S EM IT I C A N D H A M IT IC

OR I G I N S
S o c ia l a
’ ’

n d R o lzgz o as

BY
I

GE O RGE AA RON BA R T O N
Pro fesso r Eme ritus o f S em itic Lan guage s
i n the Un iversity o f P e nn sylvania ; D ire c to r
o f th e Ame ric an S c h o o l o f O rien tal R e
searc h in B agh dad ; P ro f esso r o f New
Testam en t Literature an d Language in the
D ivin ity S c ho o l o f the Pro testan t E pisc o
pal Ch u rch in Philad elphia ; F ello w o f th e
Am eric an Asso c iatio n f o r th e
Advan c em en t o f S c ien ce .

we cand o n o thi n g agai n s t the tru th ,

bu t f o r the tru th .

2 CO R . 13 : 8

U N I V E R S I T Y O F PE N N S Y LV AN I A PRE S S

Ph i l a d e l p h i a
Lo ndo n : H u mp hrey M ilf ord : Oxf o rd Un i vers it Press y
 Co py ri gh t 1934

U NI V ERS ITY OF PENNSYL VANIA PRESS

Um tcd S tates f Amer ic a
'

D ia l
 To

T H E GR AD UAT E S T UD E NT S

Wh o du ri ng m o r e th an f o rt y
y ears h av e sh are d th e stu di e s
o f m y se m i n ari es th i s v o lu m e

i s afle c tio n ately i ns c ri b ed

.
 PRE FA C E
T AU GU STINE in hi s o ld age fo un d th at he h ad c han ged hi s
.

mi n d c o n c ern i n g so m an y m atters o n whi ch h e had exp re ssed

,
“
o pi n io n s in hi s b o o k s th at h e i ssu ed a vo lu m e o f
,
.
R etrac tio n s .

T he wri ter un li k e th e S ain t in m o st resp ec t s resem bl es hi m in o ne

, , .

Thi rty— t w o ye ars ago h e p u bli sh ed A S k etch of S emi ti c Origi n s ,

S o ci al and R eligi o u s I n th e p refac e to that wo rk whi c h repre

.
,

sen t e d a do z en ye ars o f researc h he sai d ,

I co uld n o lo n ger do u b t
,

th at th e se stu di es h ad led m e to th e di sc o very o f th e p ath tro dd en

by th e S emit es in the j o u rn ey f ro m savagery to c iviliz atio n in th e
x
,

c o u rse o f whi ch th e m o st c h arac t eri st i c f e at u re s o f th e i r so ci al an d

”
re li gi o u s li f e w ere cre at e d Aft er thi rty years m o re o f c o n tin u o us
.

researc h in th e fi e l d h e h as a ai n pu o ge th er th e resu lt s o f hi s stu d

“

g t t
ie s h avin g c o m p assed a m o re ex ten sive are a fo r th e sak e o f se c u r
,

in g m o re n u m ero u s po i n t s o f c o n tact No w that th e resu lts are

.

am asse d c o rre l ate d an d —

, ,
th e d e du c ti o n s m ad e h e fin d s that h e h as,

ab an do n e d m o st o f t h e i m p o rtan t th eo ri e s whi ch h e ad vo c at ed

t hi rt y ye ars ago .A read er o f that wo rk m i ght we ll c o n si der the

“ ”
p resen t vo lu m e a b o o k o f re trac tio n s Th en h e b eli eved that
.

th e S emi tes h ad all p assed th ro u gh a p o lyan dro u s st age o f so c i al

o rgani z at i o n wh i c h h ad l eft its m ark o n m an y o f t h e i r so c i al an d

re li gi o u s i n sti tu ti o n s ; n o w h e i s c o n vi n c e d th at whi le a f ew o f th em
,

prac ti se d fratern al po lyan dry thi s t yp e o f m arri age w as n o t pri mi

, ,

tive w as d u e to lo c al c au ses an d h ad c o mp arative ly li ttl e in flu en c e

,
-
,
.

Th en h e b eli e ved th at sexu al ri te s in S emi ti c ri tu al were su rvival s

o f prac t i c es asso c i at e d wi th p o lyan d r y ; n o w h e b eli e ves t h at t h e y

were pro du c ts o f a kin d o f symp ath eti c m agi c wh ere by it w as

“

b eli eved th e d eiti es o f f ertili ty c o u l d b e influ en c ed to perfo rm the

lif e givi ng ac ts o n whi c h e c o no mi c prosperi ty d ep en d ed Th en
-
.

h e b eli ev ed th at all S em i te s h ad p assed th ro u gh a stage o f t o t emi sti c

c u ltu re ; n o w h e b e li eve s t h at h e can sh o w t h at af t er t h eir separa ,

tio n fro m th e H ami te s th e y were n o t to t e mi sti c

,
T h en h e tho u ght .
a

th at m an y S em itic go d s h ad as so c i et y c h an ged f ro m a m atri arc h al

,

to a p atri arc h al o rgan iz atio n b e en c all e d i n to b ein g by c h an gin g

,
viii S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C O R I G I NS

the sex o f mo the r go dd e ss ; n o w , w hile s ti ll c o n vi n ced that so me

a

go ds a re m e tamo rp ho se d go d d esse s , he is c o n vi n c e d t hat suc h t ran s

fo r mati o n s are m uc h l e ss co m m o n t han h e fo rme rly
pp o sed an d su ,

w e re d ue to o the r c au se s than a c han ge in so ci al o rgan iz ati o n T hen .

he c o n c e i ve d o f e ac h o f the S e m iti c pe o pl e s as o ff sho o ts o f a p ri mi ti ve

S e mi ti c s to ck w ho se di ff e re nc es had b e e n p ro d u c ed by l o n g d e vel o p
,

me n t in the i r se parate a nd i so l ate d habi tats b u t mo st o f w ho m had ,

re tai ne d wi t ho u t i n te rm ix t u re a p u re S e mi ti c bl o o d ; no w h e rec o g

n iz e s t hat e ac h S e mi ti c peo pl e e x c ept p o ssibly t h e N o rth A rab s

, ,

has b e e n fo rme d by f u si o n in a m el ti ng po t wi th o the r rac e s an d ,

th at t he i r di ff e ri ng c h arac te risti c s are o f te n d u e mo re to in term ix tu re

than t o si mpl e d e vel o p m en t .

P e rhaps in vi ew o f these c hanges o f o pi ni o n so me readers m ay

, ,

c o n si d e r i t n o t w o rth w hi le to re ad th e page s w hi c h fo ll o w Is .

th e re any gu aran te e th at th e o pi ni o n s h e re e xp re ssed are n e arer th e

t ru th t han tho se pu t fo rth t hi rty y ears ago ? An y w ho so q u e s
ti o n c an n o t b e aware th at in sc i en c e o p in i o n s an d th eo ri e s are n ever
fin al ; they are alway s su bj ec t to c h an ge as f ac ts p revi o u sly un kn o wn
c o m e to li gh t T he wo rk er w ho u n d er su c h c i rc u m stan c es re f u se s
.
, ,

to c h an ge hi s o pin io n s c e ase s to b e a sc i en ti st I n p h y si c s m an y.

o f th e th eo ri e s whi c h w e re t ho u gh t to b e w e ll e st ab li sh ed thi rt y years

ago h ave b een en ti rely di spl aced an d th e t h eo ry o f m at ter n o w h el d

, ,

o n t h e b asis o f co n vi n c i n g evi d en c e w as un d re am e d o f th en,

T he .

wri ter v en tu re s th ere fo re to ho p e th at th e Op enn e ss o f min d whi ch

h as le d hi m as k n o wl edge has i n c reased to repl ac e th e o ri e s ard en tly
‘

, ,

e mb rac e d in yo u th b o th e rs m o re in ac c o rd wi th f ac t s n o w k n o wn
y , ,

wi ll co m m en d hi s presen t wo rk to t ho u gh tf u l re ad ers .

T he wri ter b eli eve s t hat t h e p ri n c ipl es o n w hi c h h e h as n o w in

ve stigat ed th e in te restin g p ro bl e m s s tu di ed are so un d th e y
are t h e b es t t h at in th e p re sen t stat e o f o u r kn o wl e dge c an b e
, ,

fo rm ul ated ) ; h e d o es n o t d e c e i ve hi m se lf by think in g th at th e y are

fin al T he f u rthe r b ac k w e att emp t to p u sh o ur kn o wl edge th e
.
,

few er t h e f ac ts at o ur di sp o sal b e c o m e Th eo ri e s n e c e ssarily b e

.

c o m e h ypo th esi s o r p erso n al o pin i o n s rath er th an f ully d e mo n strate d

s t eps in t h e p ro gre ss o f c i vi liz ati o n S u ch th eo ri e s are by n o m ean s

.

u sel ess sin c e th e y se rve as a m o ti ve f o r c o ll e c tin

, g f ac ts an d c o ordi
n atin g t h e m un t il h avi n ,g serve d as pl atfo rm s f o r th e in vesti gato r ,

th ey are d e m o li sh ed to m ak e w ay f o r o th e r plat fo rm s n ea rer t h e

 PREFACE ix

tru th .M an y o f th e th eo ri es in th i s bo o k are o f th at ten t ati ve

c h arac te r So me . r e ad ers will , p erh ap s, re gard t hem as n o m o re
th an p erso n al o p n o ns o f
i i th e wri ter . Of th e se th e wri t er wo uld
say , as Pro f esso r Ku rt S eth e h as rec en tly sai d o f a wo rk o f h is o w n ,

Wer
“ ”
es n i c ht g lau b en w ill,
m ag es n i c ht glau b en .

In a wo rk lik e th e p re sen t the wri t er is i n deb te d to hi s pred e all

cesso rs . T o m o st o f these ac kno wled gm en t o f i n d e b t e dn ess is m ad e

in th e fo o tn o t es E sp e c i al t h an ks are d u e ho wever to P re si den t

.
, ,

Ju li an M o rgen stem o f H e b rew Unio n C o ll ege fo r th e lo an o f an

un pu bli sh ed m an u sc ript co n t ai n i n g a large am o u n t o f d at a relat in g

to th e so c i al o rgani zatio n o f t h e S e mi tes ; t o P ro f esso r Nath ani el

R ei c h o f Dro psie C o llege fo r readi n g an d c riti c i sin g th e first d raft
, ,
“ ”
o f th e c h ap t er o n E gyp ti an R eli gio u s Ori gin s an d to m y p upils , ,

D r H en ry S Gehm an o f Prin c eto n Un iversi ty an d M r Z elli g S

. .
, . .

Harri s T h e fo rm er co mpil ed th e table o f S emi ti c an d H arnitic

.

gramm ati c al fo rm s pu bli sh ed in th e Appen dix an d th e l att er has ,

c aref u lly read th e wo rk in m an u sc ri pt an d h as m ad e n u m ero u s

c ri ti c i sm s an d su ggesti o n s Thank s are al so d u e t o m y wife fo r

.

in valu abl e aid in re adin g th e pro o fs an d m akin g th e in di c es .

I rep eat h ere th e w o rdS wi th whi c h the prefac e o f S emi ti c Origi ns

“
co n c lu de d : I c ease wo rk u p o n th e vo lu m e co n sc io u s o f man y im ,

perf e c tio n s in it b u t wi th th e ho pe that it m ay c o n trib u te a li tt l e

,
”
to th e kn o wl e dge o f its gre at th em e .

Phi ladelphi a,
G A B . . .

D ec emb er , 19 33 .
 C O NT E NT S
CH APTE R

I . HAM I TE S AND S E M I TE S
TH E
Opin io n s as to th e C rad le L an d o f th e S em i tes ; as to th e
C radle Lan d o f th e Hami tes ; Kin shi p o f th e S em it i c
an d H ami t i c L an gu age s ; Li n gu i st i c E vi d en ce est ab

lish es Kin shi p ; No rth A fri c a n o t A rabi a th e C radl e

, ,

L an d o f the P aren t S to c k ; P aren ts o f S em i tes m igrate d

to S o uth A rabi a ; S o u th A rabi a th e S emi ti c C radle Lan d ;
No rt h Arab s develo p ed th ei r Elab o rate Arabi c Gram
m atical Syst em ; n o sp ec ial No rth S e m i ti c Cradle
Lan d ; th e E vi d en c e o f E thn o lo gy .

I I THE NE I GH B OR S OF TH E HAM I TE S AND S E MI TE S

. .

T h e E lam it es : th e S u m e ri an s ; th e Hu rri an d M i tan n i ;

th e Hi tti tes an d th ei r Nei ghb o rs ; th e S to n e Age M en o f
P alestin e ; th e E arly C retans
‘
.

I I I TH E C OM P OS I TI ON OF THE S E M I TI O AND HAMI TI C

.

PE OPLE S
T h e Arab s ; S o u th A rabi an s ; th e B abylo n i an s ; th e
A m o ri tes ; th e A ssyri an s ; the C an aan ites ; the A ram ee
an s ; th e H e b re w s ; t h e E gyptian s .

I V E AR LY SE MI TI C AND HAM I TI C S OCI AL LI F E

.

S o c io lo gi cal Th eo ri es o f Thirty Ye ars ago an d No w

Po lyan d ry ; th e L evi rate ; B een a an d Mo t a M arri age ;
‘

M o hamm ed an M arri age ; M atrilin eal D escen t ; E arly

Ham i ti c So c i al O rgan iz atio n ; P ro o f th at M atrilin e al
D e sc en t d o es n o t p resu pp o se Po lyan dry ; th e M agi cal
O rigin o f R eligio u s S exu al C u sto m s ; S em i ti c Po lyan d ry
no t Pri m it ive ; H am i t es T o t emistic S em i tes n o t ;
,

Pri mi tive Semi ti c E co n o mi c Life .

V RE LI GI OU S ORI GIN S
.

P rimitive Ani m i sm ; R eli gio n o f th e B ad ari an Civiliza

t i o n in E gyp t ; E gyp tian To t emi sm ; S e m i tes n o n
”

To temi stic ; E m ergen ce o f Go d s ; the M an y D eiti es o f

xii SEM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
C HAPTER PAGE

t he Py rami d Tex ts ; the N u m e ro u s G o ds o f S u rippak ;

T ree Wo rs hip ; S ac re d n e ss o f P alm T re e s ; P ri mi ti ve
- -

S e mi ti c T ree D e i ti es—A s he rat I si s O si ri s ; P ri m i tiv e

- -

S e mi ti c Sp ri ng D e i ti e s—At h tar I sh tar Ashtart ; O ri g

- -

inally t he T re e F e mini ne t he Sp ri ng M asc ulin e ; the

,

T ree in the Bibli c al P aradi se sto ry ; Ci rc u mci sio n ; -

S acre d ness o f T h re sho ld s ; Pil lars M enhi rs G il gal s , , ,

and Ob eli sk s ; P ri mi ti ve S e mi ti c F e stival s .

E GYP T IA N RE LI G I OU S O R I G IN S .

Di ffi c ul ti e s o f the S u bj ec t ; E m ergen c e o f the E gyp ti an

No m es ; Ol d es t G o d s Pi c tu red as I do l s no t as Li vi ng ,
“
A ni mal s ; Ho rus the Livi n g H awk ; H atho r S he o i ,
-

th e Lo f ty T e mpl e
- -
D e tail ed S tu d y o f the No m e s o f
Upp er E gyp t ; D e tailed S tudy o f the No mes o f Lo we r
E gyp t ; S u mm ary o f R esu l ts ; Egyp ti an R eli gi o u s F es
t ivals .

S OUTH S E MI I I C RE LI G I OU S O RI GI N S
’ ‘

Athtar the M asc ulin e Spi ri t Of th e S p ri n g ; P hysi cal

,

F eatu res o f Ye m en ; Hi sto ri cal S o u rc es o f In f o rm ati o n ;

’
Ni el sen s Th eo ry o f A rabi an D ei ti es ; C htho n i c D ei ti es
E arli er th an C el esti al ; th e M i n aean T ri ad Athtar —
,

—
Wadd and Nak rakh ; th e S ab aean T ri ad Al m aq q ahu -
, ,

Ath tar an d S h am s ; O th er S ab man D ei ti es ; Q atab ani an

,

D ei ti es ; the Qatab anian Tri ad— Athtar Am m and ,

‘
,

S h am s t h e B i S ex i ty o At ta ; t e D ei ti es o
u al f h r h f E l—Ula ;
;
-

Thamu di c D ei ti es ; S afaite D ei ti es ; O th er Pre M o ham -

m e d an D ei ti es ; th e D ei ti e s o f M ecc a ; S emi tes in

Abyssini a ; R eli gi o u s M o n u m en ts at Ak su m ; th e T ri ad
o f Ak su m— A star B arras an d M e dr , ,
.

VI I I B AB YL ONI AN R E LI GI OU S O RI GIN S
. .

R aci al C o n trib u ti o n s h ere th e M o st Diffi cul t o f o ur

P ro bl ems ; I shtar clearly a S emi ti c Go dde ss ; Ninkh ursag
t h e S u m e ri an M o th er Go dd ess ; E nlil an d E n ki G o d s
-

o f t h e C en tral A si at i c R ac e ; S emi t i c G o d d e ss Ashd ar

b ec am e I shtar ; S u m eri an s c all ed h er E n nin — “

T he -

Lo rd lad y ; B i sexu al as in Ar ab ia ; D um uz i ; E nz u Nan

-
” - - ~

n ar S in ; Utu S h am ash ; An u ; A d ad ; Go d s o f L agash

- -
 CONTENT S Jriii

CHAPTE R PAGE

Nin girsu ,
im ; D un shagga ; Nin gi shzi d a ;
B au , Gal -
al

th e se Go ds o f th e S u m eri an S e ttl e m en t Girsu ; Nin a , ,

Go ddess o f C entral Asi ati c S ettlem ent Nin a ; Nimmar ; ,

E ri m a S emi ti c S ettlem en t ; E u —
,
n in it s Go dd ess ; Go d s

o f U mm a ; Z am am a o f K i sh ; Nin sh u b II r t h e Swi n e
’

g o d d e s s ; N e —un u gal N ergal Nin sh ar Ni n su n

-
N in Ib -

( u rta ) ; N u s k u ; N in in sia n a ; M a-
rd uk an d Z a r p an i t;
Nab u an d T ash rnit ; A shu r ; I shtar o f Nin eveh ; B aby
lo n ian R eli gi o u s F estival s .

IX . WE S T SE MI TI C R E LI GI OU S OR I GI NS
—
A mo rit e Deiti es A sh erat an d Amm ; A dd a ; El an d ‘

B aalath o f Geb al ; Go d s o f th e R as S ham ra Text s E l

'

-
,
‘
A sh erat A sh tar ; Alein the Tree Go d An at S heph esh
, ,
-
,

Su n go dd ess ; D agan ; M o th ; I adu d ; R eshe ph ; L ater

-

C u lt at Ge b al A d o ni s ; E l— Ham o n and M alak Ashtart -

M elqart an d Ashtart at T yre ; Ashtart an d E shm u n at

Sido n ; Pho en i c i an C u lts in Cyp ru s in M alta ; in Si c ily ;

T anith B aal an d Ash tart at C arthage ; B aal s an d Ash
, ,

t aro th i n P ale stin e ; E 1 in P al e sti n e ; S h em e sh in P al es

tin e ; M e k al at B eth sh an ; Aramaean D ei t i es ; D eit i es o f
Kilam u ; Go d s o f Pan am u an d B ar R ek u b Had ad E 1— -
, ,

R esh eph R ek eb el an d S hemesh Atar sam ak at

,
-
, ,
-

Keth ek ; D ei ti es o f Nerah ; E l—w ar Of H am ath ; H ad ad

at D am asc us ; D e i ti es o f th e Nab ath a e an s
— A tar S alm
—
, ,

—
S hingala an d A shi ra ; o f E l H egra D u sh ara M an u
, ,

t hu Qaisa Alllat ; at P e tra ; at P alm yra ; At argatis ; at

, ,

Hi erap o li s (M ab ug) H adad At ar at ah, S h em esh

_
-

,
-
‘
,

R esheph A shtar Ado n i s A tar ; at Baalb ek ; West S em

‘

, , ,

i ti c R eli gio u s F estivals .

P ro blem o f H ebrew O ri gin s: R e cen t D i sc u ssio n s ;

Th eo ry o f th e E lo hi st ; Am o rites o f the Ab rahami c
Tradi ti o n s wo rship p ed El an d A sh erat ; Nam e Yawi
kn o wn ; Tribe o f Gad wo rshipp ed Gad ; M o ses in tro
d u ced wo rshi p o f Yahweh fro m K eni tes ; Habiri the ,

B n e I srael settl ed in P alestin e in F o urteen th C en tu ry ;

o nly F ew H e bre ws in E gyp t ; M y sti c E xp eri en c e o f
xi v S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS
CHAPT E R PAG E

M o se s ; Natu re o f Yahw e h and M e ani ng o f hi s Name ;

p re-
M o sa i c Hi s to ry O f Y ahw e h ; B asi s o f C o ve n an t wi th
the E gyp ti an F ugi ti ve s ; Ci rc u m c i si o n in the T i me O f
M o s e s ; I mpl e m e nts o f the C u lt in M o ses Ti me ; S ettl e
’

me n t o f the E g y pti an F u giti ve s in P ales tin e ; ho w Y ah

w e h b e c ame the Go d o f the Wh o le N ati o n ; the Y ah w e hi

z a tio n o f B aal ; the Wo rk o f E lij ah ; O f t h e Ei gh th Ce n

tu ry Pm phe ts ; t he R e fo rm o f Jo si ah ; J ere mi ah ; E z e ki el
and P c o mp le te t he Wo rk .

E PILO G UE
ADDI T I ONAL N OT E . .

AD DE ND A
INDE X O F S CR IP T UR E R E F E R E NCE S
IN D E X o r A U T H O R S
IN DE X OF S UB J E CT S .

TAB LE S A C o mp arati ve Table o f t he P e rso n al P ro no un s in

.

the H am i ti c E gy pti an an d S em i t i c L an gu ages

, , Ar .

ranged li ngu i st i c ally an d ge o grap h i c ally ; A C o m p arat i v e

Tab le o f the Verb Fo rm s ,

i nside b ac k c over
 A B B R E V IAT I O N S
Ameri can J o u rnal of S emi ti c Langu ages an d Li teratu res .

B ei trage Assyri o logi e u n d se mi tischen S prachw i ss en

'

z ur

f t h erau sgegeb en vo n
s cha ,
F ri edri ch D eli tz sch u n d P au l
Hau p t
B abylo n i an E xpedi ti o n of the Un i versi ty of Penn sylvan i a ,

S eri es A Cun eifo rm Text s e di ted by H V Hilprecht

, ,
. . .

B eri chte der k on ig sachs Gesellschaf t eu Wi ssen schaf ten

’

. . .

Co rpus I n scripti o nu m S e mi ti caru m .

Cu n eif o rm Texts f ro m B abyloni an Tablets i n the B ri ti sh

M u seu m
Allo tt e d e la ,
D o c u men tes pr ésargo n i qu es
F u ye .

H averfo rd Li brary Co llecti on of Cu n eif o rm Tablets o r

D ocu men ts f ro m the Temple Archi ves of Tello k , E di ted
by Geo rge A B arto n . .

J o u rn a l of the Ameri can Ori ental S oci ety .

J f B i bli cal L i teratu re

o u rn al o .

K ei lschrif ttex te au s Ashu r ju ri sti sche I n halts au to gra , ,

phi rt vo n E Eb eli n g L eipzig 19 27 .

, ,
.

KAVI . K eilsc hrifttexte au s Ashu r V erschi eden en I n halts au to , ,

g aphi rt von O tto S ch rad er L eipzi g 1920

“

r , ,
.

K ei lin schrif ten u n d das alte Testament vo n E S c hrad er

’

.
, ,

S te Au f h erau sgegeb en vo n H Wi n c kl er u n d Hein ri ch

. .

Zi m mern 190 3 ,
.

K eili n schrif tli che B i bli o thele h erau sge geb en vo n E

=

, .

S c hrad er .

Niko lsky s p u b lic atl o n I n R u ssi an o f th e D ocu men ts o f

’

Lik h atc h ef s c o lle ctio n

’
.

Vo lu m e I Of BE abo ve .

The Origin an d D evelopment of B abylon i an Wri ti ng b y

Geo rge A . B arto n , L eipzi g, 19 13 (V o l IX o f BA . .

ab o ve ) .

Ori en tali sti sche Li teratu rz ei tu ng .

Pro ceedi ngs f

o the S o ci ety of B i bli cal Arc haeo logy . Lo n
do n .
xvi SEM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

Pe te rm an n s M itthe ilun ge n
'
. M itthei lu nge n au s J ustes Perles geo
gra phi sc her A n s tal t w i c htige n eu c E rf o rsc hu ngen an ]
de n: ges ammelt Gebi ete der Geo graphic , vo n A P eter
.

m an n .

A i i c S o c i ety , Lo n do n
J RA S . J f
o u rn al o
t he R o yal s a t .

PS B M . Pu blic atio n s of the B abylo nia n S ec tio n o f t he U n i ve rsi ty

M u se u m P hil ad elphi a
,
.

The Cu n eif o rm I n scr iption s f Western Asia e di ted by o

Hen ry R awlin so n I R I I R Vo l s I I I e tc o f the,

.
,
.
,
.
, ,
.

sa m e I V R 2d ed o f V o l I V o f the sam e re vi sed by

2
. . .
,

T heo phi lu s G Pin chc s . .

R I SA . The R o yal I n sc riptio n s of S u mer and Ahk ad by G eo rge A .

B arto n Ne w H aven 19 29
, ,
.

F T hu reau D angi n S u mer ischen a nd Akk ad isc hen

.
-
,

Kon igsen schrif te n L ei p zi g 190 7 , , .

S HOT . The S ac red B o o k s of the Old Testamen t e di te d by P au l ,

H au p t .

A S 13 t of S emi tic Origi n s S oci al and R eligio u s by G eo rge , ,

A B arto n New Yo rk 1902

.
, ,
.

TSA . Geno u illac Tablettes su meriennes archaiques

,
’

TS HA . Tran sac ti o ns of the S oci ety of Bi blic al Archaeology Lo n do n ,

.

ZA . Z ei tschrif t jitr Assyri o lo gi e .

ZAT W Z ei tschrift f ur alttesta men tli che Wi ssenschaf t .

ZD M G Z ei tschrif t der deu tsc hen M o rgan landi schen Gesellschaf t

'

. .
 I

T H E HA M I T E S A N D S E M I T E S
HE n am es Ham i te an d S em ite are take n fro m th e table o f the
n atio n s in th e te n th c h apter o f Gen e si s , th e H ami te s c o rre

spo n din g ro u gh ly wi th th e n atio n s th e re sai d to b e desc en d e d

fro m H am an d th e S em i tes to tho se fro m S h em Neither n ame is
,
.

alto ge th er appro pri ate T h e classifi Catio n o f G en esi s w as app aren tly
.

b ased o n po liti c al rather than racial c o nne c tio n s an d is f ro m th e , ,

sc i e n tifi c po in t O f vie w i n ac c u rate Th u s C an aan is th ere said to

,
.

b e d e scen de d fro m H am th o u gh lin gu i sti c an d o th er e vi den c e i n di

,

c ates th at th e C an aan ites w ere S e m i tes Similarly C u sh ( Nu bi a) .

'

is sai d to b e H am i ti c wh e re as it w as Negro id an d O f qu i te a dif

, ,

fe ren t race Pu t (th e P u n t o f E gypti an in sc riptio n s) 1s said to b e

.

Ham i ti c I f it lay as seem s p ro b able o n b o th S id e s o f th e S trai ts

.
, ,

o f B ab el— -
M an deb th e classi fi c atio n i s tru e fo r th e Afri c an p art
,

o f i t b u t n o t f o r th e A rabi n po rtio n H o w ever the n am e s Hami te

, a .
,

an d S em i te as em plo ye d b y sc ho lar s are n o w w ell u n d e rsto o d an d ,

m ay b e u se d wi th o u t c o n fu sio n T h e term Ham i te c o ve rs the an

.

c ien t E gyp ti an s an d th e i r d e sce n dan ts th e C o pts th e pre— A rab i an , ,

'

Lyb ian s an d B erb e rs o f No rth Afri c a certai n trib e s Of Abyssin i a ,

and S o m ali L an d an d so m e o th e r trib e s to b e n am ed late r

, T he .

S emi te s i n clu de the Arab s th e Akkadian s o f an c ien t B abylo n ia

, ,

the A ssyria n s th e Am o ri te s th e C an aan i te s an d th e i r de s ce n d an ts

, ,

th e Ph oen i c ian s an d th e i r c o lo ni e s th e He b re w s E do mi tes M o abi tes

, ,
'

, ,

an d Am m o n i tes to ge th e r w i th the vario u s tribe s Of Aram aean s ;

‘

also a co n sid e rab le po rti o n o f th e po pu latio n o f Aby ssin ia I t is .

th e ai m o f th e pre se n t Vo lu m e to di sc u ss the o rigin an d distrib u tio n

o f th e se p eo ple s an d th e ri se o f c e rt ain o f th e i r fu n d am e n tal in sti
,

t u tio n s .

In appro ac hi n g a stu dy o f th e o rig n s o f any

i p eo ple , it is n ece ssary ,
first o f all to ask : Wh ere did th i s peo ple
, take its rise ? Wh ere w as
it di ff ere n tiate d fro m o the r race s an d in wh at e n vi ro n m e n t o f c li ,

m ate and so il w e re its e arly i n sti tu ti o n s b o rn ? M an like all o the r ,

c re atu res is pro fo u n d ly influ e n ce d b y h is su rro u n d in gs

,
The .

stu rdy c h arac te r O f th e A n glo —

S axo n tho u gh fo r a tim e it m ay su r ,
2 SEM ITIC AND HAM ITIC ORI GI NS
v ive in the tro pi c s , is n o t c reated there ; no r has the c are e ss l l aziness
of the b een b re d in the arc ti c no rth T o u n derstan d the
n egro .

e arli e st religi o u s c o n c ep ti o n s o f a gro u p o f p eo ples w e m u st stu d y ,

the so c ial o rgan iz ati o n in w hi c h the y had thei r bi rth ; an d to fo rm

a co rrec t th eo ry o f the i r so c i al o rganizati o n it is n e c e ssary to st u d y ,

thei r ph y si cal e n vi ro n m en t .

Our i n qu i ry is ho we v e r b ese t at th e ve ry thre sho l d wi th grave

, ,

difli c u lties T he e vi de n ce wi th w hi c h w e h ave to de al is ve ry

.

sli gh t an d is di ff eren tly i n te rpre te d by d iffe re n t sc h o l ars

,
I n m an y .

respec ts au tho ri tie s di ffer wi dely I n rec en t ye ars fi ve d i ff e ren t .

th eo ries as to the lo c atio n o f the c rad l e l an d o f th e S emi ti c peo pl e s -

have b een pu t fo rth in wh i ch B abylo n i a A rabi a No rth Af ri c a

, , , ,

Amu rru and A rm eni a have b een re spe c ti vely m ade the ho me o f
,

the se p eo ples Opinio n s as to the c radl e l an d o f the Hami te s do

.
-

no t di ff er so wi dely ; there se em s to b e a f ai r co n se n su s o f o p i ni o n

th at they o ri gi n ate d in No rth Afri ca o r the S ahara D esert tho u gh ,

thi s o pi nio n is co n teste d by so m e I t will b e c o n veni en t to re vi ew

.

first the theo rie s o f the S emi ti c c radl e lan d -

.

1 T he advo c ates o f the B abylo n i an theo ry have b e en vo n Krem e r

.
,

Gu i di an d Ho mmel V o n Kremer set fo rth his views in tw o arti

,
.

c l es pu bli sh e d in 187 5 in Das Au sland H e re ac h e d hi s resu l ts

1
.

fro m a co m pari so n o f th e vo cab ulari e s Of th e di ffe re n t S emi ti c

to n gu es H e c o n c lu ded that b e fo re the fo rm atio n o f t h e diff e re n t
.

S em i ti c d ialec ts they had a n am e fer the c amel whi ch appe ars in

,

m mm m —
l l
a o t ef h ; w h e r a
e s t h e y h a d n o c o o n n a e s f o r th e d at e palm
an d its f ru i t o r fo r the o stri c h T h e cam e l the S emi tes kn ew whi le
.

the y we re ye t o n e peo ple dwelli n g to ge the r ; th e d ate palm an d ,

-

o stri c h th ey di d n o t kn o w No w th e regio n where there is n ei ther

.

d ate palm n o r o stri c h an d y e t whe re the c am el h as b ee n kn o wn

‘

fro m rem o test an tiqu i ty i s the gre at c en tral table lan d o f A si a

,
-
,

n e ar th e so u rces o f the Oxu s an d J axartes ri vers th e Jaihu n an d ,

S aihu n V o n Krem er tho u ght the S e miti c e mi gratio n f ro m thi s

.

regio n p rece de d th e Ary an an d I n do E u ro pe an perhaps u n de r

-
,

pressu re fro m the l ast m e n ti o n ed rac es ; an d h e h e l d that the S e m i tes

-

first settled in M eso po tamia an d B abylo n i a wh ich h e lo o ked u po n ,

as th e o ldest S e mi ti c c en te r o f c i viliz ati o n .

“
1
Th e artic le w as e n title d S e mi ti sc h e Cu ltu ren en tlehn u n gen au s Pflanz en und
”
Thierreic he , an d w as p u b lishe d in Das Au sland , V o l I V , No s 1 an d 2 . . .
 T HE
-
HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S u

Simi larly O rientali st I gn azio Gu i di wro te in 18 7 9 a

the I tali an , ,

m emo ir o n the pri miti ve se at o f the S em i ti c peo ples whi ch ap ,

p e are d am o n g t h e pu b li c ati o n s o f t h e R e a le A c ad em i a d e i Li n ce i 1
.

H is li n e o f argu m en t an d co n c lu sio n s are similar to tho se o f vo n

“

Krem er His metho d o f indu ctio n appe ars to have been so mewhat
.

b ro ade r than vo n Kremer s who se wo rk seem s to h ave b een u nkno wn ’

,

to h im H e to o k i n to co n si deratio n the wo rd s in the vario u s S emi

.

tic lan gu ages wh i c h den o te the c o n figu ratio n DI th e e arth s su rf ace

’
,

th e vari e ties o f so i l the c h an ges o f the se aso n s a ,

n d c lim ate an d ,

th e n am e s o f m in eral s an d an i m als H e c o n c lu de d th at B abylo n i a .

w as the fir st cen ter o f S emi ti c life an d th at th e prim i ti ve S e mi tes

Babylo n i a were i mm igran ts fro mthe lan d s so u th an d so u thwe st
,

o f th e Caspian S e a This c o n clu sio n D rive r in the seco n d e di tio n

.
,

o f h is Use of the Ten ses i n H ebrew w as in cline d to ac c ep t

2
“

.
, ,

No t radi c ally d i fferent fro m th i s is the vi ew Of Ho mm el al so ,

first pu bli shed in 18 7 9 Like Guidi he ho lds that lo wer M eso , ,

o tam ia i e B abylo n i a an d n o t u p er M eso po tam i a o n th e o n e

p ,
. .
, p ,

han d n o r Arabi a o n th e o ther w as the home o f th e prim i tive S emi ti c ,

“
e w w as accepted by Vlo ck in the arti c le
”
p p
eo l e
3
T. hi s v. i Semi ten
in Herzo g s T h at —E
’
n cyclopedi c
4
Ho mm el late r shifted the primi .
~

tive ho m e to u pp e r M e so po tami a an d h eld th at it w as th e ho m e o f ,

the se p eo pl e b efo re th e sep aratio n o f the Hami te s an d S emi te s o r , ,

at le ast f ro m t e E gyp ti an b ran c h Of the sto c k

h
,
5
M o re recently .

h r h
he as re ve te d to is o rigi n al theo ry 6
Egypt w as he thin ks .
, ,

c o lon ize d f ro m B abylo n i a so th at the c ivi lization o f the f o rm e r ,

co u t y was de ve d i f o m th at Of th e latte r
n r r r 7
.

1
T h e title of Gu id i
’
3 p ap e r is D ll “
e a sed e pn mrtiva d ei p o p o li S emi tic i Th e
mWight
.

ab o ve acc o u n t o f it is d raw n f ro Co mparative Grammar of the S emi ti c L an

’
r 3

gu ages p 5 .

2
Cf p ZSOn. . .

See his Di e Namen des S au gthi ere b ei den suds emi ti sc hen V ol/ecru , Leipsig , 18 7 9
3 ‘

p 406 II , an d D i e semi tisc hen V olk ern a n d S prac hen , I , 18 8 1, p 63

. . . .

’
4
For a tran slatio n of Vlo c k s ar tic le, se e H eb rai c a I I , 14 7 fi .

Ueb er d er Grad de r Verw an dt sc haf t d es Altagyp tisc he

5 “
S ee his artic le n mit d e m
‘

”
S emitisc h en , _
B ei tr age z ur Assyri olo gi e, II , 343 ff .

6
S ee his Gru ndri ss der Geo graphic u nd Ges chi chte des alten Ori ents , z w eite Halfte ,

M ii n c h en , 19 26, p 5 06 mi . .

7 “
S e e his I den tit at d e r altesten b ab ylo n isc h en un d agypt isc he n . Go t tergen e alo gie
un d d e r b ab ylo nisc h e n Ursp ru n g d e r agyp tisc hen Ku ltu r, Transacti o ns of the ntern a
“
”
I
“ ”
ti o n al Co n gress of Ori en talis ts , Lo n do n , 189 2, pp 218 244 , h is art ic le B ab ylo n ia .
-
,

Hastin gs
’
s Di tic o n ary o f the B ible ,
18 9 8 , an d h is Gru ndri ss as c ited in the prece din g n o te .
 S E M ITI C AN I) HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

T his li ng u is ti c me tho d o f i n ve s tigatio n is ho w e ve r p re c ario u s , , .

As Nolde k e has po i nte d o u t the fac t that o ne wo rd no w de no te s ,

an o b j e c t in all the S e m itic l a ng u age s m ay b e d u e to b o rro wi ng ,

fro m o ne to ng u e by ano the r in re mo te c e n tu ri e s the c au se s o f w hi ch ,

w e c an no t no w t rac e w hile the fac t th at a w o rd is no t c o m m o n to

,

all the l a n g u age s o f t he gro u p m ay n o t ne c e s s arily si gni fy th at the

p ri miti ve S e m ite s w e re i gno ran t O f the O bj e c t w hi c h it c o nno tes ,

b u t m ay b e d ue to the di splac e m e n t o f the term by ano the r u n de r

c i rc u ms tan c es w hi c h no w e s c ape u s
l
.

2 O ppo s e d to the vi ew that M eso po tami a is the c rad le o f the

.

S e mi te s is the vi e w that A rabi a w as the p ri mi ti ve ho m e Thi s

,
.

t heo ry w as d e fe n de d by A S pre nge r in 18 6 1 and w as afte rw ard

2
.

re affi rm e d by hi m He re garde d it as a hi sto ri cal law th at agri

.

c u ltu ri s ts do no t b e co m e n o m ad s a n d d e c lare s tha t he wo u l d as ,

so o n thi n k th at the do lphi n fo rm e rly d w elt in the hei gh ts o f the

A lps o r the go at in the se a as to thi nk that m o u n tai nee rs wo u l d

, ,

be co m e no m ad ic The n afte r d esc ribi ng the Nafud and o ther

.
,

fe atu re s o f c e n tral A rab ia h e co n c lu de s : I t is o f n o i m po rtan ce

,

w he the r th e i nhab itan ts are au to ch tho nes o r are fro m o ther n eigh bo r
ing tribes the N ej d is the fastn ess o f th e abo ve m e n tio ne d l and s
,
-

( Syri a an d M e so po tami a) whi ch h as i mp ressed its c h arac te r u po n

,
”a “
the S e mites I n l ik e m an n e r in his l ate r w o rk h e say s : All S e
.

mi tes are ac co rdi n g to m y c o n vi c tio n su c c essi ve l aye rs o f A rab s

, , .

Th ey depo sited them selve s laye r o n l aye r ; and w ho kn o w s fo r ,

e x am ple ho w m an y l ayers h ad prec e d e d th e C an aani te s w ho m w e

,

e n co u n te r at the v ery b egi nn in g o f hi sto ry ?

“

dec l ar
“
S ayc e also in ,
ed : T h e S emi ti c tradi ti o n s all po i n t
to A rabi a as the o ri gi nal ho m e o f the rac e I t is th e o nly part o f .

No ld ek e , S emitisc he n S pr ac hcn , Le ipsig, 188 7 , p 3 II ( 2n d e d . . . an d his

“
a rt ic le S e m itic Langu age s i n t h e E ncyclo paed ia B r itan n ica , 9 th e d .

S e e hi s Des Leb en a nd L ehre des M o ha mmad , B e rlin , 18 6 1, I , 24 1 fi .

,
als o his Alte
Ge o graphi c Arab i e ns , 18 75 , p 9 3 . .

3 “
Gle ic h ve il o b d ie E in w o hn e r Au to c hth o n e n sin d Od er au s and e rn g e ge n d e n
S tamm e n , d as Nejd is t di e Ve ste j ene r L an d e r, w elc he d e n S emi te n ih r en C h arak te r
au fge d ru c k t hab e n , Le b en a nd Le hr e des M o hammad , I , 242 243 , .

“
Alle S e mi te n sin d n ac h m e in e r Ueb e rz e u gu n g ab gelage rt e Arab e r S ie lagerte
.

s ic h S c h ic h te au f S c hic h te , u n d w e r w e is s, di e w i e vi elte S c hi c h te z u m B e is p ie l di e
”
Kanaani te r, w e lc he wi r au Anf ang d e r Ge sc h ic h t e , w ah rn eh men , w aren . Alte Geo g .

Arab ians , p 29 3 . .

‘
Assyri an Gr ammar , p 13 . .
 TH E HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S

th e wo rld whic h has re mai n ed e xc lu sively S em iti c T he rac i al .

c h arac te ri sti c s
— in te n si ty o f fai th f e ro c i ty e x c lu si ve n e s s i m agi
, , ,

n atio n
— c an b est b e expl ain e d he th i n k s b y a dese rt o rigin , , .

Eb erhard S ch rader in exp resse d vi e w s o f th e sam e n atu re

, .

As a re sul t o f a lo n g exami n atio n o f th e re ligio u s lin gu isti c an d hi s , ,

to ri c o geo graphi c al relatio n s o f the S em i ti c n atio n s to o n e an o th er

-
,

he co n clu de s th at Arabi a is the c radle o f the se p eo ple s '

.

D e Go eje also in hi s ac ademi cal address fo r

,
de c l ared him
se lf in f avo r o f th e vie w th at c e n tral Arabi a is th e ho me o f th e S emi

tic rac e as a who le Like Spren ger h e lays it do wn as a rule th at

.
,

m o u n tai n ee rs n e ver b ec o m e in h abitan t s o f the steppe an d n o m adi c

sh ephe rds an d so re j ec ts th e n o ti o n th at S emi te s c an h ave de
,

sc en d e d f ro m th e m o u n tai n s o f Arrap ac itis to b e co m e d w elle rs o f

h
the pl ai n s an d swam ps Of B abylo ni a H e sho ws in co n trast ho w .
, ,

n o m ad s are co n stan tly p assi n g o ve r in to agri c ul tu ri sts i h settled

w t
h abi tatio ns ; ho w vil lage s an d to w n s are gradu ally fo rm e d wi th ,

c ul tiv ate d l an d s aro u n d th em ; an d h o w th e space n ee df u l fo r th e

pastu relan d o f th e n o m ad is gradu ally c u rtaile d u n til fo r w an t o f ,

l an d he is co mpelle d to go elsewh ere S O it w as he h e ld in c en tral

,
.
, ,

"
Arabia ; an d as a re su lt i ts n o m ad i c po pulatio n w as c o n tinu ally
, ,

ov e rste ppi n g b o u n d s in every d i rec ti o n an d pl anti n g i tsel f in O m an ,

Yem en Syria and B abylo ni a

, ,
.

Wright who se ac co u n t o f D e Go eje s wo rk I h ave l argely repro

,
’

du ce d after givi n g a ré su m é o f the argumen t o b serves th at thi s 3

“

, ,

pro cess h as b een repe ate d in hi sto ri c al times in whi ch Arabi c emi ,

gratio n has flo o de d Syria an d M eso po tami a H e the refo re accep ts .

the vie w th at A rabi a is th e c radl e lan d o f the S em i ti c race -

Hu b ert .

Grimm e writing in also assu med th at Arabi a w as the ir

‘

c radle lan d
-
Simi l arly C arl B ro ck elm ann in 190 8 declared5 Arabi a
.

th e c radle l an d o f th e S emiti c peo p le s o b se rvi ng th at whe re the

-
,

rac e c ame f ro m b efo re it w as in Arabi a it is u se les s to i n qu i re ,

.

6 “
T he l ate L W Ki n g al so wro te in 19 15
. . I t is n o w gen e rally re co g , .

“
1
S ee hi s D ie Ab stamm u n g d er Ch ald ae r
artic le , und d ie Ursitz d er S e mi ten,
ZDM G, XXVI I , 3 9 7 —
4 24 , espec ially p 4 20 fi . .

2
H et Vaderland der s emi ti sc he Vo lk en .

3
Co mparati ve Gr ammar o f the S emiti c L an gu ages , p 8 . .

4
M ahammad , K ar akterbi lder n , 19 04 , pp 6—
Weltgeschi c hte i n 8 . .

5
Verglei chend e Grammati k der semi ti schen S prache , B erlin , 19 08 , I , 2 .

6
H istory of S u mer and Ak k ad , L o n d o n , 19 15 , p 119 . .
 S E M ITIC ANI) HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
n iz c d A rab ian pe ni nsul a w as the fi rst ho m e o r c rad le o f
that the
”
the S e m i ti c peo pl e s T hi s w as al so ass u m e d by F S c hu hle in in
. .

jo hn L M e ye rs w ri ti ng in . as s u m e s th at t h e S e m i ti c
,

p p
e o l e s h ave b e e n d i s t rib u te d f ro m A rab ia a s t h e i r o ri gi nal ho me ,

w hil e S A C o o k re fe rs to the hy po the si s o f thei r A rabi an o ri gi n as

. .
’

a b ri lli an t theo ry and the pre vai ling o n e D itle f Ni e lse n also say s .
,

“
pro b ably the o ri gi n al ho me lan d o f the S e mi tes is to b e so u gh t in

3 . S till ano the r the o ry , w hi c h ,

as wi ll ap pe ar l ate r is in , so me re

s pe c ts a m o d ifi catio n o f the fo re go ing , is that the earlie st ho m e o f

t he S e mi te s A fri c a Th u s Pal grave hel d that the
is to b e fo u nd in .
6

s tro n g rac ial resem bl an c e s b e twe e n the A rab s Aby ssini an s B e rb e rs , , ,

e tc
— e spe c i ally the fo rm o f the jaw an d the sm al l c alf o f th e le g

to ge the r wi th thei r so c ial afli nity an d li ngu i sti c si mil ari ty l e ad to ,

the vi ew that the p u re S e mi te s o f the pe ni n su l a o ri gin ally cam e f ro m

an A fri c an rather than an A si atic di rec ti o n .

Si mil arly G erl and re ac he d o n the b asi s o f p hy si cal re sem bl an ces

, , ,

s u ch as th e fo rm ati o n o f th e sk u ll an d o n li ngu i s ti c gro u n d s the , ,

c o n c l u si o n that all th e A siati c S e mi tie s c an b e t race d in the i r be gi n

nin gs to the No rth Af ri c an regi o n s Ge rlan d s vi e w is in so m e t e

’
.

spe c ts pec u li ar He hel d to the rac i al u ni ty o f th e Af ri c an race s

.
,

an d regard s the S e mi tes as o n e o f them T he H ami te s an d S emi tes .

w e re to hi m o ne peo pl e an d e ven the B an tu s are he tho u gh t t e, , ,

late d to the m 6
M o re re cen t i nvestigato rs have reco gniz ed the
.

fac ts o n w hi c h thi s vi e w w as b ase d an d have gi ve n it wh at s e em s to

b e th e ri gh t e xp lan atio n .

I n 18 8 2 G B e rti n also advo c ate d the theo ry that th e S e mi tes

.

an d H ami te s o ri gin ate d to ge th e r in Af ri c a th at th e S emi tes c ro sse d ,

i n to Arabi a via S u e z an d develo p e d th ei r spe ci al c h arac te ri sti cs in

,

A rabi a P e tra ’
.

1
S ee th e art ic le
“
S e m ites i n t he C th li
a o c E nc yclo ped ia .

2
C amb r id ge A nc ie nt H isto ry, C am b rid ge , 19 23 , I , 3 8 .

3
C amb rid ge Anc ie n t H isto ry, I , 19 2 f .

H andb uc h der altarabi s che n AItertu ms /z u nd c, I , Ko pe nhagen , P a ris , Le ipz ig , 1927 ,

p 5 5 Cf also p 4 7
. . . . .

“
5
Art ic le Arab ia, E nc yc B rit 9 th e d . . .

“
S ee his e xh austi ve artic le E t hn o grap hy in the I c o n o graphic E nc yc V o l I , w hic h . .

is a t ranslat io n o f th e au th o r s
’
Ge rm an w o rk o n th e sam e s u b ec t j .He h o ld s th at
spo radic t rac es p ro gna this m an d w o o lly h air
of am o ng t h e S e mi t e s is an argu m e n t in
f avo r of hi s V i e w ( c f pp 369 , 3 7 0 )
. .

7
J o ur nal o f the A nthro po lo gic al I ns titu te , X I , 4 3 1 fi .
 '

T HE HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S

No ld ek e ,
to o , in ac cepte d th e sam e v e
b u t he pu t it
i w;
f o r th n o t as a fixe d th eo ry , b u t as a m o de st hypo the sis B rinto n , .

in also c h am p o n e d i th i s h ypo th esis . He attem

pted to lo
c aliz e , so m e what m o re spe c ific ally ,
th e pl ac e in No rth Af rica when c e
the pro ge nito rs o f th e S emi tes m igrate d H e argu ed that the po pu .

lar tradi tio n c o m p arative phi lo lo gy e th n o lo gy an d arc h aeo lo gy

, , , ,

tho se pi c tu resque valleys o f th e Atl as whi c h lo o k fo rth

“
all p o i n t to

to the Gre at O c ean an d the se tti n g su n His argu m en t fro m tra .

di tio n is based o n a p assage in the early ch apters o f Gen esi s an d is , ,

as will b e p o i n te d o u t b e lo w i rrelevan t ; b u t hi s philo lo gi c al an d ,

e thn o lo gi c al argu m e n t s we re vali d as will b e S ho wn in th e p ro per ,

plac e .

The late M o rri s Jastro w In in a paper pu bli shed u n der the same , ,

accepte d the Afri c an o ri gi n o f th e S emi tes al

’
co ve r as B ri n to n s
3
, ,

thbu gh h e righ tly re j ec ted B rin to n s sp ec i al lo c ali ty in th e Af ri c an

’

n o rth west as u n su p po rte d by th e evi d en c e .

Like wi se A H Ke an e w ho regarde d M au ri tan i a as the o rigin al

4
. .
,

ho m e an d cen ter o f di spe rsio n n o t o f the Ham ites an d S emi te s o n ly , ,

b u t o f the who le C au c asi an race n atu rally hel d th at the S emi tes ,

were Of Afri c an o rigin I n alater wo rk h e regarde d So u th Arabia

5
.

as th e e arli est h o m e o f th e S emi tes afte r th ei r mi grati o n fro m Af ric an

so il an d th erefo re th ei r p o i n t o f dep artu re fo r th ei r several n at i o n al

,

ho m e s Ripley afte r revi ewing the vario u s o pinio n s co n clu ded

.
, ,
“
th at th e phy si cal trai ts o f th e Arab s fu lly co rro b o rate B rin to n s
’

”6
an d J astro w s h ypo th e si s o f Afri c an d esc e n t
’
.

Thi s theo ry th at th e p rimi tive S em iti c ho me w as in Afri c a is as

, , ,

th e l ate W R o b e rtso n S m i th p o in ted o u t n o t i n c o n si ste n t wi th th e

.
7
,

th e o ry th at Arabi a w as th eir e arlie st Asi ati c ho m e an d th e po i n t ,

fro m whi ch the y di sperse d If the y o rigi n ate d in Afri c a th e argu .

,

m en ts th at the A rabi an pen i n su l a w as th ei r c radle l an d after thei r

'
-

1
miti schen S prac he, p 9 ;
Di e se . also hi s art ic le
“
S emitic L an gu age s, E nc yc B rit. .

9th e d an d 11th c d , 19 11
. . .

2
S ee hi s Cradle o f the S emi tes ,
Ph il ad elphia, 1890 ; also his R aces and P eo ples , Ne w
Y o rk , 18 9 0 , p 13 2 . .

3
Crad le of the S emi tes , p 13 . .

4
C
E thn o lo gy, am b ri d ge , 189 6 , p 302 . .

5
M an Past and resent, 189 9 , p 490 P . .

6
The R aces
"

f
o E u ro pe, Ne w Y o rk , 189 9 , p 3 7 6 . .

7
Wright s ’
C mpo arati ve S emi ti c Gr ammar , p 9 n . .
 S E M ITIC AND HA M ITI C ORIG I NS

mi gra ti o n fro m the ne ig h b o r ng c o n t ne n t a re ,

i i in a goo d d egree ,
re n fo rc e d
i .

N athanie l S c h m id t s ugge ste d in a pape r re ad at the C o ngre ss O f

Re ligio ns in l ari s in 19 0 0 tha t the S e m ite s m ay have e n te re d A rabi a
’
,

o ri gi n ally f ro m l au in t ( l u n t) A b yss ini a and S o m ali l and an d

’ — ’ - -

that t he y li ve d in A rab ia lo ng e no u gh to h ave re ce i ve d the i r spe c i al

ch arac te ri s ti cs f ro m its e n viro n me n t AS wi ll b e po i n te d o u t b el o w .
,

th e availab le e v id e n c e ac c u m u late d d u ri ng the last q u arte r o f a

c e n tu ry m ak e s th is t he m o s t p ro b ab le vi e w .

T he vi e w o f S tre c k that the S e m iti c c radl e lan d w as in Af ri ca

,
-
,

b ase d o n the the o ry o f t he an tiq u ity o f the l abi alizi ng gu ttu ral s
in Aby ssi n ian h as no t m e t w ith favo r l Of the tru th o f the theo ry
,
.

o f the A f rica n o ri gi n a n d A rabi an c rad l e l an d o f the S e m i te s the -

,

p r e se n t w ri te r h a s b ee n f u lly pe rs u ad e d f o r m an y y e ars an d h as

ad vo ca te d t he vi e w in n u m e ro u s pu b li cati o n s
2
.

4 I n 19 19 the late P ro fe sso r Jo h n P Pe te rs regi ste re d his o b je c

.
3
.

tio n s to the t heo ry that A rab ia w as the o ri gi n al ho m e o f th e S em i te s ,

an d re vi ve d a theo ry fo rm e rly u rge d by so m e th at that h o m e w as

, ,

an cie n t Arme n ia e aste rn A s ia M i no r an d th e co u n try b e twee n the

,

Tau ru s and the E u phrates T he chi e f reaso n ad vance d in su ppo r t .

o f thi s vi e w w as that it b e st ac c o rd s wi th the Bibli cal tradi tio n s o f

the flo o d an d th at the Ar m e ni an s an d an c i e n t Hi tti tes po sse sse d

,

aq uili ne n o se s rese m b li ng tho se o f th e J ew s w h e re as th i s fea ture ,

is n o t a c harac te ri sti c o f the Arab s T h e o b se rvatio n is in i tse lf .

co rr ec t b u t is no t a su ffi c i e n t b as i s o n w h i c h to b u i ld so l arge a
,

theo ry As w ill b e po in te d o u t late r it is capabl e o f q u i te a d iff ere n t

.
,

e xp lan ati o n .

