1 9 02 .

S Z O MB A CH , M . A ro s s z m ibe n let e . B a le s F o ly . .
,
1890 .

TAB AREL LI , R . D e De o UnO in I P S u m ma Th eo log ic a S T h o m a A q

. . . .

Q I I ad Q XIV
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T AILLAND IER S A I N T R EN E ,
-
. Sc o t B r igene e t la p h ilo s c p h ie s co l a s ti q ue .

Pa r i s 1 84 3 , .

Abel a r d la l ib re p ens ee : au m o y e n ag e . Re v . de s D e u ce Ma nd e s ,

1861 .

TALA H O , S ALV A TO RE . L
’
a r is t o t e lis m o de ll a s c o l a s ti ca ne ll a s t o r i a d e ll a
fi loso fi a . Na p o l i ,
1 873 ; 3 . cd Si e na 1 8 8 1 ; F re nc h Pa r i s A m a t
.
, , , , ,

1 876 .

I] i
r nn ov a me n o t de l p e ns e ro i t om i s tico e la s ci e nza m od e rna . 2 . cd .
,

Si e na , 1 8 76 .

’
L Od ic rna c l t o m i s tica cd i s uo i a v ve rsa rii 3 cd Si ena 1 8 7 9
s uo a . . .
, , .

L in consci o d ell Ha rt m a n n
’
di co rso le tt o ne ll A cc di Re lig ions ’
,
s
’
.

ca t ta l di Ro ma i l di 1 5 Ma ggi o 1 8 7 9 Ro ma 1 8 7 9
. .
, .

U na nuo va fo rma di so ci a l i s m o No te c r itic h e R oma De s c lee . .

, ,

1 900 .

La Sc hi a vi tu ne l l e o pe re de i d otto r i s co la s tici . Re v . i n t er n di . s ci .
 3 28

TAP A BELLI D A ZE G LI O S J L U I G I Sa ggi o t e o r e tico di di r i tt o na t u r a l e

’
,
. .
, .

a pp o ggi a t o s u l f a tt o P a l e rm o 1 8 4 —
0 4 1 ; 6 ed 1 8 57 ; G erm .
, . .
,
.
,

R ege n s b u r g 1 845 ; F re n c h P a r i s 1 8 57 ; S p a n
, 2 ed M a d r id , , .
, . .
, ,

i m p S a n J os e 1 8 8 4
.
, .

C ors o e l em en t a re di Na t u ra l D i r i tt o a d u so d e ll e s cu o l e Na p o l i .
,

1 8 43 ; L i v o r n o 1 8 5 1 ; 6 cd N a po l i 1 8 60 ; F re n ch by O z a n a m
, . .
, , ,

Tou r n a i 1 8 64 ; Sp a n P a r i s B ou r e t 1 8 7 5
, .
, , , .

E sa m e c r itic a d egl i o r di n i r a pp r e s e n ta ti v i n e ll a s o ci e t a m o de rn a .

2 v o l R om a 1 8 54 ; Sp a n
.
,
M a d r i d 1 8 67, .
, , .

L e R a gi o n i d e l be l l o s e c on d o i p r i n cipi i di S T o m m a s o Ro m a . .
,

1 8 60 ; Sp a n by E D a ne ro M a d r id 1 8 7 9 . .
, , .

T AR I N O I n s t it u t i on e s l o gic a m e t a p h y s ica et h i ea a t qu e j u r i s n a t u ra
.
, , .

2 e d B i e ll a 1 8 7 7
. .
, , .

P r obl e m s f un d a m en t a l e de l l a s ci en z a 1 8 7 8 . .

TEM PLER B ERNH D e r Un s t e rbl ic h k e it s gl a u b e b e i de n j ii di sc h en P h i

,
.

l O S O p h e n d e s Mitt e l a lt e r s N e b s t E i n l e it u ng iib e r den Un s t e r

fl
.

b lic hke i t s g la ub e n i n Bib e l u n d Ta l m u d W i e n B r e ite n s t e i n 1 8 9 5 .

, ,
.

v. TES S E N WE S I E RS K I -
F D ie G ru nd l a g e n de s W u n de rb eg ri e s n a c h
, .
‘

Th om a s v o n A q u i n P a de r b o r n S c h On ing h 1 8 9 9 .
, , .

TH A M I RY E J ,
D e r a t io n ib u s s e m i n a l ib u s e t i m m a n e n t ia
. . L ill e 1 9 0 5 .
,
.

L i mm a n c n c e e t le s ra i s o n s s em i n a l e s le s p r ob leme s de la v ie e t de
’
,

l a c t io n d i v i n e s
’
R ev s c i e ee l 1 9 0 6 7 . . . .
,
-
.

T H I ER Y A W a s s ol] W u n dt f ii r un s se i n ? R e v N ea S ea l 1 8 9 8
,
. .
-
.
,
.

L e t o n a l de la p a r o l e L o u va i n I n s t s up de P h il o s 1 9 0 1 .
, . . .
, .

T H I LL J D a s F u n da m e n t a lp r in c ip a l l e r W i s se n s c h a ft e n P h i los
, . . .

Ja hrb .
, 189 1 .

T H O MA S A QU I NA S O p e ra om n i a ; 22 v ol f ol P a r m a F ia c c a do r i 1 8 66
. . .
, , , .

O p e ra o m n i a j u s s u i m p e n s a q u e Le o n i s X I I I P M e dit a R om a . . .
,

1 8 8 2 II .

c e r pt a p h il os o p h i es ( a r ra ng e d a n d e dit e d by P C a rb one l ) 2
Ex . .

v ol A v ign o n 1 8 82
.
, , .

Co m m e n t a r ia in t r e s l ib r o s A r i s t o t e l i s d e A n i m a L ov a n ii 1 9 0 1 .
,
.

U e b e r d ie R e gi e r u n g de r F ii r s t e n D e R e g i m i n e p r i n c ip u m E in . .

C om pe n di u m de r P o l itik Ueb e r s v Th Sch e r re r B o cca r d . . . .

-
.

L u ce r n 1 8 9 7 , .

C f R ick a by C M Sch n e id er
.
, . . .

St T h om a s A q u i na s a n d M e dia va l T h o ug h t D u b lin R e v 1 9 0 6
. . .
,
.

TH OME S N I C Co m me n t a t io lit te ra r ia e t c r itic a de S T h o m a A q u ina t is

, . .

o p e r ib u s . Be r o lin i, 1 8 7 4 .

D i v i Th o m a A q u in a t i s O p e ra et p ra c e p t a qu i d va lea n t a d re s

p o l iti ca s s o ci a l e s B e r olini 1 8 7 5
ec c le s i a s t i c a s .
, .

TH URI N G H D ie W il l e n s f r e i h e i t de s Me n s c h e n n a ch de r L e h r e de s h l
,
. .

Th o m a s v on A q u i n o K a t h a l S c h we i z B l 1 89 1 . . . .

TH U RO T C HARLE S D e l O rg a n i sa t io n de l e n s e ig n e m e n t d a n s l Un iv er
’ ’ ’
, .

s i t e de P a r i s e u m oy e n ag e P a r i s 1 8 50 .
, .
 3 30

U CC ELL I , P I E TR O
M em o r i a s u i t es ti e s a m i na ti da S a n T om m a s o
A NT

fl
.

d A q u in O n e l l o p u s c u l a c ont r a gl i e rro r i d e G re c i Na pol i 1 8 70

’ ’ ’
.
.
,

UDE JO ANN I S
,
D o ct r i na C a p reo l i de in u x u D e i in a ct u s v olunt a t is
.

h u m a na s ec u n du m p r i n cipi a Th om i sm i et M o l i n i s m i c o ll a t a .

G r a c ii S u m p t ib u s ,
Sty r i a 1 9 0 5
”
. .

D ie P s yc h o l ogi e de s S t r eb ev e r m Oge n s i m Si nne de r Sch o l a s ti k

fl
.

G ra z 1 9 0 7 , .

U E BI N G E R J O S B eg r i de r P h il os o phic
‘

, . P h i los J a h r b 1 8 9 3 . . .
, .

UG AR T E D E E R CI LLA E M et o d o p s ic olOg ic o ex pe r i m ent a l E X p e r im e n

'

-
, . .

t a e i On R a z a n y Fé , 1 9 0 7
’

. .