5 S till ano the r theo ry w as ad vo ca te d by the late P ro fe sso r A T

. . .

Clay w ho fo u n d the theo ry o f the Arabi an o ri gi n o f the S emi te s in

‘
,

S ee K tio , VI , 18 5 .

2
A S k etc h of S em it ic Or igi ns , S o ci al and R eli gi o us , Ne w o rk , 190 2, c h I ; the arti Y .

”
S e mi te s an d S emiti c Lang u ages in Has ti ngs s E nc yclope d ia of R el igio n and
“ ”
c les
“ ’

“
D
Ethic s ; artic le I s rae l in H as tin gs s i c tio nary of the B i b le i n One Vo lu me ;
’ “
ah w e h Y
b e fo re M o ses " in S tud ies i n the H is tory of R eli gio ns resented to rawf ord H ow ell To y P C
by P u pi ls , C ll
o eague s , and F r iend s , Ne w Y o rk , 19 12; The Religi o n f
o I srael , Ne w Y o rk ,

19 18 , p 3 : R eligio n s of the World , hi cago , 19 17 , 19 19 , p 18 ; Arc haeology

. C . and the B i ble ,
4 th cd , 19 25 , p 5 3 9 f ; an d J AOS , V o l XL V , 19 25 , p 1
. . . . . .

2
J AOS , XXXIX ,
24 3 —260 .

S ee A murr u , the H o me f
o the P
Nor ther n S em ite s , hila d e lphi a, 19 09 ; Y ale Orie ntal
S eries —B ab ylo n ia n Tex ts , V o l I , Ne w H aven , 19 15 , v f ; The E mpir e of the Amo rites,
. .

Ne w Haven , 19 19 .
 TH E HAM ITE S AND S E M I TE S 9 .

c apab e o f e l xplain in g h o w the do lic h o cephalic A rab s co u ld b e the pro

i t r f t h ro u nd h e ad e d Je w s an d w h o b e lie ve d t h at th e Am o
g e n o s o e -

ri tes we re th e b u ild e rs
a p d m ain tai n e rs o f an e x te n sive e m pire in

the fo u r th an d fif th mi llen n ia B C Am u rru in hi s Opin io n in clu de d . .

,

n o rt h e rn S yria an d th e E u ph rate s re gio n do w n to a po in t n e arly

o ppo si te B agh d ad Thi s regio n h e tho u gh t w as the o rigin al ho me

.

o f the S e mi te s H e n e ve r ac tu ally sai d th at it w as the re gio n

.

where the y o rigin ate d b u t he b elieve d that i t w as th e c e n ter fro m

,
'

whi ch they were d i stribu te d T he th eo ry w as su ppo rte d by argu .

m e n ts th at were largely ph ilo lo gi c al an d so f ar as th e pre se n t w ri ter , ,

kno ws n e ve r co n vin ced an yo n e e xc ept their o w n au tho r o f th e

,

c o rrec tn e ss o f the th e o ry .

Of the O rIgIn o f t he Hami te s th eo rie s h ave n o t b een so ab u n dan t ,

the re are ho weve r o n e o r tw o th at are o u tstan d in g

, ,
1 R o b e rt . .

Hartm an n in ,
held that the Afri can s w e re an e th n i c wh o l e .

He tho ugh t o f the Afri can c o n ti n e n t as a gran d u n ifo rm ph ysi c al

““

” “ ”
c re ati o n wh ich hid in i ts elf a great u n itary sto c k o f p eo ple He
,
.

m ai n tain ed that a travele r asce n d in g the Nile co uld n o t tell wh e re , ,

the straigh t h aire d Egyptian s lef t Off an d th e c u rly hai re d Negro es

- -

“
b egan As vo n Lusc hau rem arks su c h a standpo in t app e ars to day
.
,

really wo n d e rfu l an d scarcely to b e co n c e i ve d .

2 M o st s c ho lars w h o h ave e xpresse d an o pin io n u po n the su bj ec t

.

have assu m e d th at th e Ham i te s d e ve lo pe d in No rth Afri c a o u t o f the

M edi te rran e an rac e after the last glac ial epo c h ,
Thi s theo ry h as .

re cei ve d th e e n do r sem e n t o f su c h e th n o lo gi st s as K e an e B rin to n

3 4
, ,

Sergi Gerlan d Riple y an d vo n L u sc han an d IS ac cep te d by

5
,
6 7
,
8
, ,

philo lo gi sts su ch as M aspero the late W M ax M iil ler M ein ho ff

9 10 11
‘

.
, , , ,

1
Die V olk er Af ri k as , L eip z ig, 18 7 9 .

I n Mein h off s Di e S prac hen der H ami ten , H mb u rg, 19 12, p 24 2 o r furth e r
2 ’

a F . .

re m ark s o f vo n L u sc h au o n th e H am ite s as a rac e , c f h is V olk er , Ras sen , S prac hen , . .

B e rlin , 19 22, p 4 7 f . .

3
E thn olo gy, 189 6, p 3 9 2, an d M an Past and Presen t, 1899 , p 49 0
. . .

4
P
Crad le of the S emi tes , hilad e lphia, 189 0 , an d R aces an d Peo ples , Ne w Y o rk , 189 0 .

5
The M edi terranean R ac e Ne w ,
Y o rk ,190 1, pp 9 0— 100 . .

6 “ ”
E th n o graph y in I co n o graphi c E n cyclo px d i a, V o l I . .

7
R ipley , The R aces f
o E u ro pe , Ne w Y o rk , 1899 , p 3 7 6
. .

in M einh o fi
8 “ ” '

B e igab e 2 der S emi ten , H am b u rg, 1 912

’
Di e S prac hen
s .

9
H i sto ire an c i en n e des
’
peu ples de l Ori en t classiqu e, I , 4 5 .

H ami tes
“
1°
T he artic le in E n cyc B ri t , 1l th
. ed .

11
M einh o ff , Di e S prachen der H ami ten .
10 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
an d Wo rre ll .
l
p rese nted by the
A slig h t var an t o f the the o r
i y is
vi ew O f A lex and e r S c hnrfT and o the rs t hat the H ami te s m i grate d ,

i n to No r th A fric a f ro m so u the rn S pain 2

T his vi ew is bas ed p artly .

o n arch wo lo ic al an d p artly o n l in u is tic c o ns id e rati o n s

g g .

I t wil l app e ar as w e pro c e e d that this No rth A fri ca n hypo th esi s

, ,

b e st e xpl ai ns all the fac ts at prese n t k n o w n to u s an d is p ro b ably ,

tru e .

3 T he . E gy pto lo gi st A do l f E rman fo rme rly e xp resse d

ve te ran , ,

his c o n vi c tio n that the so c alle d Hami tic race is si mply S e mi tes
8 -

w ho m i grate d i n to A f ri c a f ro m so u the rn A rabi a an d w ho have ,

b e e n c o rr u p ted by vario u s ad mix tu res o f A fri can blo o d T he mi .

g ra t io n ac co rd i ng to E rm
,
a n w as i n t w o s tre am s o ne to E gyp t an d , ,

No rth A fri c a an d o ne to E ast Af ri c a N u bi a b ei ng a po o r co u n try

,
.
, ,

had no thi ng he thi nk s to attrac t the S em i ti c se ttlers

, ,
.

B efo re co n cl u ding thi s su rvey o f theo ri e s it sho u ld b e no te d that ,

s c ho lars are no t al to ge ther agr ee d as to w h e the r th e an c i en t E gy p

ti an s sho u l d b e c lasse d wi th the H ami te s o r th e S e m i tes T he late .

F ri ed ri c h M tille r had no he sitatio n in c l assi ng them wi th the Ham

i tes an d w hi le the l ate W M ax M ii ller did the same he reco gniz ed
‘
, ,
5
.
,

that th e re w e re fe atu res o f the E gyp ti an l an gu age w hi c h seem e d to

m ak e it stan d ap ar t O the rs h ave ho wever tak en a di ffe re n t .
, ,

vi ew T hus Wi e dem an n held that the au to c h tho nes o f an ci e n t

.

Egyp t w e re a rac e k in dre d to the Lyb ian s an d th at the E gyp ti an s ,

5—
o f th e hi sto ri c al p eri o d c am e i n to th e co u n try f ro m A rabi a an

o pi n i o n w hi c h d e M o rgan S ha red 7 .

E rman in ac c o rdan ce wi th hi s vi ew o f the o rigi n o f the Hami tes

,

1
S tudy o f Rac es i n the Anc i ent Near E ast, New Y
19 27 , p 7 9 fi
o rk , .
'

2
Cf A S c harfi , Gr u nd z ztge der aegyptische n Vor geschichte , p 23 , and Po k o rn k y and
‘

. . .

-
Vorgeschic hte, VI , pp 4—
B o sc h Gim pe ra in t he R eallexi k o n d 6 . . .

“
S e e his article Die F lexio n des agyp tisch en V e rb u ms in S itz u ngsb er ic hte der kg .

. 3 5 3 , e spec ially pp 3 5 0 —
Ale d Wiss an B erli n , 1900 , pp 3 17 — . 353 I n late r pu b licatio ns
. . .

he rec o gn iz e s th at th e S emit ic an dH ami tic langu ages sp rang f ro m th e sam e so u rc e an d

leave s th e matte r the re . S ee his Agyptische Gr ammatik , 3 te Au f , 19 11, 1— 4 , an d 4 te .

Au f .
,
19 28 , l .

S ee his Rei se der F regatte No vara, p 5 1,

o sterreic he n . an d his Gr und riss dc r S prac h
w issens c haj te n , Wien ,
1884, V o l III , pt 2, p 226
. . . .

Hami tes
“
Article in E nc yc B r it .
,
11th ed .

S ee d e M o rgan
’
s Rec he rc he s sur les o rigi nes de l
’
Egypte ,
18 9 7 , I I , 219 , 222, and

228
7
I b id I , 19 6,. and II , 5 2, 5 3 . S ee also his po sth u mo u s La P éhi t i
r s o re or ie ntate,

P aris , II , 19 26, c h . vi , es pe c ially p 338

. .
 T HE HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 11

alre ad y stated ,
h eld th at th e
E gyptian p eo ple o f hi sto ry were fo rm e d
b y the se ttlem e n t in Upper E gyp t o f S emi te s w ho fo u n d an Afric an ,

rac e alre ady in th e Nile Valle y wi th w h o m th ey m i n gle d in tim e , ,

ab so r bin g th em B reasted c o n cu rs in thi s vi ew Fin al ly B e b u k

1 2
. .

has su ggeste d3 that if the S emi ti c lan gu age s are re gard e d as a c lo sely
,

relate d gro u p c o m p arable to the R o m an i c lan gu ages ; an d th e H am

,

i tic l angu ages al so as a c lo sely relate d gro u p co mparable to the

, ,

Ge rm an i c lan guages E gyptian is so m ewhat i so late d fro m bo th

,

gro u ps an d is co mparab le to C el ti c On thi s vie w o f the E gyp ti an .

lan gu age o n e wo u ld e xpec t the o rigi n o f th e E gyp tian pe o ple t o

,

have b ee n so m e what di fle re n t fro m e ithe r the Hami te s o r the S emi te s .

AS will appe ar in th e se qu el there is an elem en t o f tru th in th ese ,

rem ark s th o u gh th e an alo gy su gge ste d w ith C e l ti c is n o t a h appy

,

o ne .

Thi s view o f scho larly o pin io n reve al s the fac t that there is a
re

r
p pe o n d er a ti n g w e i h
g t o f o pi nio n in f avo r o f regardi ng Arabi a as
th e c rad le l an d o f the S em i ti c peo ple s an d al so in favo r o f b elievin g
-

th at the H am i tes o rigin ate d in No rth Afri c a Whe th er the H am

'

ite s an d S emi te s are o rigin ally o f t h e sam e rac e an d if so wh ether , , ,

the S emi tes we re e a rly emi gran t s fro m Af ri c a,o r wh eth er th e H am

—
ite s are S emi tiz ed Afri can s o n thi s qu e stio n the re is m o re d iffer
e n c e o f o pi n io n We no w pro po se to examin e the evi den c e lin
.
,

g u is ti c a n d a n th ro p o lo gi c o n these p ro blem s wi th a vi e w if w e
, , ,

c an n o t so lve th em o f at least as certain i n g wh at th e m o st p ro b able

,

h ypo th esi s m ay b e .

THE HA MI TI C PE O LE S P
I t wi ll co n d u ce to l
c earn es s to b egi n wi th a di sc u ssion .
of th e
Hamitic lan gu ages an d to le arn wh at w e c an o f th e presen t h abitat
,

an d p ro b abl e o rigi n o f th e H ami ti c peo pl es The re are Hami ti c .

spe akin g p eo ple s n o rth o f th e Sah ara D e sert— th e S h ilkh s the R iff s ,
,

th e Kab yle es th e Tam e sh q , wi thi n the S ah ara are the Tu areg ;

th e se peo pl es seem to b e Ham i te s o f pu rest blo o d T h e an c i en t .

Egypti an s fro m who m the Co pts we re de sc e n ded were H am i tes

, ,

In add itio n t o th e referen c e s o n

1
p 10 ,
. se e hi s H and b u ch der agy pti sc hen Reli gi o n ,

2te Au f .B e rlin , 190 5 , p 1

, . .

2
Hi story of E gypt, 2n d c d .
, Ne w Y o rk , 1909, p 25 f
. .

3
ZDM G, V o l 8 2 . 13 7 f .
 12 S E M ITIC AND HAM ITI C O RIG I NS

m ix e d wi th S e mi te s as wi ll appe ar late r T he B e d auy e and B elin ,

.
,

be twe e n the N u b i an N ile and the Re d S e a are H ami tes mi xed wi th ,

Ku sh ite s o r N u b ians T he S aho I ro b S aho A fars S o m ali G al la .

,
-
, , , ,

C hami r and Kala o f the ho rn o f E as t A fri ca are also H ami te s

, , ,

fuse d wi th a Ku sh ite s to c k T he N a n d i No ro b o M asai and .

, , ,

M b u lu nge o f the A fri c an lak e regio n are Hami tes mi ngle d wi th a

,
-
,

Ne g ro i d s to ck ‘
T he F u l and Z e n aga o n the so u the rn b o rde r o f
.
,

the S ah ara in C e n tral a n d We s t A f ri c a are H am i tes mi ngle d wi th ,

N eg ro i d s w ho s po k e langu age s o f the S u d ane se ty pe Fi n ally the .

N ama in we s te rn S o u th A fri c a are H ami tes m ingle d wi th B ush

, ,

men 2
. N atu rally the se peo ple s d iff e r fro m o ne ano the r in many
re s pec ts T ho se that have m ingle d wi th Negro i d s are o f m u c h
.

d ark e r co m ple xio n than tho se w ho have li ve d alw ay s in the w hi te

m an s c o u n try no rth o f the S ahara o r w ho in an c i e n t E gy pt mi n
’

gle d wi th S emi tes an d ye t they po ssess certai n p hy si cal c harac te r

,

i s tles in c o mmo n w hi c h e thno lo gi sts re co gn ize F urthe r thei r

,
.
,

l angu age s po s sess in co mm o n c e rtai n fe atu re s w hi c h i de n ti fy them

as b e l o ngi ng to th e sam e fami ly Thei r p e rso nal pro no u ns are in .

ge n e ral so n e arly rel ate d as to ap pe ar to h ave b ee n d eri ve d fro m the

sam e o ri gi n al s ; an d p ro n o u n s are am o ng the m o st s u i gener is o f the

part s o f sp eech 3
They fo rm i n ten sives by do u b li ng a l e tte r o r a
.

ro o t cau sati ve s by th e u se o f the l e tte r s re fle xi ve s by the u se O f

, ,

the l e tte r t an d passi ve re fle xi ve s by the l ette r n w hi c h i n so me

,
-
, ,

di al ec ts is phi lo lo gi c al ly c h an ge d to r in o the rs to m
,
1
They al so ,
.
‘

diff e r f ro m the o the r Af ri can l angu ages in di vi di ng all o bje c ts in to

tw o c l as ses An i m ate o bj ec ts l arge thi n gs su bj ec ts an d male s
.
, , ,

are o f o n e ge n d e r g e n e rally c all e d m a s c u lin e ; i n,an i m at e t hi ng s ,

sm all thi ngs o bj e c ts an d fem ales are o f th e o th e r de r u su a lly

, ge n , , ,

called fe m ale 5 T he S ign o f th e m asc ul i n e is w (u ) th e S i gn o f fe mi

.

ni n e is t They also po sse ss in co mm o n a pri n ciple whi c h M einho ff

.

1
Cf F e lix
. v . Lu sc hau in M einh o ff ’
sS prac he n der H ami ten , p 248 f . .

F o r th e lo c atio n and th e e vi d enc e that th ey are H ami tes

2
of t h ese peo ple s see t he
ann o tat e d m ap in CM e inh o fl s Di e S prac he n der H o mite n , H amb u rg 19 12 an d , fo r
arl
’
, ,

t he T am esh q , F rie dr ic h M ulle r s Gru nd ri ss der S prac hwi ssen sc haf t, Wie n , 1884, E d
’
.

III , 269 II . On th e mix tu re of H ami te s w ith vario u s pe o ples , c o m pa re W . H . Wo rrell ,

A S tud y f
o R ac es i n the Near E ast, Ne w Y o rk , 19 27 , p 5 4 . .

2
Se e T bl a eI , givi n g th e S e mi tic an d H am itic p ro no u n s .

S ee T bl a e II , t h e ve rb f o rm s -
.

5
Cf . W . H . Wo rrell ,
o p . c it .
, p 58. fl .
 T HE HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 3

” 1—
h as c alle d l
p ar
o i ty th e te n d en c y to .
arran ge th in gs in m asc u lin e
an d femi n i n e pai rs F o r ex am ple , in Nam a an d S o m ali the plu ral
.

of a m u sc u lin e n o u n is fe m i nin e ; in So m ali th e plu ral o f a f em in in e

no u n Hami ti c to ngu e s po ssess also the c h arac
is m asc u li n e . T he
te ristic o f vo wel gradatio n (abl au t) so m e thi n g that is al so c h arac
2 -

teristic b o th o f th e S em i ti c an d I n do E u ro pean to n gue s Thu s in -

.

I n do Eu ro pean Hi ttite w e have eni s this ; anni s th at (n ear) ;

-
,
‘ ’
,
‘ ’

u ni s that
, ( re m o
‘
te ) A n o
’
th er c o m m o n t r ai t O f th e Ham i tic
.

lan gu ages is th e eli si o n o f a vo w el in the bo d y o f a wo rd an d th e

m o difi c atio n o f t e fo llo win g co n so n an t in c o se qu e n ce
h -
n 3
I n spite .

o f th e gre at varie ty o f wo rd m aterial po ssesse d by th e H ami ti c to n -

gues du e to m in glin g wi th o ther ,races S emi ti c Ku shite an d

, , , ,

Negro id there is still trac e able a co n siderable nu m

,
ber o f ro o ts
whi c t e y po sse ss i co mmo n
h h n
4
T w o o f th e se co mm o n f e atu re s .

diff eren ti ate the Hami ti c lan gu age s fro m all o th er n ative Afri c an
—
langu age s the divi sio n o f all o bj e c ts in to tw o c lasses an d the ,

eli si o n o f a vo we l i h m i f
d dle o a w o d 5
F o r e xam ple the B an tu
'

n t e r .
,

lan gu age s 6
whi ch n o w fo rm a large gro u p th at spre ad s o ver
, ,

m u c h o f Af ri c a so u th Of t e S u d an , an d whi c M ei o ff thi n k s were

h h n h 7

fo rm e d b y b len din g e lem e n ts o f th e Hami ti c an d S u dan ese to n gues ,

di vi de Obj ec ts i n to m an y c lasse s .

No twi th stan di ng the d emo n strable kin shi p o f th e Hami ti c lan

ua
g g es t h e y al s o p
,
re se n t m u c h gr e at e r d i ff e re n c e s am o n g t h em selves

th an are seen in th e S emitic l an gu ages T he b ran ch e s o f thi s fami ly .

o f to n gu e s whi c h are f o u n d in E ast Af ri ca h ave c le arly b o rro we d

e lem e n t s fro m an d h ave b ee n m o di fie d by th e Ku shi te lan gu age s o f

1
S ee M einh o ff , S prachen der H ami ten , p 18 fi ; Wo rre ll , p ci t , p 60
'

. . o . . . .

2
Cf M ein h o ff , o p cit , p 13 f Wo rrell, o p ci t , p 4 7
. . . . . . . . .

5
S ee M einh o ff , o p . ci t .
, p 226
. .

4
T he su b e c t j has n eve r b een exhau stive ly tre ated , b u t a c o n side rab le amo u n t o f
mate rial is pre sen te d in M einh o ff s S prac hen der H o mi ten , pp 230— 240
’
. . Th e b rief
artic le o f F rida B eh n k in Z D M G, 82, pp 13 6— 14 1 sho u ld b e c o m pare d . .

M einh o fi , o p ci t
’
5
. .

5 On th e B an tu an d o the r Af ric an langu ages th e f o llo w ing w o rk s m ay b e c o n su lte d ~

W . H I B leek ,
. . C o mparati ve Grammar of S ou th Af ri c an Lan gu ages , L o n d o n , 1862 ; R .

C u st , The M odern L an gu ages f Af ri ca

o ,
L o n d o n , 1883 ; C lMar einh o fl , An I n trodu cti on
to the S tudy of Af ri c an L an gu ages , L o n do n , 19 15 ; H H . . Jh to ns o n , A C mpo arati ve S ht d y
of the B an tu and S emi B antu L an gu ages, Oxf o rd , 19 22;
-
an d C . W . H o b ley , B an tu
B eli ef s and M agic , Lo n do n 19 22 , .

7
M ein h o ff, o p . ci t .
, p 226. .
14 S E M ITIC AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
th e ir nei ghbo O th e rs like the F ul and Ze naga have as c e rtai nly
rs .
, ,

be e n mo difie d by the as si mi latio n o f el e me n ts f ro m S u danese spe ec h ;

w hile N ama has as c e rtai nly b ee n c hange d by c o n tac t wi th d ial ec ts
o f the B u sh me n I t is al so w ell e stab lishe d tha t E gyp ti an w as
.

mo dified by c o n tac t wi th S e mi te s Of all the Ha mi ti c l angu age s .

,

tho se in a nd no rth o f th e S ahara D e se rt ha ve p rese rved b es t w ha t

app e ars to have b e e n the o ri gi n al H ami ti c type He rc Hami te s .

fo r m an y c e n tu ri e s came i n to l ess c l o se c o n tac t wi th peo pl es o f o the r

races .

It i nc o n te sta bl e fac t that the H ami te s b el o nge d

se e ms to be an

to the w hi te rac e T hei r hai r w as strai gh t and thei r sk in s w hi te l

. .

T he y firs t appe ar in hi sto ry in an ci e n t Egyp t b u t in so mati c type ,

th e E gyp ti an s did no t d iff e r f ro m o the r p eo ples o f No r th Af ri ca .

T he sam e type still pe rsi sts ac ro ss the w ho l e o f that co n ti ne n t f ro m

Aby ssi ni a to the C anary I sl es an d fo rm s the su b stratu m o f the po pu
l atio n 2
An th ro po lo gi sts have lo ng called thi s the M e di terranean
.

rac e
2
In l ate geo l o gi c ti m e E uro p e and Af ri ca were co nn e c ted ;
.

th e flo ra an d fau na as well as the h u m an ty pe we re the s am e bo th

no rth an d so u th o f the M e di terran e an S ea T hi s w as tru e in .

P al aeo lithi c tim e b efo re t e gl aci al e po ch s

h D e M o rgan ( an d it
4
.
,

is the vi e w o f o th e r an thro po lo gi sts ) ho l d s that the pal aeo li thi c

5
,

c i vilizati o n o ri gi n ate d in N o r th Af ri ca an d spread n o rthward to

S pain F ran c e an d so u thern E nglan d Acco rd in g to him at the

, ,
.
,

b reak u p o f the glacial epo ch the re w as a gre at de peo pl ing o f the

‘

- -

e arth by the fl o o ds o f th e Q u ate rn ary Age O nly grad u ally w as it .

re p eo ple d
-
I n p arts o f No rth Af ri ca lik e E gyp t thi s re pe o pli n g
.
, ,
-

by m e n o f the Neo li thi c P erio d to o k place afte r a lo ng l apse o f

1
Lu sc h an , in M e inh o ff , o p . c it
.
, p 243
. .

1
L u sc h au , ib id .
,
an d G . S e rgi, Cra n i a H ab ess i nic a, R o m e , 19 12 . T he w o rk of

S M M o ran t, E lli o t t S mith ,

. . Ch arles S e li gman , S ir Arth u r Ke ith , and D u dley B ux to n
on mo re re s tric ted a re as w ill b e q u o te d b elo w .

3
Cf G S e rgi , The M ed i terranean R ac e, Ne w
. . Y o rk , 19 0 1; W . Z Rip ley , The R ac es
.

of E u r o pe, Ne w Y o rk , 1899 , ch . vi ; an d J . d e M o rgan , P éhi t i

r s o r e o r i en tate, P aris , 19 25 ,
T o me I , p 188 ti ; W H Wo rre ll,
. . . . o p . c it .
, p 42 if
. .

4
Pé r histo ire or ie ntate, I , c h ii . .

Cf M B o ule , F o ssi l M en , Lo n do n , 19 23 , p 27 2, H F Osb o rn e, M en of the Old

5
. . . . .

S to ne Agc , Ne w Y
o rk , 19 25 , p 262, an d H rdli é k a in th e roceed i n gs of the A meri c an
. P
P hil phic al S oc ie ty, LX V 1926, p 150 H rdlick a h o ld s that man did n o t o riginate in
o so , . .

c en t ral Asia, s in ce all h u ma n re main s f o u n d th ere are

p o st glac ial ; b u t h u m an o rigins
-

are p ro b ab ly to b e s o u gh t in w e ste rn E u ro pe .
 THE HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 15

i
t me 1
He finds a gre at h i atu s b etwee n th e palaao litic an d n eo
.

li thi c rem ai n s That m ay well b e as it is e stim ate d th at the palae

.
,

o litic m e n w ho se cultu re h as b ee n stu di e d in F ran c e live d f ro m

to ye ars ago to 9000 B E 2

E ven if all thi s b e tru e .
,

there is n o evi de n c e th at any n e w rac e had in th e m ean time e n tered

No rth Afri c a I t is pro b able th at its n eo lithi c i n habitan ts were de
. ,

s cen dan ts o f th e su rvi vo rs w ho d u ri n g th e great Qu arte rn ary flo o d s , , ,

h ad taken refu ge o n the hi gher lan d s an d m o u n tai n s Wo rrell .

“
state s that in early Qu artern ary ti mes th e S ah ara w as a w ell wate re d -

regio n o f gre at f e rtility an d ab u n dan t li fe a refu ge fo r the m en o f ,

?”
Eu ro pe when dri ven so u thward by th e ice
,
T h e b e d o f a ri ver
in th e e aste rn S ahara c alle d B ehr bala— M a c an b e trac e d fro m the ,
-
,

n ei gh b o rho o d o f the S eco n d C atarac t o f th e Nile n e arly to the

M e di terran e an S e a 4
T he great o ases we re appare ntly lakes whe n .
,

thi s b ran c h o f the Nile flo we d th ro ugh th e se regi o n s an d stre am s

‘

.
,

ran fro m them in to th e B ah r b al a M a the b e ds o f So me o f whi c h

“

- -
,

c an still b e trac e d T he Wad y I gharghar is an o ld ri ve r b e d whi c h

.
,

ru n ni ng n o rthw ard b e twee n th e T aseli pl at eau an d I raw e n m o u n ,

tai n s lo se s i tself in th e san d s

,
I t c an b e trace d n o rthward s fo r . _

hu n d re d s o f miles I ts b ed c o n tai n s ro ll e d fragmen ts o f l ava an d

.

fresh water shells - fi

S tre am s flo wi ng so u th f ro m the A tl as M o u n
tai n s fi n d a seri es o f u n dergro u n d b asi n s capable o f b e in g tappe d by
artesi an well s A well su n k by the F ren ch has thro wn u p fishes,
.

1 D e M o rgan , o p . c it .
, c hs . vn an d viii .

2
Cf M B o u le , F oss i l M en , L o n d o n , 19 23 ,
. .
_ pp . 5 5 ff . and 3 25 .

3
W . H . Wo rrell A S tu dy of R aces of the An ci ent Near E ast, p 1
,
. .

4
S ee J . de M o rgan , Préhisto ir e ori en tate, I , 118—122 T he q u esti o n . of th e d e sic
c atio n o f th e S ahara and o th e r d e se rts is n o t a simple o n e , an d the re h as b ee n a c on
sid e rab le variety o f o pinio n u po n it . On e wishin g to f o llo w up t he topic sho u ld c o n su lt
“ ”
th e f o llo w ing : G R o llan d , . L a c ré tec é d u S ah ara sep te n tri o n al in B u ll de la so c geo l
. . .

de F ran ce, 188 1 T c hihatah ef ,

“
Th e D eserts o f Af ric a an d Asia
”
in B ri tish Ass o ci ati o n
Reports , S o u thampto n , 188 2; K A Zitte l, Palao n to lo gie der lyb isc hen Wii ste, . .
‘

C assel, 189 3 ;
J . Walther ,
Di e D enu dati o n i n der Wii s te ,
L e ipsig , 19 00 ; E . D ii rk o p , Di e Wi rtschaf ts
a nd handels geo graphisc hen Pro vi nz en i n der Wa ste, Wo lf en b ii ttel, 19 02;
-
V élan , C .

“ ’
E tat ac tu el d e n o s co nn aissan c e s su r la g o graphie e t geo lo gie d u S ahara d apres é '

le s explo ratio n s les plu s r c en tes in R evu e de geo gr t I , 1906—

”
é
0 7 , pp 44 7 —5 17 ; . . .
J .

Lahac h e , “
L a dissé c hment d e l Af riq u e f ran caise ,
’
est -
il d em o n tré?
”
in B u ll so c .
geog .

M arsei lles , XXXI , 19 0 7 , pp 149—185 ; M . . C M i ssi o n Arn eaud Cartier : n os

artier, -

con fi n es s ahari en s , P aris , 19 08 ; E F Gau tier . . et R Ch u d eau M i ssi o ns en S ahara 2

.
, ,

vo ls .
, P aris, 1909 ; H . Visc her ,
Acro ss the S ahara f ro m T ip li t
r o o B o rm, L o n d o n , 19 10 .

“ ”
5
E d w ard H earw o o d , artic le S ah ara in E ncyc B ri t , 11th . ed .
16 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C O RIG I NS

c ra bs , an d w ate r mo llusk s w hic h e x is t b e lo w gro u n d W ad y

f re sh - .

T le m s i an d ano the r w ady are be l ie ve d to h ave o n c e b e e n ri ve rs w hi c h

flo w ed i n to the Ni ge r and its tri b u tarie s All o u r e vi de nc e te nd s to .

sho w t hat it w as in N o rth A f ri c a i n c lu d i ng pe rh ap s t he D ese rt o f , ,

S ah ara t hat the H ami ti c rac e d e vel o pe d d u ri ng the mille nni u m s

,

a f te r th e l as t G l ac i al E po c h a n d th at it w as f ro m this regi o n th at ,

the y w ande re d to th e Ni le V alley to the ho rn o f E as t A fri ca to th e , ,

S u dan th e L ak e R egi o n and to the land o f the B ushm e n in the

, ,

far so u th ‘
We ac co rd ingly c o ncl u de that bo th the l ingu i sti c
.

phe n o m e na and the so m atic c harac te ri s ti c s o f the H am i te s te nd to

e stabli sh the se c o n d o f the the o ri e s co n ce rn i ng thei r o ri gi n th at

we re o u tli ne d abo ve T he fac t that the y b elo ng to th e w h ite race

.
,

th at that race h as so far as w e can tell b ee n in thi s re gio n sin ce the

, ,

l as t G laci al E po c h and that the pu re st H am i ti c l angu age s are

,

fo u n d no rth o f the S ah ara w he n ce the p rese n t Hami te s have ne ve r , ,

appare n tly mi grate d all te n d to esta bli sh the hypo thesi s th at th e

, ,

S ahara D esert an d the part o f Af ri ca n o rth o f it is the regio n w he re

thi s race d e vel o pe d .

THE S E MI TI C P E OP LE S
—
T he S em i ti c pe o pl es the A rab s , Akk adi an s S e mi ti c B abylo n or

ian s A ssyri ans Amo ri tes C an aani te s P h oeni c i an s He b re ws Ar a

, , , , , ,

—
m aean s an d Abyssi ni an s s pe ak l an gu ages so c lo sely rel ate d an d
,

so di sti n c t f ro m o the r gr o u p s o f to n gue s th at the re can b e n o qu es

tio n th at the y b elo n g to o n e f ami ly an d sp rang f ro m o n e fo n t .

Thei r ki nshi p to o ne ano ther pre sen ts p he no me na o f i n tim ate an d

all pe rv adi ng rel atio n sh i p w hi ch at o n ce su gge sts co m pari so n wi t h
-
,

th e in ti m ate k in shi p o f the R o m an ce l an gu ages in th e I n do E u ro -

pe an family Th ese lan gu age s h ave b een the n atio n al l angu age s
.

o f the Arab s B abylo n i an s A ssyri an s o f n u m e ro u sAram ze an trib es

, , , ,

o f the P h oen i c ian s H e b rew s E d o mi tes M o abi tes o f th e P h oeni c i an

, , , ,

c o l o ni es an d o f th e Ab y ssian s
, Wh e re S emi ti c langu ages were .

spo k e n in Af ri c a in an c ien t ti m e s as at C arth a e an d in Aby ssin ia

g , ,

they w e re c arri e d thithe r wi th i n the p e rio d o f wri tten h isto ry by

i mmi gran ts in the o n e case f ro m P h oeni cia in th e o ther fro m S o u th
, ,

Ar ab ia T he h ab itat o f th e S emi ti c peo pl e s has b ee n western

.

Cf . Wo rrell ,
o p
. c it 7 9 fl ; also Lu sc h an in M einh o fl
.
, p . .
’
s S prac hen der H o mite n ,
p 244 fl ; B o ule ,
. . F ossil M e n , 3 7 9 E .
 T HE HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 17

Asia fro m their first appearan ce in hi sto ry except as they have swept ,

in to Afri c a ben t o n co lo nizatio n o r co n q uest T he m o st exten sive .

o f these we stward m o ve m en ts w as that w hi c h o cc u rre d u n der I slam ,

beginn ing in 63 0 A D b u t that o c cu rred so late as to lie b eyo n d the

. .
,

v i w o f o u r p r ese n t i n q u i ry T h e e a rlie r migratio n s to C arthage

p u r e .

an d Abyssi n i a we re like it w e stward m o vem en ts o f A si ati c p eo ple s

, , ,

tho u gh th e y were pro m pted by di ff e re n t m o tive s an d were no t so

e xte n si ve o r lo ng co n ti n u ed .

T h e vari o u s theo rie s co n cern i ng the o rigi n o f the S emi ti c peo ples
have alre ady b een passe d l n re view I t rem ain s n o w to examin e the
.

e vi den ce o n whi ch a j u dgmen t c o n cerni n g the vali di ty o f a satisf ac

to ry theo ry m u st re st As the p ro blem b elo n gs to p rehi sto ri c tim e

.
,

n o wri tten e vi de n c e is avail able ; w e h ave to dep en d u po n fac ts o f

lan gu age e thn o lo gy an d arch aeo lo gy
, , We begin wi th an exami na .

tio n o f the li n gu isti c ev i den ce T h e fo llo wi ng p o i n ts m ay b e n o te d

.

as the m o st i m po rtan t .

1 These tw o gro u p s o f lan gu age s po sse ss in c o mm o n a wi de

.

spre ad pec u li ari ty wh i c h is be st d e scribe d as pres su re arti c u l atio n

‘ ’
-
.

“
I n its primary fo rm it c o n si sts o f a c lo su re o f the glo tti s an d u p
ward mo tio n o f the l arynx to ward the rigi d b ase o f the to n gue in ,

addi tio n to the main arti c u latio n w h i c h is in p ro gress By thi s .

fo rc ible ele vati o n o f the laryn x air pressu re is c reate d fo r th e ex .

p lo s i v e ( p, t k e t c
, ) a n d f ri c a t ive (f s e t c ) so u n d s w hi c h a re u su ally
, ,
.

m ade wi th air pressu re fro m the lu n gs an d the fo llo wing vo we l .

begin s wi th a sn ap an d a pin ched so u nd due to the co n trac te d co n

‘ ’ ‘ ’

di tio n o f the thro at I n thi s w ay the p is fo llo w e d first by a hi atu s

’
.
,

and then by T he last elem ent is c alled th e pressu re to n e an d is

‘ ‘ ’
-
.
,

iden ti c al wi th the Arabic an d H e brew lette r Ayi n T he co m plete

‘
.

so u n d o f su c h a p wo u ld th u s b e Then also b ec au se the b ac k ,

o f the to ngu e has b e en rai se d by the u pward p ressu re th e su cce e di ng ,

vo wel has a n reso nan c e e ven tho u gh it b e a o r i S o m e Hami tic

-
,
.

lan gu ages h ave an d pro bably all o n ce h ad pe c u li ar e xplo sive s o r

, ,

sto p s an d f ri cati ves o f th i s kin d When w e tu rn to the Semi ti c

.

lan gu age s w e fi n d an o th er so rt o f pressu re — artic u latio n whi c h seems

to have gro w n o u t o f th e first I t 13 appli e d to a limi te d n u m be r

.

o f co n so n an ts o n ly th e so called e m ph ati c so u n d s I t c o n si sts

‘ ’
-
.
,

o f th e u pw ard pressu re o f th e laryn x wi th o u t an y c lo su re o f th e

glo ttis an d there fo re wi tho u t an y c lo su re o f the glo tti s after the

,
18 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS
p ri ncipal i
art c u at o n l i . In i
an c e n t He b rew thi s p re ssu re w as still
s u fli c ie n t to c h ange the re so n an c e o f n e arby c o n so n an ts an d

vo wels A ram ai c the p re ss u re to ne o c c asio n ally su pe rsede d the

. In -

"
p ri nc ipal a rti c u lati o n an d c h an ge d e g ard a i n to ar a o r e ve n
'
’

. .
, , ,

arqa I n A rab i c no thi ng re m ai ns b u t a u re so nanc e o f the c o n so

.
-

nan ts w hi c h c ha nge s the re so nanc e o f n earby c o nso n ants and

,

vo w el s T he se the n are the so c alle d e mpha ti c d e n tal s and sibi

.
-
‘ ’

l an ts o f He b rew an d A rab i c T hey are no t lo u d e r than o rdi nary .

so u nd s b u t the y se e m to the spe ak e r to b e so

,
b ec au se he is se n ,

sibl e o f the gre ate r e ffo rt u sed in p ro d u ci ng the m T he p ressu re .

to ne an d its vo i c el es s co u n te rpar t o c c u r i n de p e n d e n tly ( Arabi c ,

an d H e b re w Ayi n an d Heth) T he o ld e m p h ati c k b ecame (1

‘
.

thro u gh the rai si ng o f the to ngu e ( He b re w Qoph and A rabi c Qaj) .

I t is cle ar that H am i ti c an d S e m i ti c po ssess in c o mm o n a ve ry u m

u s u al arti c u l ati o n an d that thi s arti c u lati o n is i n separabl e f ro m
,

p ri mi ti ve H ami ti c and S emi ti c spee c h ” I t sho u ld b e e mphati cally .

no te d that thi s ki n d re d p h e no m e no n o f th e tw o gro u p s o f l angu ages

ap pe ars in its fu lle r an d m o re p ri mi ti ve fo rm in ce rtai n H ami ti c

l an gu ages and that its o cc u rre n ce in the S emi ti c l angu age s is b est
,

ac co u n te d fo r as a l ate r narro wi ng o f th e e arly H ami ti c u sage .

2 A seco nd featu re co mm o n to the S emi ti c an d H ami ti c lan

.

g g
u a e s is th e o ri gi n ally b i li te ral an d tri li te ral c harac te r o f th ei r - -

ro o ts I t sho uld b e n o te d at the start th at in H ami ti c an d S em i ti c

.

spee c
h as in th e I nd o E u ro p e an l an gu ages ro o t s are p u re ab s trae
,
-
,

tio ns o f the philo lo gi st I t is the p art o f a w o rd o r gro u p o f wo rds

.

whi ch rem ai ns afte r su fli xes and p re fixes whi ch are add e d fo r the ,

pu rpo se o f d ec l en sio n o r c o nj u gati o n have b e e n rem o ved I n do ,

.

E u ro pe an ro o ts are typi cally fo rm ed by tw o co n so nan ts wi th a

vo w el be twe e n s u c h as LAB o r G EN tho u gh the y m ay co n si st o f
, ,

a vo we l o nly as th e ro o t \/i ,
— “ ”
the ro o t o f go o r co m e in m an y
”
,

l angu ages I n c o n trast wi th these th e ro o ts in Hami ti c and S emi ti c

.

co n si s t o f c o n so n an ts o nly vo w e l s b ei ng adde d o n ly fo r p u rpo ses ,

o f d e c l e n sio n o r c o n j u ati o n an d th e i r ro o ts n e ver co n si st o f vo w e l s

g ,
.

T h u s w e h a v e Q I L K T B e tc
2
T h e gre at m aj o ri ty o f S emi ti c
, ,
.

ro o ts are t ri li te ral an d it w as fo rm e rly assu m e d b y all s c h o lars

-
,

th at o rigi n ally all wo rd ro o ts in th e sp eec h h ad b ee n tri lite ral : th e

- -

1
Q u o t ed f ro m W . H . Wo rre ll ,
S tud y f
o R ac es i n the A nc i en t Near E as t, p . 57 f .

S ee W . H . Wo rre ll , op . c it .
, p 67 . fl .
 T HE HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 19

su c h
‘
few that b i lite ral , fathe r,
‘
ab ,
’
h b ro th e r whi c h
’
are -
as a , ,

seem to b e b i— b een wo rn do wn it w as tho u ght , fro m

li te ral, h ad ,

o rigi n ally tri li teral ro o ts When the wri ter pu b lish ed hi s S k etch
-
.

of S emi ti c Ori gi ns in 1902 thi s vi e w h eld th e fi eld At th at time ,

.

it w as gen erally assu m e d that as h u m an bein gs are l azy an d u su ally ,

s lo ven ly in th eir pro n u n c iati o n the pri n c ipal c h an ge s th at o c c urre d ,

in sp eec h were du e to the we arin g do wn o r sho rten in g o f wo rds an d

ro o ts E rm an w ho had de te c te d stro n g S em iti c i n flu en ces in E gyp
.
,

ti an an d h ad b egu n a serie s o f de m o n strati o n s that nu m e ro u s E gyp

.

ti an wo rd s h ad b een b o rro wed f ro m S em i ti c h eld th e n th at the ,

ro o t s o f E gypti an an d th e H am i ti c l an gu ages h ad also b een tri

lite ra l l
a vi e w in wh i c h the l ate W M ax M ulle r the n c o n cu rred
m 2
. .

When B ro ck elm an n pu blished the first vo lu m e o f his V ergeli chen de

Grammati k der semi ti schen S prachen in 1908 h e m ain tain e d thi s vi ew
'

b u t in the pre face to the se co n d vo lu m e wh i c h appe ared in 19 13

, , ,

he ab an do ne d it s

The m o re c o mple te an d tho ro u gh stu d y whi ch has sin ce b e en

given to t e Hami ti c l an gu age s e spec i ally by R ein isc h an d M ei n
h 4
,

h o ff 5 h as m a
, de it c lear th at th e gre at m aj o rity o f Ham i ti c ro o ts
e sp e c i ally tho se whi c h appear to b e n ati ve w e re b i— literal F u rther ,
.

stu d y o f the ro o ts o f the S emi ti c lan u age s al so te n d s to pro ve th at

g
p ro b a bly a l arge n u m b er o f i t s p rese n t tri—li te ral system o f ro o ts
were o rigin ally b i— lite ral F ro m th ese b i literals tri—literal ro o ts
.
-
,

have b ee n b uil t u p So m etim e s it h as b een ac co mpli shed by re

“

1
S i tz nngs b eri chte
‘

der leg Ale (1

. . . Wi ss . an B erli n , 19 00 , p 3 50 . .

2
S e e q u o tatio n in S O p 9 , n 1 . . .

3
Cf also Nold e k e , Nen e B ei trafge
. sn r . semi t . S prachwi ssen sc haf t, S trasb u rg, 19 10 , ,

an d H Bau er in Z D M G, L XVI , 106 if

. , .

Cf his S o mali —
. S prache, Wien, 19 00 , h is I ro b —
s aho S pro che, Wie n , 18 7 8, h is B elin - -

S B ed an e S prac he, 189 3 , Chami r S prac he, Wien , 1884

- e
.

Di e S prachen der H ami ten , alre ady ref erre d t o

5
I n ad d it io n refe ren ce sho u ld b e .

’ ’
V
m ad e to Co lli z z a s L ingu a Af ar, ienn a, 188 7 ; B elk assen b en S ed ira s Langu e K abyle,
Alge r, 188 7 , M otyli n ski , Di alecte b erb ere de R edames ,
’
Pai r s, 19 04 . S t umm e
’
S H andbnc h
des S chilhi shc hen vo n Taz erw alt, L eipz ig, 1899 .
J
H alevy , Ess ai d epi gr aphi e lybi qn e,
.
’

P 18 7 5 ; A H o tan eau , E s s ai de grammai re

ari s, . T
de la lan gu e amac hek , aris , 18 60 ; A P .

P
H o tan e au , Gr ammaire k abyle, aris, 18 5 8 ; R Basse t , No tes de lexi co graphi e b erb ere; .
‘

Paris, 18 86 ; A J
o u rd an , Co nr s de lan gu e k abyle, Alge r , 188 7 ; H B is su el, L es
. o u ar eg . T
de l o n est, Alge r, 188 8 , E M asq u ere y , Gr ammai re tou areg, aris , 189 6 ; R e v F r E van ge
’
.
'

P . .

lis t d e L aragasse , S o mali — D

E n gli s h i cti on ary, L o n d o n , 189 7 : E M asq u e re y , i cti o n n ai re D
—
.

f r an cai se- tou areg, Paris , 1898 ,

P raet o riu s , Gr ammatik der Galla S prac he, L eip z ig , 1893 ,
G F aidh e rb e, L e Z en aga des tri bn s
. sé n egalai s es , c o n trib u ti o n a l é tu des de la lan gu e
’

P
O
a

b erb ere, aris, 18 7 7 .

20 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

pe ating the se co nd c o n so nan t o f the roo t , as in the so - ca ll ed Ayi n

ayi n ve rb s ; b ee n l e ngthe ned by the ad di tio n o f a w aw
o the rs have
o r yo dh at the be gi n ni ng the mi d d le o r the e n d o f the ro o t S till , ,
.

o th e rs by p re fixi ng the l e tte r n u n as in the

,
Pe n u n v e rb s
‘
S till ,
-
.

o the rs appear to h ave b ee n l e n gthe ne d by the ad d i ti o n o f o the r

l e tte rs as fo r ex am pl e T7 ?! go w hic h is co nj ugated as tho ugh

, ,
‘
,
’

f ro m m ay p lau sibly b e assu me d to have o ri gi nally been

nab , tho u gh it we re n J may
take c o nj ugate d
P
‘ ’

T7 ; ,
as ,

hel d to b e fro m ” imil arly 5 13 0

P mo ck w as
’
pl au sibly be S .
,
‘
,

or i gi nally a Hiphi l fro m 57 51 b u t that w as fo rgo tte n an d w as

treate d as an i nd epe nd e n t s tem and a piel m ade fro m it ( 1 Kgs ,

.

’
I t go es b ac k ho we ve r to a b i li te ral ro o t 7 l l A p art '
-
, ,

o f the pro ces s o f ro o t— d e velo p m e n t app ears to have b ee n ro o t d if

fe re n tiatio n Ge se n ius lo ng ago o b se rved thi s an d gave the fo l
.
.

lo wi ng example s : YS Q hew do w n cu t do w n ,
‘
,
’ ‘
,
’

‘
p eel o fl w hi ch all appear to b e fro m the same ro o t He tho ught
,
’
.

’
de
‘
th e sam e ro o t app e are d wi th a de n tal in DE c u t aw ay
R
‘
, ,

an d 7 7
9 n d th at it w as so fte n ed i n to 0 3 i n HQ
’ ’

;
‘
stro y ,
spli t a , ,

‘
cu t o fl .
’
Wi th fu rthe r so fte n n g i th e roo t b ecam e it) ,
‘
she ar,
’
w as
‘
m ak e
’
flatte ned to an i nci sio n , an d finally w as gu ttu ralize d
-
i n to 90
{91 it‘
pierc e, up
’
e tc 7 30 ,
I t c er
‘
spl ,
’
DDD, ‘b reak ,
’
.

tai nl y seem s po ssibl e th at in w ay s that may still b e trace d m any

tri li teral roo ts h ave b een b u il t u p f ro m b i li te ral s
-
Whe ther all -
.

tri li te ral ro o ts o ri gi n ate d in thi s w ay m ay b e do u b te d

-
I t is no t ,
.

i mp ro b able th at in Hamito S emiti c tri li teral an d b i li te ral ro o ts - - -

e xi ste d si de by si d e f ro m the b egi n ni n g .

S o me ti m es afte r the addi tio n o r the prefi xing o f the thi rd co n

,

so n an t to a b i li te ral stem a difl e ren tiatio n in meani n g w as se c ur e d

'

-
,

by changi ng the o rder o f the last tw o co n so n an ts ; thu s Y D o ri g ‘

inally W D m e an t to m ak e an appo i n tm en t pro mi se mee t

‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
, , , ,

whereas YD m e an t k no w S u ch cases (an d examples mi ght b e

‘ ‘
.
’

m ul ti pli ed) m ak e it p ro b able th at a large n um b e r o f tri li te ral

,
-

S emi ti c ro o ts go b ac k to a b i li teral b ase an d that the b i li teral ro o ts -

,
-

1
On this w ho le j
su b ec t see t he inte restin g b roc hure of S . T . H H u rw itz , Ro ot De
.

termi n at ives i n the S emiti c S peec h Ne w , Y o rk , 19 13 .

 Tire: HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 21

are su rv vals i fro m the o rig n al fo rmi . This last inferen ce is re n d e re d

pro b abl e by h f h
t e ac t t at b i—litéral ro o ts o c c u r in m an y o f th e wo rds
b ro ther e tc f athe r ,
’
m o the r ,
’ ’
co mm o n u se , su c h as
‘ ‘ ‘
in mo st ,
.

wo rd s that wo u ld b e least likely to u n dergo c h ange Here then

. .
, ,

is a seco n d c harac teri sti c that is share d by the H am i ti c an d S emiti c

la gu g
n a e s
— a c harac te ri sti c wh i c h appears in th e H am i ti c lan gu a ges
in it s m o re o riginal fo rm o f w h i c h th e S em iti c f o rm appe ars to b e a ,

later develo pment Th i s fac t do es no t ex clu de the po ssibility th at

.

tri li te ral ro o ts were al so n ati ve to b o th gro u p s o f l angu ages

-
.

3 A th i rd f ac t that in t he so lu tio n o f th i s p ro bl em c o u n ts fo r
.

—
mu ch is th at the pro no u ns e spe c ially the p e rso n al p ro n o u n s in —
th e tw o gro u p s o f lan gu ages are p rac ti cally i den ti c al Pro no u n s .

are am o n g the m o s t sn i generi s o f the p arts o f speec h and th e iden

-

tity o f th e pro n o u n s in th e tw o gro u p s o f to n gu es i n di cate s i de n ti ty

o f o ri gi n
1
.

4 Again b o th familie s o f langu ages th e Hami ti c and the S emi ti c

.
, , ,

exh ibi t th e phe no m e n o n o f po lari ty alre ad y refe rre d to F o r ex .

thr
“ ” “ ”
am pl e in H e b re w and A rabi c th e n u m e ral s f ro m ee to ten

are pl ac e d in th e gen der o ppo site to t h at n u m b ere d b y them I t is

“ '
’

“ ” “
o n thi s p ri n c i ple th at the se c alle d bro ken o r in n er pl u ral s are -
-

m ade in Arabi c T h e singu l ar o f the se n o u n s is u su ally m asc u li ne ;

.

th e plu rals are co lle cti ve f e mi n in e n o u n s This feelin g fo r po lari ty

fi
,

o r th e arran gi n g o f thi n gs in pai rs whi c h co m pl em en t e ac h o th er in

g e n d e r i s a p ec
,
u li ar ph e n o m e n o n re p re s e n ti n
g a co m m o n p sy c h o ,

lo gical trait that is b est e xpl ain e d b y kin ship .

5 I n b o th gro u p s o f langu age s d eri ve d ste ms exp re ssi n g a mo di

.
,

fi catio n o f the ro o t are fo rm e d in the sam e w ay ,

An i n ten sive stem .
,

e xpressin g a he i gh te n ed m ea n i n g is fo rm e d by re du plic ati ng the ,

ro o t if it is b i literal o r by d o u b li n g the mi dd le co n so n an t o f a
-

m
, ,

tri literal ro o t
-
I n the H a i ti c l an gu ages the ro o t is gen erally re
.

d u p lic ated an d thi s seem s to b e the o lder fo rm

, Thu s in E gypti an .

w e have 10 5 434 b e gree n fro m th e ro o t w sd; C o pti c sorsr de stro y

‘ ’ ‘ ’
, , , , ,

fro m so r ; in Cham ir akeb co llec t ak ab ki b c o llec t q u i c kly ; in

‘ ’ ‘ ’
-
, , , ,

Bilin bi r b e light bi rbir b u rn et c I t is a co mm o n fo rm in

,
‘
,
’
,
‘
,
’
.

S e e L eo R e in isc h , Das pers o n li c he Earw ort a n d di e Verb alflexi o n i n den c hdmito

1 ' '

semiti schen S prachen , Wie n , 19 0 9 , an d ab le I o f this w o rk T .

2
_
'

S ee W . H . Wo rrell in AJ S L ,
X LI , 17 9 E . an d S tudy f
o R aces i n the Anc ien t Near
E ast, 61 ff .
22 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI G I N S

mo st H ami ti c to ngu e s . It c o rres po n d s to th e pi lpcl fo rm s in H e

b rew wi th w hi c h all S e mi ti c s c ho lars a re fam ili ar T he fo rm ati o n
,
.

o f an i n te nsi ve fo rm by d o u b li n g the m id dle le t ter is also to o fam i l

iar to nee d ill ustratio n : thu s Q l L ki ll b u t Q TT L m assac re

' ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
, , , .