C a ra ct e r m a te r i a l , e xt e r n o y di v i s ibl e d e la se n s a c iOn . R a z a n 3; F e ,
’ ’

1907 .

U RBA I N , C ARO L . De c o n cu r su di v i no s c h ola s t i c i qu i d s e n s e r in t . Pa r i s ,

Th o r i n ,
1 89 4 .

URRAB U R U , S J . .
,
J J . . I n s t it u t ione s P h ilo s o p h i ca qu a s R om a in p a n
t ifi c ia u n i v e r s it a t e G g i re o r a na t r a di de b a t . 8 v ol .
, V a ll i s o l e t i ,
H e r n a n de z ,
1 8 9 0 if .

O r ig e n d e los i i t s eg un s u d i ve r s a s e s p e ci e s y e x a m e n
s e r es v v e n e s , s

d e l t r a n s f or m i s m o Bilb a o 1 8 9 6 .
, .

P r i n cipi o s f u n d a m en t a l es de An t r op o l og ia O b ra e s c r it a e n l a ti n .

y p u e s t a e n c a s t e ll a n o p or A M a d a r i a g a S J M a d r id 1 9 0 1 .
, . .
, .

C om p en di u m P h i l os o p h i a Sch o l a s ti ca 5 vol Ma t r it i L a p e z . .
, , ,

1 9 0 2—
4 .

E1 ve r d a d e ro p u e s t a d e la fi lo s o f i a t
e n re la s ci en ci a s . Ra za n y Fe,
’ ’

19 0 1—2 .

El p r i n cipi o v it a l y el m a t er i a l i s m o an e t la ci en ci a y la fi los o f i a .

R a z an y F é , 1 9 0 4—5 .

VA CA N DA RD, E Ab l
e a rd e t s a l u tte a v e c s a i n t B er n a r d
. s a d o ct r i ne sa , ,

m et h o d e Pa r i s 1 8 8 1 .
, .

V ie d e s a i n t B e r n a r d a bbe de C l a i r va u x Pa r i s 1 8 9 5 , .
, .

VA C AN T J M A D e c er t it udine j u dici i q u a a s sent im u r ex is t ent ia

,
. . .

r e v e la t io n i s . Ta r a n n e , 1 8 7 8 .

De n os ra t t u r a l i c ogn iti ons D e i d is s e r t a t io Ta r a nne

na .
,
1 8 79 .

N o te s sur le s s é m i n a i re s d e p h il o s o p h ic e n F r a n c e Ea t . . d e la R e v .

d e s S ci . e ee l .
,
1 8 80 .

Le m o u v e m e n t et la p re u v e de l
’
e x is t e n c e de D i eu p a r la ne ess c it e
d p re m i e r m o te u r 1 8 8 0
’
un . .

L a t h eo r i e de la c onn a i s s a n c e s e l on s a i n t Th om a s d A q u in e t s e l o n
’

D u n s Sc o t A nn P h i los c h r 1 8 8 9
'
. . . .
,
.

L O b j e t d e l e n te n d e m e n t d a p r es s a i n t Th om a s e t d a p r es D un s Sc o t
’ ’ ’ ’
.

A nn d e P h i lo s c h r
. 1 8 89 . .
, .

L a P a ro l e e t lo l a n g a g e d a p r es s a i n t T h o m a s e t d a p r es Du n s Sc o t
’ ’
.

A rm P h i los c h r
. 1890 . .
, .

E t u d e s c o m p a r ée s s u r la p h il o s o p h ic d e s a i n t Th o m a s e t s u r ce l l e
de D u n s Sc o t P a r i s L y on 1 8 9 1 .
, .
VA C ANT J M A D o u v i en t q u e Dun s Sc o t ne co nco it po i nt la v o l ont e
, . . .
’

co mme sa i n t Th o m a s d A q uin Re v ( i n e le r g é f ra na 1 8 9 7 ’
. .
, .

VA J O J
, A t es t vi sz o ny a a terh e z B ales F a ly 1 8 9 9
. . . .
, .

VA LDAR NI N I E s pe r i e nza e ra gi ona m e n t o i n R oge ra B a co ne Rom a

fl
. .
,

1 896 .

VA LEN S I S E , D . Un a di i co lt a fi los o fi cO -
t eol ogi ca c red u ta i ns o l ubil e .

N i ca s t r o, 1 9 00 .

VALENTI N ER . Sc h o p enh a u e r a ls Sc h ol a st ike r . E i ne K r itik de r Sc h o p n e

h a u e r s c h e n P h i lo s c p h ie m it R li c k s i c h t a uf die g e s a m m te k a n t
i s c h e Ne us c h ol a s t ik Le ip z ig 1 9 0 1 .
, .

VALENZUE LA M AR IO A p un t a m ie nt o s s ob re , . el p r i nci pi o de u til id a d .

B og o t a im p de O r ti z 1 8 57 , .
,
.

VA LERG A L EO NAR DO Del T ra di z i o na l i s m o

, . e de ] S e m i ra t io n a lis m o .

G e n o va , 1861 .

D E L VALLE R U I Z RE ST I T UTO Ra i m u ndo L u l i a Ciuda d d e D ios 1 8 9 8

, . .
,
.

VALLE T PA UL P r a le c t ione s ph ilos o p h ica a d m e n t e m S T h o m A q u i n

,
. . a

a ti s Pa r i s Roger 1 8 7 9 ; 11 cd 1 8 9 1 ; Sp a n by G R o a s B o go t a ,
s ,

—
. . . .
.
, , ,

1 886 89 .

Hi t i s o re P a r i s 1 8 8 1 ; 5 cd 1 8 9 7
de la P h i los O p h ie .
,
. .
,
.

L idec
’
d u be a u d a n s la p h il o s o p h i e de sa i n t T h o m a s Pa r i s 1 8 8 8 . , .

Le Ka n ti s m e e t le P o s iti v i s m e et u d e s u r le s f o n d e m e n t s d e la co n ,

na is s a n cc h u m a i n e Pa ri s 1 8 8 7 .
, .

La Tet e e t le C a u r et u de p h y s i o l ogi q u e p s yc h o l o gi q ue e t m o ra l e , ,
.

Pa r i s Ro ge r Ch e r nov iz 1 8 9 1
, , .

La v ie e t l h er ed i t e Pa r i s Re t a ux 1 8 9 2 ’
.
, ,
.

La p r o p r i et e a s n a t u re s e s t it r e s s e s bi e n f a i t s s e s c h a rge s s e s
, , , , ,

l i m i t a ti ons s on a v e n i r L y o n V itte 1 9 0 0 ,
.
, , .

D i e u p r i nci pe de la lo i m o ra l e P a r i s Bl o n d B a r ra l 1 9 0 0 .
, . .

E v o l u ti o n p r og r es e t l ibe r t e Pa r i s B lo u d B a r r a ] 1 9 0 0
, .
, , .

Le s fo n d e m e nt s de la c o nn a is sa n cc e t de la c r oy a n c e Pa r i s 1 9 0 5 .
,
.

VALO I S N G u ill a u m e d A u ve rg ne P a r i s 1 8 8 0
, .
’
.
, .

VALVERD E TELLEZ E A p u nt a c io ne s h is t Or ica s s o b re la fi lo s o fi a e n , .

M exic o Mexico H e r re r a 1 8 9 6 .
, , .

La v e rd a d M exi co 1 8 9 7 .
, .

C ri ti ca F il o sofi ca M exico 1 90 4 .
, .

B ibl i og ra fia fi los Ofi ca me xi ca na M ex ico ti p D i a z de Le On 19 0 7 .

, .
,
.

VAN D ERBERG De ide is di vi ni s Bo is leduc 1 8 7 2

. .
, .

VARN A Y A A k e re s zt eny e t ika 69 a fi los o fi a i m oral uj a b b re n ds ze re

, . .

B u da pe s t 1 8 9 6

fl
.
,

VABVEL LO FRAN C P ra le c t iones co s mo l ogi a p neuma t o l o gi a e t t he

, .
,

na t u r a li s A ugus t Ta u r i n o Sa l es i a na 1 8 9 6 '

o log ia . . .
, .
, .

I ns t it u t io ne s p h ilo s c p h ica E t h ica A ugus t Ta u r i n 1 9 0 2 . . . .

, .