6 I n b o th g ro u ps o f l an guage s s te m s e x p re ssi ng c au s ati o n are

.

fo rmed by pre fi xing the le tte r s tho u gh in so m e o f the S e mi ti c lan ,

u a s th i i t h i d t h a s so m e t im e s in I n do E u ro p e an ( c o m
g g e s s n n o -
e ,

a th S a k i t ma a d t h e P e rsi a n hao ma) an d in o t h e rs

p re e n s r s o n ,

it is f urthe r thi nne d to (A leph) T hu s in Akk adi an a nd A ssy ri an .

w e h ave c ae b u to l e ave o r re m ain and i n z u b u to c au se to re m ai n

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
, , ,

to b e ri gh teo u s an d he sdiq to m ake

’ ‘
o r save ; i n H e b rew s ad eq
‘ ’ ‘
, , ,

ri gh teo u s o r j u stify ; in A ram aic k thabb w ri te and ak tabh

’ ‘ ’ °
,
‘
,
’ '

,
’

‘ ’ ‘
c au se to w ri te ; in A rabi c w alad a b ear an d aulad a to cau se to
‘ ’ ’

, , ,

T he sy s te m is w e ll k n o w n to e ve ry S em i ti c s cho l ar
’ ’
be ar o r b ege t ‘
.

and need s no e l abo rati o n I t is no t so w ell k n o w n ho we ve r that .

, ,

th e H ami ti c l angu age s fo rm ed stem s e xp re ssi ng cau se in the sam e

’
w ay T hu s in Egyp ti an w e have hr fall an d shr o ve rthro w ; in
.
,
‘
, ,
‘ ’

C o p ti c on h to li ve sao ni to c au se to li ve o r no u ri sh ( in th i s
,
‘
,
’
,
‘ ’ ‘ ’

wo rd th e fin al [1 h as b e co m e in B e dau y e gay b e n e w an d se , ,
‘
,
’

gay re n ew ; in I ro b S aho b ala see an d s b ala c au se to se e o r

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
- -
, , , ,

sho w ; in T am ash e q egges

’ ’
an d seges c au se to e n te r ; in
‘ ’ ‘ ‘
e n te r , , , ,

e d em es ekk ar,
’
S hilk h , an d s ail, in R be
‘ ’ ‘ ‘
ail, flee , to flee ;
’
cau se

m ake li gh t ; in Kab ylee ,

’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
li gh t ,
an d sek k ar, ekhei n , e n te r, an d

sek he m,
‘
c au se Hami ti c di ale c ts that have
to e n ter .
’
In so m e o f th e
bee n i n flu e n c ed by Ku shi te di alec ts the s h as b een tran spo se d to
the e nd o f the w o rd ; thu s in Bili n w e have ad to tak e an d ad di s
‘ ’
-
, , ,
’
cau se to tak e ; in B ed au ye th e cau sati ve e l em e n t also is so m e ti m es
‘

afli x ed m arry an d do b s cau se to m arry ; in C h am i r

‘ ’ ‘ ’
as do b , , ,
-
, ,
’
h u n t an d aden s c au se to hu n t ; in S o m ali u n e at an d
‘ ’ ’
ade n
‘ ‘
-
, , , , , ,
‘ ’ ’
u n si c au se to e at o r fee d I n d i ale c ts in flu en ced by S u dan ese
‘
-
.
,

an d B u shm an lan gu ages the fin al s h as fallen aw ay an d its vo w el ,

whi ch appears abo ve in B ili n as i alo n e e xpresse s cau satio n This ,

.

is an alo go u s to th e c han ge in S e mi ti c o f th e s to ( Aleph) I n .

so m e th e i is p refix e d ; in o the rs affi x e d Th u s in S o m ali w e h ave ,

.

dil kil l an d dil i ca

‘ ’ ‘
b e v exe d an d
’
u se to kil l ; in M asai a gor o
’ ‘
- - -
, , , , , ,

vex o r m ak e ve xe d (w h ere th e l o ss o f th e s is c o m
‘ ’
a i ta gor o
‘ ’
- - - -
,

e syllab le ta) ; in N am a ma
"

d h dd i f h
’
p e n sa te by t e a i t o n o t stan d ,
‘

an d ma i ( m h
‘ ’
cau se to stan d o r plac e h h i N e s is
‘ ’
-
, t o u g n a a t ,
 T HE HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 3

so m e t imes re tain e d as in ai ,
‘
su c k ,
’
an d ai si , -
‘
c au se to m
, (wh ere n a has been added
’
te ac h
‘
an d an din a
‘ ’
F 111 ,
an da, kno w ,
-

to the i as th e — ta w as adde d in M asai ) Simil ar exam ple s co ul d

‘

b e m u ltiplie d ad libi tu m I t is c l ear th at thi s m e tho d o f e xp ressin g

.

c au satio n is fu n d am en tal to the tw o gro u p s o f to ngu e s an d po in t s ,

to de scen t f ro m a co mm o n an ce stry
'

7 I n bo th gro u p s o f l an gu ages passive o r re fle xive ste m s are

.

fo rm e d b y em plo yi n g th e lette r t Thi s le tte r m ay b e prefix e d to .

th e ro o t as in the A rabi c 5 th an d 6th ste m s in se rte d afte r th e first

, ,

c o n so n an t o f th e ro o t as in the Arabi c 8 th stem an d in all the re

flexive ste m s o f Akk adi an an d A ssyri an o r it may whe n p refix e d , , ,

b e prece d e d by the syllable hi as in the He b re w hi thpael o r by i

’

as in the Aram ai c p assive fo rm s Thu s in He b rew w e h ave qaddsh

'

.
,
’ ‘ ’
b e ho ly an d hi thqaddesh san c tif y o n eself Exten sive illu stratio n
‘
.
, ,

fro m S emi ti c is u n n e c e ssary T h e sam e fo rm atio n is c h arac teristi c .

o f th e H ami tic l an guages ; thu s in I ro b S ah o w e h ave b o la

‘ ’
see -
, ,

an d ta— b ala see o n eself in T am eshe q ekf give an d tu —

‘ ‘ ’
k ef b e
‘
, , , , ,

—
m
i h il k h i
’ ’ ’
f
‘ ‘
i S d b R d e
' ’

g ve n ; n a s e a t an t§ § a e e at e n ;,
n e s are , , , ,

d rf b e w tte I n di ale c ts whi ch h ave co m e u n de r

’ ’
write i
‘ 1
a n t
,
u e r n ,
.

Ku shi te in flu e n ce s thi s t lik e the c au sati ve e lem e n t s is tran sfe rre d , ,

to th e e n d o f th e wo rd Th u s in B elin w e h ave gadd b e ri ch an d ‘ ’

.
, ,

a d d —t b e c o m e
‘
r i c h in B e d a u e k a mi b e s
’
a d an d k am i —
t m ak e
‘ ’ ‘
g , ; y , , , ,

o n e self sad Th is elem en t like the c au sative s is c le arly fu n d a

.
’
, ,

m e n tal to the tw o f ami lies o f speec h 2

.

8 B o th gro u p s o f to n gu e s also fo rm re flexi ve an d passive stem s

.

by u sin g th e letter n I n S em i ti c th i s fo rm s the He b rew n iphal .

,

th e A rabi c 7 th s tem an d th e 4th o r n stem in Ak k adian an d Assyri an

,
.

Th u s in He brew w e have hathab write an d nik té b b e written ‘ ’ ‘ ’

’
.
, , ,

T0 add exam ple s fo r the S emi ti c scho lar is su perflu o u s I n Ham i ti c .

d e rived ste m s in n are ab u n dan t Thu s in E gyptian w e have fro m .

hm rn b e lo w n hmhrn b e m ad e to b ello w ; al so ddw c o n tin u e

‘ ’ ’
h l 3 ‘ ’ ‘
, , , , ,

1
T h e t—
st em s are no t f o u n d in E gyptian , b u t t h ey app e ar in o p tic , w h ere th ey h ave C
assu m e d a c au sat ive fi
sign i c atio n ; see S t ein do rfl s Ko pti sc he Gr ammatik , B erlin , 19 04 ,
’

§§25 4 25 8 e
.

2 I n di ale c t s in flu en c e d b y S u dan ese an d B u shman , th e t f o rm atio n is lo st . I t d o es

n o t app e ar in F u l, S o w ali , M asai , o r Nam a
'

3
K S e th e , Das Aegyptisc he V erb u m, I , Le ipz ig, 1899 , 428
. .
24 S E M ITI C ANI) HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

and n c be S hilk h , gadd u , b e l ik e , and ngad d u ,

’
jd dd i
‘ ‘
, c o n t nu o u s ; in

b e l ik e the r so m e H ami tic l an gu age s th e n has b e c o m e

‘ ’
o n e an o . In
77: by a ch ange famili ar to philo lo gi sts and in o thers r U nde r fo r , , .

e ig n i n fl u e n c e s thi s fo rm ati ve e le m e n t lik e the s an d t alre ad y d is ,

c u sse d is tran s fe rred to the e n d o f the wo rd

,
R e co gnizi ng these fac ts .
,

w e fi nd e xam pl e s o f o ri gi nal ly n s te m s in the fo llo wi ng : in T am as he q -

in S hilk h nag kill and

’
w e have c lef and m c k l a
‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ’
eat e a te n ;
, ,
-
, , , ,

muag fi gh t o ne ano the r ; in Kab yle e z en z sell an d mz c nz sell to

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘
, , , , ,

an d ali b r
‘ ’ ‘
o n e an o the r ; in B eli n alib
’ ’
s py to ac t as a s py ; in , , ,
-
,

B e dauye dir kil l and m— dcdar kill o ne ano the r ; in F u l gala

’ ‘ ’ '
‘
, , , , , ,
’
laugh and galira l au gh fo r o n esel f ; in H au sa nag kil l and m
‘ ’ ’
‘ ‘ ’
, , , , ,

fi gh t ; in M asai s u g fo llo w an d a su g are I fo llo w to ge the r

‘ ’ ‘ ‘
nag , , ,
- -
,

in Nam a ai l au gh an d ai ri l au gh at ; in
’
wi th , , ,
-
,
‘ ’

So mali dil kil l and dil n b e ki lled

, ,
‘
F ro m su c h exam pl es ( an d
,
’
-

,
‘
.
’

the y migh t b e m ul ti pli e d) i t m ay easily b e se e n ho w wi de sp re ad an d

ho w an ci e n t this fo rm ati o n is in Hami ti c T he fac t that n has b ee n .
1

so o fte n c han ge d to m and r and th at th e m eani ng o f the s tem s so ,

fo rm ed have assu m ed su c h a vari e ty o f m e ani ngs (reflexi ve p assi ve , ,

re ci p ro ca l an d i nd i rec t) are gu aran tees o f th e hi gh an tiq u i ty o f the

,

n fo rm atio n s
-
There can b e no do u b t th at it w as a c harac te ri sti c
.

o f p rimi ti ve H am i ti c s pe e c h .

9 On e o th er featu re co mm o n to the tw o gro u p s o f l an gu ages is

.

the fo rm atio n o f c au sati ve re flexive ver b stem s by th e u se o f the - -

l e tte rs st to whi ch in S emi tic a vo wel and an Al eph

,
is u su ally
p r e fix e d T h u s in A.r abi c w e h av e th e te n th stem (i staqtala) ; i n

E thi o pi c fro m naf sa b re ath estanfi sa d raw a b re ath o r i n spi re ,

‘
,
’ ’
,
‘ ’ ‘
,
’

an d in Ak k adian th e s te m IV 1 Simi l arly in Hami ti c .

,

w e fi n d in Kab ylee ak er
’
an d tsn ak ar b e s to l e n
‘ ’ ‘
ste al I n d ia , , ,
.

lec ts tha t have c o me u nder Ku shite in flu en c e th e ts is tran sfe rre d

to the e n d o f th e wo rd ; th u s in C h am i r w e fi n d fi
‘ ’
go o u t an d , ,
’
f o t s b e b ro u gh t o u t ; in B ili n cabb ar e xpe c t an d cab b ar t i s
‘ ‘ ’
- - - -
, , , , ,
’
cau se to b e e xpe c ted
‘
.

10 S emi ti c an d Hami ti c ve rb s o rigi n ally po ssesse d al so b u t tw o

.

te n se s o n e de n o ti n g i n co m plete ac tio n o r th e i mperfec t th e o the r

, , ,

c o m ple te ac ti o n o r th e pe rfe c t On e o f the se is co n j u gate d by pre

,
.

fix ing p ro n o mi n al parti c les th e o the r by affixi ng simil ar parti c le s ,

.

I n Akk adi an an d A ss yri an the p erfec t has b een alm o st di su se d an d

th e im pe rfe c t difi eren tiate d to e xp re ss co m pl e te an d i n co mpl e te
ac ti o n I n A rab ic the i m pe rfec t has b ee n d ifle re n tiate d to e xp res s
.
 '

T H E HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 25

diff e ren t mo o ds Egyptian the imperfe c t fo rmatio n has been

. In
e n tirely lo st I n th e Ham itic langu age s o n e o r the o the r 15 fre
.

qu en tly lo st an d the o n e that I S re tain ed di ff eren tiate d to su pply

th e de fi cien c y 1
I t se em s p ro b able that I n do E u ro pean o rigi n ally
.
-

h ad b u t tw o o r th ree ten ses b u t in I n do E u ro pe an th e co n j u gatio n s ,

-

are alway s fo rm e d by addi n g elem en ts to th e v e rb stem ; n e ver as -

,

in the H am ito S em i tic im p e rfe c t by p refix in g them -

,
.

11 T o the li ngu istic pheno m en a al ready n o ted o n e o th e r sho u ld

.
, ,

p e rh ap s b e add e d T h,
e S e m iti c lan gu ages lik e th e H.am i tic , ,

kn o w b u t tw o gen ders o r tw o classe s o f no u n s o n e deno ting m ales ,

an d im po rtan t o bj ec t s an d the o th er fem ale s an d u n im po rtan t

'

o bj ec ts I n b o th gro u ps al so the fe mi n in e ge n de r is fo rm e d b y
.

addi n g a t Thi s classifi c atio n so differe nt fro m that o f the Su dan

.
,

langu age s an d o f the B an tu di al ec ts o n the o n e han d an d fro m ,

th at o f th e I n do E uro pe an l angu ages o n the o th er is an o ther e vi

-
,

den ce that the tw o gro u p s o f to n gues have spru n g fro m th e same fo n t .

T he li ngu i sti c e vi de n ce has thu s c l early establish e d a kin sh ip .

between the Hamiti c an d S emi ti c p eo ple s 2

D o e s it h elp u s to .

1
Th P
m E gyptian the e rfec t ( c alled m E gyp tian th e pseu do ar tic iple ) o c c u rs
us P
b u t rare ly , an d ac tio n s in past tim e are expre sse d b y a f o rm o f the I mpe rf ec t diff eren ti
ate d f ro m th e o rdin ary f o rm b y th e insertio n o f an n ; c f Gardi n er , Gr ammar, p 55 , . .

§6 7 ; p 219 , § 29 5
. .

2
T h e q u estio n o f th e relati o n o f S e mitic t o t he I n d o E uro pean lan gu age s has , in -

rec en t years , so m etim es b een raised T h e p re sen t w rite r has lo n g tho u gh t th at th e

.

H ami to S emi tic gro u p h ad de velo ped 111 a diff eren t c en ter f ro m th e J u d o E u ro pean ,
- -

“ ”
an d q u ite in d epen den t ly o f it ( artic le S emitic L an guage s in H astin gs E n cyc of R el
’
. .

and E thi cs ) H e rm an M oller, in his b o o k , S emi ti sch a nd nd o —

. Gerrnani sch, Ko pen I
hagen , 1906, en d eavo red t o estab li sh k in sh ip o n th e b asis o f similarity o r identity o f
vo c ab u lary T he sam e m etho d has b een f o llo w e d , b u t w ith less ac u men an d reserve
.
,

b y L A Wadd e ll in M ak ers of Ci fii li z ati o n i n R ace and H i story, L o n d o n , 19 29

.
_
. .

T h e m eth o d is , h o w e ve r, e ssen tially f au lty I den tity o f th e exp re ssio n o f the same .

m e anings b y th e same so u n d s in spo radic c ase s m ay b e du e either to co in cid en c e o r to

th e comm o n w o rki n g o f h u man min d s, as in o no mato po etic w o rds Iden tity o f o rigin .

c an b e determi ne d o nly b y an exami n ati o n o f th e w h o le range o f lin gu istic f ac ts, in c lu d

in g ph o ne tic s , ro o ts, an d gramm atic al stru c tu re All efi o rts to c o nn ec t S emi tic an d .

I n d o E u ro p ean direc tly h ave f aile d , an d are , so f ar as w e c an at p re sen t se e , d o o med to

-

f ailu re . P
o ssib ly a m o re r e m o t e c o nn ec tio n , ind ic atin g a f ar o fl o rigin in a c o mmo n -

sto c k , c o u ld b e trac ed th ro u gh H amitic . M einh o fi re mark s that h e h as no t in ve sti

gat e d th e H am itic to I n d o Ge rmanic , b u t that suc h an in vestigatio n
relatio n ship o f -

appe ars to hi m w o rth t h e t ro u b le T h e p o in ts w h ic h seem to him w o rth c o mparin g

.

are t he gro u pin g o f the n o u n s into c lasses, the o rigin o f gramm at ic al gen d er, th e o rigin
,

o f Ab lau t, and the ex ressio n o f

‘ ’
p p lac e-
c o n c ep tio n th ro u gh vo w el c h an ge in redu p li

c at ed f o rms in th e d erived verb al st em s :

der H o mi ten , p F rank ly, ( S prac hen .

t o th e presen t w rit er so m e o f th e lin e s o f in ve stigatio n h ere su ggeste d d o n o t o fle r mu c h

ho pe o f su c c ess Wo rrell has disc u ssed a n u mb er o f th e p o ints su ggeste d ( A S tu dy of
~

.
26 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
de c i de b e tw e e n the w he the r A frica o r
c o n te nd ng i th eo rie s as to
A rabi a w as the c rad le l and o f thi s co mm o n s to ck ? D e M o rgan
-
,

w ho as p o i n te d o u t abo ve he ld wi th E rm an the the o ry that the

, ,

E gy p ti ans w e re S e m i te s f ro m A rab ia co n te nd ed that the race had ,

b ee n in that pe ni nsu la fro m the pre glac ial o r i n te r gl aci al e po c h - -

.

E vide nc e o f p alaeo l ithi c m an in the A rabi an p e ni nsula led him in ,

ac co rd an c e w i th h is d ati ng o f p alae o li thic m an to thi s b eli e f Dur ,

.

ing th e de luge s w hi c h fo llo w e d the b reak u p o f the l ast gl aci al ice -

,

A rabi a lik e o the r l an d s s u fle re d he b eli eved f ro m the flo o d s

, , , ,
.

C e rtai n gro u p s ho we ve r he b elie ve d su rvi ve d in the high mo u n

, ,

tai ns alo ng the R e d S e a and in Had rama u t an d fro m th ese gro u p s ,

the pe ni n su l a w as gr ad u al ly re p e o pled T he p eo pl e thu s b o rn

-
.
,

se p arate d f ro m o the r pe o ples by the grad u al d esi c c ati o n o f thei r

c o u n try b e cam e ac c o rding to thi s t eo y h he S emi te s o f hi s to ry

1
, ,
r t , .

I t is n o t i m po ssibl e th at in the m o u n tain regi o n s m e n ti o n e d m en

d id su rvi ve the flo o d s o f that far— o fl ti m e b u t if so w e re they the , , ,

S emi tes o f hi sto ry ?

I t m u st b e sai d that the e vide n c e o f l an guage in so far as its ,

te sti m o ny go es is s q u are ly again st th e th eo ry

,
T hat S emi te s f ro m .

A rabi a d id i nvade th e N il e vall e y an d fo rm an i nflu e n tial fac to r

in the c o m po sitio n o f th e E gy ptian p eo pl e is n o do u b t tru e j u st as , ,

m an y ce n tu ri es late r S emi tes fro m the sam e regi o n i nvade d Aby s

s in i a an d b ec am e a d o m i nan t fac to r in th e po p ul atio n o f tha t c o u n

try b u t that fac t is n o t su ffi c i en t to o u tw ei gh the m an y li n gu i sti c

,

fac ts w hi ch te n d to sho w th at the Hami ti c l an guages are o ld e r tha n

th e S emi ti c I n th em featu res c o mm o n to bo th f ami li e s o f sp ee c h
.

h ave su rvi ve d in thei r m o st p rimi ti ve fo rm the S emi ti c fo rm o f ,

th e m as alre ady po i n ted o u t b ei n g l ate r d e velo pm en ts

, ,
A n u m b er .

o f th ese fo rm s h ave su rvi ve d in greates t pu ri ty in E gyp ti an an d

di alec ts o f the l an d s no rth o f the S ah ara Thi s e viden ce wo u l d .

in dicate th at the an cesto rs o f the tw o race s d e vel o p e d in No rth

R ac es i n the A nc ie nt Near E ast, pp 4 6 f , 50 f , an d 7 1 . an d rightly s u gge sts that c e r

. .

tain parallels b e tw e e n c o llo q u ial Welsh and an c ien t E gyp tian t o w hi c h Rh y s an d B ryn
mo r -
J o ne s h ad c alled atte n t io n in The Welsh P eo ple 19 00 , Appe n dix B , m ay b e b ette r
,

ac c o u n tedfo r b y su ppo sing th a t s o me o f th e M ed it erran ean rac e w as in c o rp o rat e d b y

C
th e e lt ic st o c k w hi c h c o n q u e re d an c ient B rit ain , th an b y su pp o sin g th at H ami tes e ve r

s u rge d so f ar n o rt h .

S ee hi s P r éhi s to i re o r ie ntate, I , 19 25 , pp 20 2, 208 , 209

. .
 THE HAM ITE S AND S E M ITE S 27

Af ric a p ro b ably in c lu d in g the Sah ara an d th at th e wave o f migra

, ,

tio n wh i c h c arrie d Ham i tes in to E ast Afric a (whi c h as will b e , ,

i t e d o u t l a t e r to o k pl ace lo n g b e fo re th e b e gi nn i n gs of E gypti an
p o n ,

histo ry) c arrie d a gro u p o f H ami te s in to Arabia via the S traits o f

B ab el— M an de b w ho b ec am e the an cesto rs o f th e S emi te s Th i s
-
,
.

r u p i so l a t e d f o r a lo n g tim e in A rabi a fro m th eir ki n sm en in

g o ,

Afri c a be came the S emi tes T he H ami tes as F ri edrich M iil le r

,
.
,
,

lo n g ago o served s c attere d at an early d ate so wi dely o ver Af ri c a

b
“

1
,

an d wer e e xp o se d to s o m an y di ff er en t fo rei gn i n flu en c e s th at th ey

vary fro m o n e an o th er wi d ely n o t o nl y in vo c ab u l ary b u t in

, ,

g r a mm a t i c a l st r u c tu re T h e S e mi t i c lan gu ages o n the o th er h an d

.
, ,

resem ble o n e an othe r so c lo sely n o t o n ly in gramm ati c al stru ,

c tu re ;
,

b u t in the m aterial o f th e i r vo c abul ari es that it is c lear that the ,

an c esto rs o f tho se w ho sp o ke them m u s t h ave dwelt fo r a lo n g tim e

‘

in c lo se asso c i atio n iso lated fro m fo re ign in flu en c es

‘

.
,

Of co u rse w e c ann o t assu m e th at Arabia w as wi tho u t po pulation

when the first wave o f th e H amito —S emiti c sto c k en tered it D e .

’
M o rgan s th eo ry that spo radi c gro u ps o f p alaeo lith i c peo ple su r
, ,
~

vive d th e gre at Q u arternary flo o d s in its mo u n tai n f astn e sses m ay ,

b e tru e b u t if so p rac ti c ally n o trace o f them has su rvi ve d

, , ,
I t is .

sai d th at in th e m o u n tai n s o f O m an in so u theaste rn Arabi a th e re , ,

is a stran ge peo ple w ho prac tise religio u s ri tes in a stran ge n o n

'

,
’

Arabi c to ngue wh i ch no o ne u n derstan ds as they face the ri si n g ,

su n
2
. Th e se peo ple m ay b e de sc en dan t s o f a pre Semi ti c race b u t -
,

th e y m ay also b e d e sce n dan t s o f i n vade rs f ro m ac ro ss th e P e rsian

'

Gu lf w ho invad ed th e l an d at so me later perio d I n the ab sen ce

,
.

of de finite info rm atio n as to the ir lan gu age an d cu sto m s th e pro b ,

lem c an no t b e so lve d I f th ere e ve r w as su c h a peo ple in Arabia

‘

as d e Mo rgan su p po ses th e y w e re so o n ab so rb e ,
d by th e S em i te s ,

an d w e re to o few to e xert u po n the c o n u e rin g race an y lin gu i stic

“

q
i n flu en c e th at w e c an n o w trace .

_
T he l in guisti c evid en ce th en po i n t s to Arabi a as th e d i stin c ti ve
, ,

c r ad le — lan d o f the S em i te s th e po in t o f departu re fro m whi ch th ey

,

were di strib u te d to th eir o th er natio n al ho m e s an d to th ei r u ltim ate ,

T h e passage in t h e text st ate s in th e w rite r s o wn w o rd s th e su b stanc e pf a p assage

1 ’

in M ii ller s Gru ndri ss der S prac hwi ss en schaf ten , vo l I I I , p t 2, p 225 T h e passage
’
. . . .

w as q u o t e d in S O p 10 f . .

2
P W . . H arriso n , The Arab at H o me, Ne w Y o rk , 19 24 , p 9 9 . .
28 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

A fri can o ri gi n So u th A rabi a the n w as the fi rs t sep arate habi tat

.
, ,

o f the S e m i ti c p e o p le s I t w i ll l ate r appe ar that th is p art o f A rabi a

.

w as ,in all p ro b abi li ty the d i s tri b u tio n p o i n t f ro m w hi c h the ,

-

va ri o u s S e m i ti c n ati o nali ti e s rad iate d S pre nge r l o ng ago gu esse d .

that the N e j d in no rthe as te rn A rab ia w as that p art o f A rabi a

, ,

w hic h i mpre sse d u po n the S e mi tes thei r pe c u liar c ha rac te ri sti c s ‘

.

T his vi ew se eme d fo r a ti m e to the p rese n t w ri te r to b e c o n firmed

by th e c o nsi de ratio n that the A rabi c l anguage w hi c h is in its ,

gram m ati c al s tru c tu re so m u c h m o re el ab o rate than the o the r

S emi ti c l angu age s and w hic h appeared to b e the native to ngu e o f
,

thi s regi o n w as b eli e ve d to have p re se rve d mo re o f the c harac te r

,

istics o f pri mi ti ve S e mi ti c sp ee c h than any o ther S em i ti c l angu age .

I t no w see m s ho w e ve r that thi s co nsi de ratio n is no t vali d

, ,
L in .

gu isti c fo rm s are no t alway s s o te ne d o r sim plified

h I so late d gro u ps
?
r

may fo r vario u s re aso n s d e vel o p ne w an d m o re e labo rate fo rm s o f

, ,

e xp ressi o n So m e ti mes thes e se rve to e xp ress so m e passi ng p ha se

.

o f th o u gh t su ch as repe ti tio n o r i te ratio n

,
Thus in Hi tti te ski .
-

m ay b e adde d to the s tem o f an y ve rb to de n o te the rep e ti tio n

”
o f th e ac ti o n w hereas in L ati n the e n di ng has hardene d i n to a p art
,

o f so m e ve rb s as e g c o gn o sco I n S an sk ri t al so a n um b e r o f
, ,
. .
,
.

s pe c i al ao ri st fo rm s w e re d evelo p ed w hi ch e xp ressed appare n tly

‘
, ,

w he n fi rst emplo yed sp ec ial m e an i ngs Thu s the re are a ao ri s ts ,

.
,

s ao ri sts i s ao ri sts si s ao ri sts an d so ao rists

, ,
They were fo rm s .

le n gth e ne d fro m w hat app ea rs as the no rm al I n do E u ro p ean fo rm s -

o f these te n ses I t is no t at all u nlik ely the re fo re that th e e l abo

.
, ,

rate gr amm ar o f c l assi c al A rabi c m ay have b ee n a sp e c i al exp an sio n

o f primi ti ve S emi ti c s pee c h Un fo rtu nately w e po ssess no ext e n .

sive li teratu re in S ab aean an d M i n a ea n the di al e c ts o f so u the rn ,

Arabi a We have ho we ver so m e h u nd red s o f i n sc rip tio n s fro m

.
, , ,

whi ch a fair i de a o f the n ature o f these di ale c ts m ay b e fo rm e d ,

an d w e h ave gramm ars o f M ehr i an d S o qo tri d i al e c t s w hi ch sprang ,

f ro m them I t wo u ld seem f ro m su c h i n fo rmatio n as w e po sse ss

.
,

th at th e l angu age o f S o u th A rabi a w as o f a sim pl e r gramm ati cal

1
Le b en a nd Lehre des M o hammad , I , 242, 243 .

1
Cf Otto . J e spe rse n , La ngu age, its N ature, D evelo pme nt ,
and Or igin , Ne w Y
o rk ,

19 24 , p 3 3 0 ff . .

3
S ee G A B art o n , H i tti te S tud ies , I ,
. . P aris , 19 28, p 16 f . .

Cf . Wh itney , S an sk rit Grammar, B o sto n , 18 7 9 ,

 T HE HAM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 29

ure th an c lassi c al A rabi c , b u t th at it c o n tain ed j u st tho se ele

stru c t

men ts wh i ch w e have fo u n d to b e co m m o n to th e S em itic an d H am

iti c d i ale c ts in ge n e ral will al so appear at a later po in t o f o u r
. It ,

investigatio n , th at no t o nl y the Abyssini an s b u t th e Akkadi an s , ,

Amo rites an d He b rews po ssessed m an y elem en ts o f speec h an d

,

tho u gh t in c o mm o n with the p eo pl e o f S o u th Arab ia T o su c h a .

d egree is th i s tru e that it se em s p ro bable that S o u th A rabi a w as the

,

p ri m i ti v e S em i t i c c rad le la n d an d t h at th e e labo rate grammar o f

-
,

c lassi cal Arabi c w as a sp ec i al d evelo pm en t in so m e lo c al p art o f

Arabia (pro b ably the He j az) .

T he S emi ti c lan gu ages are u su ally divide d i n to tw o gro u ps the ,

No rth and So u th Sem i ti c L angu ages T he m o st m arked d i ff e ren c e ,

b etween the tw o gro u p s is co mmo n ly su pp o sed to b e fo und in the

m etho d o f fo rm i n g the plu rals o f no u n s I n the No rth S emit i c . .

langu age s plu ral s are always fo rm ed by addi n g en di ngs to th e ro o t s ;

in th e S o u th S em i ti c to ngu e s they m ay b e fo rme d by i n ternal vo wel
“ ”
c h an ge s i e the S o u th S em i t i c l an gu ages em plo y b ro k en
,
. .
, or
“ ”
i n n e r plu ral s Wo rrell regard s th i s charac teri sti c as so m arke d
.

th at h e su ppo se s th at the no rth ern S em i te s m u st h ave sep arate d

fro m th e so u thern an d lived fo r a lo n g tim e in a habi tat o f the i r
o wn i so late d fro m the o the rs He su ggests ac co rdi ngly that
,
.
, ,

So u th Arabia (Yem en ) w as the c radle lan d o f the so u thern S em i tes -

,

n h
a d t e Ne j d o -
f h
t e n o rthern
,
1
Thi s theo ry m i ght expl ain the
.

“ ”
no n u se o f
-
b ro ken plu rals by no rthern S em i tes ei ther by di su se ,

o f it o r b e cau se it w as d evelo p e d afte r th ey p arte d fro m the m ai n

g o u p b u t as will appe ar l ater there are resem blan ces b e twee n

r , , ,

Akk adi an an d Amo rite an d Heb rew wh i c h i n di c ate aclo se c o n tac t

wi th S o u th Arabi a Perh ap s th e o bj e c tio n s are no t in su perable
.
,

b u t they m ake o n e hesitate to give th e su gge stio n fu ll en do rsem en t .

The y will b e co n si dered in trac ing the fo rm atio n o f the differen t

S em iti c n atio n s T he e vi den ce kn o wn to u s at presen t m ake s it
.

p ro b able th at the Afri c an an ce sto rs o f the S emi tes first settled in

sou th Arabi a ; that th e Arabi c l an gu age develo p e d in the H ej az se em s
pro b abl e ; that th e No rth S em i ti c l angu age s develo ped in the Nejd is ,

w e b elieve an u n ten abl e th eo ry

’
,
S in ce th e fem ml ne Athtar fro m
.

whi c h I shtar an d Ash tart are d eri ved as well as the Amo rite go d ,

S tudy f R aces i n the Anci ent Near E as t, p 12 f

1
o . .
30 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITIC ORI G I NS

Amm , So u th A rabi a w e b eli e ve the No rth S e mi ti c

k no w n in
‘
are ,

c rad le l an d m us t b e so u gh t in that p ar t o f the pe ni n su la O n o ne

- 1
.

o th e r po i n t it h as b ee n tho u gh t the li ngu i s ti c e vi d e n c e see m s to

, ,

s he d so m e li gh t : the d e g re e o f c ul tu re o r m e n ta l po w e r attai ne d by

th ese peo ples at the pe rio d s w he n the y se parate d f ro m o ne ano the r .

S o m e o f the n u me rals in the tw o gro u ps o f l angu age s are the same ,

b u t the y have di ff e re n t valu e s T hu s md in E gy pti an m e an s te n

.
‘
,
’

b u t in S e mi ti c its p h ilo lo gi cal c o u n te rpart A rabi c mi tu n He b re w

’
, ,

me ah (o ri gi nal ly me ath) Akk adi an rne m e an s o ne hu n d re d the

’ ’

, , ,

hi ghes t o f the te n s E thio pi c e mplo y s a wo rd elph to d e sign ate a

.
’

my ri ad o r an i nde fi ni te l arge n um b e r T he o the r S emi ti c lan

‘ ’
.

g ages wi th the ex cep ti o n o f Ak k adi an and its d au gh te r A ssy ri an

u , , ,

e m plo y th e w o rd to si gn ify a tho u san d the hi ghest o f the h u ndr ed s

‘ ’
.
,

Wo rrell i n fe rs fro m the se fac ts th at at the time o f the sep aratio n

2

o f th e H ami tes f ro m th e S emi tes the y co u l d o nly co u n t to te n an d ,

th at w he n the Akk adi an s an d Aby ssi n i an s spli t o fl fro m the co mm o n

S emi ti c sto c k they co ul d o nly co u nt to a hu nd re d and that b efo re ,

th e sep aratio n o f t he A m o ri te C an aan i te sto c k (ab o u t 25 00 B C ) -

.

the y h ad l earn e d to co u n t to a tho u san d I f thi s re aso ni ng b e valid .

it is po ssibl e h ere to o b tain a gli mpse o f the hi sto ry o f H amito

S emi ti c di sp e rsio n in te rm s o f m e n tal d evelo pm e nt if no t in te rm s ,

o f ch ro n o l o gy We can no t ho wever assu m e that p eo pl es so wi dely

.
, ,

s c attere d d evelo ped m en tally at the s am e ti m e wi th e q u al rapi di ty .

Thu s far in o u r e ff o rt to di sco ve r the c radle o f th e S emi tes w e

, ,

have de al t wi th li n gu i sti c e vi de n c e alo n e I t is n o w ti m e to i n qu i re .

w he the r the co n cl u sio n s thu s re ac hed are c o n fi rm ed by what is

kn o w n o f the phy si c al c h arac teri sti c s o f the se peo pl es I n d e ter .

mi ni ng rac i al ki n shi p c ran i o lo gi sts take i n to ac co u n t vari o u s

m e asu re m e n ts o f the sk u l l w hi ch e xhi bi t li ttle i nne r rac i al vari ati o n ,

su ch as the si z e an d wi d th o f th e nas al ap ertu res the em ph asi s ,

o f su pe ro rbi tal ri dge s the p ro gn atho u s c h arac te r o f th e jaw wi th

,

th e f ac i al angle an d ab o ve all the re l atio n o f the l en gt h o f the

, , ,

s k u ll to i ts wi d th w hi c h is k n o wn as the c e p h ali c i n dex

,
Sku lls .

th e w i d th o f whi ch is 80 o r m o re o f th e lengt h are calle d b rac hi o

.

c eph ali c o r ro u n d h e ad e d
,
Whe n the cephalic i nde x fall s to 7 0
. .

1 T he e vide nc e f o r this state me n t is mo re f u lly se t f o rth in Ch VI I b elo w

. .

3
I bid .
, p 56. .
 T HE H AM ITE S AND S EM ITE S 31

or below ,
lled do lic hoceph ali c o r lo ng he ade d ; be tween
th e y are c a ,

7 0 an d 80 m eso ce ph ali c ,
Of co u rse in o rd e r th at resu lts sho u ld .
,

b e o f sc ie n tifi c valu e a l arge n u m b e r o f sku lls sho u ld b e m e asu red .

M o st o f the i n vestigati o n s so far pu bli she d are b ased o n a limi te d

“

am o u n t o f m ateri al n eve rthe l ess th e resu lts are sign ifi c an t ,

In .

add i tio n to th e wo rk o f S ergi an d vo n Lu s ch an al re ady qu o te d ,

“
ref e ren c e m ay b e m ad e to C h arles S e ligm an s Phy si cal C harac ’

”
te ristic s o f the Arab s in th e J o u rn al of the R oyal An thro po logi cal
.

I nsti tu te V o l 4 7 19 17 pp 214 ff ; Ellio tt S m i th s An ci en t E gyp

’
. . .
, , ,

ti ans L o n do n 19 11 ; D r S M M o ran t s C o m p ari so n o f C ert ain ’

. .
,
.
,

Gro u p s o f P re d yn astic E gyp ti an s an d An c ien t S u m eri an s in B i o

metri k a V o l X VI 19 25 p 1 fi z S ir A rth u r Ke i th s c h ap ter o n
’
. . .
, , ,

sku ll s in Hall an d Wo o lley s Ai Ub ai d Lo n do n and Phi lad e lphi a

’
, ,

19 27 an d L H D u d le y B u xto n s c h apte r o n sku ll s in S L angdo n s

’ ’
. . .
,

Ki sh P ari s 19 25
,
F o r th e i n terpre tatio n o f these fac ts refere n c e
,
,
.

may al so b e m ade to S ir C h arle s Kei th s An ti qu i ty of M an ,Lo n d 2 c d

’
. .
,

1925 an d M B o u le s F ossi l M en Lo n do n 1923

’
I n o rd e r to u n de r
'

. .
, , ,

stan d th e b e ari n g o f th e se i n vestigatio n s u po n o u r p ro ble m it is ,

n ec essary to n o te th at p al aeo li th i c man whe re ver his skul l h as b een ,

m easu red w as do li c ho c ephali c while n eo lithi c m an w as o f te n

, ,

brachio ceph alic As w e have seen p alaeo lithi c man flo u ri she d

.
,

in Eu ro pe an d No rth Af ri c a ; he h as n o t b e en fo u n d in c en tral
Asia Ne o lith i c m an appe ars to h ave d e ve lo pe d in c en t ral Asi a
.
,

when ce he migrate d westward in to E u ro pe whe re he co n stitu ted ,

th e Alpi n e an d No rdi c rac e s an d so u th ward an d so u thwestw ard ,

into o th er p arts o f A sia T he gen e ral resul t o f the appli catio n o f .

c ran i al m easu rem en ts to s ku l ls an c i en t an d m o d ern in the S em i ti c

wo rld is th at in n o rthern and c en tral Arabia where S em i ti c sto c k ,

is co m p aratively p u re it h as b een do li c ho c e phalic fo r at le ast 2000 ,

ye ars an d pre su mably th erefo re always ? I n So u th Arab ia

, , , ,

acro ss wh i c h as wil l b e sh o wn in d e tail l ater races h ave swept b ac k

, ,

an d fo rth b etw een Afri c a an d the E as t th ere is a sligh t perce n tage ,

of ex ce ss o f b rac hi o c e phals the pe rce n tage b e in g o f th e skul ls ,

me asu red ?
I n o ther S emi ti c spe akin g l an d s a m ixtu re o f ro u n d -

head s an d lo ng h e ad s is u su ally fo u nd am o n g an c ie n t sku lls o ften ,

gi vi n g w ay l ate r to the ro u n d he ade d ( b rac h io ceph alic ) ty pe -

.

1
S ee C . S eligm an in the J o u rn al o f the R o yal An thro po lo gi c al I n sti tute, V o l 4 7 , 19 17 , .

p 214 E
. .
32 S EM ITI C AND HA M ITI C ORIG I NS

T he se mix tu re s will b e di sc u sse d in de tail in a late r c hap te r w he n ,

th e c o mpo si tio n o f the vari o u s S e m i ti c spe aki ng natio ns and o f the -

Egy p ti ans is co n si de red I t will the n appe ar that in these n atio ns

.
, ,

S emi ti c l angu age s have be e n i m po se d by do mi nan t frac tio ns o f

n ati o n s that as w ho l es have be e n m ad e u p f ro m d i ff e re n t race s ,

so that S emi ti c l angu ages w e re spo ke n by natio n s th e no n S emi ti c ,

-

e le m e n t in w hi c h u l ti mately c han ge d its so m ati c type T he po in t .

o f i n te res t to o u r p rese n t to pi c is th at the A rab s b elo ng to the

do li ch o c e phali c type an d th us al ly them selve s wi th A fri ca rathe r

th an wi th th e b rac h io ceph als o f c e n tral A si a? Eve n in S o u th
A rabi a ac ro ss whi ch as will ap pe ar l ate r o the r type s have
, , ,

wand ered l eavi ng a de po si t the do li c ho cephali c type h as no t b ee n

, ,

alto ge th e r o bli terate d We co nclu de then tha t the re sul ts o f a

.
, ,

s tu dy o f c ran i o lo gy te nd s to co n firm th e c o n c l u sio n s co n c e rn i n g the

o ri gi n an d d i strib u ti o n o f t he H ami to S emi ti c rac e to w hi c h w e -

,

have b ee n led by the stu dy o f thei r l anguages .

1
Th at Asiat ic man w as in palmo lith ic time , o r e arlie r, ap
b rac h io c e phalic e ve n

pe ars t o b e b o rne o u t b y the m e asu re m e nt s o f th e sk u lls o f P

e k in man , w ho se c e phalic

in d ex w as almo st u p t o 8 0 w h ile t h e c e ph alic in d e x o f Pith e ac n t h ro pu s o f

J ava, his n earest ne igh b o r amo ng f o ss il me n and p re su mab ly f ro m t he same general
stoc k , w as 80 t o 8 1 . S ee D avid so n B lac k in Pala o nto lo gia S i nic a, Se rie s D
, V
o l V II ,
.

F asc II ,. P e ip ing ( P kie ng ) ,

19 3 1, p 9 2
. .
 II

T H E NE I G H B O R S O F T H E S E M I T E S
A N D HA M I T E S

I T H few
x cep tio n s o f whi ch the n o rthern Arab s appear to
e ,

b e o n e e ach n atio n as n atio n s have e xi ste d in the hi sto ri c al

, ,

p erio d h as resu lted fro m a fu sio n o f peo ple s o f differen t race s in a kin d
,

o f m el ti n g po t Thi s is tru e o f mo st o f the S emitic an d Hami ti c

. .

n atio n s P eo ple s o f thi s sto c k b e cam ethe do mi n an t elem e n t in lan d s

.

alre ad y p o p ulated by m e n o f o th e r sto c k s an d o u t o f the f u sio n ,

c am e th e great n atio n s o f th e B abylo n i ans E gyp ti an s A ssyri an s , , ,

Ph oeni c ian s,an d He b rews I t bec o m e s n e ce ssary then fo r u s to .

, ,

fo rm so m e d e fini te i d ea o f th e an c i e n t Elam i te s S u m erian s the , ,

’

Hu rri Mi tan n i an d th e co n glo merate p eo ple who m w e c all Hi tti te s

, , .

THE E LAM I TE S
”

On e of t c e n ters o f c ivilizatio n in all the se co u n

the m o st an c en i
trie s w as S u sa in anc ien t El am He re de M o rgan fo u n d in the .

lo west stratu m a sto n e a ge ne cro po li s whi c h c o n taine d a type o f

-
,

po ttery o f e xtrao rdin ary b e au ty ?

U nfo rtu n ately it w as impo s
sible to resc u e f ro m an y o f th e to m b s a skul l o r a suffi c i ent p art o f
,

o ne to enabl e exp erts to m e asu re it

,
Th i s c ivilizati o n w as ap .
,

a n tl x t rm i n ate d by th e co n di tio n s w hi c h pre vaile d du ri ng a

p re y e e ,

flo o d an d w as fo llo we d at a lo n g in terval by ano ther which pro

, _
_
,

d aced a di ff ere n t typ e o f po ttery pec u li ar in its c h ara c ter an d tex ,

tu re Thi s c i vi liz atio n w as o f c o nsiderable exten t po ttery o f the

.
,

sam e type h avi ng been fo u n d at Te peh M o u ssain T epeh — Kh azineh -

, ,

Tepeh Aly Ab ad an d a n u m b er o f o th er pl aces

- -
,
?
Po ttery o f the
sam e type has b een f o u n d at T ell— e dh — D hi yab in e astern A ssyri a ,

be tween the fo o thills o f th e Z agro s an d Ge be l H am rin at Ko u ,

yu n jik ( an c i en t Ni n e veh) at Carc h erni sh an d in An to lia Po ttery

3
.
, ,

1
F o r thi s fi rst c ivili z atio n o f E lam se e d e M o rgan , D legati
e o n en Perse, Vo ls. X II
and XI I I ,
an d d e M o rgan , P
éhistoire ori entale I I I 48—74 r , , .

S e e d e M o rgan Delegati o n en P er e V o l VI I I an d P réhi st i e ori en tale I II , 7 5 fi

2 ‘
s . o r , .
, , ,

3
S ee G A B art o n in the Ame i can H i stori al Revi ew XXXII I 19 28
. . r c , , ,
7 50—
7 83 .

33
34 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

of thi s sam e type has be e n fo u nd at Anau e ast o f the C aspi an

a so l ,
l

S e a an d the l ink s j us t m e n ti o ne d co n ne c t the o ri gi nato rs o f thi s

,

c i viliz ati o n w i th ce n tral A si a T he o ri gi n ato rs o f thi s c iviliz ati o n

.

are by so me be li e ve d to h ave b ee n b rac hio c e p hali c The i r c ul tu re

2
.

w as n eo li th i c T hey e m plo y e d a hi e ro glyp hi c sy stem o f w ri ti ng

.

whi ch the y had appare n tly i nve n te d tho u gh thi s w as afte rward ,

di scarde d in favo r o f that e m plo y e d by the S um e ri an s S e ttl eme nts .

o f the se pe o pl e w e re also e s tabli she d at E ri d u an d Tell c l O b e i d - -

,

ne ar Ur in so u the rn B abyl o ni a w he re thei r po ttery has be e n ,

fo u n d ?
I t has si n c e b ee n fo u nd at o th e r po i n ts as will b e no ted in ,

l ate r ch ap ters P e tri e tho u gh t that rep re se n tati ve s o f thi s peo ple
.

al so p u she d acr o s s sou the rn A rab ia an d traveli ng u p the R e d S e a , ,

fo u nd the i r w ay to E gyp t th ro u gh the Wady H ammamat o r o ne ,

o f the v alley s co nne c ti ng Uppe r E gyp t wi th the se a fo r po ttery ,

an d i m plem e n ts o f El ami te style an d type are fo u n d in E gyp t at

a pe ri o d co n si d e rab ly an te ri o r to the e stabli shm e n t o f the fir st

dyn as ty b u t the ex te n sio n o f thi s typ e o f c u l tu re w as p ro b ably

‘
,

d u e to S emi te s T he El ami te s thu s e stabli she d co n ti n u e d as an

.
, ,

i nflu en ti al peo pl e u n til afte r the e stablishm e n t o f the Pe rsi an

e mpire Abo u t 3000 B C o r so o n afterward they we re c o n que re d
.
, ,

by E ann atu m ki ng o f Lagash b u t so o n threw o ff the yo ke T w o

5
, ,
.

c en tu ri e s l ate r the y w e re b ro u gh t u n d er the sw ay o f Akk ad fo r a

hun dre d ye ars o r m o re by S argo n an d his su c c esso rs Rimu sh , ,

M anish tu su an d N aram S in 6
Agai n they we re su bj ec ted to B aby
-
.

l o ni a u nde r t h e thi d d yn sty o U

r a f r
7
I n the twe nty seco n d cen .
-

t u ry b e fo re C h ri st they i n vade d B abylo ni a an d fu rn i she d rul ers to

f
t h e d yn as ty o La sa r 8
A tho u san d ye ars l ate r than that they
.
,

were again in a po si tio n to o verrun the so u the rn allu vi u m and agai n ,

fu rni she d a sho rt li ve d dyn asty to the c o u n try

-
Th ree o r fo ur hu n .

dre d ye ars l ater the y we re still po w e rful e no u gh to c o n test the

Cf R Pum pe lly , E xploratio ns i n u rkestan, Washingto n , 19 08 ,

1
. . T an d F ran kfo rt ,
P
S tudy of o ttery i n the Near E as t, I , Lo ndo n , 19 24, c hs II and I II . .

2
. P
Cf de M o rgan , réhisto i re Ori entale .

2
S e e H all an d Wo o lley , Al Ub aid , L o nd o n an d hilad elphi a, 19 27
‘
-
P .

Cf . P
e trie , P
red ynas ti c E gypt, Lo nd o n , 19 20 , p 49 . .

5
Cf B arto n , Royal I ns cri pti ons of S u mer
. and Ak k ad , Ne w Have n , 19 29 , p 3 4 ff . .

5
B arto n , ibid 1 06 —145
.
, pp . .

p 28 1 ff
7
B arto n , ib id .
, . .

I1
B arto n , ibid .
, p 3 18 ff
. .
 NEIGHBOR S OF S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 35

—
p o we r o f S ib ) an d A shu rb an ipal (668 626
e n n ac h er ( 5 68 1 B C
7 0 ,
-

B C) ?
A h u n dred ye ars later they we re still su ffici en tly influen
tial to m ake it wo rth whi l e fo r D ariu s I to m ak e a ve rsio n o f the
B ehi stu n in sc rip tio n in their to ngue as w ell as in P ersian an d B aby ,

Io n ian ?
I n th e in vasio n s an d c o u n ter i n vasio n s o f thi s lo n g pe rio d
there we re m an y o ppo rtu n i ti e s fo r th e in j ec tio n o f blo o d o f the E la
mi te sto c k n o t o n ly i n to the prehi sto ri c E gypti an s b u t i n to the
, ,

p e o pl e o f S o u th A rabi a a n d e s p e ci ally i n to th e p eo ple o f th e B aby

,

lo ni an m elting po t .

THE S UMZ
ER I ANS

R ecent e xcavatio n s in B abylo ni a sho w that three di stin c t c u l tu res

an d pe rh ap s seve ral races h ad o cc u pied the allu vi al pl ai n b efo re the

co m i n g o f the S u m e ri an s T he rem ain s o f the c ul tu res o f these

?

peo pl es sho w c u ltu ral if n o t rac ial co n nec tio ns wi th the Elamites, .

T he S u m eri an s e n tere d th e co u n try at a c o m p aratively late date in

prehi sto ri c time 4
We do n o t kno w what the y c alle d them selves
. .

The S u m erian s we re in B abylo ni a b efo re the dawn o f hi sto ry an d ,

co n trib u te d mo s t to its c i viliz ation They were a highl y c u ltu red .

agri c u ltu ral p eo ple wh en the y en tere d the c o u n try When ce the y
5
.
,

c am e w e do n o t k n o w
,
I t w as fo rmerly tho u gh t that th e y c am e .

fro m the E ast an d we re so m eho w akin to the El ami tes 6 b u t it is ,

no w c le ar that the y rep resen ted a c ivilizatio n di stin c t f ro m an d

1
Cf S c hrad e r, Kei li nschrif tli che B ibli o thek , I I , pp 102 4 0 5 and 254—
. 25 9 .
-
.

2
Cf F H Weissb ach , Di e Keili nschriften der Achi menid en , L eipz ig, 19 14
. . . .

3
S u m er, th e n ame b y w hich so u t hern B ab ylo n ia w as c all ed af ter ab o u t 2400 B C . .
,

appe ars to b e a c o rru ptio n of th e n am e Girsu , the S u merian n am e o f o n e o f the q u arte rs

of L agash . I n t he earli est in sc riptio n s th e n ame is f req u en tly w ritten S U —
GI R o r S UN
GI R : thi s might easily b e c o rru pted i n to S u mir o r S u m er F o r p re sen t at io n s o f this .

th eo ry , se e H R ad au , E arly B abylo ni an H i story, p 5 8 n 6 : R o ge rs, H i story of B ab y

. .

lo n ia and Assyri a, I , 3 5 6 ; an d B arto n , S emi ti c Ori gins , 19 2 m l . .

4
F rankf o rt , Arc haeolo gy and the S u meri an Pro b lem, hic ago , 193 2, h o lds that th e C
S um erians w ere in th e c o u nt ry f ro m th e earliest pe rio d of its h ab itatio n . J o rdan ,

Dri tte vorlaujiger B eric ht ub er di e vo n der No tgemei n schaf t der deu tschen Wi ssen schaf t i n
‘ '

Ur u k u nternommen Au sgrabu ngen , B e rlin , 19 3 2 (h e reafte r c ite d as Uru k ) , p 36, dates .

th eir c o min g c o mparatively late in the lo n g prehi st o ric p erio d thro u gh w h ic h B ab ylo nia

passe d . S p eiser, Ameri c an f A rc haeo J

lo gy, Oc t —D ec 193 2, p 4 7 1, places it
ourn al o . . .

still later . T h e w rite r b elieves F rankf o rt t o he c ertain ly m ist ak en in his view .

5
S ee C . L Wo o lley , The S u meri ans , Oxfo rd , 19 29 , Ch s I an d I I
. h ere is muc h in . . T
Ch I . co n c e rnin g th e eth n o lo gy , h o w e ver, f ro m w hic h o ne m u st dissen t .

6
S ee , eg , th e lat e W H
. . . . Ward in th e Ameri can J o u r nal of Archwo lo gy, New S et .

V o l IX ,
. 19 0 5 , pp 7 7 if . .
36 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

i nde pe nde nt o f th at o f E lam T hey s po k e an agglu tin ati ve lan .

u
g g a e
‘
q u i te d i s ti n c t f ro m th at o f E la m ;
2
t he y m ad e a ty p e o f
” n
po tte ry q u i te di ff e re n t f ro m that fo u n d a t S u s a a d th ey w e re th e ,

au th o r s o f a pi c to grap hi c sy s te m o f w ri ti ng that w as cl e arly n o t o f

E lami te ri gi n
o
?
A fe w y e ars ago o ne w as i nc li ne d to se e k thei r
o ri gi n in the no rth and to ho pe th at f u rthe r s tu d y o f the C au c asi an
,

l an gu age s mi gh t b ri ng to li gh t so m e d ial ec t aki n to the S um e ri an

to n gu e b u t th at ho pe see m s at p re se n t to b e vai n
,
T he w o rk o f .

tho se w ho h ave tri e d to p ro ve it is no t c o n vi n c i ng ?

T he re is m u c h
to b e sai d fo r the theo ry th at the S u m eri an s e n tere d B abyl o ni a f ro m
th e so u th app ro ach i ng it via the P e rsi an G ul f an d th at they cam e
, ,

fro m a w arm co u n try I n the fir st pl ace they are fo u n d in c o n tro l

.
,

o f ci ti es in so u th e rn B abyl o n i a Wh il e spe c i men s o f thei r art have .

b een fo u n d as far no rth as the c i ty o f A sh u r S u me ri an co n tro l

‘1
,

d u ri ng the hi sto ri c al pe ri o d d id no t e xt e n d no rth o f K u tb a If the y .

e ve r h ad co n tro l o f Ki sh an d Opi s th ey l o st it j u st at the d aw n o f ,

hi sto ry to the Akk ad i an s A gade and B abylo n we re di sti nc tly .

S emi ti c ci ti es O ther i ndi c ati o ns o f a so u thern o rigi n are that thei r

.

d re ss co n si sted as n u m e ro u s statu e s an d reli efs sho w o f a skirt

, , ,

7—
whi ch l eft th e bo dy nu de fro m the wai st u p a typ e o f dre ss whi c h
har dly o ri gi n ated in a co l d c li m ate F u rthe r o n so lemn reli gio u s .
,

o ccasi o n s w h e n S um e ri an s w e re o fli c iating b efo re the go d s the y

, ,

1 F o r d e tails see S Lan gdo n , S u me rian Grammar,

. P aris , 19 11; F . D elitz sc h , S u mer
i sc he Grammatik , Le ipz ig, 19 14 : an d A Po e b el, Gr ammat ik der
. s u merische S prac he,
R o sto c k , 19 23 .

the spec im e n s o f b y S c heil in d e M o rgan

2 ’
Se e , e .
g .
, the lan gu age pu b lished s

Delegatio n en P erse , Vo ls . I II , V ,
VI, and X IV .

5
Cf de M o rgan ’
s Delegatio n en P erse, vo l . XI II w ith t he p o tt e ry pic t ured in d e
S arz ec
’
s Dé cou vertes en Ch lde
a e . S pec imen s o f b o th k in d s are pic t ure d in F ran kf o rt
’
s

S tud y f Po ttery
o i n the Anc i ent N ear E as t, I .

Cf the E lami te w rit ing o f th e earlies t tim e in Delegati o n en erse, vo l VI , wit h

. P .

th e S u me rian as se t f o rth in B art o n s Or igin and

’
evelopme nt of B ab ylo n ian Wr iti ng, D
Le ipz ig, 19 13 .

5
F o r atte mp ts to estab li sh a c o nn e c tio n see M T seretheli s art ic les
.
’
, S u m e ria n an d

Ge o rgian ,
”
in J RAS ,
19 14 , 1—36; 19 15 , 255—288 ; an d
19 16, 1 58 ; als o Au t ran ,
-
C .

“
S u flix es plu riels as ianiq u e s e t c au casians, in B ab ylo niac a, V
I I I , 19 24 , 59 fl , an d F . .

“ ”
B o rk , D as S u me risch e in k au k as is c he S p rach e , in OLZ , XXVI I ,
19 24 , 169 f .

5
Cf . WAn drae , Di e Archai sc he n I schtar empel in Assu r, L e ipz ig, 19 22, p 5 6 ;
.
-
T .

also S idn ey S mi th , E ar ly H i sto ry of Assyri a to the Y ear 1000 , Lo n d o n , 19 28 , c h VI . .

7
S e e , e g , th e p ict u re o f Ur Nin a an d his f amily o n th e plaq u e pic tu re d in d e S ar
. .
-

’
z ee s D C
éco u vertes en hald ee, pl 215 13 ; th e vario u s statu es o f Gu dea pic tu red in th e
.

sam e w o rk , and th e statu e o f Lu gald au d u in B ank s Bi smya, pp 19 1 f ’

. .
_
 NE I GHBOR S o r S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 37

di s c arde d all c lo th in g , an d w e re e n t rel i y n u de

?
If the y c am e fro m
th e so u th , the qu estio n when ce th ey mi grate d is a m o st in te re stin g
o ne S o m e h ave attem pte d re c en tly to fi n d the o rigi n al ho m e o f
.

th e S u m eri an s in the valley o f th e I n du s As lo n g ago as 19 12 .

three in sc rib e d se al s o f an u n u su al ch arac ter we re fo u n d at H arappa

o n th e R avi in th e Pen jab Sin c e 1924 the Arch aeo lo gi c al S u rvey
?

o f I n d i a h as e x c avate d b o th at H arapp a and at M o h enjo d aro in -

the Sin d o n th e I n du s in strat a f ar b elo w tho se whi c h yi e ld B u dd

,

hi sti c an tiquitie s sites in whi c h th ey h ave fo un d hu n dre ds o f in

,

sc rib e d o bj e c ts
3
A few o f the sign s in the se in scriptio n s (twenty
.

fi ve o u t o f 118 sign s) resem ble S u m eri an charac ters so clo sely that
, ,

if all the sign s were h arrn o m o u s wi th these w e sho ul d have no he si ,

tatio n in p ro no u n ci ng th e writi ng S u m eri an Th ese in scriptio ns .

were fo u n d in co nnec tio n with b ri c k b ui ldi ngs an d pavemen ts whi c h

c lo se ly re sem ble the b ri c k wo rk o f th e S u m eri an s in B abylo n i a o f
-

the pe io d o f t e thi rd dyn asty o f Ur 2400 2300 B C

r h — These fac ts .
,

h “
taken to get e h ave le d so m e en th u siasti c stu den ts to co nn ec t th e
r

b eginni n gs o f c ivilizatio n in I n di a with the Sum erian s As ninety .

three o u t o f 124 ch aracters in seven ty tw o i n sc ri tio n s whi ch th e

p
-

pre sen t w riter o n ce stu d i ed do n o t re sem ble S um eri an c h arac te rs

at all so m e o f them resem blin g H i tti te hi e ro glyp h s mo re an d so m e
, ,

o f them ch arac ters in e arly C h i n ese wri ti ng whi le o n e o r tw o re ,

sem ble E gyp ti an hi ero glyp h s the i n s cr ip ti o n s c an no t b e S u m e ri an

5
.
,

A go o d example o f thi s is afi o rd ed b y the p laq u e f ro m Nippu r p u b lishe d in Hil

1

’
prech t s Old B abylo ni an I nsc ripti o ns, Pl X V I , an d o ften repro du c e d elsew h ere . .

2
Th y w e e re p u b lish e d b y Arthu r V enis in ,
19 JRAS
12, pp
6 9 9 —7 03
’

. .

Si J M arshall s F irst Ligh t f ro m a L o ng F o rgo t ten Civili

’ “
S o hn article , z ati o n
3
ee r

D
Ne w isc o veri es o f an Un k n o wn Pre;l 1i sto ric art o f I n dia, in he I llu strated L o ndon P ”
T
New s , S ept 20, 1924 , p 5 28 ; also the issue fo r J an 7 , 19 28 , pp 12—
_

. . 15 , an d The Arc haeo . .

lo gic al S u rvey of I ndi a, Annu al R eport, 19 22—23 , pp 102—104 ; 19 23— 24 , pp 4 7 — 54

an d pl X IX ; 19 24—
. .

25 , pp 60 80 an d pls XX I I ! XX V II I
'
-
. . . .

4
P
ro f e sso r A H S ayce fi r st c all ed atten tio n to th e S u m erian r e sem b lan ces in an
. .

article in The I ll u strated L o nd o n News

S ept 27 , 19 24, p 5 66 H e w as f o llo w e d b y
of . . .

C I Gadd an d S idn e y S m ith in th e sam e o u rn al f o r Oc t 4 , 1924, pp 6 14 , 6 15

. . T he j . . .

hi nt th u s given w as tak en up b y L A Wadd ell in hi s b o o k he I nd o S u merian S eals

. . T -

D ec i phered ,
L o n d o n , 19 2 —
5 a b o o k th o ro u ghly u n so u n d in m e th o d . V aidy an ath a
Ayy ar, an I n dian sc h o lar, b u ildin g on Waddell s w o rk ’
, pu b lish e d in at M adras,
a b ook The S u mer i an Origi n of the Laws of
en title d o f w hi c h i s M anu — th e tren d
su fli c ien tly in d ic a te d b y i ts ti tle T he last tw o w o rk s ce rtainly are b ase d o n u nre ali ty
.
.

5
T he w riter h as c arefu lly c o mpared th e sign s in th e se I n di an seals wi th hin ese , C
E lami te , S u me rian , E gyp tian , H ittite , re tan , an d C Cyp i r o te c h arac te rs, an d h as no

hesitatio n in sayin g that it is in d epen den t o f th em all . Hi s c o nc lu sio n s h ave b een p u b

 38 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI N S

T hey rep rese n t an inde pe nde n t e vo l u tio n o f pi c tu re wri ti ng as -

,

i ndepe nde nt o f all o the r sy stem s as the C hi ne se E lam i te S u me ri an , , ,

E gyp tian Hi tti te and C re tan sy ste m s are i ndepe nde n t o f o ne

, ,

ano th e r T he I ndi an o ri gi n o f the S u me ri an s c anno t b e predi c ated

.

o n the b as i s o f th e se d isco ve ri e s Po ssib ly there w as an i nte rc hange o f .

co mm e rce be tw e e n S u mer an d the I n d us w h i c h le d to the ado pti o n ,

o f a fe w S u me ri an ch ar ac te rs b u t it is n o t n e c es sary to su ppo se e ve n ,

th at fo r the rese m blan ce o f a fe w c harac te rs in the tw o sy ste m s m ay

,

b e ac ci de n tal j us t as the re sem bl an c e be twee n so me o f these I nd i an

,

ch arac ters an d C hi nese an d H i tti te m u st b e ac c i d e n tal .

I f w e c anno t c o n n e c t the H arappa an d M o he n jo d aro seal s wi th -

the S u m e ri an s w e have no e vi den c e c o nnec ti ng the S u m eri an s wi th

,

I ndi a Of co u rse they m ay have o ri gi nate d in so me I ndian ce n te r

.

fu rthe r aw ay than th e I nd u s tho u gh that is no t p ro b able O the rs , .

have th o u gh t o f so m e po i n t o n the sho re s o f Pe rsi a ac c e ssibl e by ,

w ate r to so u th e rn B abylo ni a ; the o nly d i ffi cul ty w ith thi s theo ry

is th at w e kno w o f no ce n te r in that regio n w he re trace s o f su c h a
ci viliz ati o n h ave b ee n fo u n d As pl au sible a theo ry wo u l d b e tha t .

th ey o ri gi nate d in O m an in e as te rn Arabi a an d th at the c uri o u s ,

peo pl e in th e mo u tai ns o O m an w o acco rdi ng to Harri so n

n f h ‘
, , ,

stil l ado re the ri si ng s u n wi th religi o u s ex e rc i se s in an u n kn o wn

to n gu e m ay b e thei r de sce ndan ts

,
I t is po ssible that su c h a p eo pl e .

mi ght h ave de sce n de d f ro m su r vi vo rs o f p al aeo li thi c m an w ho , ,

d u rin g the flo o d s at the e n d o f th e gl ac i al e po c h su rvi ve d in the ,

lishe d in V o lVI I I o f the Ann ual o f the Am e rican S c ho o ls o f Ori e n ta l R ese arc h; a c o m
.

parati ve tab le o f th e signs is p u b lis he d in V o l X I nflu en ce f ro m the I nd u s o n ea ly . . r

S u m e rian art has b een su gges te d to S idn e y S mi th , ( E arly H isto ry oj Assyria to 1000 B C .

Lo ndo n , 19 28 , pp 49 b y the . re se mb lan ce o f a b u ll p ic tu re d

fo u n d b y o n a se al

Wo o lley at Ur ; ( The Antiq ua ries J

o u rnal , V o l VI II , No 1, J an 19 28 , p 26 an d pl
. . . . .

XI , no . to the p ic tu re s o f b u lls o n th ese I ndi an se als I t is do u b tf ul, ho w e ve r,

.

w h e th e r the cha rac te ris tics re fe rred to may no t b e d u e to p syc ho lo gical similarity ,
sin ce th ey appear also o n a pre hi sto ric E gyp tia n plaq u e , ( se e d e M o rgan , Prehisto ire
or i ental e, II , If the re is a co nn e c tio n , it is di ffi c ul t to think of its havin g o riginate d
in In dia . Th e fu ll pu b licatio n of a th o u san d insc rip tio n s in S ir J o hn M arshall s M o ’

henj o- da ro and the I nd us Ci ili

v z atio n , 193 1, is n o w availab le . An e xa minatio n o f th e m
co n fim
r s th e o p in io n e xp resse d in 19 28 .

1
P . W
Harriso n , The Arab at H o me , Ne w
. o rk , 19 24, p 9 9 S e e also Be rtra m Y . .

T ”
h o mas , Th e S o u th E as te rn B o rde rlands o f R u b a al Khali in The Near E as t, Lo n
“
-

do n , D
ec e mb er 6 an d 13 , 19 28 ; also Ra thje ns in th e same o u rna l f o r an u ary 10 ,C . j J
19 29 , p 39 . an d H St
. .
JP
hilb y in the issu e o f J an 17 , 19 29 , p 7 7
. . . . Th ese gentle me n
think the no n -
S e mi ti c peo ple o f w h o m th ey fin d trac es , Hami tes .
 NEI GHB OR S OF S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 39

m o u n tain s Om an Un til w e have m o re evi den ce thi s th eo ry

of .
, ,

ho we ve r ill su ppo rted is as go o d as any o the r ,

.

Ho wever, b efo re c o mm i tting o u rselves to any theo ry w e sho u ld ,

ask wh eth e r th e ex ami n ati o n o f sku l ls fro m an c i en t to m b s affo rd s

u s an y e vi de n ce o f th e rac i al affil i ati o n s o f th e S u m erian s Up to .

th e pre sen t ti m e th e re sults o f tw o su c h i n ve stigatio n s are available :

“

L H D u d le y B u xto n s exami n atio n o f the skull s fo u n d by M ac kay

. .
’

at Ki sh an d S ir A rth ur Ke i th s stu dy of tho se fo u n d by Wo o lle y

1 ’
,

at Te ll el Ob ei d -? -

At Ki sh eigh t skul l s were fo u n d in a p rehi sto ri c to m b Of these .

,

fi ve B uxto n fo u n d to b e do li c ho cephali c in type co nsisten t in fo rm ,

an d co m p arable to th o se o f the pre d yn asti c E gyp ti an s tho u gh -

,

wi th certain m in o r d iff eren ce s T w o o f th e sku ll s w ere b rachi .

o ceph alic o r ro u n d h e aded T h e b rachi o c ephals are divi de d by .

ethno lo gi sts i n to tw o c l asses On e is re pre sented by the Alpin e an d .

o the r we ste rn races the o th er by the M o ngo lo id s

,
T he ro u n d .

he ade d sku lls fro m Ki sh resem bled the we stern rather than the
e aste rn typ e B uxto n thin k s the do li cho cephali c sku lls at Ki sh
.

were t ho se o f S emi tes while the ro u n d he aded skulls he thi nks ,

-

b elo nged to Su m eri an s Th e in dispu table fac ts o f impo rtan ce are .

the di ff ere n ces in the typ es o f th e sku ll s B efo re accepting B ux .

to n s in terp re tatio n o th er fac ts sho u l d b e co n sidered S ir Ar thu r

’
.
,

Keith s in vestigatio n is b ase d o n an exami n atio n o f tw o gro u p s o f

’

skull s ; o ne fro m T ell el Ob ei d b u ri ed at the ve ry d aw n o f hi sto ry

- -
,

by a peo ple w ho emplo ye d the S u meri an l angu age an d script an d ,

w ho were presu m ably the re fo re S u m e ri an s ; th e o ther fro m a c em e

, ,

—
te ry at Ur co n tain ing b o di e s fro m 1900 17 00 B C b u ri ed by p eo ple . .
,

w ho spo ke Akkadi an Ke ith fo u n d th e Su merian s to b e do licho

.

c eph ali c wi th l arge b rai n c ap ac i ty Thei r skul l s resem bled re .

m ark ab ly tho se o f the pre d yn astic E gyp ti an s de scribe d by M o ran t - 3

,

an d Kei th th i nk s th at so m ati cally the Su me ri an s an d the pre dyn as -

tic E gy p ti an s h ad a c o mm o n an cestry H e al so regard s th em as .

belo ngi ng to the same race whi ch to day o ccu pies M eso p o tami a .

I t go es wi th o u t sayi n g th at th e p resen t p o pu latio n o f I raq is l argely

S emi ti c an d Arabic sin ce to o u r c ertain kno wled ge it has been o ve r
,

1
P u b lish ed in Langdo n , Ki sh, P aris, 19 24, pp . 115 —125 .

2
P u b lished in H all an d Wo o lley , Al—Ubaid , pp 2 14 —
‘
240 . .

3
B i ometrik a, 19 25 , p 1 ff . .
40 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

ru n wi th w ave a fte r w a ve of S e m i te s fo r the l ast 5 000 ye ars . He

fo u n d he re no trac e o f the ro u nd - he ad e d
M o ngo lo id ty pe Hi tti te or .

T he sk u lls f ro m the S e m i ti c c e me te ry at Ur 190 0 17 00 B C w e re ,

-
. .
,

o f th e sam e do lic ho c e ph ali c ty pe b u t p osse sse d a sm all e r b rai n

,

c ap aci ty T he i n h abi tan ts o f Ur at thi s pe ri o d we re appare n tly

.

in i n telle c t c o ns ide rab ly i n fe rio r to the pe o p le o f Te ll c l Obei d o f - -

tw o th o u san d y e ars e arli e r So fa r as the te s ti m o ny o f the sk u l ls

.

e n ab les o ne to te l l ho w e ve r the y b el o n ge d to the s am e race

, , We .

k no w o n ly f ro m the te sti m o ny o f the i nsc riptio n s that they we re

pe o pl es spe aki ng l ang u age s in no w ay rel ate d to o ne ano the r .

T hese re su l ts are s triki ngly di ff e re n t f ro m B uxto n s fo r B ux to n ’

,

tho u gh t th e S u m e ri an s ro u n d he ad e d I t m u st b e rem em be red .

that B ux to n w as no t gui de d by i nsc ri ptio n s in assi gni ng his sk u ll s

to race s and th at si n ce he w ro te o u r k no wl edge o f the el em e n ts
, ,

w hi ch migh t at this pe ri o d e n ter i n to a M eso po tami an raci al mix

tu re h as be e n i n c re ase d
,
T he rese arc he s o f C hi e ra an d Spei se r have
.

sho w n th at the ro u n d he ade d p re d e cesso rs o f the H u rri

-
we re in ,

th e Tigri s valley I t fo llo w s th at i n di vi d u al s o f thi s rac e mi gh t

.

e as ily h ave be e n b u ri e d in a pre hi sto ri c to m b at Ki sh If w e .

as si gn B uxt o n s ro u n d h e aded sku ll s to thi s rac e as do u b tl e ss w e

’
-
,

o u gh t to do it fo llo w s that his do li c ho ce phali c skull s fro m Kish

,

migh t b e e i th e r S u m e ri an o r S e mi ti c We co ul d o nly decide if .

w e h ad wri tte n m ate ri al f ro m the sam e stratu m .

T he i n vestigatio n o f S ir A rth u r K ei th o pen s th ree po ssib ili ti es .

Ei the r the l ater i nhabi tan ts o f E l Ob eid were S emi tes w ho em plo ye d
-

the S u m e ri an l an gu age o r the su b stratum o f the po p u l ace w e re

,

S emi tes w ho we re do mi n ate d by a fo reign rac e o f hi ghe r c u l tu re a

race w hi ch h ad i m po se d its l an gu age wi tho u t b ei n g su fli c ie n tly

n um e ro u s to ch an ge th e rac i al typ e— o r th e S u m e ri an s we re t hem

selve s de sce n de d f ro m the d o li c ho ce p h ali c m e n o f p al aeo li thi c ti m e ,

w ho had survi ve d in so m e m o u n tai n f astn ess f ar f ro m the H ami ti c

S emi ti c cen te r and h ad develo pe d an e n ti rely di ff e re n t l angu age

,
.

Of th ese three po ssibili ties the l ast seem s to th e p resen t wri ter m o st
,

p ro bable T he ro u n d heade d peo pl es c am e f ro m th e n o rt h We

.
-
.

have already see n re aso n to th i nk that the S u m e ri an s c am e f ro m the

so u th .I t is po ssibl e th at the i r ho m e l an d w as Om an o r w este rn -

Pe rs ia Pe rh ap s they we re alread y i nh ab itan ts o f e aste rn A rabia

.

wh en the S emi te s en te red its weste rn p art fro m Af ri ca .

 NEIGHB O R S OF S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 41

While w e po ssess lo n g lists o f B ab ylo n ian d yn astie s tw o f ac ts ,

r e ve n t u s f ro m fo rm i n g a c e r tain c hro n o lo gy o f its hi sto ry d u ri n g

p
its e arliest mill en n iu m s : the re are b re ak s in o u r c h ro n o lo gi c al
table ts an d w e do n o t k n o w h o w o fte n o r ho w m u c h th e d yn asti e s
“

o f di ffere n t c i ties t ere h in r r ,

rl
eco d e d o ve appe d o e a o t er
n n h ?
T he ,

c i vilizatio n o f E l— Ob eid fro m whi c h th e m ateri al exami ned by S ir

,

Arthu r Keith c am e were fo u n d in co n nec tio n wi th in sc riptio n s o f

,

a kin g o f th e fir st n o n — m y thi c al d yn asty o f whi c h th e c h ro n o lo gi c al

tablets give u s a re c o rd Thi s d yn asty rul ed as e arly as 3 100 B C
. . .
,

i l
an d p o ss b y as e a ly as 3 5r 0 0 B C D i g
u r n t h e s e aso n o f 19 2 —
7 28 .

Wo o lley fo u n d at Ur the ro yal to m b s o f a kin g qu een an d prin ce , ,

f
o a st i ll e a rli e r t i m e
— a tim e pre vio u s to th e re co rd s o f o u r c hr o n o

lo gi cal tablets Thi s pre histo ric mo narc h w as app are ntly Su meri an
.
-
,

fo r he bo re a S u m e ri an n ame M e s kalam dim an d he emplo ye d the

2
,
-

i
-
,

Su meri an s cript T he o bj ects o f silver an d go ld fo u n d in the se

.

to m b s we re o f m o st e xqu i site wo rkm an shi p e xh ibi tin g a m astery

“

o f th e tec hn i ca l d e tail s o f m an u f ac tu re an d a d egree o f t aste th at are

m o st su rpri si n g On e p e cu li ar h ead —
. dre ss o f rem ark able c h arac te r
resem ble s in te c h n iq u e o f wo rkm an shi p o ne fo u n d in th e se c o n d

stratu m at S u sa There m u st have b een in te rco u rse b etween th e se

3
.

two c e n te rs o f c i viliz atio n at thi s p e rio d A su rp risi ng fe ature o f .

these ro yal bu rial s w as th at se rvan ts l adi e s in waiting a harp ist , ,

wi th his h arp a chario t drawn by do n keys to ge ther wi th the

, ,

c h ari o te e r h ad all b ee n killed an d b u ri e d wi th the i r ro yal m aste r

,

an d mi stress Th ere were their skele to n s an d al so the c hario t an d

.

th e harp Ev i dently t he S u m erian s killed atte ndan ts that tho se

.

who m the y h ad served might n o t en ter the fu tu re life u natten ded .

I t w as kn o wn b e fo re th at so me o ther p eo ple s h ad had; s u ch a c u sto m ,

b u t th i s is th e first evi de n ce kno w n to u s th at the S u merian s prae

tise d it .

Ou r xt exten de d kn o wle dge o f the S um eri a

ne .
n s is d eri ve d f ro m

the e xten sive rec o rd s fo u n d at L agash ( Te llo h ) by d e S arz ec an d

C ro s Here a pro spero u s ci ty—state flo u ri sh e d f ro m abo u t 3 10 0 to

.

2800 B C S o m etim es its ru lers were i n d epen den t kings (E n k hegal

.
,

Ur Nin a E an atu m an d Ur u k agin a) an d o n e o f them co n qu e re d

-
, , ,

1
S ee B arto n , R o yal I nscriptio ns of S u mer an d Ak k ad , App en d ix I .

2
J
S ee M us eu m o u rn al, M arch , 1928 , p 9 . .
‘

Wo o lley re ad s it M es k alam—
-
du g .

3
S ee Delegati o n en P erse, VI I , pls VI II . an d IX .
42 S EM ITI C AND HA M ITI C ORI GI NS

E lam .
‘
T he
i iliz ati o n o f thi s s tate w as o f a ve ry hi gh o rde r Sil
c v .

ve r an d go ld w e re w ro u gh t i n to ar ti s ti c o bj ec ts an d a hi ghly o rgan ,

iz c d state wi th a k ee n co n s c io u s ne ss o f so ci al j u sti ce e xi s te d T he .

wo rk m an ship o f the o bj ec ts fo u nd sho w s as di d th e o bj e c ts fro m ,

th e to m b o f M es k al am dim at Ur a s tate o f c i vi lizati o n c o nsi de r

- -
,

ably m o re ad van c e d th an th at o f th e s am e d ate in E gyp t Abo u t .

28 00 B C Lagash w as sack e d by the kin g o f E re c h w ho w as in his

.
, ,

tu rn o ve rth ro w n tw e n ty fi ve ye ars l ater by the great S argo n o f

,
-

Agade F o r a hu nd red y ears o r m o re S argo n and hi s suc ce sso rs

.

su bj u gated th e w ho le S u m eri an c o u n try as w e ll as d i sta n t E lam .

Later u nde r th e no mi nal sway o f a d yn as ty o f the G u ti a peo pl e

, ,

fro m th e hill s e as t o f th e Ti gri s o f w ho m w e k no w l ittl e the pro s ,

pe rity o f Lagash re vi ve d Thi s w as the pe ri o d w he n the great

.

Pate si G u d e a flo u ri shed
, ,
?
T he b ui l din gs w hi c h he e rec te d the ,

n u m e ro u s statu es wi th w hi ch he ado rn e d th em an d th e wi de ,

ext e n t o f te rri to ry fro m w hi ch he dr ew m ateri al s fo r hi s co n stru e

tio ns all testif y to th e p eace fuln ess o f the ti m es an d the e xi ste n ce

,

o f an e xte n si ve an d p ro s pe ro u s co mm erce T he ro yal ch ro ni c l es .

,

w hi ch u nder e arlier r ulers had bee n sti ff an d u n ado m e d co mpo si

tio n s be cam e in G u dea s rei gn reco rd s highly li terary in charac ter
’
,

an d ado rn ed wi th telli ng si mile s ?

T he vari o u s art s o f the e arlie r
tim e w e re co n ti n u ed in a state o f high e x cell en c e B e twee n 2400 .

an d 2300 B C th e c i ty o f Lagash w as su bj ec t to the k ings o f the

.

thi rd dyn asty o f Ur Thi s dynasty w as S um eri an an d w as the l ast

.
,

gre at e m p ire the S u m eri an s p ro d u ce d D uring its sway o f 117 .

,

ye ars there w as a revi val o f en th u siasm fo r S ume ri an c ul tu re I t .

is f ro m th e i n sc ri pti o n s o f th i s peri o d th at w e fir st fi n d th e n am e
S um er applie d to so u th ern B abylo ni a Af te r the fall o f the thi rd .

d yn asty o f Ur th e po li ti cal su p rem ac y o f B abylo ni a pas sed i n to th e

h an d s o f ano ther rac e T he p ro cess w as a grad u al o n e : it to o k
.

150 to 200 y ears to ac c o m pli sh it b u t by th e time o f H amm urabi , ,

abo u t 2 100 — 205 0 B C it w as c o mple te an d th e S u m eri an s w e re

. .
, ,

su b m e rged b y o th ers in th e B abyl o ni an rac i al m e l ti n g po t .

F o r a sk e tc h of th e his to ry see L . W
. King , A H is to ry of S urner and Akk ad , Lo n do n ,
19 10 ; f o r th e insc ri p tio ns w hic h give th e inf o rma tio n , B art o n , The R o yal I ns cr i ptio n s
of S u mer and Ak k ad , Ne w H ve n , 19 29
a .

2
S ee the re fe re n ce s
in the p re c e ding n o te
S ee B arto n , Ro yal I ns cr iptio ns of S u me r and Akk ad , pp 204—
.

5
25 5 . or I M . . Pi r ce ,

C
The Gr eat ylind er I ns criptio ns A B of Gud ea, Le ipz ig , 1927 .
 NEI GHBOR S OF S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 43

D u rin g the 20 00 ye ars o r mo re o f Su m eri an hi sto ry o ther S u m

eri an m o n arc h ie s th an tho se o f Ur an d L agash flo u ri sh e d We o btai n .

lim p se s o f th em in th e reco rd s th at h ave b een re c o vere d b u t at

g pre s ,

e n t o u r k no wle dge o f S u m e rian c ivi liz atio n an d art is d e ri ve d m ai n ly

fro m the exc avatio n s o f th ese tw o c i ties .

T he S u me ri an s we re the l ead ers o f the B abylo n i an c ivi lizatio n .

App arently the y received so m e stimu lu s fro m Elam the c ivilizatio n ,

o f w hi c h the y fo u n d in so u thern B abylo n i a u p o n the i r arri val .

Ne vertheless th eir o w n c u ltu re w as o rigin al I n the 15 00 ye ars .

o r mo re b e twe e n 3 5 00 an d 2000 B C the y develo p e d n o t o n ly a

.
. .
,

d egree o f m aste ry o f the arts o f life e xtrao rd in ary fo r that p e rio d o f

the wo rld b u t wo rked o u t the p ri n ci ple s o f so c ial o rgan iz atio n in a
,

remark able m ann er em b o d yi n g it in law s whi ch

,
c o lle c te d by the ,

gre at S emi tic king Ham m u rabi b ec am e the famo u s co de wh i c h ,

bears his nam e Du ring th is perio d to o they develo ped an ex

.
, ,

te n sive m y tho lo gi cal li tu rgi c al and m agi c al li teratu re whi ch ex

, , ,

erte d a great in fluen ce u p o n all neigh b o ring n ation s I n sho rt .

,

th e S u m e ri an s b ec am e the patte rn o f c ul tu re fo r all we stern A si a .

Thei r cu l tu re w as b o rro we d by the S emites w ho u ltim ately co n

quered and ab so rb ed them T he Sum erian langu age w as the .

spe e ch o f li tu rgy an d hym n o lo gy lo ng after it cease d to b e sp o ken

in B abylo n i a j u st as L atin w as in we ste rn E u ro p e an d w e have

, ,

copies o f h ymn s w ri tten in it th at were m ade in the first cen tu ry

befo re C hrist As a fac to r in h isto ry h o wever th e S umeri ans

.
, , ,

e xcep t fo r th ei r c u ltu re di sapp e ared ab o u t 2000 B C

,
.

THE H URRI AND M I TANNI

R eferen ce has l y b een m ade to the fact tha

a re ad _
t a pottery 1
,

iden tic al in typ e wi th th at o f th e seco n d stratu m at S u sa w as ,

fo u n d at Tell edh D h iyab b e tween th e fo o thi ll s o f the Zagro s m o u n

- -

tain s an d Jeb e l H am rin in th e sou theastern part o f what w as an c ien t

Assyria at Ko u yu n jik the si te o f an c ien t Nin eveh an d at C arche
, , ,

mish I n re c en t years a series o f d isco veries has re vealed to u s

.

so m e thi n g of th e su c c e sso rs o f the p eo ple w ho m ad e thi s po tte ry ,

if n o t o f th e p eo ple them selve s I n1906 the late P ro fesso r Wi n c kl er

.

d is co vere d the n o w fam o u s archi ve o f c u n e ifo rm table ts at B o gh az

Ko i in Asia Min o r an d he had no t go n e far in hi s re adin g o f th em
,

1
S ee ab o ve , p . 33 .
44 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C O R IG I NS

b e fo re he fo u n d re fe re n c e s to t he H u rri , peo ple w ho d we lt in

a

U ppe r M e so po tami a to the E as t o f the , E u phrate s I n the same .

ins c ri ptio n s m e n ti o n w as m ade o f t he M i tanni a ki ngdo m wi th ,

w hi ch T ho thm e s I I I o f E gy pt h ad fo ugh t in the fif tee n th ce n tu ry

B C and w hi c h fro m hi s c h ro n ic le s w as k no w n to e xte n d e as t o f
. .
,

t he E u p hr ate s I t appe a re d f ro m the re co rd s at B o ghaz Ko i that

.

the H u rri l ive d s ti ll fu rthe r to the e as t appare n tly in the regi o n in ,

w hi c h w as the b ibli ca l H aran Am o ng the l e tte rs fo u nd at E l .

A m arn a in Egyp t in the wi n te r o f 188 7 88 the re we re so me l e tte rs -

f ro m D u shr atta a ki ng o f t he M i tan n i to A m e no p his I V o f E gyp t

, , .

On e o f these w as in the M itan ni an lan gu age and has be e n de ci p here d ,

by th e l abo rs o f M e sse rsc hm id t and B o rk

l 2
F ro m thi s l e tte r w e .

l e arn that the M itan ni an l angu age w as nei th e r an In do E u ro pe an -

no r a Se mi ti c to n gu e b u t be l o n ge d to so m e o th e r family o f spee c h
,
.

We fu rth e r le arn fro m the texts fo u nd at B o ghaz Ko i that the

M i tanni ans we re re al ly H u rri fo r M attiu az a a so n o f D u sh ratta , , ,

in a t re aty wi th S u b b iluliam a k i n g o f the Hi tti te s twi ce e m plo y s , ,

“ ”3
the p hrase w e H u rri I t th u s be co m es c l ear that th e H u rri w ere
.

n e i th e r S emiti c n o r I n do E u ro pe an T hi s last statem en t nee ds

-
.
,

ho we ve r a li ttl e m o d ifi ca tio n fo r am o ng th e m an y go ds that are

, , ,

i n vo k ed in the so lemnizatio n o f tre ati e s be twee n th e Mi tan ni an d

th e Hi ttite s I n dr a Varu n a an d Mi tra
,
4
th ree Ary an d ei ti e s are
, , ,

i nvo ked I t is acco rdi n gly c l ear th at th ere w as an Ary an eleme n t

.

am o n g the Mi tann i b u t thi s ele m e n t w as n o t su fli c ie n tly n um e ro u s

,

to im po se its spee ch u po n th e n ati o n T he p rese n ce o f this e le .

me n t is ho we ve r signifi can t
, In spi te o f its pre se n ce the H urri
,
.
,

we re o verwhelmi ngly n o n I n do — E u ro pean -

.

I n th e sprin g o f 1925 P ro fesso r C hi era then P ro fe sso r in ch arge ,

- -

o f th e Am e rican S ch o o l o f Ori e n tal R ese arc h at B agh dad co n d u c ted ,

an e x ca v ati o n in th e m o u n d o f T ark alan n e ar th e m o d e rn to wn o f ,

Ki k k
r u in th e co u n try to th e so u th east o f M o sul 5
F ro m a ho u se .

M ille rlrm gm der oo rderas ial is che Ges ellschaf t 1899 H ef t 4

'

1
, ,
.

Die M ita n n is prac he in th e M ittei lu ngen dc r vorderas ial is c he Ges ellschaf t 1909
, ,
.

n i—n LU ; “ ”
In o n e case th e ph rase is e -
u
“
b ur ri -
, we me n of H u rri , in the o th e r

u i— TUR ; ”
e nu - N
[zu r ri
-
,
“
w e so ns o f H u rri ; see Keils chr ifltextc a us B o ghaz k oi , I , no . 3
re v . lines 4 1 an d 44 .

See K eils c hr iftlefi e a us B o ghaz k o i , I 1, re v .

,
55 , 5 6 . Varuna an d M i tre appea r

h e re in di vi d u al de ities Th e w o rd ilam , plural, is

’

n o t as , b ut c o llec tio ns o f spiri ts . a

in appo si tio n w i th ea c h o f th e m .

5
S e e B ullet i n of th e Ame rica n Sc h oo ls of Orien tal R esea rc h , no . 18 , 1 ii .
 NEIGHB OR S OF S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 45

whi ch he c e are d
l he reco vere d a o u t a b tho u san d table ts an d a co n

sid erab le a mo u n t of
which th e tabpo tter y . T he se al- im pressio n s

lets bo re revealed a type o f art di ffe re n t fro m e ith er th e B abylo n ian

o r A ssyri an A stu dy o f the texts i n fo rm s u s th at th e to wn in whi c h
.

the ho u se sto o d w as c alle d Nu z i, an d th at it w as in th e di stri c t of

Arapk h a, y m en tio ne d in so m e o f th e A ssyrian an n als the Arra

a c it ,

p a c hi tis o f P to lem y a n d t h e A rp ac h sh a d o f th e b o o k o f Gen e si s

, .

T he table t s we re w ri tte n ab o u t 15 00 B C in t h e A ssy ri an l angu age .

,

an d tho u gh o n ly th e b u si n e ss re c o rd s o f th e o wn ers o f the ho u se

, ,

re ve al c o n si d erab le hi sto ry o f i m po ta ce T he regio n had b ee n

1
r n .

expo sed to A ssyri an in flu en ce p ro b ab ly th ro u gh c o n qu e st fo r t h e , ,

table ts are w ri tte n in th e A ssyri an l an u

g g a e T h e A ssy ri an e xh ib it s .

m an y pho n e ti c pec u li aritie s as well as fo re ign i d io m s an d is c learly

c o m po se d by sc rib e s w ho se n ati ve spe e c h w as so m e thi n g o th er th an

the Assyri an to n gu e Fo rtu n ately fo r u s the Mitan n i an le tter o f

.

D u shratta m en tio n e d abo ve en ables u s to i den tify a n u m be r o f the

i di o m s as Hu rri We h ave eviden c e ac co rdi n gly that the Hu rri
.

se ttlem en ts e xte n d e d to th e e ast o f th e Tigri s an d so u thw ard as f ar

at le ast as th e m o de rn Ki rku k .

T e di sc o veri es at R as S hamra
h in no t e
r h r n h
P oe i c ia have
n
2
, ,

b ro u gh t to ligh t a temple o r ro yal lib rary whi c h c o n taine d sylla

b ar es o f Hurri an d Su m erian wo rds to gether wi th po em s o ne o f
l

, ,

whi ch b ears a co lo p o n co nnec tin g it wi th N aq me d king o f Ugari t

h 3
“

,
.

T he b egin ni n g o f th e co lo ph o n is lo st b u t it pro b ably state d th at ,

th e t able t b elo n ge d to hi s palace Sin ce it h ad b een kn o wn .

th at su c h a ki n gdo m situ ate d in n o rt e rn Ph oeni c i a h ad b een th e

h ,
5
,

su bj e c t o f c o rre spo n d e n c e b etween Hitti te an d B abylo n i an ki n gs .

Hu rri po ttery has b een fo u n d a t R as S am ra an d also at Tell B illa

h 6 7-

ab o u t twe n ty mi les e ast o f M o su l All Hurrian po ttery b e trays .

p re M -
y c e n e an ki n shi p 8
I t s eem s a c co rdi n g ly t h at .th e Hu rri an s , ,

1
S ee th e artic le o f Chi e ra an d S p eise r,
“
A Ne w F ac to r in th e Histo ry o f the An cien t
”
E as t , in th e An nu al o f the Am e rican S c ho o ls o f Orien tal R ese arch , V o l V I , pp 80 ff . . .

2
Cf S yri a,
. X
285 ii ; X I I , 1 ff an d 19 5 if , II I , 1 an d 113 fi . X fl . .

3
Cf S yri a,
.
, p
l I IIXII I .
_
XXV .

4
Cf Winc kle r, M i ttei lnngen der deu tschen Ori ent- Gesellschaf t, No 3 5 , p 24
. . . .

5
Cf L W King, Hi story of B abylo n , 19 15 , p 23 7 , an d S idney S mi th , E arly H i story
. . . .

f Assyri a to
o 1000 B C .
pp 249 , 25 6, 27 4 , an d M ap No 4 ( B ,
.
, . .

5
Cf S ch aefi er in
. S yri a, ,
X
285 if , an d X I I , 1 if .

7
S ee , eg ,. . Ameri can S cho ols of Ori ental R esearch, No 46 , p 4
B ulleti n
f o the . . .

3
T his inf o rmatio n c o mes to m e f ro m my c o lle agu e , ro f esso r E A S peiser, w h o h as P . .

give n j
mu ch atten tio n to th e su b ec t in co nne c tio n w i th hi s exc avatio n o f ell B illa T .
46 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

had p u she d i n to wes te rn A si a M i no r w he re they ca me in co n tac t ,

wi th n cean ci vi liza tio n and w e re the n p ushed e astward At ,

.

Ugari t ( Ras S ham ra) the y e s tabli she d a k i ngdo m w hi c h l as ted ti ll

abo u t 13 00 B C T he y we re p rese n t at Tell B illa abo u t 1600 B C
. .

an d a t N uz l 15 00 1400 B C -
.

Wi th th e clo se o f th e E l Ama rn a co rre spo nd e nce and the fall o f -

th e Hi tti te d yna s ty o f B o gh az Ko i w e l o se sigh t o f the H u rri an d ,

M i tan ni T he y we re ab so rbe d by th e A ssyri an s Amo ri tes t

. ni , ,

c ian s an d Aram zea n s amo ng w ho m th e H u rri se ttl ed

, ,
As wi ll ap .

e ar a t a l at o i n t H u rri bl o o d e n te re d by mixt u re i n to tw o o r
p er p ,

m o re im po rtan t S e mi ti c n ati o n s .

T HE H I TT I TE S AND THE IR NE I G H B OR S

T he s to r y of y o f a kn o wl ed ge o f the Hi tti tes and o f

the re c o ve r

th e ir e m p ei r at H i t ti te —c i ty th e m o d e rn B o ghaz Ko i is too well , ,

k no wn to b e re peated h ere 1
T he e xp lo rati o n o f the si te o f th e i r
.

c api tal c i ty an d th e reco ve ry o f a l arge arch i ve o f c u ne if o rm tabl e ts

by W in ck ler in 190 6 is al so well kn o wn and has be e n allu de d to

abo ve No t o nly o n w alls at B o ghaz Ko i b u t in m an y o the r places
.
, ,

fro m Se n djirli C arch e mi sh an d M aras h to M o u n t S yp il u s ha ve

, , ,

Hi tti te sc ulptures bee n fo un d Whil e th e te xts fro m B o ghaz Ko i .

are wri tte n in cun e if o rm an d so m e o f th em in S u m e rian an d Ak ,

k adi an th e l angu ages o f B abylo ni a man y o f th e s c u lptures whi ch

, , ,

rese m bl e in s tyl e an d mann er o f ex ec u ti o n th o se at B o ghaz Ko i ,

are ac co m pa ni ed by ins cr i pti o n s in a pe c u li ar so call ed Hi tti te hi ero -

”
glyph w hi ch has n o t ye t bee n dec iphe red M an y o f them are also .

ac co m pani ed by c arvings o f hu m an fi gures w hi ch h ave ro un d h ea ds

an d aq ui lin e n o ses I t is e vi d e n t fro m th ese pic tur es that th e

3
.

Hi tti tes be lo nged to the ro un d h eaded peo ple o f the n o rt h rath e r -

than to a sto ck kin dred to th e Ham ito Se mi ti c race On the w alls -

.

Fo r a b ri ef ac c o un t o f i t, see G A B arto n , Archaeo lo gy

. . and the B i ble , 6 th ed .
,

Phil d lphi
a e 19 33 , pp 85 —
a, 100 . .

Fo r e xa m ples o f th ese hi e ro glyp hs see L M esse rschmi d t,

. C or pus I ns c riptio n u m
H d t il ic aru m in th e hfi tleil u ngen def vord erasiatis c he Ges ellsc haf t, 18 99 , or C o w ley s
’

The H ill ites , Lo n do n , 19 20 , or C arl F rank , Die s o gena n nte n hatitis chen H iero glyphe n in
sc hr ifle n , Le ipz ig , 1923 . R efe re n ces to many o the r w o rk s w ill b e f o u n d in th e b o o k
ci te d in th e p recedi ng n o te .

Many o f thos e are re pro d u ced in M esse rsc hmi d t s

’
C orpus I ns criptio n u m H ettiti
c am m, an d in Gars tang The H ittztes , Lo nd o n , 19 10 ; H o garth an d Wo o ll ey s arche
’
s
'
’
C
m is h, Lo n d o n , Pt I , . 19 14 ; Pt II , 19 21; an d Bo t tie r s L Art hitti te, aris , 19 27
.
’ ’
P .
 NEIGHBOR S OF S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 47

of th ree Egyp tian temples

R am ses I I in scribed an illu strate d ac
co u n t o f hi s gre at b attle wi th M u w atallis o n e o f the ki n gs o f th e ,

o w er f u l d yn asty th at ru l e d a t Hi tti te c i ty f ro m ab o u t 1400 to 120 0

p
-

B C I n pi c tu ri ng the c o n glo m erate army whi c h fo llo we d the

.

Hittite king the Egyp tian artist po rtrayed so m e who se fe atu res
,

an d the shape o f who se h ead s resem bl e d tho se o f the Gree k s o f the

c l assi c al pe rio d an d o thers wi th the hi gh c he e k b o n es the slo pi n

, g ,

fo reh ead s an d pigtail s o f th e M o n go li an s

,
1
The se pi c tu re s b ear .

co n tem po rary evi den c e th at th e alli es th at m ade u p th e Hi tti te arm y

were c o mp o sed o f peo pl e o f wi dely diflere n t o rigin .

T h e testim o n y o f the arti sts o f R am se s I I is no w co n firm e d by

the te xts fro m B o ghaz Ko i fo r in tho se texts there are e xam pl e s o f ,

six l an gu age s b esi d es S u m e ri an an d Akkadi an First an d mo st .

impo rtan t there is the l an gu age o f Hi tti te c i ty whi c h w e c all -

,

Hi ttite b u t whi c h has b een c alled Kan ish M o st o f the m ateri al in

,
.

th e tab le ts n o t wri tten in Akk adi an is w ri tten in thi s to n gu e I t is .

an I n do E u ro pe an lan gu age o f the cen tu m o r w e ste rn I n do E u ro

-
, ,
-

pean gro u p the relatio n shi p o f whi ch to the o ther I n do E u ro pe an

,
-

l angu ages is hard to defin e 2

I t belo ngs to n ei th er the Aryan .
,

th e Grmco Lati n th e Sl avi c the Germ ani c o r the C el ti c gro u p

-
, , , .

I t se em s to h ave spli t o fl fro m the I n do E u ro pean li n gu i sti c stem -

earlier than an y o f the o th ers Perhap s w e sho u ld n o t call it a .

si ster l an gu age o f an y o f th em b u t a c o u si n ; n e ver the less it b e lo n gs

-

to the sam e fam ily an d its u se in A sia Min o r du ring the peri o d 1400
1200 R C se em s to pro ve that western I n do E u ro p ean s h ad en tere d
.
-

Asia Mino r at a time an terio r to thi s date Apparen tly they gaine d .

access to the co u n try aro u n d the w estern en d o f the Blac k S ea j u st

as Ary an s had en tere d Mi tann i f ro m th e n o r th o r e ast .

Kani sh w as no t ho wever the o rigin al l angu age o f th e Hi tti tes

, ,
.

I n e ighteen places in th e K an ish te xts pro verb s are qu o te d whi c h

1
S ee Garstang, The L and f
o the H itti tes , Ne w Y o rk , 19 10 , an d B arto n , Arc haeology
and the Bi ble, pl 10 , F ig 24 . . .

F o r o u tlin es o f H ittite gramm ar, see F Hro z ny , Die S pro che der H ethi ter , Le1pz ig,
2
.

J “
19 17 ; o h ann es F riedri ch , D ie h e thitisch e S prac h e ,
”
in Z D M G, B an d 7 6 , 1922, 153
17 3 ; E . F o rre r, “
D ie I nsch rif ten u nd S p rac hen de s H atti -
R e ic he s,
”
i bid .
,
174—
269 ;
G A B arto n , A H i ttite M an u al f o r B egi nn ers in hi s Hi tti te S tudi es , I ,
. . P i 1928 ;
ar s ,

an d E . T
S tu rtevant, Comparati ve Grammar of the H i tti te Langu age,
.

“
Phil d lphi a e a
”
193 3 . Th e n ame K an ish ,
th o u gh re ally in acc u rate , is e mp lo yed in the f o llo w ing
“ ”
page s to avo id th e repe titio n o f th e c lu m sy I n d o E u ro pean H itt ite
-
.
48 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

sai d to b e S c ho lars call this l angu age

hat ti li in
’
ar e - -
,
‘
Hi tti te .

P ro to H itti te and f ro m the e xam ples gi ve n it is c lear that it w as

-
, , ,

n o t an I n do E u ro pe an to ngu e T he wo rd Hitti te m e an s si lve r

‘
-
.

ite .
1 ’
S tu de n ts o f C hi ne se his to ry are fam iliar wi th the fac t that
so m e o f th e M o ngo l tri b e s o n t he no r th o f C hi na to o k n am es f ro m

m e tals T hu s w e hear o f the Liao o r I ro n Tartars and the Kin

.
‘ ’
,

o r G o l d T ar tars T he u se o f a n ame d e ri ve d f ro m a m e tal to

‘ 1 ’
.
,

g e th e r wi t h th e M o n g o lo id p ic t u re o n th e m o n u m e n ts o f R am se s I I ,

s tro ngly te m p t o ne to re gard the I ro to Hi tti te s as M o ngo l o i d s f ro m

’ -

c e n tral A si a Ho we ve r th is m ay b e the r uling dy nasty at Hi tti te

.
,

ci ty ( B o gh az Ko i) w as I nd o E u ro pe an At l e ast at tha t po i n t in -
.

A sia M i no r an I ndo E u ro pe an p eo ple had co nq u ered a n o n I ndo - -

E u ro pe an p eo ple an d w as ru li ng them .

A n u m b e r o f q u o tatio n s so m e 7 00 wo rd s in all are sai d to b e in , ,

th e Lu yy ish l angu age w hi c h h as wi th co n side rab le p ro b abi li ty , , ,

b ee n co nne c ted w ith th e n am e Ly cao nia an d Lycia a

I t w as p ro b .

ably th e to ngu e o f the p eo pl e w ho gave thei r n am e s to th ese regio n s .

T he tabl e ts co n taini ng thi s l angu age are m u ch b ro k e n an d m an y

li n es are i n co m ple te F ro m what c an b e m ade o u t o f it Lu yyi sh
.
,

appe ars to have b ee n an I n do E u ro pe an l angu age c lo sely aki n to -

K ani sh T he verb endi ngs are the sam e as in K ani sh an d it fo rms

.
-
,

its m e di o passi ve in th e sam e w ay

-
T he p rivilege s acco rde d the .

Lu yy ish peo pl e in th e Hi tti te l aw s al so i n di c ate a c lo se kin shi p ‘

.

There are also fo ur o r fi ve specim e ns in the B o ghaz Ko i table ts

o f a l angu age called B ali sh o r P ali sh The y co n si st o f p ro verb s ,
.

an d are gi ve n in bo th B ali sh an d K ani sh A nu m b er o f the B ali sh .

wo rds are i de n ti cal wi th wo rds in Lu yyish an d K ani sh I t is im .

po ssibl e at p re se n t to tell wheth er these are bo rro we d o r whe ther ,

B alish m ay also b e an I n do E u ro pean di alec t -

.

Twelve q u o tatio n s ab o u t 3 5 00 l ines in all are in the H urri lan

, ,

g g
u a e a lr e ad y m e n tio n ed an d fo u r tab le ts c o n tain bi ts o f th e M an d a
,

—
lan gu age a p eo ple w ho seem to h ave b ee n ho rse de alers an d ho rse
1 We k n o w th is b ecau se th e na me of Hittite c ity is-
o f te n w ritte n in th e te xts w ith
the S u m erian ideo gram fo r silve r , t hu s a lu
KU ti -
.

1
S ee , e .
g .
, Go w e n
’
s Outli n e o f Chi
H istory, B o sto n , 19 17 , pp 13 1 f
n es e . .

1
So P . Kre ts c hm e r, in Klei n as i atisc he F orschu ngen , e di te d b y S o mm er an d E helo lf ,
We imar ,
19 27 , p 16 . .

1
S ee th e c o de 19 , 20 , an d 21 in Hro z ny
’
s Cd o e hittite, P aris , 1922, or B arto n ,
Archaeolo gy and the B ible, 6 th cd .
,
19 33 , pp 406 ff . .
 NE IGHB OR S OF S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 49

traine rs . Th u s th e tab le ts a u n d an tl
b y co n firm the te stimo n y o f
th e sc u lptu re s to the pre sen ce in Asia M ino r at thi s tim e o f a gre at
m ixtu re o f rac es . All ap pear , ho wever so far as w e c an tell to h ave
, ,

b e en b rachi o ceph ali c .

E xcavatio n s at S akj e Geu z e reveal a c iviliz atio n th ere whi ch -

e xt e n ded bac k to ab o u t 3 000 B C D o u b tless thi s c iviliz atio n w as .

th at o f thi s m elee o f p eo ples T he Hi tti te s m ay no t have b een .

presen t am o n g th em at so e arly a date A B abylo n ian c hro n i cle .

ac c o rd s th e Hi ttites a part in th e o ve rthro w o f the fir st d yn asty o f

B abylo n so o n after th e year 1900 B C so that they mu st have been

l
. .
,

presen t in the regio n o f the u pp e r E u p hr ates fo r a c o n si derable

p e rio d b e fo re t h a t W o o l le y f o u n d a . c h an g e i n t h e t y p e o f ar t at
C arc hemi sh b efo re 2000 B C whi ch he attribu ted to the Hi ttites . .
,
2
.

—
D u rin g the perio d 1800 1600 they su rged so u th ward in to Palestine .

Thi s w as a part o f th at m o vem ent o f peo ples in we stern Asia th at

to o k th e Hykso s in to Egy pt So m e scho lars have even tho u ght .

th e Hyk so s Hi tti tes o r Hu rri B ibli cal tradi tio n places a Hittite .

in He bro n in th e day s o f Ab rah am an d Ab d i —Hepa ki ng o f Jeru

3
, ,

s alem in th e re ign o f Am en o phi s I V b o re a n am e th e sec o n d elem en t ,

o f whi c w as t e n ame o f a Hi ttite o r Hu rri deity :

h h 1

At E u yu k n o rth east o f B o ghaz Ko i Hi tti te sculp tu re s have b e en

, ,

fo u d o a e a li er an d c ru der type th an tho se o f B o g az

n f ,
n r h K o i 5
.

Perh aps thi s w as a settlem en t o f th e Pro to — Hi ttite s who m the ,

Kan i sh co n qu ered Then c am e th e great kingdo m o f Hi ttite city

.
-

at B o g a Ko i 140 0 1200 B C
h z
— I ts great so verei gn S u b b ilu liu m a
, ,
.
,

who se reign fell in the first half cen tu ry o i thi s perio d m ade exten
'

-
,

sive co n q u ests f ar to th e westw ard in A si a Mi no r th e n e astw ard , ,

su b du i n g the ki n gdo m o f Mi tann i o n th e E u p hrates an d so u th w ard ,

in to Syri a where he c am e in to co n tac t wi th the Amo ri tes F o r a

,
.

t me
i — a ce n tu ry o r m o re — hi s su c ce sso rs m ain tain ed a co n sid erab le
p o r tio n o f t h e p o w e r h e h a d w o n T hi s is th e p e r i o d o f Hi tt it e .

hi sto ry o n whi ch the archi ves o f B o gh az Ko i are she d di ng so m u c h

1
S ee L . W . Kin g , Ch ron icles C o nc ern i ng E arly B abylo n ian Ki n gs, Lo n d o n , 190 7 ,
I I , 22 .

2
S ee C archemi sh, Pt I I , b y
. C . L . Wo o lle y ,
Lo n do n , 19 21, p 24 f . .

3
Ge n e sis, if
—
.

4
S ee G A B arto n , Archaeo logy
. . and the B i ble, 6th , pp
44 1 444
cd . .

—
.