VAS S AL A De Us u e t Ab us u Sc h o l a s ti ca Dis p ut a t io ni s A m e r E co l
, . . . .
 3 32

VAU G HAN R O G ER B ED E L i fe a n d L a b ors O f St T h om a s A qu i na s

,
. . .

Ab r idge d a n d e dit e d by D Je ro m e Va ug h a n 2 cd N ew Y or k . . .
, ,

1 89 1 .

VED ER G R D i s se r t a t io de A n s e l m o Ca nt ua ric ns i Lug d B a t 1 8 32

, . . . . .
, .

VEN T URA D E R A ULI CA J L a P h ilo s c p h ie ch r ét i e nne P a r i s 1 8 6 1 ; , . .

,

I ta l N a p o l i 1 8 62 ; S p a n M a d r i d 1 8 64
.
, , .
, , .

VE N T U RO LI D e l Pa n t e i s m o e M a t e r i a l i s m o ne l l e s ci e n z e n a t u r a l i
. .

B o l ogn a 1 8 65 , .

VE RCELL O N E D i S a n t Ag os ti n o e S a n To m m a s o r ic o n gi u n ti a l l a O di e rn a
.
-

fi lo s o fi a d e i m a es t r i c a tt o l ici N a p o l i 1 8 64 .
,
.

VE R M EE RS CH S J A Q u a s t ion e s de j u s titi a a d u s u m h odie r num

,
. .
, .

s c h o l a s t i ce d i s p u t a t a B r ug i s B ry a e r t 1 9 0 1 .
, , .

VE S P I G N A N I A LF M ER 1 1 R o s m i n i a n i s m o e d i l l u m e de ll i n t ellet t o
’
. .
,

u m a na St u d i o c r i tic a fi lo s ofi c o B o l ogn a 1 8 8 8
.
-
.
, .

D e ll in t e lle t t o a g e n te e d e ll in t e lle t t o p o s s ibil e P a rm a 1 8 9 2

’ ’
.
, .

I n lib e r a l i s m u m u n i v e r s u m D o ct o r e A ng e l ic a d u c e e t p ont i fi c e
S u m m a L e o ne X I I I t r u ti n a D i v Th o m 1 8 9 7 9 8 . . .
,
-
.

V IG NA L S a nt A n s elm o F il o s o fo Mil a n o 1 8 9 9
,
.
’
, .
, .

V I LLA AG U ST I N F V o c a b u l a r i o de T é r m i n o s E s c a las t ic os p a ra la m e j o r
, .

i n t e l ige n ci a de lo s e s c r it o re s de la E d a d M e di a e s p e ci a l m en t e de ,

S a n t a T o m as de A q u i n o ( a u ct o rs J M Z a m a Me llin io ) Tra . . .

d u c i da y a u m e n t a d a G u a d a l a j a ra 1 8 7 9 .
, .

A V I LLAF RAN C A G C om p e n di u m P h il o s o p h i a j uxt a d og m a t a D T h om a

, . .
,

D B on a ve n t u r a e t Sc o ti a d h o d ie r n u m u s u m a c c o m m o da t u m
T o u l o u s e tip s C yp r i e n 1 8 9 9 —
.
, .

1 90 1
, . .
, .

V I LLEMA I N L e s a m ou r s le s m a l h e u r s e t le s o u v ra ge s d A b ela rd et
.
,
’

d Heloi s e
’
Pa r i s 1 8 35‘

.
, .

V I NAT I JO ANNE S R e la t i o n u m de fi n it io e t di v i s i o a d m e n t e m S T h om a
, . . .

D iv . Th o m .
,
1 8 9 0—
91 .

De p r i ncipi o c a u s a lit a t is a n i m a dv e r s a t io n e s c r iti ca . D iv . Th om .

,

189 7 .

Na t u ra et g e n e s i s p r i n cipi i c a u s a li t a t is . D iv . Th o m .
,
189 8 .

D e U n i v e r s a l iu m re a li t a t e . D iv . Th o m .
,
1 899 .

V I N C EN T L P r eci s de p h ilO S O p h ie s c o l a s ti qu e B ey r ou t h 1 8 8 5
, . .
, .

VO G EL L it e r a r i s c h e h i s t or i s c h e Not iz ie n fi be r de n m itt e l a lt e r l ic h e n
.
,

G e l eh rt e v o n B e a uv a i s F re ib u rg i B 1 8 43 .
- -
.
, .

V O G EL S S J I S V ra a g s t u kk e n de r Z i e lk u n d e V er s t a n d en V r I Je
, . .
, . .

W i l Am s te r da m 1 9 0 0 .
, .

V O G L S D ie P h y s ik R og e r B a c on E r l a nge n 1 9 0 6
, . .
, .

V O LPI R Le c t ione s p h il os o p h i a m o ra l i s R o m a 1 9 00
, . .
, .

V Y CH O DI L B ewe i se f li r d ie E xi s te n z G o tt e s u nd i h re Ge s chich te 1 8 8 9
. . .

WALKER JO H N E s s a y on t h e O r igi n o f K n ow l e dge a cc or di ng t o t h e

, .

P h il o s o p h y o f St Th om a s L on d on 1 8 58 . .
, .

WAL S H J AME S J M e di ev a l Un i ve r s iti e s R os a r y 1 9 0 7

, . .
, .

Th e T h i rt ee n t h G r e a te s t o f C e n t u r i e s Ne w Y o r k C a t h S u mm e r .
, .

S c h P re s s 1 9 0 7 .
,
.
WE I SS M , . Ue b e r m a r i olog is ch e
Sch r i ft e n de s Alb e r t u s M a gnu s p r i ,

m o r di a n o v a b ib liog r a p h i a b e a ti A M Pa r i s 1 8 9 8 . .
, .

WE I SS S P h il o v on Al e xa n d r i e n u nd M o s es M a i m o n ide s H a l l e 1 8 8 4
, . .
, .

WEL C H A C A n se l m a n d h i s W o r k N ew Y o r k Sc r ib ne r 1 9 0 1
,
. . .
, , .

WENHAM JO HN G O n t h e F orm a ti on O f Kn ow l e dg e D u bli n R e v

,
. .

1 885 .

WERDE N I CH ,
E . A t ar s a da lo m es az ig a z s ag o s m u n k a b er . B a les . F a ly
1 896 .

A f Oldb i r t i
'

og f Ob b t et e le i A r i s t ot e le s nel es a ke r . b Oles e let b e n .

B ale s . F a ly .
, 1 9 02 .

Te r m es z e t e s I s t ent a n . G y Or , 1 9 0 5 .

WERNER C ARL De r h e il ige T h om a s v a n A qu i no Re ge n sb u rg 1 8 59

, . .
, .

F r a nz S ua r e z u n d d ie Sch o l a s ti k de r l e t zt e n Ja h rh u nd e r t s 2 v ol . .
,

R e ge n s b u rg 1 8 6 1 ; 2 e d 1 8 8 9 ,
. .
, .

W i l h e l m s v on A u v e rg ne Ve r h alt n i s s z u de n P l a t on ik e r n de s 1 2 .

J a h r h ( Sit z u ng s be r ic h t e d k a i s Ak a d d W i s s
. . . . . .
,

Di e P s ych o l o gi e d e s W i l h e l m v o n A u ve r gne W i en 1 8 7 3 .
, .

Al cu i n u n d s e i n Ja h r h u n d er t Pa de rb orn 1 8 7 6 .
, .

D i e P s yc h o l ogi e u n d E r k e n n t n i s s le h r e d es Jo h a n ne s B o na ve n t u r a .

W i en 1 8 7 6 ,
.

D ie P s yc h o l ogi e u n d E r ke n n t n i s s le h r e d e s J o h a n ne s D u n s Sc o t u s .

W i en 1 8 7 7 , .

D ie Sp r a c h l ogik des J o h a nn e s D un s Sc o t u s W i en 1 8 7 7 .
, .

D e r E n t wi c k elu ng s g a ng d e r m i t t e la lt e r l i s ch e n P s ych o l ogi e v o n

Al c u i n b is Alb e r t u s M a gn u s W i e n 1 8 77 .
,
.

D i e P s yc h o l ogi e E r ke n n t n i s s u n d W i s se n s c h a ft s l e h re,
d e s R og e r
B a co W i en 1 8 7 9 .
, .

D i e K o s mo l ogi e u n d a llge m e i n e N a t u r l e h r e des R og e r B a c o W ien .

,

1 879 .

Joh D u n s Sc ot u s W i en 1 8 8 1
a nne s .
, .

D ie Sc h o l a s tik d s s p ii
e t e re n Mitt e l a lt e r s 3 v o l W i e n 1 8 8 1 —87 . .
, , .

D ie n o m in a li s i r e n d e P s ych o l o gi e de r Sch o l a s tik de s s p at e re n Mitt e l

a lt e r s S i t z b e r A ka d Wi s s W i en 1 8 8 2
’
.
. . . .
, ,

WE T Z EL M D ie L e h r e d e s A r i s t o te l e s v on de r Ge re ch tigk e it u nd die
, .

Sc h ol a s tik lVa r b u rg 1 8 8 1 .
, .

W I LD J Ue b e r d ie E ch t h e it e i n ige r O p u s c u l a de s h l T h om a s J a h r b
,
. . . .

Ph . sp . Th .
, 19 0 6 .

V
VI L KE N S , A
P e t e r Ab al a r d B r em e n 1 8 55
. .
, .

W I LK S W a n d M Th e T h re e A r ch bi s h o p s L on d on 1 8 58
, . . .
, .

W I LLEM S C D ie o be rs t e n S e i n s u n d D enkg es e t ze n a ch A r i s t o t e l es
, . und

d e m h l T h om a s von A qu i n P h i los J a h r b 1 9 0 1
. . . .
,
.

D ie E r k e nn t n i s s le h r e de s m o d e rn e n I de a l i s m u s T r ie r 1 9 06 .
, .

I n s t it u t i o n e s p h i lo so p h i c a . 2 v ol .
, T rev e r i s , 1 9 0 6 .

WI IS T
LL , F Th e F ou n a on
. . d ti of P h il o s o p h y D u b li n R e v 1 9 0 2 . .
, .

h I LL M A N N , O . G e s ch ich t e des I de a l i s m u s B ra uns chwe i g 1 8 9 6 ii .

,
.
 33 5

W I LLI I A N N , O . D i da k t ik a ls Bild un gs l e h re na c h i h re n Be z ie h unge n z u r

S o c ia l f o rsc h u ng u nd zu r Ges c h ic h t e de r Bild u ng B ra uns c h we i g .
,

3 . ed .
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Die ka t h Wa h rh e it . a ls Sc h l ii s se l zu r G c h ic h t
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Mil nc h en , 190 1 .

W ILLNER H AN S De s Ad e l a r d von B a t h k ta t De ea de m e t d i ve r s a
, .

( Be it rage ) Milns t e r 1 9 0 3 .
, .

W I N D ELBAND Ge s c h ic h te de r P hi l o s o p h ic F re ib u rg i B 1 89 2
. .
- -
.
,

W I N T ERT O N F Th e Les so n O f Neo Sc h ol a s tici s m M i nd 1 8 8 8

, .
-
.
, .

WI T I MA N N M Die St e ll ung de s h ] Th o m a s vo n A q u i n z u A ve nce b ro l

‘

fl
.
, .

( Be it r age ) Mll ns t e r A sc h e ndo rfi 1 89 9

'

.
, , .

Z um P r o bl e m de r P i c h t P h i lo s J a h r b 1 9 0 4 . . .
,
.

Z u r Ste ll un g A ve n ce b ro ls ( I b n G e b i ro ls ) i m E n tw ickl u n gs ga ng d e r
a ra bi s c h e n P h i I O S O p h ie ( B e it r ag e ) M un s te r 19 0 5 .
, .

WO LF M M ose s b e n Ma im un s a ch t C a pit e l a r a bi s c h u nd d e u t s c h m it
,
.
’
, ,

A nm e r kun ge n Le ip z ig 1 8 63 .
, .

WO RM S M Die Le h re von de r A n f a ng los ig k e it de r We lt be i de n m i tt e l

,
.

a lt e r li c h e n a ra bi s c h e n P h il o s o p h e n d e s O r i e nt s u n d i h re B e k ii m p

W OT S CH HE
A s c h e n da r
F ic h t e un d E r i ge n a H a l l e 1 8 9 6
, TH .
fl
f ung d u rc h die a r a bi s c h e n T h e o l oge n ( Bc it r ii ge )
'

, 19 0 1
M ii n s te r
.

.
, .
.
,

D E WU LF MAUR IC E L e x e m p la r is m e e t la t heo r i e d e l illu m ina t io n

, .
’ ’

s p eci a l e d a n s la p h il o s o p h i e de He n r i de G a n d R e v Né a S ea l . .
-
.
,

1 89 4 .

Hi t i s o re de la p h il
p h i e s c o l a s ti q u e da n s le s P y s B a s e t la p r i n
os o a -

c i p a u te de L i ege j u s q u a la R evo l u ti o n f ra n g a ise L o u va i n Uy s t

’
.
,

r u
p y ,s t 1 8 95 .

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.
,

1 8 9 5—
96 .

E t u de s sur H e nr i de G nd L
a . o u va n , i 1 89 5 .

E t u d es h i s t o r i q ue s i t T h o ma
’
l e s t h et i de d A q u in
’
s ur u
q e sa n s .

L i 1 89 6
o u va n , .

Le p ro bl em e de s u n i ve rs a u x d a n s s o n evo l u ti o n h i t o r i q u e s du I X .

a u XI I I s i ecl e Be r li n 1 8 9 6 . .
, .

Les ] o is o rga n i q ues de l h I s tO i re de la li n

’

py s c h o log ie Be r .
,
1 89 7 .

De s pe c i e b us i n te nt iona lib u s dis se r t a t io h is t o r ic O- r c itica . D iv .

Tho m .
,
1897 .

Q
’
u es b ce p h il os o p h i e s co l a s ti q ue ? Re v Né a S ea l 1 8 9 8
q ue la .
-
.
,
.

La s yn t h ese s co l a st i q ue R e v N é a S ea l 1 8 9 9 . .
-
.
, .

Hi s to i re de la p h ilo sO p h ie m e di ev a l e p reced e d un a p e rcu s u r la ’

p h ilos O p h ie a n ci e nne Lo uva i n a nd Pa r i s 1 9 0 0 ; 2 cd 1 9 0 5 .

, . .
, .

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-
.
,
.

Le T ra it e De U ni t a t e F o rm a de G i ll e s de Le ss i ne s Lo uva i n
“ ”
. ,

190 1 .

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s o as . Re v . P h i lo s 1 9 02 .

K nti a s me e t neo s o a s -
c l ti q ue . R ev . Neo -S ca l , 1 9 0 2 . .
 3 36

D E WULF M AUR IC E , . M é t h o d e s s c o l a s t i qu e s d
’
a u t re f o i s et d
’
j
a u ou r d
’
h ui .

R ev . Neo S ea l , 1 9 03 -
.

La deca den ce de la c l ti que a la fi n du m o ye n ag e R ev Nea

fl
s o as . .

'
S ea l , 1 9 0 3 . .

E tu d e s v ie ,
’
sur la les oeu vre s et l in u e n ce de G o de f r o id de F o n
t a i n e s L ou v a i n 1 90 4 .
, .

I nt r o d u cti o n a la p h il o s o p h i e n eo s c o l a s ti qu e L ouv a i n a n d P a r i s -
.
,

Alc a n 1 9 04 ; E ng ] by P C o ff ey L on don Lo ng ma n s 1 9 0 7
, . .
, , , .

P re m i ere Le go n d E st h et iq u e R ev N é a S e a l 1 9 0 7 ’
. .
-
.
,
.

D E VVU LF M A PE LZER R s Q u a t re P r e m i e r s Q u ol ib e t s de G ode f r o id

,
. . .

d e F on ta i n e s L ou va i n 1 9 04 .
,
.

Z AN O N G I ANAN TO N I O P r i n ci pi i di fi s ica s e con d o la d ott r i na de ll ile

,
.
’

m o r fi s m o m o de rno .

Z A V ALA M P olem iea Cole c c iOn de a rt i cu l o s s u e lt os M er ida de

,
. . .

Y u ca t an 1 8 9 6 ,
.

Z IE S C H E K UR T D ie Le h re v o n Ma t e r i e u n d F o rm b e i B ona ven tu ra
,
. .

P h i los . Ja hrb .
,
19 00 .

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,
1 908 .