5 S e e M ac ridi B ey , in M i tteilu n gen der

-
vorder asi atische Ges ellsch f t,
a 19 08 , 3 La
P orte d es S phi n x a B u yu k .
48 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

ar e sa id to b e h S ch o lars cal l thi s l angu age

at-ti-li ,
‘
in H i tti te .
’

P ro to Hi tti te and fro m the e xam ple s gi ve n it is c l e ar that it w as

-
, , ,

no t an I ndo E u ro pe an to ngu e T he w o rd Hi tti te m ean s silve r

‘
-
.

ite .
1 ’
S tu d e n ts o f C hi nese hi sto ry are fam ili ar wi th the fac t that
so m e o f the M o ngo l tri b e s o n the n o r th o f C hi n a to o k n am e s f ro m

m e tals T hu s w e he ar o f the Li ao o r I ro n Tartars an d the Kin

.
‘ ’
,

T he u se o f a n ame d e ri ve d f ro m a m e tal to
’
o r G o l d T ar tars
‘ 2
.
,

th e r wi t h th e M o n go lo id p ic tu re o n th e m o n u m e n ts o f R am se s I I
g e ,

stro ngly te m p t o n e to re gar d the P ro to Hi tti tes as M o n go l o i d s f ro m -

c e n tr al A si a Ho we ve r thi s m ay b e the ruli ng dy nasty at H itti te

.
,

ci ty ( B o gh az Ko i) w as I n do E u ro pe an At l east at that po i n t in -
.

A sia M i no r an I ndo E u ro pe an p eo ple had co n que red a no n I ndo - -

E u ro pe an peo ple an d w as ru li ng them .

A n u m b er o f q uo tatio ns so m e 7 00 wo rd s in all are sai d to b e in , ,

th e Lu yy ish l an gu age w hi c h h as wi th co n si de rabl e pro b abi li ty , , ,

b ee n co nnec te d wi th the n am e Ly cao nia an d Ly ci a 3

I t w as p ro b .

ab ly th e to ngu e o i the peo pl e w ho gave the ir nam e s to these regio n s .

T he tabl e ts co n tai ni ng thi s langu age are m u ch b ro k e n an d m an y

lin es are i n co m ple te F ro m wh at c an b e m ade o u t o f it Lu yyish
.
,

appe ars to have b ee n an I n do E u ro pe an l an gu age c lo sely akin to -

K ani sh T he verb en di ngs are the sam e as in K ani sh and it fo rm s

.
-
,

its m e di o p assi ve in the sam e w ay

-
T he p rivileges acco rde d the .

Lu yyish peo ple in the Hi tti te law s al so i n di c ate a c lo se kin ship 4

.

There are al so fo u r o r fi ve specim e ns in the B o ghaz Ko i tabl e ts

o f a l an gu age call e d B ali sh o r P ali sh The y co n si st o f p ro ve rb s ,
.

an d are gi ven in b o th B ali sh an d K ani sh A num ber o f the B ali sh .

wo rd s are i de n ti cal wi th wo rds in Lu yyi sh an d Kani sh I t is im .

po ssible at prese n t to tell whether these are bo rro we d o r whe ther ,

B alish m ay al so b e an In do E u ro p ean di alec t -

.

Twelve qu o tatio n s abo u t 3 5 00 line s in all are in the H u rri lan , ,

u
g g a e alr ea d y m e n ti o n e d an d f o u r tabl e t s c o n tai n bi t s o f,
th e M an da
n a e
—
l gu g a peo pl e w ho seem to have b een ho rse de alers and ho rse
a

1 We k n o w this b ecau se th e n am e o f Hittite c ity is o f ten

-
w ritten in th e te xts wi th
th e S u m e rian ideo gram fo r sil ve r , th u s “N
K U ti -
.

1
S ee , e .
g .
, Go w e n
’
s Outli n e o f Chi
H istory, B o s to n , 19 17 , pp 13 1 f
n es e . .

1
So P . Kre tsc hm e r, in Klei n as i at is che F orsc hu ngen , e d ite d b y S o mmer an d E helo lf ,
We im ar ,
19 27 , p 16 . .

S ee th e c o d e 19 , 20 , an d 21 in Hro z ny ’
s Cd o e hittite, P aris , 19 22, or B arto n ,
Arche o lo gy and the B ible, 6th cd .
,
19 3 3 , pp 406 if
.
. .
 NEI GHB OR S OF S E M ITE S AND HAM ITE S 49

train e rs . Thu s the tabl e ts a u n dan tly c o n rm

b fi the te stimo n y of

th e scu l ptu res to th e pre sen c e in Asia M ino r at thi s tim e o f a great
m ix tu re o f races . All appe ar, ho wever so far as w e can tell to have
, ,

b een b rach io c eph ali c .

Excavatio n s at S akj e Geu z e re veal a c ivilizatio n there whi ch

exte n d e d b ac k to ab o u t 3 000 B C D o u b tless thi s c iviliz atio n w as .

that o f th i s m elee o f p eo ple s T he Hi tti tes m ay n o t have be en .

p rese n t am o n g th em a t so e arly a d at e A B abyl o n ian c hro n i c l e .

ac c o rd s the Hittite s a part in th e o ve rthro w o f th e first d yn asty o f

B abylo n so o n after the year 1900 B C } so that they m u st have b een

p resen t in the regio n o f the u pper E u ph rates fo r a co n siderable
p e rio d be fo re that Wo o lley fo u nd a c han ge in the type o f art at
.

C archemish b efore 2000 B C whi ch he attribu ted to the Hittites . .

,
2
.

D u ring the perio d 1800— 1600 they su rge d so u th ward i n to P ale stin e .

Thi s w as a part o f that m o vement o f peo ple s in we stern Asia that

to o k the Hyk so s i n to E gypt So m e scho lars h ave even tho u ght .

th e Hyk so s Hi tti tes o r Hu rri B iblical tradi tio n place s a Hittite .

in He bro n in the days o f Abrah am an d Ab di —He pa ki ng o f Jeru

3
, ,

salem in t e re i gn o f Am en o phi s I V bo r e a nam e the se co n d elem en t

h ,

o f whi c h w as th e n am e o f a Hi tti te o r Hu rri de i ty

4
.

At B u yuk n o rthe ast o f B o gh az Ko i Hi tti te scul p tu res have b ee n

, ,

fo u n d o f an e arlier an d c ru de r type th an tho se o f B o ghaz Ko i

,
5
.

Perhaps thi s w as a settlem en t o f the Pro to — Hi tti tes who m th e ,

Kan ish co n qu ered Then c ame th e great kin gdo m o f Hi ttite —c ity
.

—
at B o gh az Ko i 1400 1200 B C I ts gre at so vere ign S u b b ilu liu m a
, .
, ,

who se reign fell in the fir st half cen tu ry o f thi s p erio d m ade exten
‘

-
,

sive c o n q u ests f ar to th e w estw ard in A si a Mi n o r th en e astw ard , ,

su b du i n g the ki n gdo m o f Mi tan n i o n th e E u ph rate s an d so u thw ard ,

in to Syri a where he c am e in to co n tac t wi th the Amo ri tes F o r a

,
.

tim e — a c en tu ry o r m o re — his su cc esso rs m ai n tain e d a co n si d erab le

po rtio n o f the po wer h e h ad w o n Thi s is the perio d o f Hittite .

hi sto ry o n whi c h the arch ive s o f B o ghaz Ko i are she ddi ng so m u ch

1
S ee L . W . King , Chro n icles C o nc ern ing E arly B abylo n ian Ki ngs , Lo n do n , 190 7 ,
I I , 22 .

2
S ee C archemi sh, Pt I I , b y
. C . L . Wo o lley ,
Lo n do n , 19 21, p 24 f . .

3
Ge nesis, ff .

1
S ee G A B arto n , Arc haeology
. . and the B ible, 6 th , pp
cd
44 1— 444
. . .

5
S ee M ac ridi—
B ey, in M i tteilu ngen der ao rd eras i atisc he Ges ellschaf t, 1908 , 3 — La
P orte des S phi n x a E u yu k .
50 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C O RIG I NS

ligh t . T he L u yyish o f Ly c ao ni a , Pitas sa a c i ty w hi c h ap pears to ,

have b e e n in l si d i a , and A rzaw a , a re gi o n in so u thw e s te rn A si a

’

M i no r w hi c h i ncl u de d the c i ty Mi ra ( pe rh aps the later M y ra in o f

Ly ci a) as we ll as Zippas hla a re gi o n no r th o f Arzawa we re all
,
1
, ,

s u bj e c t to Hi tti te c i ty T he Lu yy is h w e re ki nd re d to t he Hi ttites
-
.

as w e ha ve see n and so appare n tly w e re th e pe o pl e o f A rz awa

, , ,
.

At l e as t a m an o f A rzaw a w ro te a l e tte r that is in the E l A m arna -

co l lec tio n an d it is in a l angu age p rac ti c ally i de n ti c al wi th K ani sh

, .

Wh e the r th e i nscri ptio ns fro m B o ghaz Ko i re veal to u s the pres

e n c e o f I o ni an s o r G ree k s in w e s te rn A si a M i no r d u ri ng th is ti m e ,

is a q ue stio n w hi c h m u s t p ro b ab ly b e an swe re d in the n egati ve .

Fo rre r has m ai n tai ned that Ac hze ans A treu s an d the name Le s bo s , ,

c an b e i de n tifie d in spi te o f the c u m b e rso me Hi tti te s pe lli ng

2
.

F ri edri c h w ho is a be tte r I ndo E u ro pe an phi lo lo gi an has ho we ve r

,
-
, , ,

sho w n tha t o f the se a n d o th e r n am e s w hi c h w e re take n fo r G reek

1
,

that o f the A c h aean s is the o nly o ne that w i ll s tand phi lo lo gi cal ly ,

and e ve n t hat m ay b e so m e thi n g e lse .

Af ter abo u t 1200 B C o u r so u rces fo r A sia Mi no r fail u s Whe n

. .
,

so m e c e n tu ri es later G reek so u rces re veal to u s glim pses o f thi s

,

lan d o th er c i viliz atio n s have su bm e rged the Hi tti tes Hi tti te o u t

,
.

po sts in the e as t su rvi ve d lo nger At S e n djirli there w as a c e n ter .

o f Hi tti te i n fl u e n c e u n til th e e i gh th c e n tu ry w he n it su cc u m b e d to ,

th e Ar am aea n s
1
Pe rh aps thi s w as al so the c ase at Ham ath At
.
‘

C arch em i sh a Hi tti te o r Hurri an ki ngdo m l asted u n til 7 17 B C . .

,

whe n it w as finally o ve rth ro wn b y S argo n o f A ssyr i a .

THE S T ONE AGE -

t N OF PALE S TINE

T he hi sto ry of m an in P ale sti n e b egan far b ac k in early palaeo li thi c

tim e . Sin ce 1925 the d isc o ve ries o f artif ac ts an d sk u lls o f the type
1
S ee A Go tz e , M add u w atai in M itteilu n gen der vorderas iatisc h aegyptisc hen Ges ell
.
-

—
sc haf t, 19 27 , 14 7 15 4 ; als o his
“ ”
Zu r Ge o graphi c d es H e thi te rre ic hs in S o mm e r an d
Klei nas ias tisc he F o rsc hu ngen , 108—114 On the c ity M ira in Arz aw a, se e the
’
E he lo lf s .

t rea ty o f Ku p an ta I narash in B arto n , H ittite S tud i es , No 1

’
-
E F o rr e r s argu m e n t , . . .

F o rsc hu n gen , B e rlin , 19 26 , pp 1—7 2, to sh o w t h at t he M y ra re fe rre d t o lay mu c h

.

f u rt he r east , is n o t c o nvin c ing .

“
1
S ee his ar tic le s V o rh o me risc h e Griec he n in d en Ke ilsc hr if tte x te n vo n B o ghaz k o i
in th e M itteiln ngen d er Ori ent Ges ellsc haf t, N r 69 , 19 24 , pp 1—
“
-
. . 22 an d Die G rie c hen
” -
T
in de n B o gh az k o i e x te n i n OLZ , 19 24, 113 —118 .

1
Cf his
. artic le
“
We rden in d e n h e thi tisc h e n Ke ils c h rif tte x te n die Grie c he n er
”
w a n n t? in S o mm e r an d E h elo lf
’
s Kleinas iatisc he F o rschu ngen , I , pp 8 7 10 7 .
-
.

4
S ee vo n Lu sc h au , A us grab u n gen i n Z endj irli , B e rlin , 1893—19 11 .
 NEI G H BOR S o r S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 51

of Ne an de rthal m e n as well as o f e arlier types b y Tu rville Pe tre -

,

M iss D o ro thy Garro d Pé re M allo n M R en é Ne u ville an d T D , ,

.
, . .

M c Co w n n e ar the S ea o f Galilee at S hu qb ah in Samari a in Wad y , ,

el M u gh arah an d Ath li t n e ar M o u n t C arm el in Wad

y Kh re itu n
-
,

in Ju d aea an d at T u leilat el Gh assu l ac ro ss the Jo rd an fro m Je ri c ho

,
-

h ave reveale d th at m an h ad an emsten ce in thi s lan d in preh i sto ri c

tim e as e arly as h e di d in F ran c e 1
.

B efo re Semi tes en tered Pale sti ne it h ad also been inhabi te d fo r

c en tu rie s
— —
ho w m an y w e do no t kn o w b y m e n w ho we re in the
n eo li thi c stage o f c u l tu re Of thi s race li ttle is k no wn . I n the .

h
n e ig bo rh ood o f A m m an e a st o f h
t e J o rd an a e e m ai n s o f m e a
r r ,
2
g ,

lithi c stru c tu re s which appear to b e th eir h an di wo rk Nu mero u s . .

“ ”
c ro ml ec h s m e n hi rs do lm en s an d gi lgals o r c i rc le s o f sto n e s
'

, , ,

stan di n g o n e n d whi c h are n o w fo u n d e ast o f th e Jo rd an b u t o n ce

“

, ,

e xi ste d in we ste rn P al ti a o were perh ap s al so their wo rk

es n e ls
3
, , , .

T h e m o st de fin ite kn o wle dge whi ch w e h ave o f the P ale sti n i an m en

o f thi s pe rio d co m e s fro m th e ex c av atio n at Gez er t ho u gh the m e n ,

o f Ge ze r m ay h ave b elo n ge d to a ci viliz ati o n d i ffe ren t fro m th at

o f th e m en w h o m ad e th e m egalith i c m o n u m en ts At Gez e r the .

n ative ro c k b elo w all th e strata o f c i ti e s w as fo u n d to co n tai n c av es ,

whi ch had fo rm e d the dwellings o f the se m en 4

S o m e were n atural .

c ave rn s o th ers h ad b een c u t o u t o f the so f t li m e sto n e ro c k wi th fli n t

,

implem en ts b y lo n g an d p atien t to il So m e o f these dwellings were .

ado rn e d wi th pic tu re s sc rat ch e d o n th e w alls Se veral o f the se .

were pi c tu res o f c attle an d o n e sho we d a field o f w avin g grain On e .

co w appeare d to h ave kn o b s o n h e r ho rn s to ke ep h e r fro m go ri n g .

Ano the r d rawi n g po rtrayed a stag th at w as be in g kille d with a b o w

an d arro w On e o f the cave s appe are d to b e a te mple
. I n thi s a .

n u mb e r o f pig b o n es we re f o u n d
— apparen tly th e rem a
-
l n s o f the i r

sac rifi ce s T he c o m m u n ity wh i c h oc c u pie d the se dwellin gs w as

.

cle arly co m po se d o f an agri cu l tu ral fo lk .

_
A po ttery he ad fo u n d in o n e o f the c aves whi ch m ay have b een a ,

1
For a b rief ac co u n t o f th e se disc o ve ries , e x c ep ting tho se of M c c o w n, w hi ch w e re

made in th e su mm e r o f 19 3 2, see W F Alb righ t, The Arc haeology of Pales ti n e and the
. .

B ible Ne w , Y
o rk , 193 1, pp 60 — 62 . .

2
. P
Cf M ac k e nz ie 111 th e An n u al o f the ale sti ne E x plo rati o n F u n d , I , p 1 if . .

3
Cf . P
E M ad er 1n . .
‘

Z
ei tsc hrif t der deu ts chen Palas ti na V erei n s , V o l XXXVI I ,
'

-
.

19 14 , pp 20 —44 . .

1
Cf M ac aliste r , The E xc avati o n f Gez er, I , L o n d o n , 19 08 , pp 7 2 15 2
‘ -
. o . .
52 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

ru d e po rtrai t o f the m e n o f G e ze r o f thi s perio d po sse sses a slo pi ng ,

fo re he ad w hi c h afl o rde d co m p arati vely sm all b rai n sp ac e and a

,
-
,

p ro tru d ing l o w e r jaw I n o ne o f the cave s w hi c h had bee n em

.

lo y e d a s a c re m ato ri u m the c harre d rem ai ns o f a n u m b e r o f bo n es

p ,

w e re fo u nd fro m w hi ch the l ate P ro fe sso r Al e xa nde r M acali ste r o f

, ,

C am b ri d ge U ni ve rsi ty de term i ne d that th e m e n w e re o f sm all

,

s tatu re ave ragi ng abo u t fi ve fee t s ix i nc h e s in hei ght an d that the

, ,

wo me n w e re so me three i nc hes sho rte r No sk ull bo ne s we re d is .

c o ve re d s u fli ci e n tly co m ple te to e n abl e o n e to d e te rmi ne w he the r

th ese an ci e n t m e n w e re d o li c ho ce p h ali c o r b rac hio c ep hali c T he .

slo pi n g fo re head an d the p ro gn atho u s jaw as w ell as thei r u se o f the ,

i a s a d o m e s ti c a n im al sho w th at they w e re n o t o f the S em i ti c

pg ,

sto ck .

Ex c avatio ns at J eru salem have b ro u gh t to light a sy stem o f c aves

abo u t th e Ain Si tti M i ri am the Bib li c al G iho n that w e re also in
, ,

habi te d abo u t the sam e ti me as the cave s at Ge ze r No bo nes o r .

sk ull s w e re reco ve re d wi th w hi c h tho se at G eze r c o u l d b e co m p are d

1
,

b u t sim il ari ty o f c u ltu re as w ell as sy nch ro n i sm m ak e it e xt rem ely

pro b able that the p eo ple w ho dwel t in the cave s ab o u t thi s an cie n t
water su pply so m e 5 000 years ago b elo nge d to the sam e race as
tho se at Ge ze r si n ce po ttery l ik e the earliest f ro m Ge zer has b ee n
,

fo un d o n th e M o u n t o f Oli ve s 2
Similar po ttery w as also fo u n d
.

by D r B ad e at Tell e n Nasb eh i n di cati ng that the sam e race had

.
-
,

a se ttl emen t th e re also As wi ll ap pear late r these tro glo dite s w ere
.

e xt ermi n ate d o r ab so rb e d by the o nco m i ng w aves o f S em i tes w ho

l ater o verran the co u n try an d thu s b ecam e o ne o f th e el em en ts in

,

th e m el ti ng po t fro m whi c h there u l ti m ately em e rge d th e I sraeli ti sh

n ati o n .

THE E ARL Y CRE TAN S

I n tak i n g i gh bo rin g peo ples w ho might h ave in

acco u n t o f t he n e

flu e n ce d th e de velo pm en t o f the Hami te s and S emi te s a wo rd

sh o uld b e sai d o f th e c i viliz atio n w hi c h de velo pe d in t he i slan d o f

C re te duri ng the n eo li thi c an d b ro nz e ages T he rem ain s o f thi s .

c i vi li z ati o n w hi ch re ac h e d a rem ark ab ly hi gh degre e o f d e velo p

,

1
S ee H u gh es Vin c e n t , J erus al em s o u s terre, P aris , 19 13 , an d the Annual of the P ales

i ne E xplorat io n F u nd , I V .

1
S e e th e w o rk o f Vinc en t c ite d in th e p rec e ding n o te .
 NEIG HB OR S OF S EM ITE S AND HAM ITE S 53

m e n t , have b e en fo u n d ites in th e e aste rn h alf o f th e i slan d at

at s ,

Go u rni a, Phae sto s, Hagi a Triad a Zakro P alaik astro an d Kno s , , ,

so s .
1
No
i de n c e ev th at m an e xi ste d o n the i slan d in the palaeo li thic
e ri o d h a s b e e n d i s c o v e re d b u t evid e n ce o f a lo n g co n tin u e d an d
p
-
,

slo wly d e velo pi n g n eo li thi c c i vi liz atio n i s ab u n d an t F ro m abo u t .

3000 to 2800 B C the C re tan c u ltu re passe d from the n e o li thi c typ e
.

to th e b ro nz e typ e an d b e tween 2800 an d 1200 B C Sir Arth u r ,

. .
,

E van s who m o th er scho lars fo llo w di stin gu i shes three di stin c t ,

.

p e ri o d s ea c h o f,
w h i c h f a ll s i n to th ree l esse r d i vi sio n s I n th e ab .

sen ce o f a c ertai n kno wle dge o f wh at the se C re tan s c alle d them se lve s ,
“
s ch o lars design ate the m M ino an s a n am e b ased o n the legen d o f ,
‘

Min o s T he e arly b ro nz e age perio d E arly Mino an c o rrespo n ds

.
, ,

ro u ghl y wi th the perio d o f th e Old Ki n gdo m in E gyp t ; Mi ddl e

Mino an wi th the Egyptian Midd le Ki n gdo m ; an d Late Mino an

, ,

wi th th e E gypti an Empire perio d No t o n ly th e se three l arger di vi .

sro n s b u t the n i n e sm alle r peri o d s are di sti n c tly m ark ed by vari a

,

ti o n s in the ty pes o f po tte ry m an u fac tu re d

2
.

As C re te w as n o t so f ar fro m Egyp t th at travel thi ther w as im

po ssible an d as at so me p erio ds i n terco u rse b etween the tw o c o u n
,

tries is certai n it b eco m e s a qu e stio n o f so me in tere st to asce rtai n

,

to wh at typ e the an c i en t C retan s b elo n ge d F o rtu n ately a nu m b er .

o f Mi n o an c em eteri es h ave b een e x cavate d an d th e sku ll s th ere

fo u n d give u s so m e i nf o rm atio n Unfo rtu n ately the script in wh i ch .

th e in sc rib ed o bj ec ts fo u n d in an ci en t C re te are wri tte n h as n o t b ee n

de c iphere d an d w e h ave n o lin gui sti c gu i de to the ir raci al affini tie s
,
.

T h e gre at m aj o ri ty o f th e sku lls fo un d in C re te are do licho ceph

ali c I t se em s c le ar the re fo re that th e bulk o f the po pu latio n b e
.
, ,

lo nge d to the M e di terran e an race B rachi o c eph ali c sku lls are .
,

ho wever no t wan tin g th o u gh c o m parat ively few in n u m b er

, ,
1
It .

se em s pro b able th erefo re th at im m igran t s fro m o n e o f th e n o rth e rn

, ,

ro u n d h e ade d races h ad re ac he d C rete in an c i en t tim e s an d th at

-
,

th e Min o an s like o ther n atio n s o f hi sto ry aro se fro m th e fu sio n o f

, ,

at le ast tw o stran d s As th e b ro n ze age advan c e d b rachi o ceph ali c

-
.
,

1
S ee S ir Arthu r E van s, The P alac e o f M i n os
L o n d o n , 19 21; H arrie t B o y d , E xc ava
,

tio n s at Go u rni a, Cre te , in S mi thso n i an I ns ti tu te R eport f o r 19 04 ; E dith H all, The ecora D

tive Art o f C r ete, Phil d lphi
a e a, 1907 .

1
For b rief po pu lar
a ac c o u n t ; see C . H . an d H H aw es, Crete the F o reru nn er of
.

Greec e, Ne w o rk , 1909 Y .

1
Cf d e M o rgan ,
. P éhi t i
r s o r e o ri en tale, III , 15 3 f .
54 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

s k ulls rare in the neo li thi c pe rio d be c am e m u c h m o re n u m e ro u s

, ,
.

T his w as do u b tless d u e to the in fl ux o f i mm ig ran ts f ro m the no rth .

T he M i no an c i vi lizatio n at l e as t d u ri ng its late s t pe rio d spre ad to

, ,

the m ai nlan d o f G re e c e w he re at My c e n ae its m o n u m e n ts h ave b e e n

,

fo u nd . S po radi c t rac es o f it have also b ee n fo u n d at vario u s po in ts

in A si a M i no r alo ng the e as t c o ast o f the A ege an and as far i nlan d
,

as S ardi s . T he i n te rco mm u n ic atio n w hi c h s u c h arc h aeo l o gi c al o h

jec ts i m ply d o u b tl e ss b r o u g h t r o u n d h e-
ad e d p e o p le s i n to G reec e

a n d p ro d u c e d the m ix tu re m e n ti o ne d . C e rtai n fe atu re s o f the c iv

ili z a tio n appe ar to have b ee n sim ilar to that o f the H u rri at Nu z i .

F o r ex am pl e the b athroo m an d p ri vy in the six tee n th ce n tu ry

,
-

p a la ce at K no sso s a re q u i te s i m il a r to th e si m ilar s tru c tu res fo u nd

by C hi e ra at Nu z i .

Abo u t 1200 B C a gre at w ave o f no rthe rn B arb ari an s mo ved

.

so u thw ard ac ro ss the M e dite rranea n . Thi s w ave carri e d Pele she t
o r P hi li sti n es D e n ye n ( D an ao i)
, ,
S h ek elesh ( Si ci lian s) an d o the rs
,

ac ro ss the se a to E gyp t ; the T h ek el an d P h i li sti ne s to P ale sti n e .

Thes e peo ple s ap paren tly su bm e rge d the M ino an s fo r their ci vili ,

z atio n be cam e ex tin c t wi th the d awn o f th e I ro n Age abo u t 1200 ,

B C .
 III
T H E C O M PO S I T IO N O F T H E D I FFE R
E N T H I S T O RI C PE O PLE S
THE ARA B S

HEN w e spe ak o f the Arab s w e m e an the peo ples o f C en tral

l
,

an d No rth Arabi a the He j az the Nejd an d th e regi o n

-

, ,

b etween Thi s po rtio n o f Arabi a is far m o re barren th an th e so u th

.

western po rtio n o f th e pen in su la and has fro m tim e imme m o ri al ,

been m u c h m o re seclu de d fro m o u tside i n flu en c e s Th ere is pro o f .

that in prehi sto ri c tim e S o u th Arabi a w as a h igh way b e twee n B aby

lo n i a an d Elam an d E gypt 1
I t is n o t to b e su pp o se d th at tho se
.

w ho m igrate d ac ro ss it o r w ho b o re prehi sto ri c c o mm e rce lef t th e

peo pl e s u n influ e n c e d S o m e o f th e travelers do u b tle ss staye d ; th ey

.

settle d do wn ; th e i r sto c k w as ab so rb e d by th e H amito — S emi tic

sto c k o f th e co u n try Th ese fo reign elem en ts pro du c e d so m e sligh t
.

m o di fi c atio n do u b tless o f the sto c k th at had co me fro m th e

, ,

Ham i ti c c radle lan d Af ri c a Of these So u th Arabian s so meth in g

-
,
.

will b e sai d at a later po in t At presen t o u r tho u gh t is co n fin e d to

.

No rth Arabia T h e peo ple o f this regio n are o f th e pu rest S emi tic
.

sto c k kn o wn an ywh e re in th e wo rld I n to the fo rm atio n o f thi s.

sto c k th ree po ssible elem en ts m a h ave en tere d : 1 D escen d an ts o f

y .

su rvi vo rs o f palmo lithi c m an w h o h ad e sc ape d the flo o d s w hi c h ,

fo llo we d the co n c lu sio n o f th e glac i al epo c h by tak ing refu ge in hi gh , ‘

m o u n tain s I t is im po ssible to trace su ch a strain in th e an

.

ce stry o f th e Arab s b u t its p rese n c e is i n h eren tly po ssible

,
an d , ,

if presen t it wo u l d help to ac c o u n t fo r th e di ffe ren ti atio n o f the

,

Arabs fro m the Hamiti c peo ples 2 T he Hami ti c immi gran ts fro m . .

Afric a On the eviden ce addu c ed in Chapter I w e c o n sider thi s

.

elem en t o f th e po pul ati o n ce rtai n I t is th e do min atin g elem en t

. .

3 R efu gee s w ho fro m tim e to tim e m ay h ave b een dri ven b y

.

di sasters i n to Ar abia fro m the su rro u n din g c o u n tries Th ere is n o .

pro o f o f the p resen ce o f su ch refu gee s e xcep t an alo gy We kn o w .

I t is po ssib le th at in an c ien t tim es th e re w as also a high w ay ac ro ss n o rthern

1 “

Arab ia ; see R . P D
o u gh e r ty , The S ealan d of An ci en t Arab i a, Ne w H ave n , 19 32
. .

55
56 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

th at af te r the d e s tru c ti o n J e ru sale m by H ad ri an c o lo nie s o f J e ws o f ,

to o k re fu ge in A rabi a a nd it is i n he re n tly p ro b ab le that sm all ,

gro u ps o f pe o p le s f ro m o u tsi de m ay f ro m ti me to ti m e h ave d o ne

the s ame in the pre his to ri c pe ri o d I f s u c h we re the c ase it is .
,

n e ve rthel ess tru e th at the H ami ti c e l e m e n t f ro m A fri c a d o m in ate d

all o th e r strai ns o f anc e s try As c e n tu ri e s p asse d and A rabia w as .

m o re an d m o re d e si c c ate d the se p eo p le s w e re fo rce d by the struggl e ,

fo r e xi s te nc e to pu sh o u t i n to o the r lan d s T hei r li fe w as o f the .

si mp le s t so r t ; the y d e ve lo pe d n o th ing that co u ld in c o m p ari so n ,

wi th thei r nei gh bo rs b e c alled c i viliz atio n S u c h sem bl an c e o f it

,
.

as h as si n c e fl o u ri shed in the A rabi an o ases w as s ti m u late d by in

flue n ces f ro m o u tsi de .

S OU TH ARA B IANS

I n the so u thArabi a the l an d is m o re fe rtile

we ste rn c o rn e r o f .

T he co u n try is o f vo lc an ic fo rm atio n c o n si sti ng o f ex te n si ve u p ,

l ands b ro ke n by mo u n tai n ranges and i n tersp erse d wi th val leys

,

o f s urpass i n g ri ch ness w he re f ro m ti m e im rn e m o rial th e l an d has ,

b een l ai d o u t in terrace s the water o f the rai ny se aso n is sto re d in ,

c i ste rn s fo r i rri gati o n an d m an y n atu ral ri vu l e ts c o u rse do wn the

,

hill s 1
T hese val ley s pro d u c e w heat b arley m aize m illet and
.
, , , ,

co flee as w ell as p alm trees o ran ge l em o n q u i n c e m an go plu m

, , , , , , ,

ap ri c o t p e ach ap pl e po m egran ate an d fi g trees

, , T h e vin e also
, ,
.

gro ws th ere l uxu ri an tly

2
Thi s is Yem en the Arabi a F elix o f the .
,

an ci e n ts Fro m thi s regio n d u ri ng the ni ne tee n th c e n tu ry Osiander

.
,

Hal evy and Glaser b ro u gh t bac k so m e hu n dre d s o f i n s c rip tio n s

,

whi ch gi ve u s kn o wle dge o f a hi gh c i viliz atio n th ere As co m pare d .

wi th the an tiq ui ty o f B abylo ni a an d Egyp t these i n sc rip tio n s are

co m parati vely m o de rn At th e highe st e stim ate they re ve al to u s .

n o thi n g p ri o r to abo u t 125 0 B C an d it is p ro b able that th e ki ng . .

,

do m o f M ain the e arli est o f the c i ty kin gdo m s co n ce rni ng whi c h

,
-

th e in sc ri p tio n s gi ve u s inf o rm atio n did n o t b egi n u n til ab o u t 1000 ,

B C . F ro m the so u rces thu s sec u re d w e di sce rn fo u r kingdo ms

.
, ,

M i S b Qatab an an d Hadram au t an d S ab a an d R a dhan

a n a a , ,
i 1
,
.

1
S ee E R ec lu s, The E arth
. and I ts I nhabi tants , Ne w Y o rk , 188 5 , V o l I V , p 43 8 if
. .
,

an d S M Z w eme r, Arab ia , the

. . C r adle o f I slam, Ne w Y o rk , 19 00 , c h s v an d vi
. .

1 Z w e me r, o p . c it .
, p 57
. .

1
Fo r a discu ss io n of th e c hr o n o lo gy o f the se ki n gdo ms F Ho m e ] in D itle f
'

se e .

Nielse n H andb uc h der al tarab ischen Altertu msk und e, K o pe nh age n , 19 27 , pp 6 1—108
’
s . .
 COMPO S ITION OF HI S TORIC PEOPLE S 57

T he o lde st o f kin gdo m o f M ain ; that o f S ab a whi ch

th e se is th e
fo llo we d it flo u ri she d fro m abo u t 65 0 B C u n til 115 B C T h e ki ng . .

do m o f Q atab an an d Hadram au t w as co n tem p o ran eou s wi th th e

r h n r —
later part o f this pe io d R aid a w as in Af ic a a co lo n y o f So u th .

Arab s w ho h ad migrated westw ard Thi s kingdo m flo u ri sh ed f ro m .

115 B C u n til the fif th c en tu ry A D

. Co n cern in g the so cial an d .

reli gio u s co n d itio n s re ve ale d in the se i n s c ri pti o n s so m e thi n g wil l b e

sai d at a later po in t
'

I n re ali ty w e n o w kn o w that th e hi sto ry o f S o u th Arabia reaches

mu ch fu rther b ac k E vi den ce will b e addu ce d in co n n ec tio n wi th
.

the ske tche s o f th e fo rm atio n o f th e n atio n s o f B abylo ni a an d

Egyp t to sho w th at acro ss thi s co u n try migratio n s an d c aravan s
had su rge d tw o o r three tho u san d y e ars e arlier th an th e d ate o f the
e ar liest in scrip tio n fro m M ain S o m e o f th ese do u b tle ss left settlers
“

in the l an d Th ere is also evi den ce th at Hami tes h ave co n tin u e d to

.

tri c kle ac ro ss th e S trai ts o f B ab el M an de b i n to Arabi a do wn to th e - -

pre sen t tim e Th ere m u st ac co rdingly h ave been a c o n tinu al

.
, ,

infil tratio n o f fo reign blo o d in to So u th Arabi a D o u b tle ss it is .

thi s wh i c h acco u n ts at least in p art fo r th e reten tio n in S o u th Arabi a

, ,

o f a sp eec h sim pler in fo r m th an th at o f No rth Arabi a and n e are r ,

to the no rm of the Ham i ti c l angu age s o n the o n e h an d an d to th at ,

o f th e S em i ti c l an gu age s spo ke n o u tsid e o f A rabi a o n th e o the r .

TH E B AB YLONI ANS
B abylo ni an s were a highly c o mpo site rac e T he fertile
i i

T he .

allu viu m u n p ro te c te d by d eserts as w as E gyp t attrac te d i n vaders

, , M A L. 50 a
1
M

fro m e very qu arter Thi s app ears to h ave b een th e c ase fro m th e
.

time the ac c u m u lating de tritu s b ro u gh t do w n by the ri ve rs m ad e

th e allu viu m su fi c ien tly firm to re n de r habi tatio n po ssib le At .

Ere ch Ur E l Ob ei d Jem det Nasr an d Fara ( S u rippak ) pits have

, ,
-
, , ,

b ee n su n k to vi gi so il whil e at Tepe Gawra in an cien t Assyria

r n
1
, , ,

c i vili z atio n s po ssibly e ve n o l der h ave b een l ai d b are Three

2
.
, , "
K ar l' s -1 M

1
Cf . J
u li u s J
Uru k , II an d II I ; M us eu m ourn al, XXI I , 19 3 fi , E ric h
o rdan s
’
J .

S ch mi d t s a rticle o n F ara ; H all an d Wo o lley , Al Ub aid , L o n do n an d hi ladelphi a,

’ ‘
-
P
19 27 , pls XV— X IX E A S p eise r, in American o urn al of Arc hz olo gy, XXXVI J
465—
. . . .

47 1 . T
F rank f o rt , The S u merians , ab le I , an d Uni versi ty M useu m B u lleti n , vo l
“

I, no 4 , pp 5 , 6
. . .

2
Cf B ulleti n
. o f the Ameri can S cho o ls f
o Ori ental R esearch, No 47 , ( Oc t 19 32) pp
. . .

20- 23 .
58 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

ti ge r p re hi s to ri c c u ltu res c a n i te s as w ell as at b e trace d in t hese s ,

S u sa in the M o u n ta ins o f El am l T he i n te rre latio n s b e twee n E lam .

an d th e ri ve r c o u n t ri e s w e re c l o se at e ve ry pe ri o d o f the hi s to ry .

T he e arli e s t o f these c ul tu re s w as c harac te rize d by a spec i al ty pe

o f pai n te d po tte ry w h ic h has be e n fo u n d at E re c h f ro m the vi rgi n
,

so il u p th o u gh tw e l ve s t ra ta o f t
r h e m o u n d —
( V I I X V I I I ) : at Ur
fro m vi rgi n so il th ro u gh tw o s trata ; at Gaw ra at Ni ne ve h an d at ,

E l Ob ei d
- 2
T hi s c u ltu re do m inate d the c o u ntry fo r an ex c ee di ngly
.

l o ng ti me as is atte ste d by the tw el ve s t ata at E e c

,
r r h —s trata w hi c h

testi fy to su c cessi ve d e stru c ti o n s an d re o c c u p ati o ns o f the si te T he .

i de nti ty o f c ultu re o ve r th is large area d o es no t im ply i de ntity o f

rac e ; do u b tle ss the c u ltu re w as sh are d by peo p les o f di fle re n t o ri gi n s
'

as is the cas e wi th the c ul tu re o f m o de rn E u ro pe Thi s c ultu re w as .

th ro u gh m u ch o f its h isto ry a sto n e age c u ltu re At El Ob ei d n o -

.
-

co ppe r w as fo u n d wi th thi s ty pe o f po tte ry ; at Wark a no co ppe r w as

fo u n d b elo w the e le ve n th stratu m Po tte ry o f thi s ty pe w as also .

fo u nd at S u sa in the lo we st stratu m ( S u sa I ) b u t in co nn ec tio n ,

h
wit c o ppe r 1
T he c u ltu re acco rdi ngly e xi ste d in B aby l o ni a l o n g
.

b efo re it e xi ste d in E lam an d w as e xt en de d to tha t co u n try o nl y

,

to ward th e e nd o f the pe ri o d .

T he seco n d p e ri o d o f c u l tu re is c harac teri z ed by a p o ttery mo stly

pl ai n I t is re prese n te d at E re ch by strata V an d V I ( fro m the to p) ;

.

a t Ur b y s tratu m V I I I At Ur the po tte ry w as a re d w are so m e tim es

4
.

b u rn i shed an d so m e ti mes u n b u rn i sh ed ; at E re c h it w as o f the red an d

gre y slipp e d vari e ty
-
At W ark a a tem ple o f thi s p eri o d w as fo u n d
.

w hi ch re ste d u po n a li mesto n e fo u n datio n the sto n e fo r whi ch h ad

5
,

to b e b ro u gh t fro m a c o n side rab le di stan ce T he w alls o f thi s .

tem pl e w e re c re n ellate d by m e an s o f a seri e s o f s ym m e tri ca lly

sp ace d n i c he s I t h as b ee n righ tly th o u gh t th at th e u se o f sto n e
.

in th i s stru c tu re w as d u e to th e the n re c e n t c o mi n g o f a peo ple fro m

a m o u n tai n o u s re gio n w h ere sto n e w as ab u n d an t A si mi lar tem pl e .

w as fo u n d at G aw ra in stratu m V I I I a an d b 6
I n stratum V at .

1
Cf Delegatio n
. en P erse, XIII , an d VI I I .

2
Cf . J o rd an , Uru le, I I I , 35 f . an d S pe ise r, A mer ic an J o u r n al o f Archaeology ,
XXXVI ,

469 f .

1
Cf G Co n te ne au in Réo ue d Assyrio lo gie, 19 3 2, 30
. .
’
fl . an d S p eise r in A rner . J ou r n al

f
o A rc haeo lo gy , XXXVI , 4 7 0 .

4
Cf . J o rd an , Uru k , I II , 3 6, an d S peise r, o p . c it
.
, p 4 70 f
. .

5
Cf . J o rda n , ibid .

5
B ulleti n f
o the A mer ic an S c ho o ls f
o Or iental R es earc h, No . 4 7 , p 21
. .
 COMPOS ITION OF HI S TOR I C PEOPLE S 59

E re ch cy li n der se als are fo u n d fo r the first tim e . Thi s c u ltu re p e

r

vaile d fo r a f ar sho rter length of ti m e th an th at of th e pain ted po t

tery whi c h it displace d .

T he third predyn asti c B abylo n ia (that whi ch imm ed i c u ltu re o f

ate ly prece d e d th e h i sto ri c dy n asti e s) is represen te d at E rec h by

r —
st ata I I I V a d at U b y st
n r rata —
I I I V I I an d by th e lo west stratum ,

at Jem d et N asr 1 I n the No rth it is represen te d by Gaw ra V III c

.

an d V I I an d at B illa b y strata V I an d V II I t is ch arac te riz e d b y .

“ ”
a c h alic e w are o f a stri ki n g type
2
At Jem de t Nasr table ts w ritten .

in a very arch aic sc ript were fo u n d 3

S tratu m I I I at E re ch yi elded .

S i mi lar tabl e ts whi le in stratu m I V tab lets o f a still m o re pieto

,

graphi c typ e were fo u nd

4
Thu s to ward th e en d o f t hi s J o ng pres .
~ 9 M ~ .

S u m eri an s did no t appear u n ti l sho rtly b efo re th e dawn o f hi sto ry “

.

f th ey b ro u gh t wi th the m th e p
‘M
. n

M a - v w fi fi

lan o c o n vex b ri c k whi ch w as ch ar ,

ac te ristic o f th ei r wo rk 1n th e e arly h i sto ri c p eri o d it di d n o t appear ,

at E rec h u n ti l prehi s to ri c s tratu m I I As wi ll b e po i n ted o u t b elo w .

the n am e E re ch (Akkadi an U ruk Arabi c Warka) has a go o d S emi ti c ,

etym o lo gy 5 I t is p ro b able that E re ch w as fo u n ded by S emi te s

.

fro m Arabia w ho had n o c arac te ri sti c c u ltu re o f the i r o w n b u t

h
i ned by co n tac ts fro mthe no rth
, ,

shared that w h i ch had b eenO b ta .

Professo r S pei Ser S argum ents fo r the exi sten c e o f a thi rd race o r
’

m elee o f peoples d i ff erent frO m bo th S em i te s an d Su m en an s as th e

,

p ur v e yo rs if n o t,th e o ri g i n ato r s o f t h e fi r st p re hi sto ri c c u l tu re

o f thi s regi o n are to the W ri te r co n vi n c i n 6
I t w as p ro b ably th ey
, g , ,
.

who b u ilt th e c renellated temple at E re ch o n lim esto n e fo u n datio n s .

The se peo ple c am e in su c ce ssive waves po ssibly o verru nn ing n o t ,

o nl y E lam b u t th e who le Pe i sian tab le lan d an d th e I n d u s Valley

'

‘ -
.
,

T he arch aeo lo gical rem ain s fo u n d in B elu ch istan an d at Harapp a

an d M aheu jo daro e xh ibi t ce rtai n fe atu res ki n d red to tho se fo u n d
-

in M eso p o tami an si te s b u t o th er fe atu res seem c harac te ri sti c ally

,

1
Cf Uru k , I II , 3 6 ; F rank f o r t, S u meri ans ,
. T ab le I, an d S pe iser, Amer . J ou r o
.
f Arc h .
,

XXXV I , 4 67 ff .

2
Cf S p eiser, B u lleti n of the Americ an S cho o ls of Oriental R esearch, NO 48 , pp 5 —10
. . . .

3
Cf Lan gd o n ,
. P
ictographic I nscripti o ns f ro m emdet N asr, in Oxf o rd E di ti o n s of J
Cu neif o rm T
exts , vo l VI I . .

1
Cf Uru k I I , p p ; 46 an d 47 , an d Uru k I II , T af 19
‘
. . .

3
Cf p 65
. . .

3
M eso po tami an Ori gins , Phil ad elp hi a, 193 2 .
60 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

I nd ian T he wri te r is s til l o f the o pinio n e xp re sse d in 1928 th at

.
‘ 2

the c i viliza ti o n o f the I nd u s Valle y w as pro d u c e d by a peo pl e w ho

e n te re d th at l and in o ne o f the se m ig rati o n s f ro m C e n tral A si a al ,

tho ugh in I n di a the i r art d e ve lo pe d so m e i nd i vi d u al c harac te ri stic s .

T he re p res e n tati ve s o f the third an d las t p re hi s to ri c B abyl o ni an

c i viliza tio n e m pl o y e d pic tu re s o f ani m al s a nd bi rd s wi th w hi c h to

d eco rate thei r po tte ry in E lam a n d thei r se als at Je m d e t N asr .

Po tte ry si mi larly de co rated w as fo u nd at M o he njo daro 1

At that -
.

si te to o th e c i vi liza ti o n b e gan in a n eo li th ic s tratu m a n d c o n ti nu e d

, ,

thr o u gh a co ppe r s tratu m to o ne o f b ro nz e I t w as app are n tly the n .

, ,

co n te m po ran eo u s wi th the th re e pe rio d s o f c u l tu re fo u n d in B aby

lo ni a ‘
.

T hat t he o ri ginato rs o f these pre hi sto ri c c u l tu re s we re nei th e r

S emi ti c no r S u m e ri an is s ho w n by the place n ames e ndi ng i n ah ,
- -
,

w hi ch they l e f t be hi nd them in the co u n try / T hu s S u rippak (whi c h

is sai d to have bee n o ld at the ti me o f the flo o d) Larak ( to w hi c h
5
,

an a n te d il u vi an dy nas ty is as si gn ed ) an d Ak shak ( the e arli est na m e

3
,

of all e n d in ak an e n d i ng th at appe ars in se ve ral El ami te -

,

n am es as S u shi n ak
h ,
8
t e earli est n am e O f S usa and Ashn u n ak
h ,
’
,
.

1 Cf Arc hazo lo gical S u rvey

.
f I nd i a, A n n u al R ep ,o rt 19 2 2—23 , pp
10 2— 104 ; 1
o9 23 —
24 .

pp 4
. 7 — 5 4 a n d p l X IX ; 19 24—2 5 , pp
60 —
8 0 .a n d p ls I I an d III ; 19 2 5 —26, pp . . XX XXV .

7 2—9 8 ; G A B arto n in the A nn ual of the Amer ican S c ho ols of Orien tal R es earc h, I I I , V
7 9—
. .

an d X 7 4— J M arsh all s M o henjo daro Ci ili

’
89 9 1; , an d S ir o hn -
and the I nd us v z at io n ,

Lo n d o n , 193 1 . The d isc u ssio n of the sc ript on the I ndian se als, in the vo lu me last
me n tio ne d , is b y Langdo n H e righ tly c o nc lu de s ( vo l II , c h xx iii ) that the w riting
is n o t S u m e rian , b u t in a po s tsc rip t ( pp 453 —
. . .

4 5 5 ) c hanges his min d , b u t c ertain ly o n .

in s ufli c ie n t g ro u nd s The w rite r s co n c lus io n s as to the w ri tin g, b ase d o n the s tu dy o f

’
.

se ve n ty- tw o seals and pu b lished in the Ann u al alre ady c ite d , are f ul ly b o rne o u t b y the
tho u san d sea l insc rip tio n s inc lu d e d in S ir o hn M arshall s vo lu me
’
Cf also F rank fo rt s
’
J . .

S u mer ia ns , p 24 ff . .

1
Cf The A n n ual ,
. VI I I , c ite d
in th e p re c e din g n o te .

1
Cf M arsh all,
. o p
. c it .
,
I II , pls LXXXV I I — . X I II C .

I n disc uss in g th e e vid en c e s o f po ttery , has b ee n plac e d o n the late st e x

re li an c e

p ressio n s o f exp e r t o pin io n . I t se e me d u nn ece ssary to c ite the e arlie r o pinio ns o f

P o ttie r , Delegat io n en erse, P XI I I , a nd R evu e arc heo lo giq ue, XX I I I or F rank
f o rt
’
s in his P o ttery o f the Near E as t . T he new ma te rials b ro u gh t to ligh t wi thi n th e
last three ye ars h ave p u t the w h o le q u e stio n in n ew p ersp ec tive s in c e th o se disc u ssio ns
w e re wr itte n .

3
S ee K B , V I , p 23 1 . .

3
RI S A, p 3 46 . .

Cf E Unge r an d F H We issb ac h in Z A, 29 , p 183 , L an d sb e rge r, in OLZ , X IX ,

7
. . . . .

c o l 3 4 f ; also Un ge r in R eall exic o n der Assyr iologie, p 64

. . . .

1
RI S A, p 10 f . .

9
RI S A, p 15 2 f . .
 COMPOS ITION OF HI S TO R I C PEOPLE S 61

Awan whi ch is also said to have b een the seat o f o n e o f the e arly
,

dyn as tie s be ars a n am e th at is n e ith e r S u m erian n o r S em i tic b u t is

1
, ,

para ll ele d by th e El am i te n am e Z aw an
2
F in ally th e n am e L a ash3
g .

appears as o n e o f th e fo rm ative e le m en ts in the n am e o f Y arlagash , 1

a ki n g o f Gu ti u m
— a peo ple w h o spran g, as S pe i se r h as sho wn , 5

fro m the sam e sto c k as the Elami tes T he n am e Of th e rival an d .

frequen t en em y o f Lagash , Gishk hu

3 —
the c i ty late r c alle d Umma
w as l Elami te o r Asiati c o rigin T he who le o f it appears in
a so o f .

th e Elami te n am e Gu gishk ha th e o n ly di ffe ren ce b ein g in the fin al ,

'

vo we l These n am es are eviden ce th at the places w h ic h b ear them

.

were fo u n ded no t b y S u m erian s o r Akk adian s b u t by represen tative s

, ,

o f th i s race whi c h c am e in fro m the E as t I n so m e i n stan c e s S u m er .

ian s an d Akkadi an s wh en the y o c cu pi e d o n e o f th ese S i te s chan ge d

, ,

its n am e b u t in so m e c ases th e m em o ry o f th e Olde r n am e su rvi ved

, .

Thi s happen ed at Ak shak wh i ch th e Su m eri an s cal led Uk hu an d , ,

"
the Ak k adian s Upi ( Opi s) Perhaps o n e o f the o lde st settleme n ts .
,

o f th e E lami te o r A si ati c race in th e No rth w as Sippar th e o lder ,

fo rm o f the n am e o f whi ch w as appe ars to h ave b een

n e i th er S u m erian n o r S em i ti c Ano th er no n —S u m erian nam e b u t .

,

o n e ado pted b y th e S u m eri an s d esign ate d Si pp ar as U TU — K I B NUN k i g

,
e '

‘
th e place o f ab o u n di ng su n fi sh Thi s n ame c rystalliz ed in wri ting -
.
’
, ,

be c ame the i deo gram fo r Sippar amo n g b o th S u m erian s an d Akka

dian s On e re aso n fo r thin k ing S ipp ar so Old is th at it gave to the
.

E u phrate s its name th at river b eing designated in S u m erian I D ,

T he ri ve r o f—
Sippar i mplying that Sippar w as the
k i 10 ‘ ’
KI R NUN -
,
-
,

fir st settlem en t alo n g the river I n additio n to the te stim o n y o f .

1
RI S A, pp 346 . an d 3 50 .

2
R I S A, pp 15 8 . an d 160 .

3
T hei n
s g s § i r pu r i n the n ame Si r pu r la
~
111
( w ritten in the o lde r in sc rip tio n s , la - -

Sir purk i ) w e re re ad as ga fs; see

-
eim el, S u mer i sc hes Lexi co n , p 14 7 D . .

4
RI S A, p 3 4 5 . .

5
Op c it , p 9 7 ff
. . .
'
.

3
RI S A, p 15 9 . .

7
Upi is pro b ab ly a varian t pro nu n c iatio n of Uhu , pro duc e d b y the vo c al o rgans o f

men o f ano th er rac e th an th e S u merian s .

3
Cf . VR ,
23 , 29e .

2
F o r KI B gamirum, to tality ‘ ’
an d pu u h—
ru m , -
asse m b ly
‘ ’
see D e ime l
’
S u merisches
Lexi k on , p 228 h at th e Bab ylo ni an s k n e w
. . T a fi sh w hi c h they c alle d
“
su n -
’
fi sh is
sh o w n b y n o 69 , i , 5 o f. Chi era s
’
S u meri an Lexi c al T exts ro f m the T mpl
e e S c ho ol o f Ni ppu r ,

Ch i c ago , 19 29 .

1°
Cf I V 2 R , 14, No 2, 4a
. . .
 62 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

the po tte ry to the p re se n c e o f this race a t E ri d u ,

we have the e vi

d e nce o f w hat see ms to b e the o l d es t nam e o f that pl ace . T hi s name

w as w i r tte n N UN
“ ‘
fi sh plac e ,
’
1
a nd m u s t have at o ne ti me b ee n so
,

p ro no u nc e d . I n the Je m d e t N asr the re is

pi c to graphi c tab le ts f ro m
a plac e NU N KID
“ fi s h trap plac e o r fi s h ne t p lac e
-
‘ 2 - -
’ ‘
- -
.
’
,

T he S u me ri an wo rd fo r fi s h w as KHA ; NUN appea rs to have b e e n

‘ ’

the nam e fo r fi s h in the l ang u age o f the B abyl o n ian sec tio n o f thi s
rac e fro m c e n tral A si a T he e x ca vati o n o f R C T ho m pso n at . . .

Ab u S h are in the s ite o f E ri d u in 19 18 c o n fi rme d the appro pri ate

, , ,

n e ss o f thi s n am e He fo u nd he aps o f shell s o f f re sh wate r m o l lusks

.
-

th at had e vi de n tly ac c u m u late d b e c au se o f the u se o f su c h fi sh as

foo d 1
. Whe n the S u m e ri ans c a m e h
t y e n a m e d h
t e c i ty UR U U D G ‘
,
-
,

d h m di h ange w as co rr u pte d
’
‘
g o o c i ty w h ic i n t i ,
e by a a l ec ti ca l c , ,

i n to E RI D U 3 -
T he S u m e ri an s ho w e ver in w ri ti ng em plo ye d the
-
.
, , ,

o rth o graphy o f the e arlie r rac e add in g a pho n e ti c c o m plem e n t to ,

sho w th at in the ir to ngue i t w as to b e pro no un ce d UR U DU G T he -

.

re sult w as th e s pe lli ng w h i ch w e fin d in m an y te x ts NU N
“ —
GA 1
Th u s .

the n am e o f the c i ty re gi ste rs the f ac t th at tw o an ci e n t race s m ade

it at di ffe re n t ti m es a h abi tati o n as w ell as the fac t that th e c e n tral ,

Asi ati c race w as at E rid u b efo re the S u m e ri an s cam e .

A simi lar sto ry is to ld in an analo go u s w ay by the nam e an d o rt ho g

“
raphy o f th e c i ty o f A d ab I ts n am e is wri tte n U TU NU N 7
whi c h
.
-
,

in th e l an gu age o f the c e n tral A si ati c rac e m e an t su n fi sh pl ac e 7 ‘ ’

- -
.