Z IG L I ARA O P T M O s se rva z i on i
,
. .
, . . eu a lcu n e i n t e r p re t a z i on i di G C . .

Ua a g h s s u ll
’
i de olog i a d i S a n To m m a s o ’
d A q u in O . Vi t e r b a , 1 8 7 0 .

D e ll a l u c e i n t e l l e tt u a l e e de ll on t olog i s m o s e c o n d o 1a d ott r i n a di ’

S B o n a v e n t u r a e To mm a s o d A q u in O 2 v ol R om a 1 8 7 4
.
’
. .
, , .

S u m m a P h iI O S O p h i c a i n u s u m s ch ola ru m 3 v ol 1 8 7 6 ; 8 cd . .
, . .
,

P a r i s B ri g ue t 1 8 9 1 ; Sp a n by M e di n a P e r e z 1 9 0 1
, , .
, .

D e m en t e c o n c ilii Vie n n e n s i s i n de fi n ie n do d og m a t e u n ion i s a n i m a

h u m a n i s c u m c or p o r e 1 878 . .

T h e s e s p h ilO S O p h ica 1 8 8 1 —8 3 . .

( E u v r e s p h il o s o p h i q u es T ra d de l it a l i en p a r l a bb e M urg u e 3 . .
’ ’
.

vol P a r i s a n d L y on V itt e 1 8 8 3
.
, , , .

Z IGO N F R D e s ci e nti a m e di a s eu Th om is m i c um M o l i n i s m o c on c o r di a
,
. .

G or z 1 8 9 3 , .

Z u r L e h r e de s h l Th o m a s v o n W es e nh e it u n d D a s e i n J a hr b P h . . . .

sp . Th .
,
1904 .

Z I TO P
, . M e t a fi s ic a ge n e r a l e O fi lo s o fi a p i ma r e f on d a m en t a l e . Si ena ,

s . B e rn a rdi n o .

Z M A VC, JO HANN D ie P ri n cipie n . de r M o ra l b ei Th om a s v on A qu i n .

A rch . G es e k P h i los . .
,
1 89 9 .

D ie p s yc h o l ogi s ch e thi s ch e Se ite de r Le h r e T h om a s von A qu i n -

’

ii b e r d ie W ill e n s f re i h e it J a h r P h s p Th 1 89 9 . . . . .
, .

D ie W e r t h t h e o r ie b e i A r i s t o t e l e s u n d T h om a s v on A q u i n A r ch . .

G es e h P h i lo s 1 899 . .
, .

Z O LTVA NY I J AZ a s t h e t ika t Ort en et eb OI B ales F a ly 1 8 9 6

, . . . . .

Z O RZ O LI E MMAN
, L a q ue s ti o ne di S B o na v e n tu r a . D e c og ni t i onis . :

h u m a n a s u p r e m a r a ti one c o mm en ta t a e di fe s a c on t r a le r os
”

m i n i a n e i nt e r p r e t a z i o n i di S C a s a ra To r i no ti p S a l e s i a n a . .
,
.
,

1 890 .
 33 8

ic a n C a t h o l ic s, 232 ; on B a l me s ,
C UR I E S ’
s ci en ti fi c a ch ie vem ent s ,

1 76 . 106 .

B R UCKE R ,
on A r i s t otle s ph i l o s ’

O
phy , 1 9 .
DALTO N re v i ve s h yp oth e s i s o f
a t om s
1 8 7—
105
CA GI G A S , 8 2 59
.
,

DAR W I N S n a t u ra l s e l e cti o n a nd
.

C ARO ti lit i i m 1 9 1 2
t h e d e s ig n a r gu m e n t 1 2 9 —
, on u a r an s ,
-
.

30
C ARRA D E VAU X
-

Sch l tic ph i on o as
,
.

IO S O p h y , 3 2
,
DA VID O F D I NAN T c on de m ne d by
t h e C h u r c h 23
.

C ARRA S QU I LLA 1 9 2—3 , 26 1

.
,
,
DELMA S 2 1 0—1 2 68
.

CA S TEL EI N , 2 1 7 , 2 6 1 , .
,

DEM O C R I T U S re ga r de d a s f ou n d er
.

CA TH REI N , 1 9 8 , ,

o f a t om i s tic s y s t e m 82
C a use Sc h o l a s ti c t h e o r y o f 6 8 iii ; , .

D E N I F LE S wo r k s o n Middl e Age s
, ’

e f fi c en t fi na l 7 8 ma
,
69
i , ,
20 0, 268
t e r ia l 8 2 form a l 8 2 f ou r .

k i nd a cc or d i ng t o A r i s t o tl e 6 9 ;
s
,
DE S C AR T E S r eg a r d e d a s a Sch o
,

M a leb a n c h e s c r itici s m o n 6 9
r
’
,
l a s tic by P ic a v et 2 ; on s ub ,
,

st a nc e 61 6 5 ; h i s p h il o s o p h y
7 0 ; H u m e s c r itici s m o n 7 0 fi
'
’ , ,
,
t a u gh t in F re n c h C a t h o l ic s em i
.

C HR Y S O STO M B RO THER 2 3 9 —4 0 , , ,
n a r ie s 203
26 3
.
,

D e s ign a r g um e n t 1 2 9 fi
.
'
-

CO CO N N I E R , 20 8 , 2 64 , .

D E W E Y o n Sc h o l a s tic p h il os o p h y
.

C O MELLA S ,
1 7 8 —9 ,
264 .
, ,

2 5, 2 8
C O MMER 1 9 9 2 64 .

ID ER O T
.
,

CO M TE S pp iti ’
,

o os on to m et a ph y s
D D u n s Sc o t u s 1 8
, on ,
.

D I DI O T S c on t r ib u ti o n t o n eo Sch o
’ -

ic s , 4 7
l a st ic i s m 2 1 1 2 69 ; o n K a n ti s m
.

( Jo n ce p t u a l is m in t h e Middl e Age s,
, ,

a n d H eg e l i a n i s m 12
24 ; re se m bl e s K a n ti a n p h il o s
,
.

D i re cti v ity He n s lo w s t h e o r y o f
’
,
O ph y ,
,
25 .

— 80
D E C O N CI LI O on p a n th e i s m 240 1
.

—
ME T D E VO RG E s
.
, ,

DO 20 4 5, 2 69
p h il o s o ph y i n t r o d u ce d
.

CO N DI L L A C
’ ,
S
D R I S C O LL c o n t r ib u ti o n o f t o n eo
i nt o Sp a i n 1 7 5 ; i n t o P o r t u ga l ,
,

183
,
Sch o l a s tici s m 2 4 1 2 7 0 ; on ,

K a n t 242 ; o n R oyce s c on ce p
.

C O PPEN S ,
2 3 5 , 26 4 .
,

CO B N O L DI
’
S c nt r ib u ti on
o to ne o
ti o n o f G od 24 3 ,
.

Sch l a s tici s m
o 1 60 , 1 64 , 2 6 5—6; D UN S S C O T S p rov e s e xi s t e n c e o f
U
,
,

h i s O pp o iti o n m o de r n
p r i m o r di a l m a tt er 8 8 ; h is d i
to ph i
,
s

v i s i o n O i t h e m a t er i a p r im a 94 ;
lo s o p h y , 9 , 1 3 , 1 6 4
.
,
.

C o s m o og l y Sc h o l a s tic ,
s y s te m of ,
j u dge d by D id er o t 1 8 ; c on ,

82 fi
'

.
t r a s t e d w it h T h om a s A q u i n a s ,

CO U S I N Sch o la s tic p h il os o ph y
, on ,
25 .

1 9 2 7 ; h is w o r k s o n M e d i aev a l
,
Dyn a m i s m it s t h e o r y of n a tu re
, ,

8 3 ; T a it s O bj e cti on t o 1 0 1 ; de
’
p h i l os o ph y 1 5 6 ; o n Ab e l a r d , ,
,

2 5 ; h is p h il o s o p h y ta u gh t in fi c ien c y of , 101 .

F re n ch C a t h o l ic s e m i na r i e s 20 3 ,
.

CB U S I U S o n f o u n da ti on o f m o r a l
,
E ffici e n cy v e ry diffe rent f ro m
,
c on

ity 1 3 7 ,
. sta n t c onj un cti on 7 5 ,
has
 3 39

me t t wo
cla s se s o f O ppo nent s St Th om a s s d e te rm in i s m ’
, on .
,

6 9 ; H u m e s v ie w o n 6 9 7 0 fi
’ '

, , . 1 47 .