Lik e th ei r n am es fo r E rid u an d Jem de t N asr it w as to them a fi shi ng ,

place an d th ey n am e d it fo r th e ki n d o f fi sh c au ght the re

,
Whe n .

S u m eri an s o c c u pied the site they called it A TAB a reservo i r o r 1

,
-
,
‘ ’

‘
can al
— a n am e whic h w as in tim e co rru p te d to A dab Neve rthe
’
.

less the S u m e ri an s c o n ti n u e d to e m plo y the i deo graphi c w ri ti n g

o f the p re vi o u s in h abi tan ts —
U T U NUN
“
L ate r Akkadi an sc rib e s ,
.

1
S
Th e ign NUN is NO 9 4 in O B W, . an d , as the re sh o w n ( P a rt II, p . o riginally

re p rese n te d a fis h p ic tu re d flat w ise -

.

2
S ee Lan gdo n , Oi j ord Ed iti o ns of C u n ei or f m Texts Oxfo rd , 19 28 , NO 124 ; p ro b ab ly
, .

also in NO 122, tho u gh in thi s te x t the d e te rm in ative

. k i is o mi tte d .

3
Cf Arc hae ologia , V o l XX L o n d o n 19 20 10 1—144
, , , pp
. . . .

Cf I V R , 4 , 23 b
2
. an d D e litz sc h , Parod ies , p 227 . fl .

3
Cf IV 2 R ,
. 13h .

3
Cf . V R , 5 1, 46 b .

7
Cf . V R , 23 , 27f .

1 Th e w o rd w as S e mi tiz e d as atabb u ; c f . M u ss Arno lt, Assyr isch E nglisch

- - -
D euts ches

H a nd w orterbuc h, p 128a
‘

. .
 COMPO S I TION OF HIS TORIC PEOPLE S 63

explain ed the n am e in S emi ti c as u tap i i r AP S U ,

- - - 1
it
‘
se ts free the
’
abyss .

I t w as Lagash de rive d its n ame fro m thi s

n o te d a bo ve th at
Asiati c Elami te rac e I t is well kno wn th at the Lagash o f hi sto ry
-
.

w as co m po se d o f fo u r c i ti e s o r di stri c ts an alo go u s to the fo u r b o ro u ghs ,

o f gre ater New Yo rk These we re Girsu Ni n a Uruaz agga an d .

, , ,

E rim A stu d y o f th ese nam es re veals the m ixe d o rigi n o f the se

.

se ttlem e n ts as kn o wn to hi sto ry Nin a represen ted by th e ideo .

,

graph A w as c e ar l ly a fishi ng to w n , an d its n am e w as bu t a sligh t

c o rru p tio n Asiati c Elami te NUN fi sh
of th e T h e syl lab arie s give -
,
‘
.
’

th e n am e as Ni n a a 2
B o th the n am e an d the i deo gram by whi ch
.
- -
.

it w as e xpressed are i de n ti c al w i th tho se o f Nin e veh later the capi ,

tal o f A ssyri a Th e n am e o f thi s Assyr ian c ity is so m e tim e s

.

sp e lle d Ni n u a
3
whi ch is e qu al to Ni n w a in wh i ch w a is the
- -
,
-
,
-

g e n i ti ve o f th e H u rri l an g g
u a e
4
A S th e H u rri w e re l ate r re p e sen ta
r .

tives o f th i s sam e Asiati c rac e th ere c an b e li ttle do u b t b u t that ,

Ni n a a is th e geni ti ve o f NUN NI NA A X I m e ani ng the place o f

-
,
- -
‘

fi sh 5 In Ni n a th e b o ro u gh o f L agash w e h ave th e n ano th er o f

’
.
, , , ,

th e fi sh to wn s o f thi s pri mi tive Asiati c rac e

-
.

T h e n am e o f Girsu th e p rin c ipal b o ro u gh o f L agash is in th e , , ,

e a ly te xts so m eti m es w ri tten S U GI R

r ,
— 6
I n later o rtho graphy the .

o rde r o f th e s ign s app e ars to h ave b ee n tran spo se d j u st as th e o rder ,

o f th e sign s in the n am e L agash w ere S U— GIR as w as lo n g ago .

,

po in ted o u t c an also b e re ad S UN GIR a n am e whi ch is alm o st i den

6 -
, ,

ti c al wi th Si n gara a pl ace in Upp e r M e so p o tami a fo u n de d b y a

,

later wave o f th i s sam e Asiati c p eo ple T h e writer has lo ng h eld .

th at S u m er the n am e by whi c h so u the rn B abylo n ia w as afterward

,
z
'

calle d is a co rru pti o n o f thi s n am e Wh e th er ho wever the n am e

7
.
, , ,

1
Cf . CT , XI , 3 5 , 27 a .

2
Cf .
, e .
g .
, I I I R , 17 , 62 an d VR ,
10 , 5 1 .

3
Cf I R , 19, 10 1
. .

4
Cf F o rrer in Z D M G, LXXVI
.
p 226 . .

3
A later syllab ary gi ve s th e S u me rian pro nu nc iatio n o f th is n ame as Nanshe (cf .

D e imel, S u merisc hes L exik o n , p 421— n o 200 hi s I tak e to b e a f o re ign c o rru p

. . T
ti o n of n ammai i e; cf . Ch . VI I I .
, p 25 6
. .

3
Cf d e S arz ec , Décou aertes
. Chaldee, p XXXVI , NO 4 , an d RI S A, p 18 , No 8 en . . . . .

Cf S emi tic Origins , p 19 2, nl, an d J AOS , X L I X p 263, n l Deime l s sug

7 ’
. . . .

ge s t io n , S u mer is c he Gramm ati k , 1,

th at S u m e r may h ave b ee n c o rru p te d f ro m K I —
EN
GI , see m s to m e e ven m o re vio len t th at th e fam o u s q u ip ab o u t derivin g M id dle to w n
‘ ’

f ro m M o se s b y le avin g ’
id dle to wn
’ ‘
an d addin g
‘ ’
o ff
‘
o ses .
64 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

Girs u is S u m e ri a n o r o f A siati c o rigi n the e leme n ts o f its religio n

o f ,

are all t rac e ab le to S u m e ri a n o ri gi n s I n the his to ri c pe rio d the re

‘
.
,

fo re Ci rs u w as a S u m e ri an to w n o r b o ro u gh
,
T he sam e m ay b e .

sai d o f Ur u az agga w h ich app e ars to h ave b ee n a so rt o f H aram

-
,

are a wi thi n the c i ty o f Ci rs u .

“ the n am e o f the fo u r th b o ro u gh o f L agash app e ars to

E RIM , ,

h ave b ee n O f S e mi ti c o ri gi n I ts go d de ss w as E n n in ( I nin n i I sh tar)

2
.
-
,

an d the n am e i tse lf w as p ro b ab ly de ri ve d f ro m the A rabi c

‘
‘
ar i m m e ani ng d am
,
w ate r spo u t i nu nd ati o n e tc In the
‘
,
’ ‘
-
,
’
,
’
.

bo ro ughs o f Lagash t he re fo re w e have re p rese nted se parate se ttle

, ,

m e n ts o f the three p ri nci pal rac e s w hi c h mi ngl e d in the B abylo ni an

m el ti n g po t .

B e fo re tu rni ng fro m thi s A si ati c race o ne o the r pl ace n am e m ust -

“
b e no ti ced that o f N ipp u r
, I t is u n i fo rmly w ri tte n E N LI L .
-
,

‘
-
,
’
E nlil place o r Lo rd o f wi nd pl ace ‘
Thi s go d w ho is lo rd o f the
- -
.
’
,

wi nd h as l o ng b ee n su ppo sed to b e a S um e ri an dei ty b u t h e is the

, ,

o n e go d w ho c an b e c le arly i d e n tifie d in the tab le ts f ro m Je m de t

N as a d it is no w p ro b abl e that he w as t e we
r 1
n
,
h a th e r—go d o f th e
p r e S
-
u m e ri an A s i ati c s w h o w a s wi d e ly w o rsh ipp
,
e d in t h e c o u n try

be fo re the co mi ng o f the S u m e ri an s I f so E N LII w as fo u nde d k i

.
,
-
.

b e fo re the co mi ng o f the S um e ri ans by thi s e arli er peo ple In tim e .

he w as u ni vers ally w o rshi pp ed by the S u m eri an s as Yahw eh w as , ,

at a m u ch l ate r tim e by fo rei gn ers s e ttled in S am aria b ecau se he

, ,

w as the go d o f the l an d T he n am e Ni ppu r is a S e mi ti c (Akk adi an )

.

n am e m e an i n g c ro ssi n y T h m h ave b ee n a fo rd
‘ ’ ’
f
‘
, g o r e rr e re u s t .

o r f e rry acro s s the E u phrates at th at po i n t an d th e fac t that in ,

l ate r ti m e the pl ace w as alway s kn o wn by thi s n am e i n di c ate s th at , ,

n e x t af te r th e A si ati c E lami te s the pl ac e w as o c c u pi e d by S em i tes

-
,
.

We k no w fro m later texts that it w as o cc u pi e d by S um eri an s Thu s .

w e c an trac e at N ippu r the su cce ssio n A si ati c El am i te s Akk adi an s -

, ,

S u m eri an s o f wh i ch th e S um eri an s are thi rd

, .

At l e ast o ne o th e r seat o f S e mi ti c Akk ad i an s in B abylo n i a appe ars

to b e o l der th an the co m in g o f the S u m e ri an s an d th at is E re c h ,
.

1
S e e Ch . VIII , p 24 7 f
. .

1
S ee Ch . VII I , p 23 7 f
. .

f C T VI I , No 33 , an d No 7 3 , o b , iii , 2
3
Cf Oxf o rd Ed itio ns
. o u ne iform exts , . re v . i, 3 , . .

For a ref u tati o n o f L an gdo n

’
s t he o ry th at An ( An u ) , th e sk y- go d , was w o rshi ppe d
at J emd e t Nasr, ( S emi tic M ytho lo gy , B o sto n , 193 1, pp 89 . see J wi h Q
e s u ar ter ly

R evi ew , V o l . XXIII , p 82 f
. .
, (J u ly ,
 COMP OS ITION OF HI S TORI C PEOPLE S 5

The am e o f the city is writte n U NUG

n af te rward pro n o u n c e d
k ’1
,

U ruk wh i c h by a sligh t c h ang e b e cam e the biblic al E rech T he

, , .

m o d ern Arabic n am e o f it i s Wark a wh i c h c le arly po i n ts to th e ,

e tym o lo gy o f th e o rigin al fo rm o f th e n am e S i n c e in Arab i c w arak a ,

m ean s stay o r abide

‘
m u d “ in e arly S em i ti c m e an t ac c o rd
’ ‘
.
’
, ,

in gly T h e dwe lli n g—

’
plac e T h e prin c ipal dei ty at E re c h w as th e
‘
.

S emi ti c go dde ss Ash dar late r c alle d I sh tar H er pre sen ce to ge ther ,
.
,

wi th th e nam e , iden tifie s the se ttlem en t as S em iti c As already .

po in te d o u t th e ex cavatio n s at E re c h h ave d em o n st rated the ex

,

trem e an ti qu i ty o f th e si te Thi s is al so vo u che d fo r by the an te .

di lu vi an k in g lists an d th e trad itio n al rOle o f it s he ro Gilgam e sh

-

, .

Po ssibly th e o rigin al settlem en t w as m ad e by the A siati c race b u t , ,

if so the S em ite s displace d them at so e arly a tim e th at th e A siati c

,

n am e fo r th e pl ac e h as d i sappe are d
. .

I n to this lan d in v ad e d f ro m th e e ast b y su c c e ssive wav e s o f this

,

Asiati c —Elami te race an d fro m th e we st b y S emites S u m eri an s fro m , ,

t he so u th p en e trate d so m e tim e du rin g th e fo u rth m i llen n iu m ,

b efo re 3000 B C o r earlier That the y cam e fro m th e so u th is

“

. .

"
in ferred fro m vario u s ph en o m en a Th e y h e ld du rin g the ir perio d
o f su pre m ac y th e c iti e s o f—
.
,

S o u thern B abylo n i a o n ly ; fo r c lo thi n g

“

, ,

th ey wo re o n ly a S kirt co verin g the lo w er part o f th e b o dy le avi n g ,

th e ch e st n u d e an d fo r th e pe rfo rm an ce o f prie stly o ffi c e s w en t

, , ,

2—
e n tire ly n u de a c u sto m whi ch erpe tu ates ( sin ce reli gio n is
p ,

alway s c o n servati ve ) th e h abi ts o f a co u n try still w arme r th an

B aby lo nia Wh en ce th ey cam e w e do n o t k no w In di a h as b ee n

. .

su ggeste d an d the d is c o ve ries at H arap a an d M o h en O d aro h ave

, p j ,
-

b een tho u gh t by so m e to co n firm th i s co n j e c tu re I t ha s ho wever .

, ,

b e en c o n clu sively S ho wn that th e civ i lizatio n o f th e I n du s V al ley

“ ~

r eprese nte d b y th e di sco ve rie s in qu e stio n i s n o t S u m erian 3 At .

1
Cf I I R , 5 0 , 5 0—60b
. .
, an d D elitz sch ’
s P aradi es , p 221 . .

2
Cf Hilprec h t, Old B abylo n ian I nscri pti o n s , pl X V I
. . .

“
S ee th e w rite r s artic le On th e S o c alled S u mero I ndi an S eals in th e Annu al
3 ’
- -

of the Amer ic an S cho o ls o O i l R h l V 7 —9 5 , an d the c o mp arative

f r en ta es earc , V o I I I , 9 .

sign list in V o l X , 7 4—
-
91 With th e V ie w state d in thetex t m o st o f the c o n trib u to rs
. .

to S ir J o hn M arsh all s ’
gre at w o rk , M o henjo d aro and the I n dus Ci vi li z ati o n , Lo n do n ,
-

193 1, Th e re su lts o f th e e x ami n atio n Of th e sk u lls f o u n d at M o h e n jo d aro

-
agree .
-

in d ic ate gre at mix tu rein th e po pu latio n ; see vo l I I , c h xxx , especially p p

o f race s
“

a . . .

63 8—6 44 , b u t th e d o mi n an t e le m e n t in the c iviliz atio n w as apparen tly c o n trib u te d b y

w h a t w e h ave c alle d th e e n tral Asiatic r ac e C
T h e re su lts o f th e ten tative d ec iph er .

m en t of th e M o h en jO—
d aro in sc rip tio n s b y D r . P ran Nath in th e I ndi an H i storic al
66 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC OR IG I NS

the m o s t , it w as , at o ne p eri o d o f its hi s to ry , in c o m m e rc al co n tac t i

wi th the S u m e ri an s T he prese n t w ri te r has co nj e c tu red that the
.

S u me ri ans c am e f ro m Om an o r f ro m so m e po i nt o n the Pe rsi an ,

G u lf Wh i le th i s ca nno t at p rese nt b e p ro ve d it see m s f ro m o u r

‘
.
, ,

p re se n t k no wled ge the i r m o s t p ro b abl e ho m e l and Whe n the

,
-
.

S u m e ri an s e n te red the c o u n try the y w e re alre ady hi ghly c i vi li z e d ,

.

At E ri d u and Ur the y w e re abl e to gai n a fo o tho ld Wo o lle y .

fe e l s c ertai n th at thei r p red e c e sso rs had been d ri ve n fro m the regio n

by the flo o d ce l eb rated in B abylo ni an po e try an d in the Old Te sta
me nt w hi ch de po si ted the d e tri tu s fo u n d se p aratin g the p ai n ted
,

po tte ry f ro m trace s o f S um e rian o ccup atio n b u t o the r an d l ess

2
,

ex te n si ve i n u n dati o n s m ay have ac co u n te d fo r the d e po si t A l o cal .

flo o d o r e ven th e te mpo rary c hange o f the b ed o f the E uph rate s

, ,

wo ul d b e suffi ci e n t to have c aused it .

I n co u rse o f ti m e the S u m e ri an s as w e have se en in stu d yi ng ,

pl ac e names fo rced the ir w ay i nto se ttleme n ts w hi ch thei r p red

-
,

e ce sso rs h ad fo u n d e d I t b e c o m e s an i n te resti n g q uesti o n w he the r

.

they we re alre ady m i n gli ng wi th the A si ati c El ami te race at Jem de t -

N asr when the pi c to graphi c table ts fo u nd there we re w ri tten L ang

,
.

do n is o f th e o pinio n th at tho se tex ts are S um e ri an 1 I f ho we ver .

, ,

tw o race s mi ngle d e ach wi th a l an gu age o f its o w n and e ac h de velo p

, ,

i g a sy ste m o wri ti g t e S u e i a o a l ate ti m e o u r c l assi cal

n f n h m r n f r ,
—
—
S um eri an wo ul d b e fo rm ed by a mi ngl ing o f th e tw o e lem e n ts ,

j u st as o u r m o de rn E n gli sh is a fu sio n o f S axo n an d No rm an

stran d s I n th e j u dgme n t o f the p re se n t w ri te r that is w hat
.
,

happe n ed in S um eri an T he A siati c El ami te s an d the S u m e ri an s

.
-

em plo ye d th e sam e pi c to grap h s e ach pro n o u n c i n g th e wo rd in d i ,

ca te d difl e re n tly in ac co rd an c e wi th th e n am e o f th e th in g o r the

,

ac ti o n in hi s o w n to n gu e I n co u rse o f ti m e all the se (o r m an y o f

.

th em ) m e rge d in the S um eri an syllab ary pro du c i n g th at puz zli n g ,

p o lypho n y o f so u n d s the e xpl an atio n o f whi ch h as b een the d e spai r

,

R eview , C alc u tta , 193 1, V o l VI , . e n title d

“
The S c rip ts of the I nd u s Valley S eals , are

to o u n c e r ta in to p e rmit o n e to lay an y h isto rical stress u p o n th e m He fi n ds ma ny .

I ndian e le men ts in th em , b u t also Akk adian e le men ts , su c h as the go d S in ! I t is the

b e lie f of th e p rese n t w ri te r th at th e insc rip tio ns on these seals are n o t ye t d e c iph e re d .

1
Cf th e w ri te r s
.
’
artic le ,
“
Wh e n ce c a me th e S u me ri ans ?
”
J AOS ,
XL IX . 263 ff .

1
S e e his arti c le in The Antiquar ies Jo u r nal , Oc to b e r, 19 29 pp 3 23 ff , . .

3
Cf Oxf or d Ed i tio ns
.
f
o C u ne iform Texts , V o l VI I , p viii
. . .
 COMPO S ITION OF HI S TORI C PEOPLE S 67

of s cho lars wri ter s j u dgm en t th at lies in thi s two fo ld

. I n th e
’

o rigin and it is th e expl an atio n o f wh at se em to b e S u m e ri an ele

,

m e n ts in th e table ts fro m Je m d e t N asr .

Take ,fo r exam ple th e n am e E N KUD DU whi c h o cc u rs in No 11 ,

- -
, .

o f th e J e m d e t Nasr tab le ts : it see m s to b e go o d S u m e rian fro m th e

1

po in t o f vi ew o f th e later S u m erian u sage S u ppo se ho wever th at .

, ,

th e ph rase is fro m th e pre — S u merian A siati c E lami te to n gu e I n ,

-
.

th at c ase it wo u ld fo llo w th at th e valu e KUD o f thi s po lypho no u s sign ,

(w h i c h c o u ld also b e p ro no u n c e d m s TAR S I L S I L A
2
an d KUR UM ) , , , , ,

w as bo rro we d in S u m e rian f ro m m ixtu re wi th th is earlier peo ple .

Similarly th e valu e DU o f an o th er po lypho no u s sign emplo yed in , ,

thi s n am e as a pho n e ti c c o m plem en t wou l d also h ave b een ado pte d ,

by the S u m erian s fro m th e sam e so urce I n the c ase o f the l ast .

m e n tio n e d sign wh i c h o rdin arily in S umeri an h as th e valu e s GU B

, , ,

GI N R A a n d T UM
, _
,
3
b u t seldo m in th e o lder te xts th e valu e DU
, , ,

e x ce p t as a ph o n e tic c o m pl em e n t wo ul d b e e x pl ai n e d Simi larly ,

.

— — — —
th e n am e s E N LI L T I L an d E N LI L MAS T I L m ay b e S um eri an b u t
4 - 4
,

th e y m ay al so b e lo ng to th e pre S u m erian l an gu age If S um erian s -

.

were presen t at Jem de t Nasr wh en the se texts were written the y , ,

were in a mi no ri ty T he art is c le arly o f the pre Su m eri an type .

-
.

I t se em s pro b able ho we ver th at th e y we re n o t ye t p re sen t b u t

, , ,

th at th e se n am e s repre sen t Asi ati c El ami te e lem e n ts whi ch su r -

vive d in l ate r S u m eri an spee ch .

Whether Su m e ri an s were o r were n o t at Jem de t Nasr they ,

fo u n de d so m e to wn s in B abylo n i a whi ch b e ar go o d S u m eri an n am es .

Cu th a th e e arli e st fo rm o f wh i c h is spe lled GIJ — DfJ High ban k (o r

’
‘ ’
-
, ,

is a go o d S um eri an n am e
‘
po ssibly B ri c k ki ln S o also
-
.

is Ki su rra th e n am e o f wh i c h is the o rd i n ar y S u m erian wo rd fo r

,
‘
bo u n dary— d i tch Simi larly B o rsippa (origin ally B AR —
.
’
SIB S an c , ,
‘

tu ary o f th e S h e ph erd ) is a go o d S u m e ri an n am e
’
.

A m u ch later wave o f S emi tes th an tho se w ho fo u n de d E rech

fo u n d e d the c i ty o f Ki sh S ti ll l ater wave s fo u n ded al so the c itie s .

o f Agad e A rar (late r c alle d Larsa) o verran Gishk h u an d re n am e d

, ,

it Umm a an d also fo u n de d B abylo n

, There seems li ttle do u b t b u t .

1
S e e L angd o n , op . ci i .

2
Cf OB W, No 12
. . .

3
Cf OB W, No 20 7
. . .

4
Lan gdo n , o p. ci t .
, NO 7 3 . .
68 S E M ITIC AN D HAM ITI C O R IG I NS

that B aby lo n is a S u m e ri an fo rm
S e mi ti c fo u nd atio n in sp i te o f the
in w hic h its n am e is u s u ally w ri tte n Wh e the r M ari w hi ch w as .
‘
,

s itu ate d o n the E u ph rate s no rth o f S ippa r b e ars a S u m e ri an o r a ,

S e i i c am e is in do u b t
m t n
?
,

S p e i se r ha s d e mo ns trate d that s u cc e s si ve w ave s o f th is A siati c 1

‘

li lam ite rac e i n vad e d B ab yl o n ia th ro u gho u t its hi s to ry Lu lu b i .

,

G u ti peo ple o f E lam E m u tb al a nd Ko ssaean s w e re all s u c c essi ve

, , ,

waves o f thi s same s to c k O ne c i ty in so u the rn B abylo ni a see m s .

to h ave re verse d th e h is to ry o f m o s t o f the to w n s w ho se name s w e

have s tu die d I t w as appare ntly fo u n de d by S em i tes w ho b uil t
.
, , ,

“
the re a te m ple to the su n go d an d n am e d i t A rar o c c u p ie d l ate r -
, ,

“
by S u me ri an s w ho calle d it f ro m thi s temple UT U UM MA Dwelli ng
,
- -
,
‘

o f the su n a n d fin ally ab o u t 2200 B C o cc u pi e d by p eo pl e fro m

’
. .
, , ,

w e stej nl i lam it w as n am e d L ars a 6

,
.

A stu dy o f the nam e s o f the c i ti es o f an ci e n t B abylo ni a co n firm s

th e i n fere n c e s f ro m the po ttery an d f ro m o the r so u rces th at at l east
thr ee di s ti n c t rac e s w e re f u se d in th e me l ti n g po t o f an c i en t B aby
lo ni a 7
.Of the se th e A si ati c — El am i te s and the Akk ad i an s appe ar
to h ave be e n the e arli e r T he S um e ri an s m i gh t b e co u n te d the .

l ate st o f th e three b u t fo r the fac t th at the S emi ti c Akk adi ans we re

,

c o ns tan tly re new e d fro m A rabi a T he l ate r hi sto ry o f B abyl o ni a .

has b ee n w e l l to ld in se ve ral b o o k s ; it wo u l d b e b e yo n d th e sco pe

8

o f thi s w o rk to re te l l the sto ry h ere .

T he n ame K A D I N GI R RA ,
’— the S u me rian
go d
l
is u su ally Gate of
‘
w ri tten - -

e q u ivale n t o f B ab iii -
. I n b u siness d o c u m en ts of t he Ne o B ab y lo ni an
-
an d P ers ia n

TI N—
TI R“ S u me rian fo r L ife fo re st ,
’
p e rio d s i t is o f te n writ te n in p u re ly
‘
,
t he -
e ve n

Akk adi an te xts . B o th th ese S u merian w ritings a re , I think , c o n c e ss io n s to th e f e e lin g

th at S u me rian was a mo re c u ltu re d o r a mo re sac re d langu age . F o r the p o ss ib ility

o f a n ea rlie r C en t ral Asiatic se ttle m e n t h e re , s ee b e lo w , Ch . VI II , p 27 2 . .

M ari c an b e re ad as S e mi tic and u n ders to o d to mean The M aste r s o r as S u

2 ‘ ’
,
’
,

—
merian MA Ri S hi p rece ive r o r Have n
-
,
’ ‘
,
’ ‘
.

3
M es o potamia n Or igi ns .

Cf . V
R 23 30e w h ere a— , ra ar is read e rro ne o u sly z a r a ar
, ,
T he na me mean s - - -
.
,

’ ‘
heat, g lo w
‘ ’
.

5
F o r th e readi n g UM in stead of UNUG, w he n f o llo w e d b y M A, cf .
J AOS , XL VI ,

3 10 f .

5
Cf . Délég ti a o n en P erse, V , 43 ( co l . viii, 18) f o r la -
ar, an anc ie n t E lami te w o rd .

I ts meaning is no t d e te rmin e d . T he sy llab le s o is an E lam ite e n di ng of u nk n o w n

me ani n g .
0

7
As th e e vide n c e h as b ee n so c o n vin cingly b ro u gh t to ge the r b y S pe ise r in hi s
M es opoto mio n Origi ns it , see ms u nn ece ssary to lab o r th e p o in t f u rth e r he re .

3
Cf L . . W
K ing , H isto ry of S u mer and Akk ad , Lo n do n , 19 10 ; also his H i s to ry of
.

B ab ylo n , Lo n do n , 19 15 ; R W R o ge rs , A H isto ry of B abylo n i a and Assyr ia, Ne w

. . o rk , Y
 COMPO S ITIO N OF HI S TORIC PEOPLE S 69

T he whi ch w e h ave design ated as Asiatic El am ite o r C en tral

race -

i Asiatic n o t o n ly f u rn i she d th e p rim al e lem e n t l n the race mix tu re

which co n stitu te d the later B abylo n ian s b u t re c eive d in the co u rse , ,

o f later B abylo n i an h i sto ry rein fo rc e m en ts f ro m su b se qu e n t in

,

vasio n o f the c o u n try T h e peo ple o f Gu tiu m wh ic h fu rn ish e d a

.
,

d yn asty to B abylo n ia that ru le d the c o u n try fo r 125 ye ars ab o u t the

middle o f th e thi rd millenn iu m B C an d th e Kassite s who se dy . .
, ,

n asty ru l e d th e c o u n try fo r 5 7 6 ye ars

— a m u c h lo n ger perio d than

th at co vered b y the ru l e o f an y o the r li n e w e re as S peiser h as -

sh o w n
1
b o th o ffsho o ts o f th i s C en tral A siati c sto c k While there
,
-
.
,

fo re th e cu ltu re o f the co u n try du rin g th e hi sto ri c p erio d w as do mi

,

n ated first b y th e S u m e rian s an d th en by th e Akk adi an s e ac h o f ,

whom in tu rn i m po se d th eir lan gu age o n th e co u n try it wo u ld ,

appear th at at all perio d s o f B abylo n i an hi s to ry a l arge e lem e n t

“

(perhap s th e m aj o r eleme n t) o f the racial sto c k be lo n ged to the

“

Asiati c race whic h in su c c essive w ave s en tere d M eso po tam i a

fro m th e e ast an d whi c h h ad o ve rru n E lam b efo re th e B abylo n i an
,

allu vi u m w as fi t fo r h u m an h ab itatio n .

T HE Ak k ADI ANs
We m u st i de r in so mewh at mo re de tail th e o rigin o f the
no w c o ns

S emi ti c e lem en t in earlie st B abylo n ian hi sto ry an d its rel atio n to

th e o ther S em iti c peo ple s T he Akk adi an langu age m ake s it e vi
.
s

den t that its o ri gi n ato rs were n o t o n ly S emi te s b u t th at they b e ,

lo n ge d (at le ast so m o st s cho lars thin k) to the n o rth ern gro u p o f

S emi ti c peo ples As n o ted in a pre vio u s c hapter it has gen erally
.
2
,

b een assu m e d b y s cho lars that the an c e sto rs o f all the No rthern
S emite s live d to ge the r in so m e se c lu de d part o f No rth Arabi a after
th e y se p arate d f ro m the an ce sto rs o f th e S o u th e rn S emi te s ; T he

p r e se n t w r i ter h as h o w e v e r c,o m e to th i n k th a t t
,
hi s th eo ry rests

o n an in se cu re f o u n dati o n T h e b ro k en plu ral whi c h so m e have

.
,

take n as th e disti n gu ishi ng m ark b e twe en th e No rth an d S o u th

S emi tic l an gu age s is no t in the j u d gm en t o f th e presen t wri ter the
, ,

re liab le c rite rio n it i s su ppo s ed to b e 3

Co lle c tive n o u n s whi c h .
,

19 15 : The C amb ridge An ci en t H isto ry, V o l I , Ne w . Y o rk , 19 24 ; and S idney S mi th ,

E arly H i story f Assyria to
o 1000 B C . .
,
L o n d o n , 19 28 .

1
M esopo tami an Or igi n s .

2
Ch I, p 28
ap ter . .

3
So Wo rrell, S tudy f
o R ac es in the A nci ent N ear E ast, p . 12 f .
70 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITIC ORIG I NS

are in re al
i ty i n ne r pl u ral s are no t u nk no w n in w hat are u s u ally
,

c o u n te d as N o r th S emi ti c l an g u age s an d th e d e vel o pm e n t o f th e ,

m o re e l abo rate fo rm s o f i n ne r plu ral s i n S o u th S e mi ti c m ay b e a

late r phe no m e no n o r d u e to lo c al pe c u liari tie s
, On the o the r han d .
,

Ak k ad ian c o ntai ns so m e fe atu re s w h ic h li nk it wi th S o u th A rabi c .

T he u se o f i n an d so as the p ro n o u n s o f the thi rd pe rso n ( in the

i n ip i f h
t e dy n as ty o f A g d d s ) i d e n ti cal w i th
l
s c r t o n s o a e s u a n a , ,

tho se o f M in zr an a s tro ng arg um e n t fo r c o n s ide ri n g the Akk adi ans

,

as e mi gran ts f ro m S o u th A rab i a M any o f the o the r phe no m e na

.

o f Akk ad i an gramm ar po i n t in th e sam e d i re c tio n T he i n te rco u rse .

be tw ee n B abyl o ni a and S o u th A rabi a seem s alway s to have b ee n

clo se and in l ate r ti m es the art o f the l atte r c o u n try w as i n fl ue n c e d
,

by th at o f th e fo rme r 2
We are led acco rdi ngly to regard the
.
, ,

Akk adi an s as the e arlie st traceab le o flshoo t o f the prim i ti ve S emi ti c

sto c k w hi ch mi gr ate d f ro m the S emi ti c c rad le l an d Ad van c ed -
.

gro u ps o f Akk adi ans we re in B abyl o n i a as so o n as the all u vi um wo u l d

pe rmi t the b uildi ng o f habi tatio n s We have al ready trace d them .

at E re ch in th e very e arli e s t pe ri o d ; at N ippu r w he re th e y ren am ed

, ,

th e to wn o f th e A si ati c E lam i te E nl il an d sti ll l ater at Ki sh

-
, ,
“
whe re th e re ruled a ki ng E n bi Ash dar ( The frui t o f ,
- - -

S till l ate r cam e the wave o f Akk adi an s w hi ch fo unded th e d yn asty

o f A gade an d Ki sh in th e i n s c rip ti o n s o f w ho se ki n gs w e h ave th e
,

ear li e st ex te n de d ex am pl e s o f wri tten S em i ti c spe e ch w h i c h h ave

as ye t b ee n di sco vere d I t is n o t c e rtai n th at th e se su c c essi ve waves

.

o f Akk adi an s all spo k e th e sam e di al ec t o f S emi ti c b u t o n acco u n t , ,

o f th e lim i tatio n s o f o u r k no wl edge w e c lass th e m all to ge th er ,

.

On the who le it seem s p ro b abl e th at th e di alec t whi ch w e fi n d in th e

i n scriptio n s o f th e d yn as ty o f Agade ( S argo n Rim u sh M ani sh tu su , , ,

N ar am S in an d S hargali sh arri ) h ad b een gradu ally di ff e ren ti ate d

-
,
-

fro m th e spe e ch o f the S o u th Ar ab s by ext e n de d co n tac t wi th th e

S um eri an s an d the still e arlier A si ati c po pul atio n o f B abylo ni a .

S u ch syn tac ti cal l iken esse s to S um e ri an as th e plac i ng o f th e ve rb

at th e e n d o f th e se n te n c e ( a d e c i de d ly u n S e mi ti c p ec u li ari ty) -

c o u ld n o t h ave b ee n pro d u ce d in Akk adi an wi th o u t th e lapse o f

co n si d e rabl e t i m e S u ch co n si deratio n s aff o rd so m e gro u nd fo r

.

1
S ee RI S A, p 100 ff .Af ter ve rb s, th e f e m w as si
. . .

Cf D itle f Nie lse n s H andb uc h d er altarabis clzen Altertu ms k u nd e, pp 143—

’
2
. . 17 6 .

3
Cf RI S A, p 6
. . .
 CO M PO S ITION OF HI S TORIC PEOP LE S 71

thi n kin g that th e lan gu age S argo n an d h is s u c of th e c hro n ic les o f

c e sso r s h ad n o t b ee n re ce n tly im po r te d f ro m A rabi a e ith e r b y the m ,

o r th eir im m e d i ate an ce sto rs b u t h ad b ee n w ro u gh t o u t in B aby ,

lo n ia by the e arlie r w ave s Of S emi ti c se ttlers an d ado pte d by the

late r c o m e rs .

T H E AM OR I T E S

On e Of m o st i mpo rtan t , b u t o n e Of the m o st elu sive , Of th e

th e
Semi tic peo ple s w as th e Am o ri te s , who se lan d w as in Ak kadian
Amu rru S u m erian the lan d w as d esign ate d K IIR M AR
’

calle d . In -
TU
k li r
MAR T U k i “
whi ch seem to m e an T h e lan d
all Of
“
or -
o r MAR T U
-
,

O f th e e n te ri n g in O f th e c h ari o t (o f the su n )
” “
or T he west l an d ,
-
.

T h e term w as applied to th e c o u n try wh i c h stre t c he d u p th e E u

h rate s we s tward to th e L e b an o n m o u n tai n s an d th e M e d ite rran
p
e an c o ast lan d I n S u m e ri an th e Amo ri te s were c alle d Li} MAR TU
-
.
“ -
,
“
M e n o f th e west wh i ch w as clearly n o t th eir rac ial n ame .

I n th e Old Te stam en t wh ere th e y are m e n tio n e d se veral tim es , ,

(see e g Gen,
. .
,
D eu t . an d Jo sh th e y . .

are c alle d Amo ri wh i ch is clearly th e He b re w e qu ivalen t Of th e

,

Akkadian Amu rru Th e se d e sign atio n s pro b ably therefOre give .

, ,

u s a c lu e to the n ati o n al n am e o f thi s peo ple T h e J do cu m ent in

'

th e Old Te stam en t regards th e Am o ri te s as the pre He b re w po pu -

latio n o f P ale stin e tho u gh the E do c u m e n t c alls th em C an aan i tes

,
.

At the ti m e Of th e Heb re w co n qu est an Amo rite kingdo m ex iste d ,

to th e e ast Of th e D ead S ea (see Nu an d e arlie r du ri n g .

,

th e pe rio d co ve re d by th e E l— Am arn a l etters an Amo rite kin gdo m ,

e xi ste d in the re gi o n Of th e L e b an o n M o u n tai n s an d n o rth ern

Galilee I t is clear ac co rdiirgly that the h abitat Of the Am o rites

1
.
, ,

w as in th e re gio n to th e we st Of B abylo n i a i n clu d in g the M edi ,

te rran e an co ast lan ds Wh ile they we re displace d b efo re the y b e

'

-
.

c am e su ffi c ien tly civi li z e d to pro du ce an y th in g th at can b e ca lled

literatu re the ir pro per nam e s pre sen t certain charac teristics whic h
2
,

1
S e e Kn u d tz o n , Di e E l Amarn a '

-
Tfl
a e n , no s . 15 8 an d 164, an d J . F rie dric h, S taats
vertrage d es H atti R eic hes i n hethiti s cher S prache, L eipz ig ; 19 26, p p 1
'
-
.

2
I t se em s u n n ec essary he re to m en tio n Clay s th e o ry o f an Am o rite
’
e m pir e in th e
f o u r th milen n iu m B C . .
, w h ic h h e b elie ve d to h ave j
en o yed a h igh c iviliz ati o n . Th o se

w ishi n g to ac q u ain t th e mse lve s w i th i t sh o u ld c o n su lt h is b o o k s : Amu rru , the H o me

f
o the N o rther n S emites , 1909 ; The E mpi re of the Amorites, 19 19 ; A H ebrew elu ge S to ry D
in C u n eifo rm , 19 22 ; an d The Or i gin of the B i bli c al r ad iti o n s , 19 23 F o r c ritic ism s T .
 72 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

e n ab le us to d is c e rn that the y c o n t rib u te d e le m e n ts to bo th th e

B ab ylo n ian an d He b re w ci vi liz a tio ns that we re O f gre at i m po rta n ce .

T he c h ar ac te ri s tic by w h ic h A m o rite s m ay b e id e n tifie d in the

va rio u s pa rts o f the S e m i tic w o rld is the e le m e n t Am m ( so m e ti m e s
‘

i n Akk ad ian H am m a s ni H am m u rab i —

) an e le m e n t w hich in the se
n am e s tak e s the pl ace u s u ally o c c u pi e d in t he n am es O f o the r S em itic

p pe o le s by th e n a m e o f a g o d T h u s a m o n g t h e H e b re w s w e h ave .

Am m i n adab ( Ex R u th an d A m mi n adib ( C an t
‘ ‘
- -
. .

— nam e s w hi ch c le arly su rvi ve d f ro m the A m o rite s train in the He

b rew an ce stry I n Akk ad ian w e have no t o nly H amm u rab i b u t
.
,

Amm i ditana Am m i z ad u ga a nd A mm i b ai l ki ngs O f B abylo n and

-
,
-
,
-
,

Khani and m any o the rs l I t is a sign ifica n t fac t the i m po rtan ce

,
.
,

O f w hi ch h as n e ve r b e e n fu lly appre c i ate d by s c ho lars t hat amo n g ,

the Qatab an ian s in S o u th A rabi a t he e l e me n t Amm n o t o n ly e n te rs

'

i n to th e co mpo sitio n o f pro pe r n am e s in a simi lar w ay b u t Amm ,

‘

—
is am o n g the m ac tu ally a d ei ty th e spe c i al de ity O f th e t ribe 2
As .

th e elem e n t Amm in th e pro pe r n am e s p re serv e d to u s in Akk ad ian

‘

an d H e b re w o c c u pi es the po si tio n an d ful fil s th e fu n c tio n w hi c h

in o th e r S e mi ti c pro pe r n am es is o cc u pi e d an d fulfil led by the n am e

o f a d ei ty it is alto ge th er pro bab le tha t Amm w as al so th e t rib al
‘

dei ty O f th e Amo ri te s T he fac t tha t in Ak k adi an th e d etermi n ati ve .

fo r d ei ty is n o t alway s presen t in the se n am es is n o t a c o n c l u sive

argu m e n t agai n st thi s Amm m ea n s peo ple
’
k in sfo lk T he .
‘ ‘
,
’ ‘
.

go d Amm w as ac c o rd in gly the d eifi e d trib e pe rso n ified T he

‘
.
, ,

“
of th e t h eo ry th e p rese n t w rite r s artic le , T h e An tiq u ity Am o ri te s,
’
see Of th e in
J AOS , vc l . XL V , 19 25 , an d h is Arc haeolo gy and the B i ble, 4 th and 5 th e di ti o n s ( 19 25
an d 19 27 , pp 5 3 5 .

I n lik e m ann er it se e ms u nn e c e ssary to re f u te he re Th eo . B au e r

’
s theo ry th a t M AR
T U“i lay , in the tim e b efo re th e firs t dynas ty of B ab y lo n , in th e lan ds eas t o f th e Tig i ; rs

S in ce M AR TU
“ ”
( see h is Die Ostk anaa naer Le ipz ig , ,
19 26, p .
- ki
me an t w es t lan d ,
-

it may have b ee n e mplo y e d in th e insc ri p tio ns o f Ku du rm ab u g to d es ignate E m u tb a l,

th e w e ste rn distric t o f E lam , o r, as S c hn ab e l has su gg e ste d , i t m ay , in the insc ri p ti o ns
of this E lami te p rin c e , h ave b ee n a n am e
f o r B ab y lo nia , w hi c h lay to th e w es t Of E mu t
b al . In an y e ve n t, th e e vi d e n ce add u ce d in th e tex t sho w s tha t th e Amo ri tes w e re

sc a t te re d f ar o ve r th e We st an d th a t w ave s o f th e m e n te re d B ab y lo nia , n o t f ro m th e
E as t, b u t f ro m the S o u th . For a san e an d w ise disc u ss io n Of th e ma terial see H o ni g
”
mann ’
s arti c le
“
Amu rru in th e R eal lexik o n der A ssyr io lo gi e, e di te d b y E b e li ng an d

M e issn e r , p 99 ff
. . S ee also Addi tio n al N o te at th e e n d o f thi s b o ok .

1
For a p art ial lis t of th e m se e Cl y P
a ,
ro per Name s of the C as s ite Dy nasty, p 54,.

an d B au er, o p . c it .
, p . 13 f .

2
S e e N Rho d o k anaki s, Katab an isc he
. T exte , Wie n , 19 19 , pass i m, an d Nielse n , o p.

c it .
, p . 19 3 .
 COMPO S ITION OF HI S TORIC PEOPLE S 3

im po rtan t po in t fo r th e pu rpo se o f o ur p rese n t i n qu i ry is th at

th e prese n ce O f th is perso ni e d trib e fi as a d e i ty am o n g th e Am o r
nd Q the atab am an s w in d ic ate s that th e y
re spr u n g fro m
'

ite s a e

the sam e sto c k No where else in the S em itic wo rld so f ar as

.
,

w e k n o w w as th e amm d e ifie d I t fo llo w s ac c o rdin gly th at

‘
.
, , ,

e ithe r th e Qatab an ian s were an o ffsh o o t o f th e Am o rite s whi c h

e n e tr a te d i n to S o u th A ra bi a f ro m th e N o rth o r th e Am o rites
p ,

were an o ff sho o t Of th e Q atab an ian s an d had th en o r1g1n in So u th

Arabi a Wh ich Of th e se altern atives sh o u ld w e cho o se ? I t se em s
.

r o b a b le t h a t w e s h o u ld c h o o s e th e se co n d an d lo o k fo r th e h o m e
p ,

lan d Of th e Am o ri te s in S o u th Arabia Whi le o ther reaso n s fo r th is .

ch o ic e w i l l appe ar as w e p ro ce ed a de c1s1ve o n e se em s to b e the fo l ,

lo wi ng B abylo n ian date fo rm ula : T h e y ear when to I b i—S in kin g

“
,

Of Ur th e Am o ri tes a so u th ern trib e w h o n e ve r kn e w a c i ty su r

, , ,

”1
re n d e re d I t fo llo w s fro m this e arliest kn o wn refe ren c e to th e
.

c o m i n g Of th e Am o rites th at th ey c am e f ro m a co u n try w h ic h lay

so u th o f Ur which w as itself alm o st th e so u th ernm o st po in t Of

,

B abylo n ia So u th Arab ia wh ere in l ater tim e s w e fi n d th e Q ata

.
,

,
—
b anian s fu lfils th is co n di tio n I b i S in ru led fro m 23 0 7 228 2 B C .
— .

H is d ate h as n o w b ee n fix e d b y astro n o m y 2
Thu s the Am o rites .

first appear in hi sto ry abo u t 230 0 B C I t is agree d by p rac ti c ally .

all s ch o lars th at the fir st d yn asty Of B ab ylo n , to w hi ch H am m u rabi

b elo n ged , w as Of Am o rite o ri gin Th is dyn asty aro se b e tween 2100 .

I t seem s pro b abl e th ere fo re th a

"
an d 20 5 0 BC . t th e Am o rite s , , ,

repu l se d b y th e S u me rian s in S o u th B abylo n i a fo u n d an e n tran ce ,

in to No rth B abylo n ia po sse sse d th em selves o f the c i ty Of B abylo n

, ,

an d in d u e tim e fo u n d e d a dyn asty whic h u n d er its gre ate st k in g , ,

Hamm u rab i m ade itse lf m a§ ter Of th e who le lan d ? U n cu ltu re d

,

th emselves, they ado pte d th e c u ltu re an d .

to a go o d d e gre e th e lan
a
g ge
u Of th e peo ple who m th ey co n qu ered .

What th e S u m erian s tho u gh t Of th e s e ne w co m ers is reve a e d l in

th e fo llo wing passage f ro m a S u m eri an te x t

On th e m o un tain th e we apo n i s h is co m pan io n ,

To c atc h me at h e c ro sse s o ve r th e m o u n tain ,

Wh at i s g ood h e do e s no t kn o w ;
He s u n c o o ked m eat
’

e at ,

1 P u b lish e d b y L L egrain 111 The M u s eu m

. J o u r n al, D e c e mb er, 19 26 , p . 379 ; cf .

G A B arton ,
. . Arc haeo logy an d the B i ble, 5 th e d .
, p 5 64
. .

2
S ee L an gd o n an d F o th e rin gh am , The V en us
_
T
ablet o f Ammiz adugga ,
19 28 , p 82 . .
74 S E M ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORIGI NS
While h e live s he has no ho u se ,

H is d e ad c o m pan io n he d o e s no t b u ry ,
I n the land his p ro te c to r ( P) is the go d Am u rru .
1

T ho u gh they we re u nc ul ti vate d h u n tsm e n w he n they e me rged

fro m A rabi a so me O f the m had in tw o ce n tu ri e s as si m i lated all
,

the c u ltu re O f B abyl o ni a as the hi s to ry O f H amm u rabi pro ve s ,

.

A gli m pse o f A m o ri te s li vi ng o n the b o rde r o f E gy pt b e twee n 19 7 0

an d 18 0 0 B C is O b tai ne d f ro m the E gy pti an s to ry O f S inu he 2
. .

S inu he so jo u rned at th e co u rt o f E miue n sh i pri n c e o f Uppe r R u te n n u , .

Upp e r R u ten nu is the E gy pti an name fo r Palesti ne and E mi n ,

e nsh i is regarde d by s ch o lars ge ne ral ly as the A m o ri te n ame Ammi

a—
h
an s i a n ame c l o se ly parallel e d in the Q a tab an ian i n s crip ti o n s ‘
.

He re the n w e have e vi de nce fro m an ex tra bibli ca l so u rce that

, ,
-

A mo ri tes we re in Pal esti ne T he desc ri ptio n O f the Pale s ti ni an .

agri c u ltu re th e vi ne s an d fi gs the flo c k s an d h e rd s sho w s it to

, , ,

h ave b e e n i n m u c h the sam e co ndi ti o n that it pre se n te d l ate r i n the

Heb rew pe rio d .

F ro m the s tu dy o f Am o ri te p ro pe r n ame s Theo B au e r has d e

d u ce d c e rtai n fac ts ab o u t th e l angu age o f th e Am o ri tes 6 T he im .

pe rfe c t 3 rd si ngu lar Of the verb w as fo rm ed by th e pre fix y an d ,

the ca u sati ve s te m Of the ve rb appears to have b een fo rm ed wi th

the l e tte r h B o th the se fo rm atio n s are i de n ti cal wi th the u sage
.

o f H e b re w in late r ti m e Ano the r i n di catio n whi ch po i n ts in the .

sam e dire c tio n c o m e s f ro m th e i n sc rip tio n s fo u n d at S e rab it e l Kh a -

d em in th e pe n i n su la O f Si n ai The se i nsc riptio n s disco v ere d b y .

,

Pe tri e in were fir st i d en tifie d as alphab e ti c S emi tic b y Alan

H Gardi ner
.
’
Th ei r i n terpre tatio n has b een ad van ce d by C o wle y 8
.
,

1
P u b lis h e d by Chi e ra, S u merian Rel igio us T exts , 19 24 , NO 8 . an d pp . 14—
23 ; cf .

also B ar to n , Arc haeolo gy and the B ible, 4 th an d 5 th e ds .

, p 539 . .

2
F o r translatio n s B re as te d , A ncient R eco rds, E gypt, I , 23 7 ff
cf .
, an d E rma n ,
The L iteratu re o f the Anc ient E gyptia ns , Lo n do n , 19 27 , p 14 ff . .

3
E rma n (o p . c it .
, p 17 )
. cu rio u sly read s Ne nshi , so n o f Am u , e vide n tly takin g E mi n as
th e E gyp tian Amu , As iatic see m me
‘
T he te x ts , ho w e ve r, as u su ally p u b lis he d ,
’
. to
to f avo r rath er th e o th e r re adin g .

Cf . D . Nie lse n , N eue leatab or ies che I ns c hri f ten ( M V AG , p 27 4

. .

Di e Ostk anaa n aer, p 62 fi S ee also Add itio n al No te at th e e n d O f t his b oo k

'
5
. .

5
R es earc hes i n S i nai , Lo n do n , 190 6 ; c f S yr ia , , 13 5 E . V .

7
J o u r nal o E gyptia n Arc hae olo gy, I II , pp 1 if
f . .

pp 17 fl
'
8 I bid .
, . .
 COMP OS ITION OF HI S TORIC PEOPLE S 75

S e th e ,
B u tin
1
an dT w o fac ts o f i m po rtan ce h ave I thi n k be e n
.
2
, ,

m ade pro b able by th e se sc h o lars if n o t fu lly e stabl ish e d 1 These , . .

in sc riptio n s exh ibit Egy ptian hiero glyph ic ch arac ter in pro cess Of
b eing tran sfo rm ed in to an alph ab e t 2 T h e lan gu age Of the in . .

sc riptio n s is p rac ti cally i d e n ti c al wi th th e He b re w o f a late r ti m e .

Wi th these fac ts w e sho uld c o u ple the f ac t alre ady m en tio ne d th at

Am o rites were in P alesti n e in the ti m e Of S in u he j u st th e tim e wh en , ,

in t he o pi n i o n Of S e th e an d B u ti n th e i n sc riptio n s o f S erab it el ,

Kh adem were wri tten All the se fac ts m ake it pro b able that th e
.

Si n ai in sc riptio n s were written by Am o rite s an d th at u n cu ltu red , ,

tho u gh th e y were wh e n first they po u re d fro m Arab ia in to B abylo n ia ,

th ey we re th e re al i n ve n to rs O f th e alphab e t an d by th at o n e in , ,

ve n tio n m ade o n e o f th e greate st c o n

,
tribu tio n s to c ivi liz atio n e ve r
m ad e by an y peo ple .

That th e Amo rites sho u ld have o ri gin ated in So u th Arabia an d ,

y e t have spo ke n a l an gu age prac tic ally iden ti cal wi th l ate r He bre w ,

is n o t so u n th i n k able as it m ay at first appe ar fo r the di ale c ts O f ,

S aba an d o f th e Qatab an ians are m u ch mo re aki n to He b re w th an

n o r th e rn Arabi c is 3 .

T h e f ac ts at pre sen t kn o wn to u s i n dicate th e re fo re th at th e

‘ , ,

Amo rites were Offsho o ts Of a S o u th Arabian trib e an d th at th e y ,

po u red fo rth fro m that c o u n try in su c cessive w aves in an u n c ivi liz ed

state ,
that the y gain e d a fo o th o ld in n o rth e rn B ab y lo n ia wh e re ,

the y ado pte d th e c iviliz atio n an d th e lan gu age o f th e Akk adi an s ,

fu rn i sh e d the fir st dyn asty to th e c i ty Of B abylo n (th ese Am o ri tes

b e in g ab so rb ed in th e B abylo n ian m el tin g po t) that they swept -
,

we stward o cc u pyin g vario u s po ints in the co u n try b e tween th e

E u ph rates and th e M ed iterran e an i n clu d in g Pale stine th at th ey , ,

spo ke a l an gu age in di stin gu i shabl e so far as th e s ca n ty rem ain s ,

O f it re v eal it to u s f ro m He b rew th at the y i n ven te d th e alph ab et

, , ,

an d th at ( th e e vide n ce fo r thi s will appe ar late r) th e ir l an gu age

1
Z D M G, L XXX pp 24 fi
. .

2
H aro ard Th eologi c al R evi ew , xx i, p 9 . .

3
Cf .
.
th e f o llo wing p o in ts : Th e smaller
.
( Gro u n d ste m n u mb er Of verb al s te m s ,

I n ten sive C
ausative thr ee re flex ive s
, , ,
C
au sative re exi ve an d Nipb al) in w hi ch it is fl , ,

mu c h mo re similar to th e H eb re w th an to th e Arab ic sy stem ( Cf Ho mm e l S u d arabi s .

,
-

c he Chresto mati e M u ni c h 1893 p 18 if ) ; th e n — au sative , Hip hi l as against th e

, , , . C
Arab ic Aph ala in S ab m n ( H o mm el p
, th e Nip h al ( H o mme l p 2 1) th e p ro n o u n s
, .
,
.
,

e sp ec ially h e relative
t p ro n o u n s ( H o mm el p 13 if ) , . .
76 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

be cam e so firmly estab li she d in Pal e s ti ne tha t it w as l ate r ado p ted

by the no n Amo ri te He b re ws by w ho m the Palesti ni an po rtio n o f
-
,

th e A mo ri te pe o pl e w as ab so rb e d .

T H E AS S YR I ANS
O n the w e st si de o f the Ti gri s Ri ve r abo u t halfw ay b e twe e n the ,

po i n ts at w hi ch o n the e as te rn si d e the Upp e r l ab and Lo we r Zab

, ,

flo w i n to it w as si tu ate d the an ci e n t c i ty O f th e go d A s hu r
, I ts .

ru i n s are no w ca lle d K alat S he rgat A sh u r w as appare n tly no t -

.
, ,

its o ri gi nal n ame b u t a n am e gi ve n it b y its S em i ti c po pu lati o n

,

a fte r the y had c o n q ue re d it I ts e arli er n am e w as ap pare n tly A .

U S AR Wate r n e t
,
‘ " I t w as o n e o f the m any fi sh in g po i n ts O f the
.

rac e f ro m c e n tral A s ia T he re app ears al so to have b ee n a ferry

.

th ere fo r o ne o f its O ld nam es w as B AL I D rM KI Pl ace fo r c ro s si ng

2 ‘
- -
, ,

the d ee p T he S u m e ri an s c alle d it UR U SAG U R U C ity w ithi n a

’ 2 ‘
-
.
,

c i ty ,
p ro b ab ly be cau se o f its fo rtified c i tade l
’ 3
T he A s sy ri an s co r .

rel ate d the fi rs t O f th e se n am es to th at o f th e i r tree go d Ashu r ,

.