E le a ti c sc h oo l d e n i ed t h e e x i st ,

e n ce O f m o ti o n 50 ,
.
G A RCiA c o nt r ib u ti n t o ne o
’
s o

E l ect ro n s e xi s te n ce o f d e te cte d by
,
Sch o l as tici s m 1 8 8 27 6 ; on ,

by Th o mso n 1 0 5 ; u lti ma te pa rt s ,
Sp a n i s h p h il o s o p h y 1 7 4 5 ,
-
.

of a ll m a te r i a l be i ngs 6 7 68 G A RDA I R, 2 0 7 , 2 7 6 .

, , ,

105 fi
'

.
G B EN T , HENRY or, h is d oct r i ne of

E ncycl ica l Pa t r i s ,
”
1 62 .
pl u ra l ity o f fo rm s 9 8 , .

E te r n ity xpl a i ne d 1 33
e , .
G I NEBRA S c ont r ibuti o n t o ne o
’

Et h e r it s e xi s t e nce u na n i m o us ly Sc h o l a s tici s m 1 9 5 2 7 8 ; h is d fi

fl
, ,
e
,

n iti o n o f m a tt e r a nd f o r m 86
a fii r m ed by p h ys ici s ts 83 ; ,
,
.

G I O BE B TI S i n u e n ce u p o n A m e r
’

t h e o ry o f s t rength e ned by e x
e r im e nt s o f M a xwe ll 1 02 ; of ica n C a th o l ic s 2 3 2 , .

p ,

He rt z 1 0 2 ; i nh e re n t co ns t it u G od p r oo f s O f e xi s t n ce O f 1 2 7
,
e ,
,

o n t o l o gi c a l a r gu m e n t 127 ; a r
ti o n o f 1 0 3 ; Spe nce r s v i e w o n
,
’
,
,

m f m m o ra l l aw
1 0 3 ; Ke l vi n o n 1 0 3 ; L a r m o r o n g u e n t ro t h e ,
, ,

a r gu m e n t f r o m u n i ve r a l
1 0 4 ; Lo dge o n 1 0 4 1 0 5 ; W h e t 1 27 s
, ,

ham o n, 1 0 3 ; Vé ro nne t on, 103 .

c o nse n t 1 28 ; a rgu m e n t f r m d e
,
o

s ign 1 2 9 ; m e t a p h y ic a l gu
E ud e m o n i s m Sc h o l a s tic e t h ic a l s a r
of ,

s ys t em 1 36 .
m e n t 1 3 0 ; a tt r ib u t e s o f 1 3 1 .

e te r n i ty o f 133 1 52 ; i m m u t
, ,
a

FARO E S S co nt r ib uti o n t o n eo
’ b ilit y O f 1 3 3 ; i n fi n ity o f 1 3 1
,

u n ity o f 1 32 ; s i m pl icit y o f 1 3 2
Sc h o l as tici s m 20 5 2 7 3 ; o n m o , ,
, . ,

1 3 5 ; i m m e n s ity f 1 3 3 ; k n wl o o
ti on 50 ; o n m a t te r a nd f o rm
, ,
,

e dge o f 1 3 4 ; will f 134 ; m o c

86 9 1 ; o n c h e m ic a l c o m bi n a
, ,

1 3 4 ; p re ci e n c e
,
n i p o t e nc e o f f s o
ti o n 9 1 1 0 9
, ,
.
, ,

1 50 11
FIC H TE s ubtl ety o f 2 6 .

, , .

GOM EZ I Z Q U XE RDO
’
S c nt r ib uti o n t o
o
F ina l C a us e 7 8 11 , .

Sc h o l as tici s m 1 8 1 2 7 9 ; o n
n eo - , ,
F O N s Ec RrVE , 2 1 3 , 2 7 5 .

C o m e ll a s 1 7 9 .

Fo rm ,S ub s ta nti a l Sc h o l a s tic ,
G O NZ ALEZ D E A Ri NTERO 1 8 0 27 9
,

p r o pe r
.
, ,

t h eo ry o f 8 4 95 ,
GO NZ A LEZ Y D i A z TU NCN c o nt r i -
,

ties O i 9 6 ; e d u ced o u t o f t h e
,
b ut io n Of to ne C S c h o la s t ic is m ,
po te ncy o f ma tte r 1 0 0 ; mod ifi ,
1 79 , 2 7 9 ; c l a tic p h il on S ho s os

ca ti o ns o n t h e t h e o ry o f 1 0 8 ; ,
O hy 3 2 ; on F a the r V e nt u r a
p ,

pl ura lity o f fo rms in H e n ry O f

,

1 5 6 ; o n S a ns e v e r i no 1 58
G h ent 9 8 ; in Duns Scot us 9 9 ;
.
,

, ,
V AN D E G RO O T 228 2 8 0 , .

in Le s s i us Co nn inc k Ma y r 9 9
G UAR DI A o n Sp n i h ph il os op h y
Fo rum Co rpo re ita t is 9 8—
.
, , ,
, a s ,

9
1 74
.
,
.

F ree W i ll do ct ri ne o f de fi ne d
-
, ,
G UN T HER , c o nde mne d by the
1 45 d e fe nde d by Sch o la s tics ,
C h u ch r 1 2, 1 9 6
1 4 6 ; de fi ne d by Ka n t 1 46
.
,

G UTRERLET , 1 9 9 , 2 8 1
.
,
.

F RO H S CH A M M ER co nd em ne d by t h e ,

C h ur c h 12 ,
. H ppi n
a ess , t
na u re o f in A ri s to tle ,

F UL LERT O N o n l o c u s o f m i nd 122 ;, , 1 40 .
 3 40

H A RPER , 2 28 —9 , 2 8 2—3 . In fi n ity of G o d , 1 3 1 ff .

HA U B EA U d e fi n iti o n o f Sc h o
’
S In t e ll e ct a nd Se n s e , e s se n ti a l dif
l a s tic p h il os o p h y 1 4 ; on Sch o , f e r e n ce o f 1 2 0 , .

la s tic p h il os o p h y 1 9 ; o n p r o b ,

le m o f u n i v e r s a l s 2 0 ; on ca u s es JAN VI ER o n Sc h o l a s tici s m
, , n e o-
, 35 .

o f d own f a l l o f Sch o l a s tic p h i l o s JO UI N 2 33 , , 2 8 7—8 .

Ophy 1 53 ; h is wo r k s o n M e di
,

es v a l p h i l o s o p h y 1 56 , .
K AN T , re ga r d e d
Sch o l a s tic by as a

He don i s m c on t ra s t e d wit h Sch o ,

P ic a v e t 2 ; wh e th e r h i s p h il o s
,

l a s tic e t h ic a l s ys t em 1 38 ; c r it i O p h y c a n b e i nte r p re t e d f r om a
,

c iz e d 1 4 1 fi c r itici ze d by Mi ng '

C h r i s ti a n s ta n d po i nt 1 1 ; o n
—
, .
, ,

2 36 7 . m e t a p h y s ic s 4 7 ; o n s u b s t a nc e , ,

H E GEL Sch o l a s ti c ph i lo s o p h y
on 6 1 6 5 ; o n o n t o l ogic a l a r gu m e n t

fl
, , , ,

19 2 7 ; o n s u b s t a n ce 62 ; o n 1 2 7 ; o n m o r a l c h a r a cte r o f o u r

fl
, ,

a de q u a t e k n ow l e dge of G o d a ct s 1 44, i n u e n ce o f in
,

1 2 6 ; on di v i n e n a t u re i n O ld Sp a i n 1 7 5 i n u en c e o f u p on
,

m e t a p h ys ic s 1 3 4 ; re a d m it s ou ,
Ca t h o l ic p h i l o s op h y in Ge r m a n y ,

t o log ic a l a r gum en t 1 2 7 ; c om 1 96

fl
.
,

p a r e d t o St T h om a s 1 2 ; in .
,
KAU F MANN ,
20 1 , 2 88 9 -
.

u e n c e o f u p o n C a t h o l i c p h il o s K EL VI N , th e r 1 0 3 on e , .

o p h y in G e r m a n y K LE U T GE N S c on t r ib u ti on O f t o
’
196 ,
.