T he l an gu age spo k e n by the A ssyri an s o f hi sto ry w as a S emi ti c lan

gu age sho w ing that the do mi nan t s trai n i n the peo ple w ho m ade
,

A ssy ri an hi sto ry w as S em i ti c Thi s peo pl e e stabli she d at A sh u r a .

c i ty s tate w hic h co n q u e re d th e su rro u n din g co u n try as R o m e co n

, ,

q u e re d I taly Thu s the l an d Of A ssyri a o ri gi n ate d S till l ate r th e

. .

ki ngs o f the lan d o f A ssyri a c o n qu ere d large sec tio n s o f We ste rn

Asi a an d e stabli she d the A ssyri an e mpi re I n thi s there is a striki ng .

an al o gy to the e stabli shm e n t O f th e R o m an e m pi re .

T he w ho le re gio n O f the lan d o f A ssyri a w as as the re searches O f ,

C hi e a d S pei s er ave s o w n ; i nh abi te d by re p re se n tative s O f

ra n h h 1

th e C e n tral Asiatic E lami te race who se re m ai n s h ave b e e n b ro u gh t

-
,

to li gh t at N u z i an d Te pe G awra Thi s race h ad lo ng b ee n in po s .

sessio n O f the lan d w he n the c i t y O f A sh u r b e c am e S e m i tic

,
I n th e .

1
S ee b e lo w , ch . VIII , p 27 5
. .

2
Cf S idney S mi th , E arly H istory
. o f Assyri a to 1000 B . C .
, Lo n d o n , 19 28 , p 104 . .

3
Cf An drae , F es tu ngsw erk e
. As hu r, Le ipz ig , 19 13
vo n .

Cf . Chi era an d S pe ise r,

“
A Ne w F ac to r in th e His to ry Of the Anc ien t E as t,
An n ual f
o the A mer ic an S cho o ls of Ori ental R esearch, V o l VI ; S pe ise r , re limi na ry
.
“
P
E xcavatio n s at Tp
e e Gaw ra ,
”
i b id , V o l IX , and S pe ise r, M es o po tamia n Ori gi ns ,
. .

Phil adelphia, 19 30 .
 COMPOS I TI ON OF H I S TORI C PE OPLE S 77

mi d dle of th e thi r d m ill e nni um B C it . . w as th e lan d Of th e G u ti ,

1

w h o co n qu ere d B abylo nia an d su ppli e d to tha t c o u n try a dyn as ty

whi ch co n tro ll e d it fo r at least a c en t ur y an d a qu arter S um erian .

co n qu e ro rs pu sh e d th e ir arm s u p th e Tigris an d it is n o t str an ge ,

that e xam ples O f S u m e ri an art w ere f o u n d b y An dr ae at Ash u r in

str at a e stim ate d to co m e f ro m abo u t 3 000 B C Apparen tly th e
2
.

peo ple Of thi s r egi o n had at thi s e arly ti m e de velo pe d n o sy stem O f

writin g fo r wh en th e y wr o te at all the y ado pte d th e s cript o f
, , ,

B abylo ni a .

T h e pres en ce Of thi s n o n S e mi ti c race in As syr i a to ge th er wi th -

,

th e f ac t th at Assyr i an i s a S emi ti c lan gu age m ak es it cle ar th at th e ,

Assyrian s Of hi sto ry aro se fro m a fu sio n Of t w o rac es T h e S emi ti c .

co n qu e ro r s b len d e d with th e Asiati c r ace whi ch w as alre ady in th e

lan d T w o qu e stio n s ari se c o n c e rn in g th e S emi ti c e le m en t in

.

As syr i a : H o w e ar ly we re th ey in th e lan d ? An d When c e di d ,

th e y co m e ?

As to the first Of th
Sidn ey Smi th th in ks it an terio r to th e tim e e se ,

o f S argo n Of Agad e wh o m h e d ates abo u t 2600 B C Speise r o n

3
. .
, ,

th e o th er han d b e cau se Of th e di s co very O f an ar c h mo lo gical repre

,

s e n tati o n O f a c ir cum ci se d p hall us in Te pe Gawr a II in f ers th at ,

S emi tes related to th e West S emi tes w ere presen t in th e co u n try

in th e S to n e Age be fo re th e in tr o du c ti o n o f m e tal 4
I t w as fo rm erly .

ge n erally assum e d that th e S emi ti c Assyri ans w ere co lo ni s ts O f Ak

k adi an s fro m B abylo nia 5
This assu m ptio n app aren tly rested o n .

th e s imi l ari ty Of the Assyri an an d Akkadi an di al e c ts I t h as be en .

righ tly qu esti o n e d b y S idn ey S mi th o n th e gr o un d th at th e Assyri an ,

cal en d ar d iff er s fro m th e B abylo ni an in a w ay th at wo uld h ard ly b e

po ssible if th e As syri an s cam e fro m th at c o u n tr y that th e Assyrian

, ,

law s re ve al th e f ac t th at As syr i an so ci al in sti tu ti o n s di ff e re d radi

c ally f ro m th e B abylo ni an an d th at th e s yst em o f datin g b y the ,

li mmu is n o n B abylo ni an 6
S mi th w ho o n ins uffi c ien t gro u n ds
-
.
, ,

1
Cf . Ass y ri en
”
by E . F o rrer in E b eling an d M e issn er ’
s R eallexi lz o n def Assyr i
o lo 8 i e .

2
S ee An drae , Di e arc hai sc hen I sehl ar T empel
-
zu Ashu r , Tf
a el 39 ; cf . S idn e y S mi th ,
o p
. c it .
, ch . VI .

3
0p p 114. c it .
, . .

4
Ann ual of the Americ an S cho o ls f Orien tal R es earch IX p
o , , . 48 f .

5
Cf . e .
g .
, R . W . R o ge rs , H i s tor y of B abylo n i a and Assyr i a ,
6 th ed .
, II , 133 .

6
E arly H istor y o f A ssyr i a to 1000 B C . .
, ch . VII I .
78 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

d o u b ts th e A rabi an o ri gi n o f the A ssy rians s u gges ts No rth Sy ri a ,

an d e as te rn A si a Mi no r as t he l an d w he n c e the y c am e The re is .
,

ho w e ve r no e vi de n c e that S e mi te s as s u c h e ve r o rigi nate d i n that

,

q uarte r a nd the theo ry o ve rlo o k s tha t lingui s ti c e vi de nce c i ted in

,

c h ap te r I w hi ch c o n nec ts the S e m i te s wi th A fri c a l

,
A mo re sati s .

fac to ry th e o ry wo ul d se e m to b e that th e o ri gi n al S e mi ti c po pu la
tio n o f this re gi o n w e re a part o f that S e mi ti c su c c essio n O f i m mi gra
tio ns w hi c h in p re hi s to ri c ti m e s su rgi ng u p f ro m A rab ia fo u nd
, ,

the i r w ay i n to B abyl o n ia S o m e o f the m gai ni ng a fo o tho ld in

.

B ab yl o ni a be cam e Akk adi ans ; o the rs gai ni ng a fo o tho ld he re an d

, ,

the re am o ng th e rep rese n tati ves o f the C e n tral A si ati c rac e al re ad y

in the l and b e c am e an c e s to rs O f m any O f the l ate r A ssyri an s
,
T he se .

w e re at T e p e G awr a in th e S to ne Age S cattered wi dely o ver the .

l and th ei r d ialec t d e velo p ed its di ff ere nces fro m Akk ad ian I t is

,
.

n o te wo rth y th at the ri se O f the c i ty O f A sh u r to po w er co i n c i d es

wi th th e ri se o f the fir st dynasty Of B abylo n to po we r E vi de nc e .

has a lre ad y b e e n p rese n te d to sho w tha t that d yn asty w as Am o ri te .

I t is n o t i m po ssible that the S emi tes w ho captu red the c i ty O f UR U SAG -

U R U o r B AL ID IM KI an d ch a nge d its n am e to A shu r w e re a par t o f thi s

-

sam e Am o ri te ho rd e w hi ch f ai le d to gai n a fo o tin g in B aby lo ni a an d ,

th at th ey ado p te d th e l an gu age o f th e m o re c i viliz e d S emi tes w ho we re

alr eady in the l an d j u st as the A m o ri tes w h o at thi s ti m e i n vad in g
, ,

B abylo ni a ado p ted the l angu age Of th e m o re c i vili ze d Akkadi ans

,
.

I f thi s w e re true a reaso n fo r the ado p tio n O f the langu age O f the
,

e arly se ttl e rs (w hi ch w e n o w call A ssyri an ) mi gh t b e se e n in the

f ac t that th e c u sto m o f wri ti n g w as b e in g i n tro d u ce d fro m B ab ylo ni a ,

an d th at A ssyri an o n ac c o u n t O f its ki n sh ip wi th Akk adi an le n t

, ,

i tself m o re e as ily to the u se o f thi s sc ri p t An Am o ri te e l em en t in .

Assyri a can ho we ver b e regarded as n o m o re than a po ssib ili ty

, , ,

an d th e fac t that n am e s co n tai ni n g th e e l e m e n t amm

‘
are n o t

fo u n d am o n g the n am e s Of the e arly rule rs o f A sh ur m ili tates agai n st

th e th eo ry .

Whe ther th e first S emi tic co n qu ere rs Of the c i ty o f Ashu r we re a

part o f a fre sh i n c u rsio n Of S em i te s o r wh e th e r the y w e re desce n dan ts
,

1 T he arch aeo lo gica l an d o th e r e vide n c e o n w hi c h S mi th re li es f o r his p ro o f relates

to th e n o n- S e mi tic race w hic h w as in Assy ria b e fo re S e mi te s c am e , an d n o t to the S e m
i te s the mse lve s . At th e st art thi s rac e w as m u c h f u rth e r ad vanc e d th an th e S e m
i tes in th e m as te ry of th e arts of lif e . Cf S pe ise r
.
’
s M es opo tamia n Origins pas s im ,
.
 COM PO S ITIO N OF HI S TORIC PEOPLE S 79

Of b een lo ng in the lan d th e A ssyrian s O f h isto ry

tho se w ho h ad ,

were a m ixed race Altho u gh they spo ke a S em itic lan gu age there
.
,

w as in the ir blo o d a large e l em e n t d e ri ve d fro m the C e n tral A si atic

race This e lem en t gave to the Assyri an s th eir pro min en t no ses
. .

T he n o se in the pu re S e m iti c type re p rese n te d b y th e Arab s is n o t , ,

rly p ro m i n e n t o r O f th at c u rve d type w h ic h i s c o m mo n ly

'

p a r ti cu la

c alle d
“
Ro m an in representatives Of th e C en tral A siatic race su c h _
,

as th e Hi tti te s , it is
2
I n th e early S u m e ri an s th e so c all e d Ro m an
.
-

n o se Of ten appe are d

3
I t i s n o t alway s p resen t ho we ver
.

'
No t all , .

th e fam i ly Of Ur Ni na po sessed it an d so m e gro u p s lac ke d it

4 -
,

en tire ly
5
Hammu r abi th e Am o ri te po ssessed a n o se o f qu i te a
.
, ,
“ ”6
d iffe ren t typ e fro m th e Ro m an b u t in the m aj o ri ty Of A ssyrian ,

fac es re presen te d in th e sc u lptu re s th e Ro m an ty pe O f n o se appe ars "

,

This featu re w as , w e b e li eve derived fro m th e l arge n o n S em itic

’
-
,

elem e n t in the i r an cestry F ro m the sam e so u rce c am e th e no n .

B abylo n ian c alen d ar th e c u sto m Of re c ko n in g by li mmu th e dif

, ,

feien t so c ial i n sti tu tio n s refle c te d in th e A ssyrian law s an d t he ,

fierce a n d ru th le ss traits in l ater Assyrian c h arac ter ,

T h e Akk adi an s Oi B abylo n i a did n o t po sse ss thi s type Of n o se

_ .

I t do e s n o t appear in the p o rtrai ts Of Man ish tu su N aram ; S in o r

“

, ,

o the rs w ho can b e d e fin ite ly i den ti fie d as Akk ad i an All these

8
.

kin ds Of e viden ce ten d irre sistibly to e stabli sh the fac t whi ch o n ,

a pri ori gro u n d s w e sho u ld h av e b ee n le d to e xp e c t th at th e A ss yr ,

1
Cf . Alo is M u sil , The Northern H egaé, Ne w Y o rk ,
19 26 , p 9 3 , . an d also his The
M ann ers and Cu sto ms o f the R w ala B edo u i n s , F ro n tisp iec e .

I
S ee M esse rsc h mid t , Co rpu s ns criptio n u m H etticaru m, I I , B e rlin , 19 00 ,
2
afe ln , T
I , XX I an d I , an d XXV J
Garstan g, The E mpi re of the H i tti tes , Lo n dOn , 19 29 , pass im
. .

3 S e e S ir Arth r K ei th in H all an d
u OO lle y
’
s Al
‘
Ub aid , pp
21 4 —
2 40 , f o r a d isc u s -
.

sio n o f sk u lls , an d C . L . Wo o lley The S u meri an s , Oxf o rd , 19 28 , p 3 1, an d L L egrain

’
s . .

in The Mu seu m J ou r n al, S ep t —D ec , 19 29 , 266—

. .306, for pic tu res in p ro fi le o f th e
ear li e st S u merian s .

4
Cf th e Ur Nina
.
-
Pl q h
en C ald e, p
a ue e E
l 2b i s an d
. de S arz e c , Dé c o u vertes .

also L W K in g, H i story of S u mer and Akk ad , pp 110 , 112, an d 113

. . . .

5
Cf E M ey er, S u meri er u nd S emiten i n B abylo ni en , T af VI I an d L W King ,
“

. . . . .

op c it , p 4 7 f o r a gro u p f ro m the tim e Of Gu de a w h ic h illustrates the p o in t

. . . .

6
S ee h is p o r trait o n th e S te le o f th e o d e C of Law s in J . d e M o rgan
’
s Delegati o n en

P erse, I V , pl 3 , o f te n rep ro du c e d e lse w h e re

. .

7
S culptures i n the B ri tis h M u seu m, Lo n do n 19 14 ; H Layard , Ni n eveh
S ee Assyri an , .

and i ts Remai n s an d B o tta an d F lan din M o nu men t de Ni ni ve,

, ari s, 18 49 ,
P .

8
F o r M an ish tu su see Delegati o n en ers e V o l X p l 1, an d f o r Naram—
, S in , P S F P , .
, . . . .

H an dc o ck , M eso potami an Archaeo logy, Ne w Y o rk , 19 12, p . 194 .

80 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

i an s are a m ix e d rac e , a nd w hi c h d ifle re ntiate

that tho se fe atu re s
the m f ro m th e Akk ad ian s a nd d is ting u ish the i r i n sti tu ti o n s an d c u s
to m s f ro m tho s e O f the B ab yl o n i an s are d u e to the ir i nh e ri tanc e ,

fro m the e arlie r no n S e m i ti c po pu lati o n o f the i r l an d

-
.

T HE CANAA N I T E S

I t has y b e e n no te d that in the Old Te s tam e n t the J do c u

alre ad

m e n t c al ls the p re H e b re w po pu latio n o f P al e s ti ne A m o ri te s w hi le
-
,

th e E d o c u m e n t c alls the m C anaan i te s I t is also c le ar that the re .

w as a c l o se re latio n shi p b e tw ee n these tw o peo ple s fo r it app ears ,

fro m D e u t that the ir lan gu age s di ff e re d f ro m e ac h o the r o n ly

.

diale c tal ly I t w as fo rm e rly su ppo se d th at the C an aani te s w e re a

.

l ate r w ave o f S e m i tic po pu lati o n than the A m o ri te s : that the l atter

h ad swe pt w e s tw ard o ve r thi s re gi o n abo u t 25 0 0 B C an d the fo r . .
,

m e r abo u t 180 04 7 00 B C h avi n g b ee n pu shed w es tward by the

. .
,

c o mi ng i n to B abylo n ia o f the K ass ites T h e co mi n g O f the C an aan .

i te s w as thu s suppo sed to b e a part o f th at w estward m o vem en t

whi ch b ro u gh t these late r rep re sen tati ve s o f the A siati c El ami te -

ra c e ( the K as si te s) i n to B abyl o n i a an d the Hyk so s i n to E gyp t

1
.

A ttrac ti ve as thi s theo ry is it re sts o n i n fere n ce rather than u po n

,

e vi d e n ce .

An o ther po ssibi li ty is th at the n am e Am o ri te w as appli ed in the

Old Te stam e n t to th e i n h abi tan ts O f the hill c o u n try an d the t e rm -

C an aan i te to th e dwe l le rs o n the co astal plai n b o th b ei ng O f the ,

s am e race S o me pro b abi li ty is l en t to th i s theo ry by the f ac t that

2
.

the ro o t 173? in H e b re w m e an s
“ ”
b e lo w C an aan i te th erefo re .
, ,

“
s e em s to m e an si mply Lo wl an de rs T h e e arli e st o c c u rre n ce Of .

th e term is in th e E l Am arn a l e tters wh ere it tak e s the fo rm Ki nn ahi

-
, ,

a fo rm phi l o lo gi c ally e qu i val e n t to 0 VJ ) Thei r e arli e st m en .

tio n in hi sto ry is th e statem e n t in a le tte r o f B u rn ab u riash I I to

Am e no phi s I V that th e y appe al ed to his p red e c esso r Ku rigalz u I I
Of B aby lo n fo r h e lp again st E gy pt 3
H o w m u ch e arl ie r th an thi s .

1
So L B . Pt E
. a o n, arly H is to ry f
o Pla esti n e and S yri a, Ne w Y o rk , 19 0 1, ch . V .

2
So R . C Th m p
. o so n in C a mb rid ge A nc ien t H is to ry, I I , 23 2, an d 3 76 n .

3
Cf Knu d tz o n , Di e El A mam a Taf el n ,
.
-
no . 8 . Th e Ahi ram in sc ri p tio n f ro m th e
M e of th e X I
l ‘b
E gyp ti an dyn asty f o u n d at Geb al ( see S yri a, V , sh o w s tha t
S e mi tes w e re in P
h oeni c ia e arli e r th an the time o f B u rn ab u riash I ( 1425 b ut
we h ave no e vid e nc e th at they w e re th e n c alle d C an aan ite s .
 COMPO S ITION OF HI STORIC PEOPLE S 1

th e n am e w as applie d to kn o w i ng th e m , w e h ave no m e an s of .

Whi le it is pro b able th at th e co mi n g O f th e Kassite s i n to B abylo n ia

fo rc e d w ave s o f po pu latio n w estward ac ro ss A sia an d in to A fri c a ,

there is n o e vide n c e th at th e w ave O f S e m i te s w ho c am e at th i s

ti me w as di fferen t in c h arac ter o r in lan gu age fro m the A m o rites
w ho h ad c o m e at an e arlie r tim e I t seem s pro b able th at the C an aan .

i te s were th erefo re sim ply Am o ri tes w ho had se ttled in the lo wlan ds

, ,
.

Pro b ably o rigin ally the y e xtended alo n g the who le M e di terranean
co ast I f so th e co m i n g Of th e Phi li stin es abo u t 1200 B C dro ve
.
,
.

t hem f ro m th e so u th e rn part Of th i s co astlan d Th e y m ai n tain e d .

th e m se lves ho w e ver in the n arro w strip b etween th e Le b an o n an d

, ,

th e sea where th e y b ec am e a seri e s o f c i ty state s Ty re Sido n Ge b al , , , ,

Arvad e tc T h e n am e s Of th ese c i tie s are S emi ti c ; the y w ere

,
.

fo u n d ed by S emi t es Here th e y develo ped i n to th e rac e Of

.

sailo rs an d trad e r s who m th e Gre e k s c alled P h oen i c i an s b u t th e ,

nam e c i o n a late P h oen ic i an co in sho w s that the y co n ti n ued to

’
1

de signate th em se lve s as C an aan ite s A n u m b e r Of Ph oen i c i an in .

s crip tio n s h ave su rvive d whi ch prove th at th e langu age Of the se

Ph oen i c i an s diff ered little fro m Bibli c al He b re w 2

Thi s fac t in di c ates .

th at like He bre w Ph oen i c ian w as d esc end e d fro m the langu age Of
, ,

the Amo ri te s and the C an aan i te s o r Lo wlan de rs .

T HE ARA M ZE AN S

T he Aram aean s d e velo ped so m e centu ri es late r than th e first ap

pearan c e Of the Am o rite s T he first hi s to ri c al re fere n ce to th em .

is in th e i n sc rip tio n s Of Adad n irari I Of A ssyria ab o u t 13 10 B C

3 -
,
.

Thi s mo n arch called th em Ahlami H e fo u n d them inupper M eso _

_
.

po tami a where the y were asso c i ate d wi th th e Su ti an d I au ri In

,
.

th e ti m e Of S h alm e n eser I th e y we re in alli an ce wi th th e Hi tti te s 4

.

They app ear to h ave b een n o mad s at the tim e an d are sai d to have ,

co n gregate d in ho rd e s Tiglath —
p ile se r I i d e n t ifi e s them wi t
.h th e

Aramu o r Aram ae an s 5 The y co n tinu ed to dwell in thi s regio n .

,

1
Cf S c h ro der, D ie Ph o n iz is che S prache, p 6, n 2
. . . .

2
S ee also Ad ditio n al No t e at the en d o f th e b o o k .

3
Cf . D D
Lu c k enb ill, Anci en t R ecords of Assyri a
. . and B abyloni a, Ch i c ago , 1926 ,
§ 73 .

§ 116
4
I bid , .

5
P i mI
r s n se . co l . v, 1 47 ;
. cf . Lu c k e nb ill, o p . c it .
, §23 9 .
82 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITIC ORI GI NS

w he re thei r l angu age su rvi ved fo r mo re than tw o tho u sand ye ars

an d be cam e th e Sy ri ac o f the C h ri s ti an C h u rc h I n the ti m e o f .

T iglath pilese r I I I the y w e re al so fo u nd far do w n the Ti gri s an d

-

E u ph rate s in the al lu vi u m o f lo we r B aby lo ni a T hi s ki ng speak s .

“
o f the Aram zra n s o n the b ank s o f the Ti g ris E u ph rate s and S u rapi , , ,

i e the Pe rsi an G u lf
”1
as far as Uk n u o n the s ho re O f the l o w e r s e a
, ,
. .
,
.

I n d u e ti m e th ei r to ngu e di sp lac ed Ak k adi an in B abylo n ia so that , ,

in th e Pe rsi an pe ri o d w hile l egal co n trac ts w e re s til l m ade in th e

,

S emi ti c to ngu e o f ancie n t B abylo ni a A ram ai c w as the l angu age O f ,

co mm o n spe e ch
2
T he B aby lo ni an Tal m u d w ri tte n in a d i al ec t O f
.
,

thi s A ram ai c is a wi tne ss to the fac t th at thi s co n d i tio n co n ti nu ed

fo r ce n tu ri e s The re is re aso n to b eli e ve that the Kald u ( C halde an s)
.
,

w ho firs t appe ar abo u t 1000 B C an d w ho fo u r c e n tu ri e s l ate r . .

,

furn i shed the Neo B abylo ni an d y nasty to B abylo nia and w ho

-
,
“ ”
cam e f ro m th e S ea L and s a sec tio n O f Arabi a as D o u ghe rty,
-

2—
has sho w n we re al so Aram zea ns Thu s thi s p eo ple w ho fi rst .
,

appe ar in hi sto ry in Uppe r M eso po tami a e i ther spread so u thw ard ,

“ ”
f ro m th at regi o n o r po u re d o u t O f the S ea L an d s O f A rabi a an d
be came the do mi nating eleme n t in l ater B abylo ni an hi sto ry .

F ro m Haran in Upper M e so po tami a an d the regio n abo u t it the y

spre ad w e stw ard to P alesti n e an d b ecam e o n e O f th e e l e m en ts as w e ,

sh all se e in th e fo rm atio n Of the He b re w peo ple

,
By l ate r waves .

o f m i gr atio n th e y p eo pl e d D am asc u s an d e stabli she d vari o u s p e tty

ki ngdo m s in No t Syrir h a a s at S a al ( Ze dji li) an d Yadi ; sti ll

m n r
4

l ater th e y pro d u c e d b y f u sio n wi th Arab s the N ab ath aean s who se

, , ,

kingdo m wi th its c e n ter at Pe tra flo u ri sh e d fro m the fif th c en tu ry

B C to th e ye ar 10 5 AD
.
5
E arly in the C hri stian era the y al so
.

de ve lo pe d a c i vil izatio n at P alm yr a 6

Thi s peo pl e thu s wi dely .

s c atte red app are n tly b e c am e t rad e rs an d the i r lan gu age b eca m e ,

Cf P R o s t, Die Keilschrifttexte Tiglath pilesers I I I , 22, an d p l XXXV, 5 —

1 . . 10 ; also -
.

Lu ck enb il l, o p c it , § 7 8 2
. . .

2
Cf C “
la y , Aramaic E n do rse men ts to B ab y lo nian o n trac ts in Old estament and
. C T
S emitic S tud ies i n M emo ry of Willia m R ai ney H arper, Chi cago , 1908 , I , 28 5—
3 22 .

3 f
C J AOS V o l L , pp
1—25
,
. . . .

Cf F. . vo n Lu schan , C . H u mann , R Ko lde w ay , S ac hau ,

. an d S c hrad e r, A us gra
bu n gen i n S end sc hirli , B e rlin , 18 93 , 189 8 , 1902, 19 11 . Cf . also S ina S c hifler, Die Ara
maer , Le ipz ig, 19 11 .

5
C f th e
. Nab athze ans in th e E nc yclopaedia B i blic a
artic le
“
.

3
Cf W Wrigh t, A n Acco u nt of
. . al myra and Z eno b ia, Ne w P Y o rk , 189 5 and the
C o rpu s I ns c riptio n u m S emi tic ar u m, T o m I I . .
 CO M PO S ITION OF HI S TORI C PEOPLE S 83

in th e later preC h ri stian cen tu rie s th e li ngu a f ran ca o f weste rn Asia

-
.

Amo n g the Je ws it displ aced th e o lde r He b re w an d thu s w as spo ken

“
,

b y tho se w ho in blo o d were b u t rem o te ly akin to th e o rigi n al Ara

m a an s .

In idering the o rigin Of the Aram aean s it sho u ld b e no te d

co ns ,

that the y fi rst appear in hi sto ry in th e regio n m whi ch in the c e n ,

tu ry b e fo re the ir appearan c e the Hu rrian ki ngdo m o f M itan n i ,

e xi sted
1
Fifteen hu n dred years later Aramai c w as the lan gu age
.

o f th i s regi o n an d e ven fi ve hu n d re d years l ate r th e Hu rri h ad

,

e n ti re ly di sapp e are d I t is thu s e vi de n t th at th e Hu rri O f thi s

2
.

regio n we re ab so rb e d by th e S em i ti c Aram a ean s an d b e c am e o n e Of

th e e lem en ts whi ch di ffere n ti ated th em rac i ally an d lin gu i sti c ally

fro m the o th e r S emi ti c p eo ples Addi tio n al evi den ce fo r this f u sio n
.

wi ll b e p re se n te d wh e n w e co n si der th e co mpo si tio n O f th e He b re w

,

p eo pl e I
. t w as ce rt ai n ly f~

ro m th e Old h o m e l an d o f the M itanni th at

the A ram aean s o f No rth Sy ri a an d D am asc u s mi grate d Wh ether .

tho se Of B abylo ni a m o ve d do wn th e river f ro m th e sam e regio n ,

o r c am e di re c tly fro m Arabi a as th e Kaldu ( C h ald e an s) appe ar ,

to have do n e w e h ave n o me an s Of kn o wi n g
,
A large se c tio n Of the .

Aram aean s ho wever were clearly fo rm e d in a m elting po t, whi ch

, ,

fu sed large strain s o f Hu rri blo o d wi th th ei r S emi ti c in h eri tan c e .

THE H E B RE W S

T he fici al read er o f the Old Testam en t gain s th e impressio n

su per

th at th e He b re w s were Of pu re S em i tic sto c k an d we re all d escen ded

” ‘
fro m Ab rah am Ab raham is c alle d th e He b re w bri ( Gen
“
.
,
.

whi ch has be en su ppo sed to m ean T he B eyo n der becau se he c ame

“
,

fro m be yo n d th e E u phrate s tho u gh as w e shall see t he wo rd h ad

~

, , ,

qu ite a diffe ren t o rigin I n reality a c lo ser stu dy Of th e Old Te sta

.

m en t reve al s th e fac t that m an y elem en ts en tered in to the m aki n g

o f the He b re w p eo ple an d th e te stim o n y o f th e Old Testam e n t is
,

co n fir m e d by arc h aeo lo gy an d e thn o lo gy .

I t h as alre ady b een po in ted o u t th at tho se w ho in vade an d c o n

qu er a land su b du e an d ab so rb the po pu l atio n whi ch the y fi nd th ere .

T h e resu lt is in th e co u rse o f ti m e the pro du c tio n Of a n ew sto ck

, ,

Cf G A Barto n , Archaeolo gy p 97 f
1
. . . and the B ible, 6th cd .
,
. .

2
Th ere is no ref e ren c e to th e m in th e in sc rip tio n s of Ashu r -
nasir —
p al II , w h o f o u gh t
wi th vario u s peo ple in this re gio n .
84 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

b y th e f u sio n Of the tw o w he re
.
1
T he w ri te r h as p o i n te d o u t e lse

th at the s to ri e s o f the m arri age s O f the patriarc h s are s to ri e s O f

allian c e s by w hi c h trib e s re s id e n t in P ale s ti ne b e fo re the H e b re w s

cam e w e re fu se d wi th the c o n q u e ro rs I t is no w k no w n that P ales .

ti ne w as i nhabi te d far b ac k in palaeo lithi c ti m e s S e ve ral sk u lls .

have be e n fo u n d o f the type o f the N ean de rthal M an

“ ”
o r e ve n ,

mo re pri mi ti ve havi ng a b rai n c apaci ty far le ss than tha t o f any

,

li vi ng m e n 2
P ro b ab ly thi s race di sappeare d in the flo o d s w hi c h
.

fo l lo w e d th e b re ak u p o f the las t ic e age I t is q u i te di ff e re n t

- -
.
,

ho w e ve r wi th the n eo li th i c m e n d i sco ve red by M acali ste r at G e ze r

,
.

These we re a small well d e vel o p ed no n S em i ti c p eo pl e ,

3
T he y ,
-
.

appe ar to h ave li ve d in th e co u n try u n til co n q u e re d an d ab so rb e d

by the S emi ti c Am o ri te s M acali ste r tho u gh t them the p eo p le who m .

“
the Bibl e calle d H o ri te s b ecau se the y li ve d in c aves a S emi ti c , ,
“ ” “
ro o t fo r d ig an d ho le bei n g k haru ( fi n o r Nfl fl ) M o re .

re c e n tly Sp e i se r an d C hi e ra h ave c o n j e c tu re d that th e Bib li cal

‘

Ho ri tes were H u rri Wh e the r th e o n e c o n j ec tu re Of the o the r he

.

ac c ep te d it is c l e ar that th e po pul atio n in q u es ti o n w as n o n S emi ti c

,
-
.

Thi s po p ulati o n w as ab so rb ed by the Amo ri tes an d thro u gh them ,

c o n trib u ted so m e thi n g to th e c o m po si ti o n O f the l ate r He b re w

peo pl e .

Th e bibli cal traditio n s b e ar wi tn e ss to the prese n ce O f a l arge

Aram aean elem en t in the an c e stry Of the He b rews Ab rah am is said .

to h ave so j o u rn e d in Haran an A ram e an ce n ter to H aran h e se nt , ,

to tak e a wi fe fo r I saac f ro m am o n g hi s ki n sfo lk the re thi the r ,

to th e A ram aean c o u n try O f Pad an aram ) Jaco b we n t fo r his wi ve s -

.

Al l these tradi tio n s are real ly re co ll ec tio n s Of the fac t th at Aram aean
trib e s wan dere d i n to P al e sti n e an d f u rn i sh ed to th at co u n try a
do mi natin g elem e n t T he El Am arn a tab le ts as will b e p o i n te d
.
-
,

1
The R eligio n f
o I srael, 19 18 , 2n d ed .
,
19 28 , Ch I I , . an d A H isto ry o f the H eb rew
P eo ple, 19 30 , Ch I I . .

2
S ee B ulletin NO 7 . of th e B ritis h S c ho ol o f Archaeology i n J erus al em, 19 25 ; c f . also

Arche olo gy and the B ible, 5 th c d , p 553 f . . . M o re re ce n tly M iss Ge rtru de C ato n- Th o mp

so n has di sc o ve re d a se c o n d o n e n e arer J eru sale m . S e ve ral have also b e en di sc o ve re d

at Athlit nea r M o un t C arme l; se e th e w ri ter s
’
Arc he o logy an d the B ib le, 6 th cd .
,
1933 ,
1 3 7 —139
p. .

3
Cf R A S . M acalis ter, The E xc avatio n of Gez er , Lo ndo n , 19 12, I , 145 fi
. . . .
, an d also

h is Bible S id e Lights f ro m the M o u nd of Gez er , Lo n do n , 1906 , Ch I I

-
. .

Cf A n n u al
.
f the Americ an S choo ls of Oriental
o R es earch, VI , 80 f .
 COMPOS ITI O N OF HI S TO R I C PEOPLE S 5

o ut belo w ,
with co n tem po rary e vi d en ce Of th e co m
no w fu rn ish us

ing Of this A ram aic fac to r in Palesti n ian h i sto ry T he A ram aean s .

we re ho wever so far in the min ority after the Heb re w se ttlem en t

, ,

in C an aan th at the Aram e an He b re w s ado pte d in tim e th e lan

,

g u a ge O f th e A m o ri te s wh i c h th e y spo ke an d w ro te fo r so lo n g a
,

ti m e th at w e n o w c all it He b re w I t thu s cam e ab o u t that tho u gh .

,

th e He b re w s co u n te d th e i r e po n ym o u s an ce sto r an A ramaean th e y
1
,

th em se lves s po k e fo r Cen tu ri es a n o n A ram ai c l an gu age -

.

I n additio n to the Aram ae an Am o rite an d pre — Semiti c Palestini an , ,

e lem e n ts whi ch en tere d i n to the co m p o si tio n o f th e He b rew peo ple ,

th e re w as al so a l arge m ix tu re Of the blo o d O f th at Ce n tral Asi ati c

race whi ch w e h ave fo u n d in e arly E lam an d B abylo n i a an d f ro m

wh i ch the Hi tti te s an d Hu rri spru ng So m ati cally thi s e lem ent .

so f ar do mi n ate d the o th e rs th at it gave to th e J ew th e pro mi n e n t

n o se o f th e Hi ttite type in mo dern tim es Ofte n
lled Ro man ca
“ ” —a
,

featu re p rac ti c ally u n kn o wn amo n g the pu re ly S emi ti c Arab s 2

This .

strain o f the He b re w i nh e ri tan ce m ay h ave e n te re d in o n e o r all Of

the three fo llo wi n g way s

1 I t is po ssible th at b efo re the c o mi n g o f the Amo ri tes c lans Of
'

.
,

o f th i s rac e h ad pu sh e d the i r w ay do wn i n to P ale sti n e wh ere the y ,

were afterward ab so rb ed by t e Amo ri te s

h 3
I n thi s c ase when th e .
,

Amo ri tes were ab so rb ed by the He b re ws the Amo ri te type h ad ,

alre ad y b ee n c h an ge d f ro m the p u re S em i ti c typ e 2 Am o ri tes . .

re ach e d so u th e rn P alesti n e d i re c tly f ro m S o u th Arabi a ac ro ss th e

Arabian de serts T h e d i sco ve ry o f So u th Arabi c in scriptio n s

‘

—
in the vi c i n i ty Of E l Ula to ge th er wi th the f ac t th at the n ame
4
,

E miu en shi (Ammi an sh i) th e e arlie st P ale stin i an Amo ri te n am e

'

th at w e h ave c o rrespo n d s to the S o u th A rabi c ty pe; l e n d s pro b

,
5

ab ili ty to the su ppo si tio n th at m any A m o ri tes fo u n d th e i r w ay i n to

Palest i ne by thi s ro u te I t is al so m o re than pro b able th at o ther

.

Am o rite s in the co u rse Of the c en tu ries failing to gain a fo o tho ld in ,

B abylo ni a o r Assyri a su rge d we stward to Palestine thro u gh th e

,

Hurri co u n try Of Upp er M e so po tam ia wh ere like th e A ssyrian s , , ,

1
Dent .

2
Th e e vid en ce is similar to that alre ady p resen te d in th e c ase o f th e Assyri an s : cf .

ab o ve, p 7 6, n 4 an d p n , n 1
. . .

3
S o Ch iera an d S p eise r, as alre ady no te d ; see ab o ve , p 76
—
. .

4
S ee Ab el an d S avign ac , M i ss io n é
arc h ologi qu e en Ar ab i c, I I , 23 6 3 62 .

3
Cf Ammi .
-
an sh a, O . Web er , S ud arabische S tudien
'

.
86 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

the y fo rm e d alli an c e s wi th H u rri and b ro u gh t the m alo ng i n to P al e s

ti n e w i th th e m 3 L as tly the c lan s w h ic h fo rm e d the I srae li ti sh
. .
,

n ati o n and w hi ch bo as te d the ir Aram zc a n ki n s hi p w e re alm o s t

, ,

c e r tai nly c o m po s e d in part o f H u rr i e le m e n ts w hi c h w e re d e s ig ,

“ ”
n ate d Hi tti te b o th by the A ssyri an s an d in the Old Te s tam e n t .

A m o ng the Rl A m arna le tte rs the re are seve n w ri tte n by Ab di He p a

- -

O f J e ru sale m in w hi ch he g rap hi c ally d e sc rib e s ho w the l and is b e i ng

,
”
o ve rru n by the Habi ri
1
T he nam e Habi ri is philo l o gi cally e q u i v
.

At the sam e ti m e Rib A d da ki ng O f Ge b al

“ ”
ale n t to He b rew s .
-
, ,

m“
h
w as c o m pl ai ni ng to the ki n g o f E gyp t t at the S A GAZ we re o ve r -

h
r u nni ng th e l an d s ln the n ei g b o rho o d o f P h oeni c i a I t has no w
2
.

be e n p ro ve d that S A GAZ m“
is the S um e ri an e q u i vale n t o f Habi ri
-
.

m“ “ ” “ ” “ ” “ ”3
S A GAZ
-
m e an s hu n te r ro bb e r pl u n dere r an d Hab iri
, , , ,
“ ”
w hi ch w as fo rme rly tho u gh t to m e an alli es m ay an d in the , ,

“ ” “ ”
j u dgm e n t o f so m e s ch o lars do es al so m ean plu n dere r ro bb e r , ,
.

Whi ch e ve r O f these m ean i ngs m ay b e i n di cate d by it there c an b e ,

”
li ttle do u b t th at it is the real o ri gi nal Of th e n am e He b rews .

T he Hi tti te so urc es f ro m B o gh az Ko i also m e n ti o n th e Habi ri ,

so m e ti m e s sp e lli n g o u t the i r n am e p h o n e ti c ally an d so m e ti m es

d e si gn ati ng th em by th ei r S um e ri an i deo graph 4

I t app ears fro m .

these re fe re n c e s co m bi ne d wi th refe ren c es to th em in th e E l—

,
Am arn a
tab le ts th at th e y w e re so m e ti m es e m plo y e d by Hi tti te M i tan ni an
, , ,

an d o th er k i ngs as m ercen ari es The y appe ar to h ave b een artifi c ial .

b ro therho o d s o r c lan s fo rme d partly o f Aram aean s an d partly Of

,

Hurri an s ( and po ssibly o the r m em b ers Of the C e n tral A siati c rac e)

u n i te d fo r the p u rpo se o f h u n ti ng an d plu n d er w h o w e re later so m e ,

tim es em pl o y ed as m erc en ary so l di e rs I t w as the co mi ng o f so m e .

Of th ese Habi ri to P ale sti n e an d th e gai ni n g by th em O f a fo o tho ld ,

th ere th at is re c o rded in th e E l Am arn a tab le ts

,
I t w as the co m -
.

in g Of thi s sam e peo ple that is cele b rate d in the sto ry O f the m arri ages
O f J aco b an d th e b ir th O f h is ch ild re n b y the d au gh te rs O f L ab an ,

th e Aram ze an th o u gh in th e se sto ri e s the m ai n fac ts are i n te rtw i n e d

,

1
Cf Knu d tz
. o n, Die El Amarna Taf el n , No s 286 —
-
298 , . an d G A B arto n , Arc he
. .

o logy a nd the B ible, 6 th ed .

, p 4 1 if. .

2
Cf Kn u d tz o n ,
. o p . c it .
,
N O 84 ff . .

3
S pe ise r su gge sts Ame r i can S cho ols of Or iental R es ear ch XIII ,
An n u al f
o the .

“ ” “ ”
4 1 that
Hab iri m eans b e in g a No m ad .

Cf Keilschrifttexte aus B ogha z k o i I , N O 1, re v 49 an d NO 3 , re v 5 w i th No 4

. . . . . .

iv, 29 ; also w i th V o l I V , No 10 , re v 3 , an d V o l V, No 3 , i , 3 6
. . . . . .
 COMPOS ITIO N OF HI S TOR I C PEOPLE S 87

with a large ro m an tic ele m e n t

Th ro u gh the Habiri then a large
no n S e m
.
, ,

-
i tic elemen t derive d fro m th e C en tral A siati c rac e en tere d
in to the c o m po si tio n o f th e He b re w peo ple T h e resu lt w as th at in .

th e He b re w an d th e Je w w e h ave a peo pl e w ho altho u gh th e y spe ak ,

a S emi tic lan gu age are large ly n o n S em i tic in e x trac tio n

,
-
.

No t all th e Habi ri m igrate d fro m Uppe r M eso po tami a to P ale stin e .

Hittite so u rces m ake it c lear that at th e very time th e Habiri o f

the E l Am arn a t able ts w e re c o n qu erin g P ale stin e o thers were still
-
,

h
resi de n t in th e lan d Of t e Mi tann ian Hurri
1
Th ese were do u b tless .

ab so rb ed th e re an d b e c am e o n e o f th e stran d s wo ve n i n to th e fab

ri c O f the an ce stry O f th e later Syri an s .

Ac co rdin g to th e tradi tio n s o f Genesi s th e Olde st so n s Of Jaco b

were the so n s o f Le ah Reu b en Sim eo n Levi Ju d ah I ssac h ar an d , , , , , ,

Ze bu lu n 2
Thi s me an s th at the se trib e s were th e o rigin al Hab iri
.

w ho in v ade d P ale stin e They appear to have calle d themselves the .

'

E n e I srae l T h e E l Am arn a table ts gi ve u s co n tempo rary evi den ce

.
-

O f th e i r c o m in g By the tim e Of the Egyptian king M ern eptah

.
,

ab o u t 1220 B C . h
the y we re well e stab lis e d in th e lan d
.
,
3
Th e y .

pu she d in am o n g th e peo ples alre ady th e re m ade alli an ce s wi th ,

th em an d gradu ally ab so rb e d th em
,
Th i s is parti cu larly tru e Of the .

trib e Of Ju d ah T he alli an ce s by wh i c h th i s is b ro u ght ab o u t are

’

re pre sen ted in th e B ible as m arriage s O f Jud ah s so n s

’
4
Apparen tly .

th e se trib e s n e ver we n t to E gypt .

T h e sam e B iblic al traditio n s repre sen t th e so n s O f Jac o b b o rn

fro m R ach e l as yo u n ge r th an tho se b o rn fro m L e ah 5
T h e h i sto ri c al
'

m ean in g Of th is appe ars to b e th at these tribe s were a later wave o f

Ar am aean o r Habiri m igratio n an d th at failin g to gain a fo o tho ld , ,

in P ale stin e th e y ro am e d th e de se rt f ro m wh i c h b y a fam i n e th e y

, ,

we re driven in to th e E gyp tian D el ta I n tim e the y we re redu ced to .

the p o si tio n o f sem i serf do m an d we re afte rward d elive re d by -

M o ses w ho n ego ti ate d an allianc e fo r th em wi th the Midian ite

6
,

S ee ref e re n ce s in th e p rec e d ing n o te

1
.

2
Cf : Gen .
—3 5 an d —20 .

3
Cf Bre aste d , A n c i en t R eco rds , E gypt, I I I , 264 if ;
. . cf . also G A B arto n , Arche
. .

olo gy and the B i ble, 6th e d , p 3 7 5 . . .

4
Gen . ch .

5
Cf Gen
.
—24 an d
.
—19 .

3
Cf E xo d u s c hs 1—12
. T h e th e o ry Of
. . tw o se t tle men ts o f I srael in C anaan is m o re
fu lly w o rk e d out by P ato n in th e J
o u r n al o f B i blic al Li teratu re, V o l . XXXI I , pp.1—53
;
88 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

K e ni tes by w hic h Yahw e h b e cam e the i r Go d Abo u t 1200 D C

,
1
. . .
,

o r a li ttle l ate r the y p us he d t he ir w ay i n to c e n tral P ale s ti ne w hi c h

, ,

the Le ah trib e s had fail e d to c o n q u e r m ad e allian c e s wi th th o se ,

trib e s as th ei r re co g niz e d ki ns m e n w ho in ti m e acc e p te d the wo rship ,

o f Yahw e h a nd c ame to re gard th e trad iti o ns O f the Exo d u s as th ei r

1
own .

T he bib li c al trad i ti o ns , f u rthe r, re pre se n t the t rib e s o f Gad and

A she r D an an d Nap th ali as d e s ce nde d f ro m sl ave gi rl s O f Jaco b s

,
’

ho u se ho l d 2
T hi s me ans th at th ese trib e s cam e i nto the H e b rew
.

c o mm o nwe al th l ate r th an th e o the r t rib es an d w e re n e ve r re gard e d

as o n q u i te an e q u al fo o ti n g wi th the o th e rs On e O f the se trib es .

,

A sher appe ars in the E l A m arna l e tte rs as an A mo ri te ki ngdo m

,
‘ -
,
“
the m em b e rs O f w hi ch are o n c e re fe rre d to as T he so n s O f Eb e d
” ls
Ashe ra Eb ed A she ra w as thei r ki ng As the se p eo pl e li ve d in
. .

p art w he re the trib e o f Ash er li ve d in l ater Heb re w hi sto ry the re ,

c an b e li t tl e do u b t th at the y w e re the an c e sto rs o f the H e b re w

trib e o f Ash er an d th at the Ar am ae an H e b re w s fo u n d th em in thi s

,

part O f the co u n try an d m ade an alli an ce wi th them An alo gy m akes .

it p ro b able th at the trib es O f Gad D an an d N apth ali h ad a si m il ar , ,

o ri gi n if o nl y w e h ad th e n e cess ary so u rces to e n abl e u s to trace it

,
.

T he n ati o n I srae l w as in the p eri o d O f the J u dge s in p ro cess o f

fo rm atio n By p ressu re fro m o u tsi de the trib es w e re b ei ng we l ded
.

to ge th e r No t u n til th e rei gn Of ki n g S aul w as there a n ati o n al

.

c o n sci o u sn ess an d th e H e b re w n atio n O f hi sto ry f u lly f o rm ed

,
No t .

e ve n th en w as th e p ro cess co m pl e te M an y Of the Ol de r Amo ri te .

Wo rld XL VI 8 2—88
’
also in the B iblic al , Vo l .
, pp .
; c f also th e
.
p rese n t write r s R eligio n
of I s rael , ch I I I , . an d h is H isto ry f
o the H ebrew P eople, Ch s .
—
I V VI I Olms tead s ide n
.
’
~

tifi ca ti o n of th e nam e s o f J o sh u a an d Ben j amin in an E l Ama rn a le tte r, in his H istory

-

ofPl a es ti ne and S yria , p 188 , an d Gars tang s stro ng argu men ts in f avo r o f su pp o sing
.
’

th t J
a eric ho w as d es tro y ed n o t f ar f ro m 1400 B C , in hi s The F ou nd atio ns of B i ble
—
. .

Histo ry Jo shua a nd J
mo re in vali date th e theo ry p ro p o se d h ere
ud ges , p . 146 f .
,
no

th an th e ado p tio n o f th e E xo d u s sto rie s b y th e write r in validate i t B y the tim e the J .

tradi tio ns w e re wri tte n do w n t hese an c ie n t s to rie s, ho w e ve r they o riginate d , mu st have

b eco me th e pro pe rty o f b o th u dah an d o f the R ac he l trib e s J .

1 E xo d u s -
12; cf . J u dg es
2
Th us the JD o cu me n t, wri tte n in J u d ah , re co u n ts th em as n atio nal expe rie nces .

3
Cf Ge n
. .
—13 .

Tf l T
'

Cf Knu d tz o n , D ie El Amarna
. NO 84 E Th e H ittite ab le ts f ro m B o
-
a e n, . .

ghaz Ko i b ea r w i tness to the e xis te n ce an d impo rtan c e o f th e sam e kin gdo m ; c f J

F ri e d rich , S taatsvertrctge des Hatti R eic hes i n hethitis c he S pro c he, Le ipz ig, 19 26, pp 1—
. .

48
’

-
. .

5
Knu d tz o n , o p c it , No 103 ; c f A rc he olo gy and the B ible, 6 th c d , p 440
. . . . . . .
 COMPOS ITI ON OF HI S TOR IC PEOPLE S 89

e lem en ts in the b sorb ed u n til th e re ign o f S o lo m o n

lan d were no t a
“ ”1
wh en they were m ade he we rs Of wo o d an d drawers Of wate r .

Thu s re du ced to servi tu de th e y were fin ally ab so rb ed an d th e pro

c ess Of f u si n g in th e m e l ti n g po t O f P al e sti n e th e m any rac i al e le
, ,

m e n ts f ro m whi ch the He b re w s Of hi sto ry we re co mpo sed w as at

, ,

l ast co m plete TO thi s co mpo site o rigin Of the Heb re w peo ple the
. .

“
p ro p h e t Ez e ki e l re fe rs w h e n h e s ay s : T h e A m o
,
ri te w as th
y fath e r ,
”2
an d thy m o th e r a Hi tti te .

TH E E GY PT I ANS

T h e len gth c
o f re o rd e d hi sto ry Of c v i ilizatio n in the va e ll y of the
Nile has lo ng fascinated stu den ts b u t re cent research has re vealed ,

vi stas o f still earlier hu m an h abi tatio nin th at valle y far lo n ger than

tho se th at are reco rde d in all wri tten h i sto ry T he m aste rly wo rk .

o f P etri e w hi ch e xhi bi te d the u n fo l di n g o f E gyp ti an preh i sto ry

thro u gh fif ty se que n ce d ate s 3

th e di sco very Of a c iviliz atio n at ,

B adari an terio r to an d diff eren t fro m that o f any pre vio u sly kno wn
pre dyn asti c c ivi lizatio n by M r Gu y B ru n to n an d Mi ss Gertru de
-
.

—
C ato n Tho mpso n an d the i nvestig atio n Of the rem ain s o f pal aeo
4
,

lithi c man in Upper Egyp t an d in the Fay u m by K S S anf o rd an d . .

W J Arkell h ave m ade it p o ssible to u n derstan d as n e ver b efo re

.
5
.

th e i mm en se an tiqu i ty to wh i ch th e h u m an h abi tatio n o f Egypt

ex ten d s Pal e o lithi c m an app eared first in E gypt at th e b eginning
.

Of pl e i sto cen e ti m es at l e ast ye ars ago T he i mplem en ts

,
.

whi ch he em plo ye d have b een fo u n d bo th in Upp er E gypt6 an d in

th e F ay u m 7
At the ti m e th e n o rtheastern p art o f Afri c a w as still
.

a well watere d l an d Ab un dan t waters were po u ri n g thro u gh the

.

Nile an d it w as c re atin g gravel terrac es o r b e ac hes 100 fee t abo ve its

,
.

1
Cf J o sh . 23 , 27 , an d 1 Kgs .

2
Ez e .

3
P E gypt, b y W M F lin de rs e trie , Lo n do n , 19 20
r ehi s to ri c . .Cf also Alexand e rP . .

S ch arff , Gru ndz uge der aegyptis chen Vorgeschi chte, L eipz ig , 1927
‘

1‘
The Badari an Ci vili sati on b y Guy B ru n to n an d Ge rtru d e ato n h o mpso n , Lo n C -
T
do n , 19 28 .

F i rs t R eport of Prehis tori c S u rvey of E gypt, b y K S

5
. . S anf o rd an d W .
J . Ark e ll,
C P
hi c ago , 19 28 , an d ale olithi c M an an d the Ni le F ayu m -
Di id v e b y th e sam e au th o rs ,

Chi c ago , 1929 .

3
S anf o rd an d Ark ell, Prehis toric S u rvey E xpedi ti o n , p 11 f . .
, an d P ale olithi cM an ,

p 36
. .

7
S anf o rd an d Ark ell, P ale oli thi c M an , pp 28—70 . .
90 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

p re se n t le ve l . T he pe rio d o f d e sic c atio n w h ich m ad e E gy p t w h at

it is to d ay c am e l o n g af te rw ard T he i m ple m e n ts o f th is palzco lith ic
.

m an c o rre spo nd bo th in fo rm and in the se q u e n c e o f fo rm s to tho se

w h ic h the p alaeo li thi c m e n o f E u ro pe w ho li ve d i n the glaci al and ,

i n te rgl ac i al pe ri o d s w e re m aki ng ‘
Wh at the raci al co nne c tio n O f
,
.

these m e n wi th thei r E u ro pe an c o n te m po rari e s if any m ay h ave , ,

b ee n w e do no t k no w
, I t is c e rtai n th at tho u gh the bl o o d o f thei r
.
,

d e s c e nd an ts m ay have b ee n mi ngle d wi th o the r strai ns in the vei n s

o f the E gy ptian s o f the hi s to ri c pe ri o d the y d id no t f urni sh the ,

d o m i nan t s trai n to the E gy ptian s o f h isto ry T hro u gh at l e ast fi ve .

sc o re s o f tho u s an d s O f y e ars pala eo lithi c m an co n ti n u e d h is p ro

l o nge d exi ste n c e in the N ile Valley A fte r hal f O f that ti m e had .

p as sed d e si cc atio n se t in an d the p rese n t arid c o n di ti o n s b egan

,

to b e ap pro ach e d 2
T he gre at trib u tari e s O f the N ile d ri ed u p an d
.
,

m an w as co m pell e d to c o nfi ne his ac ti vi ties cl o se to the ri ve r valle y .

NO e vi den ce that he w as able to w ander far afield as in e arlie r ti m e s , ,

h as b ee n fo u n d I n ge neral the n w e i n fe r that co n di ti o n s at l e ast

.
, ,

si mi lar to tho se w h i ch e xi s t in E gyp t to day h ave p revail e d there

fo r a p e ri o d O f so m e thi n g like years .

T h e d ifle re n t ste p s in th e t ran si tio n in E gyp t fro m the p al e o li thi c

c i vi lizatio n to th e n eo li thi c are shro u de d in O b sc u ri ty Po ssibly .

so m e f u tu re di sc o ve ry wi ll re veal th e m T h e e arli e st n eo li th i c .

c i vi liz atio n k no wn ( th at at B adari ) c am e when d i s co vered as a , ,

co m pl e te su rp ri se B adari lie s o n th e east side o f the Ni le ne ar

.