HE N S LO W S t h e o r y o f di r e cti v ity n eo Sc h o l a s tici s m 196 7 290 ;

’ - -
, , ,

80 . p r i ncipl es o f k n ow le dge o f 1 9 7 ,
.

HE RME S , c o n de m n e d by t h e C h u r c h ,

1 2, 1 9 6 .
L AR M O R n th 1 0 4 ,
o e e r, .

H ERN A NDEZ Y F A J A RN ES 1 8 0 , , 28 3 .
L E I BN I Z n b t n c , o su s a e, 6 1 , 65 .

H R TZ ci ti fi c xp i m n t
E , s en e er e s of , L EM O S 1 8 1 2 9 3, , .

1 02 .
LE O X I I I C f P cci . . e .

H I LL ,
2 3 3 , 28 4 .
LE PI DI
’
S c on t r ib u ti on to neo Sch o
H O B RE S ,
on f ou nd a ti o n of m ora l l a s t ic is m , 2 1 5, 29 3 ; re u es f t ou

ity 1 3 7 , .
t o l o g is m , 2 1 5 .

D H UL ST 2 1 2—3 2 8 6
’
, , .
LEU CIPP U S f a t h e r o f a t om i s m 8 2
, ,
.

H UME on s u b s t a nc e 55 L I B ERA TO RE S c on t r ib u ti o n t o n e o
’
64 ; on

Sch o l a s tici s m 1 67 29 3—
, ,

e ffi ci e n cy 69 7 0 111 ; on s im
4 ; on , ,
, ,

p l i c it y O f s o u l 1 1 6 , .
c h e m ic a l c om bi na ti o n 9 0 , .

L O CK E re ga r d e d a s a Sc h o l a s tic
,

I B N G A RI RO L
’
S th e ory of i
u n ve rs a l by P ic a v e t 2 ; o n f or m a ti on o f ,

m a tt e r , 9 4 . n a m es 1 5 ; o n s u b s t a n ce 53
, ,

I de a P h a n t a s m c on f u s e d by
a nd ,
ph il os o p h y o f i nt ro du ce d i n to
Lo ck e 1 1 1 ; n a t u re o f 1 1 1 3
, ,
-
. Sp a i n 1 7 5 ; i nt o P o r t u ga l 1 8 3
, ,
.

I m m e n s ity o f G o d 1 33 , . L O DG E on e th er 1 0 4 1 0 5
, , , .

I m m u t a bi lity o f G o d 1 33 ,
. L ogic Sch ol a s ti c s ys t e m o f 4 1
, ,

I nd u cti on in t h e Middl e Age s 44 ;, , a c o m pl e t e s y s t e m in t h e h a n d s

re g a r d e d f un d a m e nt a l by of A r i s t o tl e 4 1 ; Mill s c ont r i ’
as ,

M ill 42 ; i n ne o Sc h o l a stic I O g ic
,
-
,
b u t i o n t o , 42 .

45 . LO RE N Z E LLI , 1 6 5 .
 3 42

N YS
’
S c o n t r ib u ti o n to ne o - Sch o P h i l o s o p h y m e a n i ng i n a ncie nt ,

la s t i c i s m , 222, 30 4 ; on m a t te r ti m e s 2 8 ; it s e s se n ti a l ch a r a c
,

a nd fo r m , 85 . t e r 1 8 9 ; de fi n e d by Sp e n c e r 2 9 ;
, ,

iden ti fi e d wit h t h e o l o gy by St .

O B R IE N S c on t r ib u ti o n t o ne o
’ ’ A u gu s t i n e 29 ; by Sco t u s E r i g ,

Sc h o l a s tici s m 2 4 5 3 0 4 ; de ena 3 0 ; by Ab e l a r d 3 0 ; d is
, ,
,

s p i s e s m o d er n p i o o p y
h l s h 24 6 — 7 , . c r i m i na t e d f r o m t h eo l ogy by
O cc a s i o n a l i s m co n s i de r a t i on s ,
Th om a s A qu i na s 3 1 , .

u ge d a g a i n s t
r 70 , . P I A T 2 1 3 3 09
, , .

O m n i p ot en ce o f G od 1 3 4 P I CA VE T S p h il o s o p h ica l wo r k
’

3 0 9—
, .
,

O n t o l o gic a l a rg u m e n t di s c u s s e d , 2 1 3— 4 10 ; , on T h o m i s tic
1 2 7 iii ; r j e ct e d by S t T h o m a s e .
, r e v i va l 2 ; o n Sch o l a s tic p h il o s
,

1 27 . o ph
y, 19 .

O nt o l o gi s m B e lg i u m 2 1 5 ; in in ,
P I DA L Y MO N , 1 8 0, 3 1 0
t h e U n it d St t e
a s 2 32 —3 ; re
e '
, PLAT O ,
re a l i sm Of, 22 ; e t h i ca l sy s

f u t e d by L e pi d i 2 1 5 ; c o n de m ne d t em of , 1 38
P O LAN D 2 3 4 —
, .

by t h e C h u r c h 2 1 5 ,
. 5 311 , , .

O RT i Y L ARA S c o n t r ib u ti o n t o n e o P os iti v i s m re j e ct s m e t a p h ys ic s ,
’

Sch o l a s tici s m 1 7 9 —
,

80 30 4 ; on , , 47 .

h i s t o r ic a l stud ie s 38 ; c on , Po t e n cy C f Act , . .

de m n s m o d e n p h il o s o p h y 1 8 0 r ,
.
P ra gm a ti s m we lc o m e d by F re n ch ,

O R T IZ 1 9 4— ,
5 305 ,
. C a th o l ic s 6 , .

P r e de s ti na t i on d o ct r i ne o f i n St , .

P a nth e i s m tc o m e o f rea l
,
the ou T h o m a s 1 50 fi ,
'

i s m 2 2 ; in t h e Mi d d l e Age s 2 2 ;
, ,
P re s ci e n ce o f Go d 1 50 fi ,
’

c o n de m n ed by t h e Ch u r ch 1 2 , ,
PRO U T on a t om i s m 1 05
, , .

2 3 ; d e C o n cil i o o n 2 4 1 ,
.
P s ych o l o gy Sc h ol a s tic 1 1 0 , ,
.

PAQUE T 2 4 7 3 0 6 , , .
P u r p o se wh a t old Sc h o l a s tic s
,

PAUL S EN o n T h o m i s tic r e v i v a l 1
, ,
.
m e a n t by 5 1 ,
.

PE CCI ( LE O s y m p a t h i ze s

wit h t h e T h om i tic re v i v a l 1 59 s , Ra di o a cti v ity s ci en ti fi c o b s e rv a

-
,

i s e l e cte d p o p e 1 6 0 ; i m p os e s ti o n s o n 1 0 6 fi '

, ,
.

Sc h o l a s ti c p h il o s o p h y o n C a th R e a l i s m p r o fe s s e d by P l a t o 2 1 ;
, ,

o l ic wo r ld 1 6 2 ; f o u n d s I n s tit u t e
, m od e ra te f o r m o f 2 3 2 4 , ,
.

f Lo uva i n 2 1 8
O , . D E R EG N O N 2 0 9 —1 0 3 1 4 , ,
.

P ECS I S c o n t r ib u ti o n t o n e o Sc h o
’
-
R EM U S A I on M e di aev a l p h il os
' ‘
,

l a s t ic i s m 2 2 5 3 0 7 ; h is t h eo r y O hy 1 5 6 o n Ab e l a r d 25
, p ; , , .

o f m a tt e r a n d f o r m 22 6—7 ; r e , R E ST RE P O 1 9 3— 4 3 14 , , .

j e c t N e w t o
s n i a n l a w s o f m o ti o n , R I CK A B Y S co n t r ib u ti on t o n e
’
o

227 . Sc h o l a s tici m 2 30 3 1 5 ; o n s , ,

P EI LL A U RE , 2 0 7 , 30 7 . H ume s p h il os o p h y 58 ’
,
.

PE S C H 1 9 8 3 0 7 , , . R IVERA on Sp a n i sh ph il o s o ph y
, ,

PFE I FER 2 0 2 30 8 1 74

fl
.
, , .

P h a n t a s m a n d I d e a c on f u s e d by ,
R O BE S PI ERRE , re ga r d e d as a Sc h o
L o cke 1 1 1 ; n a t u re o f 1 1 1
, ,
'

. l a s tic by P ic a v e t , 2 .
 3 43

Ro ma n Th om i s ts , se v e re ly j udg e d ca use ofi l 7 ; f ore run it s re v va ,

by Be s se 1 6 8 , t h e i r ign o ra n ce ne rs o f it s rev i v a l 1 53 it s ,

o f sc i e n ce 39 ,
. s y t e m O f l ogi c 4 1
s it s me ta ,

RO NA Y NE 23 7 8 3 1 6 ,
-
, . p h ys ics 4 6 it s t h eo ry o f
,

RO N DI NA 1 8 4 3 1 6 , , . s ub s ta n ce 52 its th eo ry o f
,

RO S CELI N o n t h e un i v e rsa l 2 0 2 1 ;
, , , ca use 68 , i t s s y s t e m o f co s
o n m ys t e ry o f H o ly Tr i n ity 2 1 ; , mo logy 82 i ts t h eo r y o f
,

co nd e m ned by t h e C h u rc h 2 1 , . ma tte r a nd fo rm 8 2 it s p ay ,

RO U SS EAU r eg a r d e d as a Sc h o
, c h o logy 1 10 i t s na t u r a l t h e
,

l a s tic by P ica v e t 2 , . o l o gy 12 6
, it s s y s t e m o f
RO YCE o n my s tici m 2 1 h is p roo f
, s ,
m o ra l 1 36 11 s, .

o f Go d s e xi t e n ce c r itici ze d by Go d ,
’
s S OO T U S E RI O E N A , on 22 ;
D r i s co ll 2 43 ,
. id e nti fi e s p h il os o ph y a nd th eo l ~

R u s so , 2 3 4 3 1 8 , . o
gy 30 ;
,
c o nde m ne d by t h e
RU T HER FO R D , s c i e nti fi c a c h ie ve C h u rc h 2 2 , .

me nt s of , 106 . S EC RET AN o n D un s S co t us s p h i
,
’

lo sO p h y 5 ; o n St T h o m a s s de
’

S AI N T H I LA I RE o n m a tte r a nd
.
,
-
,
t e rm i n i m 1 4 7 s , .

fo rm 86 . .

Se l ec ti o n Na t u ra l a nd t h e d es ign
S U N T L AMBER T o n f o und a ti on o f
,

1 29 —
-

a r gu m e n t
.
,
30 .

m o r a lity 1 3 7
,

, .

Se nse a nd I n t e ll e ct e s se n ti a l dif
SA LI S S EE WI S 1 7 2 3 18
,

, , .

f re nc e o f 1 2 0
D E S AN 2 1 6 —
e , .

7 3 18
S E RT I LLA N O E s 20 8 , 322
.
, ,

S AN S E VERI N O 1 58 3 1 8
, .

, , .

Si m plicity Of G o d , 1 3 2, 1 3 5
S A TO LLI 1 65 3 1 9
.

,
S I N I RA LDI , 1 8 4 , 3 2 4
, .

Scm m NI 1 7 1 , 3 20
, .

S O LLAN O 1 8 6 7 32 4 -

Med ixe va l
.

SC H LEG EL p h il o
, ,
on s
,
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of 1 15
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i nde pe nd nt o f b o dy 1 1 5 ; s im e ,

l ic it f 1 1 5 s pi r it u a lity o f
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t h e w r d s c h o l a s tic 1 4 ; d e fi n d
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i n te r m s o f it l a ngua ge m e t h s
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od s,2 5 ; de fi ne d by its re l a ti o n
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t o th eo l og y 2 7 ; id e nti fie d w it h
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o p p o s iti o n o f to m e ta
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is p r i m a r ily a nd e s s e nti a lly t h e S TCCR L , 1 9 7 , 3 2 5 .

ph ilos o p h y o f t h e Middl e Age s, S ubs ta n ce , Sc ho la tic th eo ry o f s .

3 3 ; is no t a s i ngl e s y te m 20 ; 52 Lo c ke n 53 H um e
fl
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it s h a rm o n y w it h C a t h o l ic t h eo l on 55
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esv a l p h il o so p h y o n 2 6 ; M il l o n O h 3 2
, , p y , .

4 3 ; p ra i s e d by L e ib n i z 2 6 , . Un ity of G o d, 1 32 .

Un i ve rs a l s , c on c e pt ua l i s t s o n 24 ; ,

T AI NE , on Sc h o l a s tic p h il os o ph y ,
Ha u r é a u o n 2 0 ; de W u lf o n , ,

19 . 2 0 ; Alb e r t t h e G re a t s s o l u ti on ’

TA I T on dyn a m i s m 1 0 1
, , . o f t h e p r obl e m o f 24 , .

TALAM O 1 65 , 327 . URRA B U RU S c on t r ib u ti on t o ne o

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TA P A RE LLI , 1 72, 3 28 . Sc h o l a s tici s m 1 8 1 3 30 ; h is ,

TE RT U L LI A N ’
S s y s te m of p h il os s t r ictly s c h o la s tic m e th o d 3 7 ,

o
ph y , 29 . o n s e n se a n d i n te ll e ct 1 1 9 ; on ,

TH A LE S
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S c on c e pti o n of p h il os i mm o rta l ity o f t h e s ou l 1 2 1 , .

op h y , 28 .

Th e o l o gy t u r a l a nd r ev e a l e d
, na ,
VA C AN T , 2 1 1 , 3 30 .

1 2 6 ; it s r e l a ti o n t o p h il o s o p h y , VA CH E RO T, on a c t a n d p t n cy
o e , 49 .

10 3 1 ; id e n ti fi e d wit h p h il o s VALLE T 20 5 3 3 1
VALVERD E TELLEZ 1 9 0—
, , , .

O p h y by St A u gus ti n e . by ,
1 33 1 , , .

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VEN T UR A 1 5 5 ,
.

3 0 ; di s c r i m i n a te d f r o m p h il o s VERO N N ET o n e th e r 1 03 , , .

o p h y by T h o m a s A q u i n a s 31 , . V O L TAI RE r ega r de d a s a Sch o l a s

,

T H O MA S A QU I NA S S d oct r i n e o f ’
t ic by P ic a v e t 2 , .

u n ity a n d i m m u t a b il i ty o f t r u t h ,

8 ; o n r e l a ti o n o f p h i l os o p h y a n d W E B ER , on Sch o l a s tic ph i l os op h y ,

t h e o l ogy 3 1 ; o n p r i m or d i a l
, 27 .

m a tt e r 8 7 ; on l o c u s o f t h e s ou l
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1 24 ; o n G o d s u bi q u ity 1 2 5 ; o n WERNER 20 0 334

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i m m e n s ity o f G o d 1 3 3 ; o n s im ,
W I LLI AM O F C HAM P EAU X c on ,

p li c it y o f G o d 1 3 5 ; a n d f r ee ,
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n ec t e d with M e di aev a l m y s t i
wi ll 1 4 7 112 ; o n p re de s ti n a ti o n
, , c is m , 23 .

1 50 O b s o l et e d o ct r i n e s of , WO O D BR IDG E on v it a l p r obl e m of ,

3 5 ; c o n t r a s t e d with D u n s S c o m e t a p h y s ic s 4 7 ,
.

2 5 ; Le o n i ne e d it i on o f h i s D E WULF S c on t r ib u ti on t o ne o
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wo r k s 3 6 ,
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T H O M S O N d i s c o ve r s e l e ct r on s 1 0 5
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de fi n iti on o f Sc h o l a s tic p h il os
T r d iti o n a l i s m co n de m n e d by t h e
a ,
O ph y 1 7 ; o n p r obl e m O f u n i
,

C h u r ch 1 3 , . ve rs a l s 2 0 ; o n h i s t o r ica l s t u d
,

T ru th it s un ity a nd i m m u t a b il ity
, ie s 38 ; o n Sc h o l a s ti c s y s t e m O f
,

a cc o r d i ng t o St Th o m a s 8 .
, . e t h ic s 1 36 , .

T URNER S c o n t r ib u ti o n t o ne o Sch o
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la st ic i s m 244 3 2 9 ; o n Sc h o l a s
, , Z E LLER ,
on Sch ol a s tic ph il osop h y ,

tic p h i l oso ph y 3 2 , . 32 .

TY RRELL o n Sc h o l a s tici sm 2 8
, , . Z IGLI ARA , 1 64—5, 33 6 .