Qan a li ttl e ab o ve A ssu i t in th e middle po rtio n Of Upper E gyp t .

Whe n the c ivili zatio n reve aled by th e de po si ts at B adari o ri gin ated ,

the prese n t arabl e lan d O f the Ni le Vall e y w as still l arge ly sw am p s .

T he hum an se ttl em en ts w ere m ad e o n the spu rs O f th e n o w de sert

m o u n tain s There w as no t m u ch habi table l an d o n the lo wer l evel s
. .

T he c li m ate w as c o l de r the n th an it is n o w ; skin s w ere wo rn fo r

g a rm e n t s an d t h e f u r w a s u s u ally w o rn i n s i d e f o r w arm t h P er h ap s .

th e i nflu e n ce Of th e ic e age o f E u ro pe m ay b e di s c e rn e d in the se

-

f ac ts . T he B ad ari an s m ade a ri pple su rface d po tte ry e ssen ti ally -

diff e ren t fro m th at o f an y o th er peo ple ye t di sco vere d in E gyp t .

In ad di tio n to hu n ti ng an d fishi n g th e y li ve d as agri c u l tu ri sts T he y .

rai se d grai n an d app are n tly k e pt c attl e pastu ri n g th em apparen tly , , ,

pp 28 3 2
1
I bid .
,
.
-
.

p 52 fi
2
I bid .
, . .
 COMPOSITIO N OF HI STORIC PEOPLE S 91

on what They m ade po ttery o f delicate thin n e ss

is no w d e se rt .
,

an d tann e d an d emp lo ye d le ath e r The y trade d with the co ast lan d .

-

Of th e R e d S e a wh e n c e c am e sh e lls ; th e y O b tai n e d tu r qu o ise pe r

, ,

h ap s fro m Si n ai ; po rphyr y e i the r fro m the catarac t o r fro m the R e d

S ea m o u n tai n s So m e o f the po ts fo u n d su gge st a trade co n n e c tio n
.
-

wi th Syria 1
T h e B adarian s we re th ere fo re n o t an i so late d peo pl e
.
, , .

The y were no t no m ad s They lived o n the spu rs Of th e cliffs Of .

E gy pt du ring the latter part Of th e p erio d co vered by Pe tri e s se ’

u e n c e d at es 1—3 0 w h i c h h e assu m e d w e re o cc u pi ed by th e silti n

q , g
u p Of the Nile c h an n e l u n ti l it w as su ffi c i en tly fi rm fo r h u m an h ab i
-

tatio n .

Pe trie in his Prehi stori c E gypt d ivi de d the ti m e be twe en the

, ,
2

b eginn ing o f the silting u p Of th e b ed o f the Nile an d th e b eginn ing

Of th e fir st dyn asty i n to e i gh ty se qu en ce d ate s As j u st n o ted he .
,

assu m e d th at thirty Of th ese had passe d b e fo re the b e gi nn i ng

Of th at pre dyn asti c hi sto ry whi ch -

in 19 20 h e co u l d trace in , ,

arc h e o lo gi c al m ateri als H e d i stribu ted th e m ate rial s fro m pre.

d yn asti c tim e s then kn o wn to him in ac co rdan ce wi th its de ,

ve lo pm en t am o n g the fif ty se qu en c e d ate s b e tw e en 30 an d 80
,
.

D u ri n g the millenn ia co vere d by th ese se qu en ce date s Pe trie tho u gh t

th a t h e c o u ld d i sti n gu i sh three typ e s Of c ivili z atio n each o f whi ch
i
,

m a rk e d a n i n cu r i
s o n O f i m
m gra ts
i n i n h
to t e Nil e V all e y 3
The .

E gyp tian s o f S D 3 0 bu ried their dead in shallo w ho le s wi th a.

,

si n gle bl ac k — to pped c u p a go at skin o ver th e bo d y an d rarely a ,

-
,

rho m bi c slate p ale tte Y e t e ven th en they fasten e d th e s kin w i th

.

”
a co pp er pin I mm e di ately after the se p eo ple wh o m Pe tri e th en
.
,

regard e d as th e first se ttle rs in E gyp t th ere c am e a m o re hi gh ly , ,

Ci vi liz ed p eo ple w ho m ade po t ter y S O e xac tly like th at still m ade in

,

the h igh lan d s Of Algiers th at P e trie felt j u stifie d in c alli n g thi s an

”4
imm i gratio n Of Libyan s T he lin gu i stic e vi den c e addu c ed in a .

previ o u s ch apte r m akes it pro b able th at th e se im mi gran ts we re

Hamites an d that wi th th eir co mi n g w e c an trace th e en tran ce
, , ,

i n to E gypt Of th at strain Of blo o d whi ch lin ks th e E gypti an s to the

1
Cf B ru n to n
. an d M iss C ato n T
— ho m pso n , The B adari an Ci vili sation , ch . X II .

2
Lo n do n , 19 20 .

3
Op . cit
.
,
47 f .

4
In ad d i tio n to th e in th e prec e ding n o te , c f L i byan Notes , b y
re fe re n c e c i te d . D avid

R an dall M ac I ve r -_
an d An th o n y Wilk in , Lo n d o n , 19 0 1, ch . X .
92 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITIC O R I G I NS

o the r H am i ti c wo u ld b e O f c o u rse a m i s take to su p

pe o ple s . It , ,

po se that the w ho l e bo dy o f H am ite s w ho i m pre ssed the Hami ti c ,

m ark O f E gy p ti an spe e c h c ame at o ne ti m e wi th this i mm i gratio n

,
.

D o u b tle ss thi s w as b u t the b e gi n ni ng O f m any s uc c essi ve i n vasio ns

o f the fe rti le N il e Valle y by H ami ti c t ri b e s w ho w e re al lu red thi th e r

b y the p ro gre ssi ve de si c c atio n O f th e S ah ara re gio n S u c h i nvasio ns .

o c c u rre d agai n an d agai n far do w n i n to the hi sto ri c pe ri o d an d

1
,

do u b tl ess m any o the rs to o k pl ac e in pre hi s to ri c ti m e T he sign ifi .

ca n ce o f P e tri e s e vi d e n c e is tha t it e n abl e s u s to dis ce rn th e e n

’

t ran ce o f H ami te s i nto E gy pt at w hat w as w h e n h is bo o k w as ,

w ri tte n b e lie ve d to b e the ve ry begi n ni ng O f neo li thi c h abi tatio n o f

,

th at l and T hese p eo ple we re fo nd o f m aki ng po ttery b u t thei r po ts

.
,

i mi tate d b ask e ts I t is thu s c le ar that the maki ng o f po ts w as fo r

.
,

them a co mparati vely ne w art

,
Pe tri e de sc ribe s the c i vil izatio n .

o f th ese pe o p le wi th so m e f u ll ne ss T he i rs w as al mo st al to ge the r .
, ,

a s to ne age civi li z ati o n

-
.

At th e be gi nn i ng o f S D 3 8 a p eo pl e cam e i nto E gyp t appare n tly

.
, ,

fro m the e as t w ho se po ts i mi tated sto new are

,
The y had re tre ati ng .

fo rehe ad s lo ng po i n te d n o ses an d sm all p ro j ec ti ng b e ard s

, ,
The y
,
.

wo re m o re c lo thi ng than the E gyp tians w ho m the y d i spl aced and ,

had c o m e f ro m hi ghe r co l de r regi o n s Pe tri e tho u gh t the y cam e

, .

fro m the we ste rn co ast o f the R e d S ea f ro m the Si n ai p e ni n sula o r , ,

fro m th e H ej az in Arabi a T he m axi m u m O f th i s i mm i gratio n w as

.

at S D 3 8 b u t it co ti n u e d u n til S D 41 4 3
n — T he u te n sil s O f thi s . . .
,

c iviliza tio n grad u ally d i spl ace d an d dro ve o u t tho se o f the p re c e d i ng

civi liz atio n I t is po ssibl e th at these i mm i gran ts w ere S emi ti c

P e tri e fo un d trace s o f a th i rd c i viliz atio n b egi nn i ng at S D 46—
. .

50 ,
. .
,

be co min g mo re p ro no u n ce d at S D 5 7 an d re ac hi ng its c ul mi natio n .

at S D 63 Th i s c ivi liz atio n i ntro du ce d a po ttery m u c h like th at

. .

fo u n d at S u sa se al c ylin d ers Of B abylo ni an typ e an d so m an y Ob

, ,

je c ts li ke things fo u n d in Elam th at P e tri e is q u i te po si ti ve O f Elam ,

ite infl u e n ce We sho ul d c all it the i nflu en ce o f the rac e w e h ave

.

de sign ate d A si ati c El ami te w ho appe ar to h ave co m e fro m ce n tral

-
,

Asi a I t seem s to the presen t wri ter that th e m e di ato rs Of thi s

.

c ivi liz atio n w ere pro b ab ly S emi tes f ro m Arabi a o r B abylo n i a If .

,

ho w ever re p re se n tati ves o f thi s A si ati c Elami te rac e se ttled in

,
-

1
Cf .
J . H B re as te d , H isto ry of E gypt, pp 49 , 17 9 , 254, 4 11 f
. . .
, 46 8 f .
,
47 8 f .
, and 5 47 f .
 COMP OS ITI ON OF HI S TORIC PEOPLE S 93

Egypt th e an alo gy Of later invasio n s fro m the e ast wo u ld le ad u s

,

to b elie ve th at th ey w ere ac c o mpani e d b y large n u m b ers o f S emi tes ,

S O th at in an y e ven t S em i tes w e re fin d i n g th e i r w ay i n to E gy p t
, , .

S cho lars agree th at E gyptian is a S emitiz e d langu age ; so f ar as w e

kn o w it w as no t in flu en ce d by mixtu re wi th Elami te spee c h The se
, .

fac ts te n d to co n firm th e su ppo si tio n th at th e se i mm igran ts fro m th e

E ast were largely Of the S em itic sto c k .

Pe trie reco gni z ed also that a Nu bian elem en t w as in j ec ted in to

th e E gyp tian mi x tu re ab o u t th e tim e that th e B abylo n ian o r El am
ite wave o f migratio n re ac he d it Thi s Nu bi an i n vasio n h e held
.
, ,

b ro ke th e se co n d c ivi liz atio n at S D 63 . .

These co n clu sio n s o f Pe trie are S O well establi shed that S charff ,

altho u gh h is n o m e n c latu re is d i ffe ren t is c o mpelle d to agre e wi th th em ,

‘
.

S c harff reco gniz es th e fir st an d se co nd Of th e c ul tu res de fin ed b y

P etrie su b stan tially as Pe trie did b u t ho ld s th at the i n flu en c es ,

wh i ch Pe trie had c alle d E lami te an d which h e h im self de sign ates ,

“ ”
by th e Z au berw ort Babylo n i en b elo n ged to the late pre dyn asti c -

an d e arly h i sto ri c al pe ri o d E ven if S c h arff b e righ t th e differen ce

2
.
,

is n o t im po rtan t As w e shall se e p re sen tly preh i sto ry m erged in to

.
,

h i sto r y in the late pre dyn asti c pe rio d -

.

I n late r tim e E gyp t w as d ivi de d i n to fo rty tw o sp t o r divi sio ns

“

-
. .

T he Gree k s called th ese

“ ”
n o m es E viden tly th e y represen ted
.

o ld trib al di vi sio n s I n o n e no m e th e j ack al w as sacred to the dei ty

.
,

in ano th er the c at in an o ther th e lio n in an o th e r th e hawk an d so

, , ,

on
— all Of wh ich po i n t s to th e perpetu ati o n Of ea rly to temi sti c
_

trib al i deas I t i s q u i te po ssible th at these tribes did n o t all se ttle in

.

th e Ni le Vall e y in preh i sto ri c tim e I n ch apte r V I a s tu dy Of the .

co mpo si tio n Of th e po pul atio n o f these n o m es will b e f o u n d S u ch

'

a stu dy sho w s th at whi le mi gratio n s o c cu rred in so m e c ase s as l ate ,

as the M i dd l e Ki n gdo m th e gre at m aj o ri ty Of th e n o m e s d ate f ro m

,

prehi sto ri c tim e an d p erpe tu ate th e fac t th at m an y trib e s pen e

,

trate d th e Ni le Valle y So m e o f th e se tribe s were Ham i ti c ; so me

.

were S emi ti c One m u st re co gn ize the po ssib ility th at Nu b ian s

.
,

th e c re ato rs Of the B adari an c ivilizatio n an d e ven pala eo li thi c e le ,

m en t s en te re d i n to the co mpo si tio n o f th e E gypti an peo ple b u t if ,

so th ey we re so ab so rb e d b y th e H ami tes an d S e m i tes th at th e se

1 Gru ndz u ge der agy ptischen Vo rgeschichte .

2
Op . c it .
, p 41 fi
. .
94 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C O R IG I NS

b e c am e the d o mi nan t e e m e n ts
Egy pt lik e mo de rn A m e ri ca w as
l .
, ,

a m e lti ng po t b u t li ng ui s ti c e vi de n c e m ak e s it c le ar th at the do m i
,

n an t s train s in the f u si o n o f the s e e le m e n ts w e re H am i ti c and S e m i

t ic . T he E gyp ti an l ang u age w hi c h e me rge d w as a H ami ti c l angu age

S em i ti z ed 1
.

Lik e m e n in o the r parts o f the wo rl d the to temi sti c tribe s o f thi s ,

far O ff ti me fo u gh t wi th e ac h o the r
-
G rad u ally by c o nq ues t the.

co u n try w as u ni te d i n to th re e o r fo u r ki ngdo m s e ac h o f w hi c h had ,

its to te mi c sym b o l T he re we re the ho rne t ki ngs o f Lo w e r E gy pt

.
,

the p p a yr u s ki n gs o f M e n —
no phe r ( M e m ph i s) and E h nas ( He rac le

O po l is) the h awk ki ngs O f H ie raco n po lis an d the hawk ki ngs o f T hi s

, , .

P re cedi ng th ese o r po ssibly co n te m po rary wi th so m e Of them the re

, ,

h ad b ee n vari o u s lo c al ki ngdo m s in d ifle re n t p arts O f th e D e lta 2

.

P ro b ably the hawk ki ngs we re no t co ntem po raneo u s b u t su cc essi ve ,

tho se o f T hi s re p rese n ti n g a c o n q u est by m e n O f th at no m e O f an

Ol de r dy n asty O f the m o re so u the rn no m e I n ti m e the se d yn asti e s .

we re m e rged i nto tw o o ne ruli ng Upper E gyp t an d the o ther Lo we r

, ,

E gyp t Thi s d u al k ingdo m l asted so lo ng th at to the late st ti mes

.

the E gyp tian s c al le d the ir land th e tw o ki ngdo m s an d the He b re w ,

n am e fo r E gyp t mi srai m m e an s T h e tw o E gyp ts

‘ ’
, , Fi n ally M e n a .

u n i te d th e tw o k ingdo m s an d th e d yn asti c h i sto ry O f E gyp t b e gan .

1
Cf . S e m itic E gyp tian affi n itie s b y E rman in ei tschrif t f ur Agypti sche
artic les o n -
Z ‘
'

S prac he , v 14, p 8 , and in Z D M G v 46

. .
p 9 3 ; o n vo cab ula ry aflini ties b y
. .

E mb e r an d Al b right in the same Z eitsc hrif t, v 49 pp 8 7 , 93 ; v 5 0, p 86 ; v

. . . . .

5 1, pp 110 , 138 ; v 5 3 , p 84
. . . .

2
Cf K S e the Urge sc hichte u nd d ltesle Reli gi o n d er Agypte r, Le ipz ig, 193 0,
. . .
—204 .
 IV

EA RL Y S E M I T I C A N D HAM I T I C
S O C IA L L I FE
HE late W Ro bertso n S mi t in b eg mnm g hi s di scu ssio n Of the
h 1
.

re latio n s o f go d s an d me n in the Oldest S emi ti c c o mm u n itie s ,

to o k the c lan lie st so c ial u n it Th is vie w at the time seem ed

as the e ar .

to b e j u stifie d by the so c io lo gi cal th eo ri e s o f M cL enn an an d w as ,

fo llo we d by the presen t wri te r in S emi ti c Ori gi ns 2

I t is ho wever .
, ,

a th e o ry w hi ch i s n o t su stai n ed at p resen t by so c io lo gi cal au tho ri ti es .

F o r exam ple the rese arche s Of Ro bert H Lo wi e as e m bo died in his

,
.
,

Pri mi ti ve S oci ety (N Y 19 20 ) 3 m ake it p ro b able th at th e e arli est

. .
,

so c i al u n i t i s th e f ami ly an d th at larger so c i al gro u p s su c h as c lan s

, ,
“ ”
or sib s as Lo wi e pre fe rs to call them are a l ater an d n atu ral
, ,

deve lo pm e n t T he fam ily as Lo wie c l early demo n strates mi gh t

.
, ,

b e m atrili n eal o r p atrilin e al th at is de scen t mi ght b e rec ko n ed

, ,

thro ugh the m o ther o r thro u gh th e fathe r

-
I n ;e ithe r c ase a sen se Of .
,

c lo se r ki n sh ip b e tw een tho se w ho we re the m o th e r s b ro th e rs u n c l es

’
, ,

n eph e w s an d n ie ces o r th o se Of th e fath e r (ac c o rdi n g as th e ki n sh ip

,

w as m atrilin eal o r patrili n e al) wo u ld e xi st than wi th an y o thers .

I n the stru ggle fo r exi sten c e am i d st the ho stile re latio n s that fre
qu en tly prevailed in primitive life tho se w ho po ssesse d thi s sen se ,

o f kin ship wo u ld n atu ral ly u n i te fo r defen se an d fo r an y en terpri se

whi c h invo lved u ni te d effo rt? I n th i s w ay c lan s o r sib s wo uld ,

n atu ral ly b e fo rm e d I n 1901 when S emi ti c Origi n s w as w ri tten

.
, ,

th e wri te r ado pte d th e c l an theo ry de ve lo pe d by hi s co lleagu e P ro f .

L M Keasb y A c co rd i ng to Ke asb y s classific atio n th ere were

. . .
’
,
“ ”
co mmu n al c lan s wh i ch live d in pro te c te d spo t s wh e re th e b e
,

gi n n i n gs O f a gri c ul tu r e o r ar b o ri cu l tu re w e re p o ss ibl e T h e se c l an s .

were su ppo sed to have b een fo rm ed by wo m en an d the weaker men ,

the stro n g m en h avi n g b ee n drawn away by so m e h az ardo u s e n te r

1
R eligi o n o f the S emi tes, 2nd ed . L o nd .
, 1894 , p 3 5. .

2
Ch 2. .

3
Ch s 4—8. .
 96 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
“
p r si
e S u ch c lans we re b eli e ve d to b e m atri lineal T he re pu b li c an
. .

c lan s w e re th o u gh t to have b e e n c o m po se d o f yo u ng and e n te r pris i n g

m e n fe arl e ss and c apabl e o f e n d u ri ng hard ship w ho s e l e ad e r w as

, ,

d is ti ng u i she d be c au se o f his ski ll and d ari ng S u c h gro up s o f m e n .

w e re b eli e ve d to tak e wi th the m a fe w h ardy wo m e n I n s u ch c l an s .

it w as tho ugh t that po ly an d ry o f the T h ib e tan ty p e p re vai led and ,

d e s c e n t w as re ck o ne d thro u gh th e mo the r A c co rdi ng to this .

theo ry b o th the c o m m u n al c l an an d the re pu bli c an c l an gave w ay

to the patri arc hal c l an w he re it w as po s sibl e in the l ap se o f ti m e
f ully to d e ve lo p p asto ral l ife an d w he re the c l an be cam e patrili ne al
,
.

I n the p atri arc hal c l an po lygam y o fte n pre vai led .

A c co rdi ng to th e p resen t o pi n io n o f the b est so cio lo gi sts it do e s no t

se em po ssib le to j u sti fy s u ch a c lassifi cati o n S o ci e ty is tho ro u gh ly
.

flexi bl e P ro gre ss is no t mad e i n di ff e re n t co u n tri e s by mo vem e n ts

.

th at are u n i fo rm T he te n de n cy the re fo re no w is to start wi th the

.
, ,

fam ily as a u ni t to as cer tai n the type o f m arri age w hi ch pre vail s
, ,

th e co n se q u e n t m e tho d o f re c ko ni ng de sce n t to c lassi fy in the li gh t ,

o f su ch fac ts th e so c i al p he no m en a and to re f rai n f ro m po s tu l ati n g

,

a to o de fin i te k n o wl e dge o f o ri gi n s w hi c h u n d er the c i rc u m stan ce s

-

wo uld b e p u rely hypo the ti c al .

I n hi s S emi ti c Origi n s th e wri te r agai n fo l lo wi n g in the fo o tsteps ,

of W R o b e rtso n S mi th assu m ed that all p rimi tive pe o pl es h ad

.
,

passe d th ro u gh a to temi sti c stage At th at tim e m an y stu den ts u n de r

.

th e i nfl u en c e o f th e wo rk o f S ir J am es G F razer fo u n d in to te mi sm .

th e k ey to m an y o f the m y ste ri e s o f th e e arly li fe o f m an P ri n c i pal .

F B J evo n s in his I n tro duc ti on to the Hi sto ry of R eligi o n ( Lo n do n

. .
,

a b o o k w hi ch p as se d thro u gh m an y l ate r e d i ti o n s w e n t so ,

far as to trac e to to temi sm sac rifi ce tre e an d pl an t wo rshi p agri , ,

c u l tur e an d co n se q u en tly c ivili z atio n I t no w seem s ho w e ver th at

.
, ,

th e theo ry th at all peo pl es h ave at o n e ti m e pass e d th ro u gh a to

te mi sti c stage is i n capable o f p ro o f Where to temi sm exi sts at th e
.

p re sen t day as in Au strali a1 an d am o ng c ertain typ e s o f Am eri c an

,

In di an s (Am eri nd s) it is by n o m ean s a u n ifo rm sy stem Au s

2
.

1
T
S ee S pe nc er and Gillen , Native ri bes of Central Au stral i a, Lo n d o n , 189 9 , c h I V , .

an d A W H o wi tt, Nati ve
'

. . T
r ib es of S ou the ast Australi a, L o nd o n , 19 04 , c h I II . .

2
F o r Am erin d to te mis m see J T
G F raz e r, o temisrn and E xo gamy, I I I , 40 an d 46
. .

M ary A O w e n , F olk lo re of the M u squ ak i e I nd ian s Lo ndo n 19 04

.
-
, , , p 8 fi
. .
, W .
J . H o ff
man , F o u rte enth R epo rt f
o the B u reau f
o E thn olo gy, Washin gt o n ,
1896, Pt I , . e tc .
 EARLY S OC IAL L IFE 97

tralian to tem i sm difi e rs radi cally f ro m th e to temi sm of Am eri n d s

the .

It se em s certa n th at th e
E gyptian s were
i i
an c e n t to te mi sti c 1
T he .

to te mi sm whi c h c an b e trac ed in E gypt ho we ve r w as in m an y , , ,

respec ts o f a sti ll di ffere n t type fro m e i th e r th at fo u n d in Au stralia

,

o r in No rth A m e ri c a T h e ph eno m en a ad du ce d b y W Ro b ertso n

. .

Smi th to p ro ve th e e xi sten ce o f to temi sm amo ng the S em it i c peo ples

2

were the o c cu rren ce o f anim al n am es an d hi s b elief th at gro u ps

th o u gh t them se lve s relate d by kin ship to ani m als an d plan ts .

T h e stu d ies o f the pre sen t w ri te r h ave le d hi m to thin k th at thi s

in terpre tatio n is no t j u stified I t wi ll b e sho wn be lo w in C h apter .

V I that tho se Egypti an no m es w hi ch can plau sibly b e regarded as

h avi n g be en se ttle d by S emi te s h ad n o sac re d an im al whi le all o ther ,

Egyp tian n o m e s had o n e Had the S emi tes ever regarded an .

ani m al as a to tem in the sen se in whi c h the Hami tes did thi s c o u l d ,

n o t h ave b een th e c ase S emi tes regarde d serpen ts as sacred ; do ve s

.

an d o the r ani m als were su pp o se d to b e lo n g p arti c u larly to th e u ni

versal Semiti c mo ther go dde ss At p resen t it is n o t po ssible to dis .

cern th e e x ac t asso c i ati o n o f i d e as whi ch b ro u gh t thi s abo u t o r the

e xac t n atu re of the relatio n o f the anim al to th e de i ty b u t it seem s ,

c l ear th at th ere is n o ad e qu ate gro u n d fo r su ppo si n g th at it is a

su rvival fro m to temi sm T h e asso c i atio n mu st b e explain ed in

.

so m e o th er
3
w ay .

If no w wi th the so cio lo gi c al theo ries o f the pre sent

in ac co rd an ce

time w e take th e family as th e primi tive so c i al u n it w e are at o n c e ,

co n fro n te d wi th th e i m po rtan t qu estio n o f th e c l assifi c at io n o f the

1
S o m e d etailed e vid en c e o f thi s is given in Ch apte r VI .

2
S ee J ou rn al o f Philo lo gy 9, pp 7 9 to 100 ; Ki nshi p and M arri age i n E arly Arab i a
,
v . . .

( C amb .
, pp 19
. 2—20 1 and f o r a su mm ar se e G A B arto n S emitic Ori i ns N Y
; y , g ( .
,
. . .

i
p 35 f . .

3
Th e po int w ill b e fu rth er disc u ssed b elo w , see pp 122 f
. . an d 138 . I t may, h o w e ver,
be o b served h ere that ligh t o n thi s p o in t may b e gain ed b y stu dying so mew hat analo
go u s phen o men a am o n g th e M elan esian s R H o d rin gto n , The M elanesi ans , p
. . . C .

26 fl . and 3 2 if . sh o w sb o w in part s o f tho se islan d s asso c iatio n s with plan t s an d anim als
h ave gro wn u p in rec ent tim es w hi c h seem at fi rst sigh t t o b e ph en o m ena w hi c h b elo n g

t o to t emism I n o n e islan d , f o r ex ample , th ere is a b an

. o n e atin g b anan as . I t happen s
that th e o rigin o f this b an is so recen t th at it c an be re memb ered . An o ld an d h o n o red
memb er o f the gro u p f o rb ad e them to eat b an an as af ter hi s d eath , as, h e said , h e w as
go in g in t o t h e b an an a t rees I t is q u ite p o ssib le that b o th tab o o s o f c ertain thi n gs an d
.

id eas o f th eir asso c iatio n w ith so m e perso n m ay h ave gro wn u p fo r c au se s

go d o r so m e

in no w ay c o n n ec t ed w ith t o temis m , b ut w hi c h , in th e ab sen ce o f e vid en ce, w e c ann o t

no w t rac e .
98 S E M ITIC AND HAM ITIC ORI G I NS

fam ily . C learly t hat c lass ifi ca tio n d e pe nds u po n the n atu re o f the
m arriage tie . M c Le n nan and so m e o f h is c o n te m po rarie s c o n te n d e d

th at in p ri m i ti ve so c i e ty mo no gamo u s m arri age w as p rac ti cally u n

k no wn and that p ro mi s c u i ty c harac te rize d the rel atio n o f the sexe s .

T he y hel d that thro ugh po ly and ry o f the Nai r ty pe and the Thibe tan
ty pe the o rganiza tio n o f t he fami ly had p ro gresse d to ward po lygany
an d m o no gam y T hi s vi e w w as co n te s ted by E dward Wes term arc k
.

in his great w o rk The H i sto ry of H u man M arriage ( Ne w Yo rk ,

We ste rm arc k co n te nd ed that m any bi rd s and so m e o f the hi ghe r

m amm al s m ate d pe rm ane n tly o r al m o st pe rman e n tly wi th o ne
, ,

m ate and that it w as al to ge th e r gratu i to u s to su ppo se that the

,

e arli es t hu m an m arri age s w e re o f a d i ffe re n t c h arac te r D u ri ng .

th e ye ar s that h ave pas se d since the fir st app e aran ce o f We ste r

m ar ck s wo rk th e p ro gress o f k n o wl e dge appe ars to h ave vin d i cate d
’

th e co rre c tne ss o f hi s po si tio n He re co gnize d ho we ve r that mar

.
, ,

riage c u sto m s w e re by no m e an s u n i fo rm thr o u gh o u t the w o rl d ,

that in so m e co un tri e s the re h ad b e e n mark e d vari ati o n s fro m the

p ri mi ti ve ty pe and th at in prac ti cal ly all co u n tri es there had b ee n
,

m u ch sex u al i rre gulari ty o u tsi de the m arri age t ie I n late r e d i tio n s .

o f hi s w o rk W e sterm arc k tre ate d f ully th e vari o u s type s o f po ly

,

an d ry w hi ch have e xi sted in d i ffe re n t co u n tri e s an d re co gn ize d the

e xi ste n ce o f the type s o f m arri age at vari o u s places in d i ff e re n t parts ,

o f th e w o rld o n w hi ch M cLe nn an an d W
, Ro b e rt so n S mi th had .

b ase d the ir theo ri es T h e mai n po i n t o f his co n ten tio n ho weve r

.
, ,

w as th at thi s did n o t re prese n t the e arli est stage s o f th e e vo lu tio n

o f h u m an m arriage b u t rather d ege n e ratio n s f ro m th e p ri mi ti ve

,

type whi ch h ave b ee n b ro u gh t abo u t by vario u s c au se s .

S emi ti c Ori gi n s w as wri tte n u n d e r th e i nfl u en ce o f th e t he o ri es

o f M c L e nn an an d W Ro b ertso n S mi th T h e f ac ts th en c i ted as
. .

e vi den ce o f th e e xi ste n ce in e arly S em i ti c so c i e ty o f po lyan dr y o f the

Nai r and Thibe tan type s sho uld b e re evalu ated to as cer tai n what ,

in the li gh t o f o ur p rese n t kn o wle dge the y ac tu ally re ve al as to the

,

ch arac te r o f e arly S emi tic so c i al o rgan iz atio n I n o rd e r to do th i s .

it will b e b est fir st to reco un t the fac ts w i th re feren c e to th e ir pri m

, ,

itive so c i al in sti tu tio n s As po i n te d o u t in C h apter I Arabi a w as

.
,

th e c radle lan d o f S emi ti c so c ie ty

-
Here ho we ve r w e m ee t wi th
.
, ,

re a t d i ffi c ul ti es T h e li terary an d hi sto ri cal re m ai n s fo r th e tim e

g .

p ri o r to M o h a mm e d a re ve ry s can ty T ru e w e have fro m S o u th

.
,
 EAR LY S OC IAL L IFE 99

Ar abia so m e i n scriptio n s b u t the y are fo r the mo st

h u n dre d s of ,

p a r t b ri e f an d refer to b u il d i n g o peratio n s o r to agri c ul tur al

c o n d i tio n s S o me o f them give in fo rmatio n co n cern ing religio u s

.

sac rifi c e s The y aff o rd u s in f o rm atio n co n c ern in g the o rgan izatio n

.

o f th e so c i al li fe o f S o u th Arabia o nly by i n fe ren c e FOr No rth .

Arabi a w e are co n fin e d to the M u allak at po e m s vario u s allu sio n s

’
,

an d q uo t t o s
a i n i n th e Ki t a b a l— Aghan i to referen ce s to pre M o ,
-

h amm edan co n d i ti o n s in th e C o ran to e arly I slami c trad i tio n s an d , ,

a f ew allu sio n s in Gree k an d Ro m an wri te rs Th e case is ho weve r .

, ,

n o t so ho p ele ss as it at fir st appe ars Co n di tio n s o f life in the de s

‘

erts o f Ar abia h ave c h an ged li ttl e in th e l ast f o u r o r fi ve tho u san d

years and these co n ditio n s are su c h that m an y an cien t in stitu tio n s

,

h ave pe rsisted lo n g after the y h ad di sappeared fro m o th er parts o f .

th e S emi ti c wo rl d We are able therefo re to d iscern thro u gh these

.
, ,

so u rc e s a n u m b er o f d e v i atio n s fro m n o rm al m o no gamo u s m arri age

in fam i ly life o f e arly Arabi a an d th ere fo re o f the prim i tive S emi te s
,
.

Th ese deviatio n sfall n atu rally in to three typ es .

First, there is po lyan dry a fo rm o f m arri age whi ch permits a ,

wo m an to h ave mo re th ano n e hu sb an d Ou r e vi den ce fo r thi s is .

an o f t qu o te d p ass age fromth e Geo gr ap hy o f S trabo

-
I t read s as .

fo llo w s :1

All the kind red have pro perty in co mmo n th e eld est b eing the lo rd ; all ,

h ave o ne wife an d it is first co m e fir st served th e m an w h o en te rs to h er

, ,

le avin g at th e do o r th e stic k which it is c usto m ary f o r eve ryo n e to c arry ; -

b u t th e n igh t sh e spen ds with th e e lde st Hen ce all are b ro thers o f all ; .

,

th e y also h ave c o n j ugal in terc o u rse wi th m o th ers ; an ad u lte rer is pu n

2

ish ed with death ; an adulte re r is a m an o f an o th er sto ck .

T he typ e po ly an dry d i s cu ssed in thi s passage h as o ften b een

of

c all ed Th ib e tan b e c au se it w as first stu d i e d in Thi b e t E dward .

Glaser nd Hu go Win c kler fo u n d epi graphi c c o n firmatio n

3
a
4
of th e
statem en t o f S trab o am o n g th e S ab a
e an s an d Mi n aean s .

1
St rab o , B k X V I , 4 , p 7 83
. ch . . .

2
T
hi s is pro b ab ly no t to b e tak en literally , b u t to b e explain ed b y o ran 4 , w here
26
C
it app eare d that men h ad m arried w ives o f th eir f ath ers Cf R o b ertso n S mi th in . .

J ou rn al o f Phi lo lo gy , V o l I X , p 8 6, n 2
. . . .

3
S ee hi s n o te
“
P o lyan dri e o d er Ge sell sc haf tsc h en b ei d e n alten S ab ae rn in th e
B eilagen of Allgemei n e Z ei tu n g, M im c hen ,
'

D ec e mb er 8 189 7 , .

4 “
D ie P o ly and rie b ei d en M in aern ,
”
in Win c kler s ’
Alto ri entalische F o rschu ngen ,
2te R eih e , V o l I , pp 8 1—83 . . .
100 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

T he lateRo b e rtso n S mi th c o lle c te d co nsi d e rab le e vide n ce to sho w

th at thi s ty pe o f po ly an d ry w as al so k no w n in No rth A rabi a an d in
o th e r parts o f the S e m iti c te rri to ry Hi s argu m e n ts are : ( 1) .

B o k h ari re l ate s that tw o m e n m ad e a c o ve n an t o f b ro the rho o d ,

w hi ch re su lte d in th e i r sh ari ng t e i gh r o o d s a d wi ve s
n — a f ac t w hic h

wo u ld se e m to sho w a su rvi val o f a c to m o f frate rn al po lyandry

u s
l
.

( )
2 I n A ra bi a k a n na m e a n s th e w ife o f a so n o r b ro th e r b u t is u se d ,

I n He b re w k atta/z m ean s bo th b e
’
al so to d e no te o ne s o w n w ife .

tro th e d an d d au gh te r ln law ; wh ile in Syri ac k attha m e ans bo th

- -

b ri de and d augh te r in law T he se fac ts can b e explai ned mo st e asi ly

- -
.

as re m n an ts o f f ra te rn al po ly an dr y
2
(3 ) Th e A rabi c law that a .

m an has the fir s t righ t to the h and o f h is co u si n as w ell as the fac t ,

w hic h th e 4 th S ur a o f the C o ran and its attendant traditio ns atte st ,

th at in c as e a m an d ie d and le f t o nly fem ale c hi ldr e n the fath e r s

’

mal e rel ati ve s i n he ri te d his pro pe rty and marri e d his d au gh te rs ,

are re garde d as the re su l ts o f a pre vi o u sly e xi stin g po lyan dr o u s co n

h
d i tio n o f so ci e ty lik e t at de s crib e d by S trabo 1
( ) T he C o ran (4 )
4 13
.

fo rb ids m e n to i nh e ri t wo m e n agai n st th eir wi ll an d fo rbi ds ,

“
th em to tak e the ir ste pmo th e rs in m arriage e x ce pt w hat has
”
a s se d T h is is re gard e d as e vi de n c e tha t do w n to th e ti m e o f
p .

M o h amm e d th ese attend an t c i rc um stan ce s o f po lyan dry h ad co n

tin ne d an d th at th e pro ph e t did n o t dare to annul e xi stin g u ni o ns
, ,

thro u gh h e fo rb ade su ch m arri age s in th e f u tur e ‘

U n ti l abo u t 2800 .

B C po lyan dr y w as so m e tim es p rac ti se d in the c i ty o f L agash in

.

so u th e rn B abylo ni a I n th e re fo rms ins ti tu te d by Ur uk agin a kin g

.
,

o f th at c i ty pro vi si o n is m ad e fo r th e cessati o n o f s u ch u ni o n s
5
.
,

Th i s ac tio n is e vi den ce bo th o f the e xisten c e o f po lyan dry un ti l that

ti m e an d th at it w as a prac ti ce co n t rary to th e p re vailing m o ral se nse .

Had it n o t b ee n it wo ul d n o t ha ve b e en fo rbi d den

,
Lagash had .

b ee n se ttl ed ho we ver by thre e di fleren t rac e s an d it is i m po ssible

'

6
, , ,

in th e p rese n t state o f o ur kn o wl e dge to tell whe th e r po lyan dry w as

at Lagash a S emi ti c c u sto m o r a p rac ti ce o f o n e o f th e o th e r race s .

1
W . R o b e rtso n S mi t h , Ki n s hi p a nd M arri age i n E arly Arab ia ,
C am b ridg e , 188 5 ,

p . 13 5 .

1
. . fi
Ki ns hip, p 13 6 I h ave mo di ed t h e sta tem en ts sligh tl y in q u o ting b e cause , in
th e f o rm in w hi ch S mi th made th e m , th ey are n o t lexically d ef ensib le .

1
I bid .
, pp . 13 8 , 139 .

I b id .
, pp 86 , 8 7
. .

G A B arto n , The Ro yal I nscr ipti o ns f S u mer and Akk ad Ne w H aven 1929, p 8 7
5
. . o , ,
. .

S ee ab o ve , c h III , p 6 1 . . fl .
 EARLY S OC I AL L IFE 10 1

W Ro bertso n S m i th
. also ,
fo llo win g in the fo o tste p s o f M c Le nn an ,
u rge d that th e L e virate cu sto m of m arryi n g th e wife of a de ad
bro ther to rai se u p seed to him o f wh i ch w e h ave su c h a b eau tiful , .

idyl in Ru th 3 4 o f w ich h
,
h e a so o u d t
l ,
f n r a c es in Arabia an d whi ch
1
,

still e xi sts in Aby ssin i a

2
w as an o u tgro w th o f fratern al po lyan dr y
, .

I t se em e d to him an d M cLenn an th at n o o n e wo u ld h ave tho u gh t

o f c o u n ti n g th e so n o f o n e b ro th er as th e so n o f an o th e r if previ o u sly ,

th e so n s h ad n o t b een th e p ro p erty o f all in co mm o n Spen cer .

,

S tarc ke an d We sterm arc k h ave all co n te sted thi s po sitio n S pen

,
.

ce r su ggests that i t is o n e o f th e results o f inh e ri ti n g w o m en as o n e

w o u ld inh e ri t o th e r pro p er ty ; to whi ch S tarc ke j u stly replies that

3

thi s vi e w l e aves u n e xpl ai n e d th e real po i n t o f th e cu sto m th e ,

co u n i
t gn o f th e ch i ld re n a s th e o ff sp ri n g o f th e d e ad b ro th e r S tar c k e
4
.

an d Westerm arc k po i n t o u t th at th e L e vi rate o r i n sti tu ti o n s o f a

5
,

simi lar c h arac te r h ave e xi ste d in m an y par t s o f th e wo rl d wh ere

,

th e re w as n o su spi ci o n o f po lyan dry an d th at th ere fo re an o ther ,

exp l an ati o n m u st b e so u gh t That whi ch the y o ff er is th at in pri mi

.

tive co m mu n i ti es the ide a o f f ath e rh o o d is j u ri dic al an d n o t b ased ,

o n ac tu al fath e rho o d an d th at th i s f ac t c o m bin e d wi th the d e si re

, ,
’
to kee p i n tac t th e de ad m an s estate pro du ce d the in sti tu tio n in ,

qu estio n .

S e co n d ano ther fo rm o f m arriage whi ch is n o t n e cessari ly a devi a

,

tio n fro m th e m o no gamo u s typ e o f m arri age is wh at is c alle d b eon a

-

m arri age I n th i s type o f m arri age the hu sb an d go e s to live in the

.

’
wi fe s village and the chi ldren are regarded as m em b ers o f her trib e .

An example o f th is am o n g th e S emi tes is fo u n d in th e sto r y o f

Jaco b s m arriage to Le ah an d R ach e l th e dau gh ters o f Lab an in
’
, ,

Ge esi s c ps
n h a 29 — 31 Jaco b lived in th e f ami ly o f Lab an ; there
. .
“

hi s chi ldr en were b o rn ; an d when he d ec i de d to fle e L ab an fo llo we d ,

hi m an d c lai m e d that the c hi l dren w e re hi s ch ildre n O ther ex

“

am ple s o f th i s m ay b e c i te d .

A thi rd type o f m arri age is c alled mo t a m arriage M o t a m arri age ’

.
’

is m arri age o f a te m po rar y type T he wo rd mo t a is emplo ye d by

’
.

1
Ki ns hi p, p 8 7 . .

f M arri age
2 ’
Leto u rn e au s E vo hi ti o n o , p 265
. .

3
Pi ples of S o ci o lo gy, I , 66 1
r n ci .

4
P
The ri miti ve F ami ly, pp 157 , 15 8 , an d th e I n ter n ati o n al
. J ou rn al o f E thics , I I I , 465 .

5
The Hi stor y of Hu man M arri age, pp 5 10 — 5 14 . .
10 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

so m e wr i te rs in a l arge se n se to co ve r all re at o n s l i b e tw ee n a m an
and wo m an in he r o w n ho m e w hi c h d id no t i nvo lve a l o s s o f c harac te r
o n he r p ar t b u t pre ve n te d the w o m an s trib e f ro m re c o gn izi ng th e
’

ch ild re n M o t a m arri age th e re fo re di ffe rs fro m b een a m arri age

.
’
, ,

sim ply b e c au se o f its te m po rary c h arac te r I n b een a m arri age the .

hu sb and se ttl ed e i th e r fo r a c o nsi d e rab le ti m e o r tem po rari ly in the

M o t a m arri age s are o f a m u c h m o re te m po rary d u ra
' ’
w i fe s t rib e .

tio n A mm i anu s M arc elli n u s (X I V 4 ) gi ve s e vi de n c e o f its exi st

. .

e n ce in an ci e n t ti m es am o ng the A rab s Af ter a ce rtai n day he .

,

say s the wi fe m ay wi th d raw if s h e pl e ases

, T he fo llo w i ng i n stan c es .

ar e e vi de n c e o f the sur vi val o f th i s ty pe d o w n to the p re s e n t day .

In S un an a to w n fif te e n d ay s fro m M o cha in S o u th Ar ab ia a tem

, ,

po rary fo rm o f m arri age sti ll e xi sts I t is d e sc rib ed as fo ll o w s .

In all th e s tree ts th e re are b ro ke rs fo r wive s ,

so th at a s trange r w ho has
no t th e c o n ve n ie n c y of a h o u se in the c i ty to lo dge in , m ay m arry an d be
m ade a Wh en th e man sees h is spo use and
f re e b u rgher f o r a sm all sum .

likes h e r th ey agre e o n th e pric e and te rm o f weeks m o n th s o r ye ars

, , ,

an d th e n appe ar b e fo re th e Kadi ( q adhi) o r j u d ge o f the plac e a n d , ,

e n te r th e ir n am e s an d te rm s in his b o o k w h ic h c o s ts a shilling o r th e re ,

ab o u t An d j o in in g h an d s b ef o re him the m arriage is valid f o r b e tte r

.
,

o r f o r wo rse t ill th e exp iratio n o f the te rm agr e e d u p o n

,
An d if they .

have a min d to par t o r ren ew the c o n trac t th e y are at li b e rty to c ho o se ,

f o r the m selve s wh at th ey j u dge mo s t p ro p e r ; b u t if e ith e r wan ts to se pa

rate d u rin g th e te rm lim ited , th e re m u st b e a c o mm u ta tio n o f mo n e y
paid b y th e sep aratin g party t o th e o the r ac c o rd ing as th ey c an agree ; an d

so th ey b ec o m e f ree t o m ake a n ew m arriage else where .

1

InM e c ca whi th er thro ngs o f pil grim s regu l arly re so rt so m e o f

, ,

who m tarry fo r lo nger o r sho rter space s o f ti m e m arri ages o f simi ,

larly s ho rt d u ratio n are still e n te re d i n to ; an d wo m e n go thi th e r

fro m E gyp t wi th th e avo w e d pu rpo se o f en te ri ng i n to su ch alli an ces
‘
1
.

T he u ni o n s d es c rib e d in th e M u allak at po em s w ere p erhap s o f

’

Q u o ted b y Wilk e n in H cl M atr iarc haat b ii de o ud e Arab i eren p 15 f ro m H amilto n s

1 ’
.
,

New Accou nt of the E as t I ndie s I 5 2 53 , , , .

1
S ee C
S n o u c k H u rgro nje s M ekk a H aag 1888—9 V o l I I p 5 ff an d 108 112
.
’
, , ,
.
, .
,
-
,

an d S M .Zw e m e r s Arab ia the

. r ad le of I slam N e w
’
,
C
o rk ( R e vell ) 19 00 p 4 1 ,
Y , , . .

Z w e mer is h o w e ver d e pe n d en t o n H u rgro n je

, ,
I n S o m alila n d w he re t h e n ative c u s.
,

t o ms h ave b ee n shap ed b y Arab ic imm igratio n , t ill it is n o t easy t o t e ll alw ays h o w mu c h

is n ati ve an d h o w m u c h is n o t , d ivo rc e is ve ry c o mm o n . Cf S nd arab ische E xped iti on ,
.

B d I , Di e S omali S prac he
.
-
vo n Le o R ein is ch , Wie n ,
1900, p 109 . .
 EARLY S OCIAL L IF E 103

th is c h arac te r . T h e po e ts cle arly d id n o t b elo n g to the trib es o f

1

th e wo m e n who se c h arm s th e y san g an d who m th ey vi sited , an d it

'

is also e vi de n t th at in so m e o f the c ase s the relat ve s o f

i th e wo m en
were ho sti le to the lo vers I n su ch c ases th e po ets c arri ed o n the
.

li ai so n at the ri sk o f the i r lives T h e allian ces w ere tempo rary .

,

an d wh e n th e trib es m o ve d apart th e y w e re ab ru ptly term i n ated .

All that rem ain e d to th e po e ts w ere th e m emo ri es ren ewe d by th e

si tes wh e re th e ten ts o f their in am o rata h ad staye d .

Abo u t th e tim e o f M o hamrn ed (b u t ho w lo n g b efo re w e do no t

kno w) po lygam y w as to so m e exten t prevalen t in Arabi a This the .

p pro h e t e nd e avo r e d to r e g ul a te by l a i
y g n d o wn t h e la w th at a m an

sh o u ld n o t h av e m o re th an fo u r w ive s
2
H e pe rmi tted ho we ver t
.
, ,

as m an y slave — gi rl co n c u b in e s a s a m an w as abl e to o w n H e also .

advi se d th at th i s n u m b er sho u l d b e fu r th e r re stri c te d if a m an felt

th at h e co u l d no t do j u sti c e to m o re th an o n e L ater M o ham m ed an .

l awyers h ave m ade thi s l ast p ro vi sio n th e b asi s o f a co n ten tio n th at

th e pro p h et re ally in ten de d to e stabli sh m on o gam y T h e f ac t .

th at th e p ro ph e t by spe c i al reve l atio n s permi tte d h im se l f to co n trac t

co n si de rably m o re th an fo u r marital allian c e s do e s n o t pro ve that

he w as no t en deavo ri n g to re du c e to a mini mu m i rre gu lari tie s o f

th e m arriage state whi ch h ad e xi ste d at an earlier tim e H e di d .
,

ho we ver pe rmi t d ivo rc e fo r an y c au se at the wi ll o f the hu sb an d

, , ,

an d assu m ed th at di vo rce s wo u l d b e f re q u en t F o r e xam ple Ali .

, ,

th e hu sb an d o f F atim a th e dau gh ter o f th e pro phe t m arri ed

, , ,

in c lu din g all that h e m arried an d d ivo rc ed mo re th an 200 wo m en ,

.

S o m e time s he in c lu de d as m an y as fo u r wi ves in o n e co n trac t an d ,

d ivo r ce d fo u r at o n e ti m e taki n g fo u r o th ers in th e i r ste ad 2

A .

c ertai n M u gh ay rah b S h aab ah i s re p o rted to h a ve m arried e i gh ty

’
.

wo m en in th e co u rse o f h is life wh ile M o h amm ed b At Tayib the

4
,
.
-
,

dye r o f B agh d ad w ho d i e d in the ye ar A H 4 23 at th e age o f

,
. .
,

e i gh ty — fi ve is sai d to h ave m arri ed in all m o re th an 9 00 wo m en

,
.

S ee Po em o f I m r u l—
Kais ( l st M u allak at) P
line 25 if ; o em o f L ab id (4th M u
’
alla
1 ’
,

k at ) , lin e s 20 an d 21; P o em o f Am ru ib n -
Kalth u m ( 5 th M u allak at ) lin es 17—22;
’
P oem
of An tarah ( 6th M u allak a t ) , lin es 4 , 10 t o 12 ; also
’
o em o f H arith ( 7th M u allak at ) P ’

lin es 1—9
—
.

2
S u ra 33 43
S u m 65 1 2
.

3
. T
Cf L an e 5 t ran slatio n o f the ho u sand and On e Ni ghts , I , 3 18 ti , an d Wilk en s
’
.

H et M atri archaat bii de o u de Arabi eren , p 18 . .

4
I bid .
104 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

I f he b e gan h is mari tal c are e r at the age o f fif tee n he m u st have .

h ad o n th e ave rage ne arly thi r te e n ne w wi ve s a y e ar th ro u gh his

w ho le li fe Thi s lib e rty is exe rci se d i n A rabi an co u n tri e s still
.
1
.

Palg rave rel ates that the S u ltan o f Q atar in e as te rn Arabi a m arri ed
a ne w wi fe e ve ry m o n th o r fo r tni gh t o n w ho m the b ri e f ho no rs o f ,

m atri mo ny w e re b esto we d fo r a lik e p e ri o d and w ho w as the n ,

re ti re d o n a pe n si o n
2
D o u ghty also tell s ho w Ze y d h is ho st a
3
.
, ,

pe t ty sheik o f the B e d aw i no t o nly pe rmi tted o ne o f his wi ve s to b e ,

c o u rte d by ano th e r A rab b u t o ff e re d to di vo rce he r that D o u h ty

g ,

mi gh t m arry he r .

T he re are trac e s in the re co rd s o f e arly S em i ti c li fe o f the exi ste nce

o f m atrili n e al d e s c e n t F o r ex am ple Ab raham an d S arah w e re .
,

chi l d re n o f the sam e fathe r b u t o f se parate m othe rs ( s ee G e nesi s ,

T he S em i ti c tabo o w hi c h pro hibi te d the m arri age o f re al

b ro the rs and si ste rs go es far b ack i nto p rehi sto ri c ti m es T he fac t .

that Ab rah am an d S arah al tho u gh c hi l d re n o f the sam e fathe r w e re , ,

ho no re d in H e b rew tho u gh t by e ve ry su b se q u e n t c e n tu ry as hu sb an d
and wi fe i n d i c ate s th at at the ti m e w he n the y w e re b e li e ve d to h ave
,

lived th ei r d escen t w as re c ko ned thro u gh the m o the r Jo seph s .

’

so n s bo rn o f E gyp ti an wi ve s w e re n o t regarde d as m em b ers o f I s

rael s cl an u n ti l fo rm ally ado p ted by hi m ( see G e nesi s

’

Si milarly i t is i m pli ed ( see I I S am u el th at T am ar D avi d s .

,
’

d au gh te r mi gh t legally h ave b e c o m e th e wi fe o f hi s so n Am n o n
, .

I t is evi den t the refo re th at i n so m e case s e ve n in the ti m e o f D avi d

, , , ,

de sc en t w as re cko n e d thro u gh the m o the r S u ch u nio n s we re co n .

trac te d an d app are n tly re garde d as legal in ju dea do wn to th e tim e

o f th e p ro phe t Eze ki el Thi s pro phe t di sapp ro ve d o f them (se e .

Eze ki el H is pro te st agai n st th em in di cate s that they h ad

survi ve d u n til hi s ti m e fo r o n e pro tests n e i th e r agai n st the salo o n ,

n o r the E igh tee n th Am e n dm e n t if n e ithe r is in e xi ste n c e T ab n ith .

,

Kin g o f Si do n w ho re i gn e d as l ate as the P e rsi an pe ri o d m arri e d

, ,

hi s f athe r s d au gh te r
’4
Cle arly the refo re th ere lay b ac k o f th e
.
, ,

an c ie n t I srae li te s an d P h oen i c i an s a c u sto m o f reco gn i z in g d e sce n t

1
I b id .

2
C entral and Eas te rn Arabi a, II , 23 2, 233 .

1
Arabia D eserta, I , 3 20 , 321 . Zey d had o nc e b e fo re fo u n d a h u sb and fo r a di vo rce d
w if e of his ; see i b id .
,
23 7 .

Cf CI S
. .
, Pt 1, V o l 1, No 3 ,
. . .
—15 .
 EARLY S OC IAL L IFE 105

th ro u gh the m oth er Ju liu s Wellh au sen o b serve d th at in

. T h e late
th e gen e alo gie s o f the P en tateu c h th e J do c u m en t re c ko n s de sc e n t
thro u gh th e m o the r while in th e P do c u m e n t it is trace d thro u gh
,

the f ath e r .
1

W Ro b ertso n Smi th and No ldek e addu ced co n side rab le e viden c e

.

to sho w th at th e m atrili n e al desce n t h ad e xi ste d in o th er parts o f th e

S emi tic wo rld T he po in ts m ade b y W Ro b e rtso n Sm i th are as
. .

fo llo w s z ( 1) T h e wo rd rahim wo m b is th e m o st ge n eral wo rd fo r , ,

ki n ship an d po in ts to a primi tive kin ship th ro u gh the mo ther ( 2)

,
.

T h e c u sto m c alle d aci ca by whi c h a c hild is co n sec rate d to th e go d

’
,

o f h i s f ath er s trib e c an n o t h ave b ee n primitive I t m u st h ave

’
.
,

spru n g u p in a state o f tran si tio n to i n su re th e co u n ti n g o f th e o ff

spri ng to th e f ath e r s si d e o f th e ho u se ( ) in the hi s

’
3 C as es o c cu r .

to ric al p erio d in whi ch a b o y when gro wn attach es him self to his

m o th er s tribe Th e po et Zo b air is a c ase in po in t an d Arabi c
’
,
.

an tiqu ari an s ap pear to h ave kn o wn th at s u ch c ases w e re n o t u n

co mm o n ( ) h h m h
’
2
4 T h.e f e ar t h at so n s w o u l d c o o se t e i r o t er s c l an s

le d m e n w ho we re we althy to marry w i thi n th e ir o w n k in (5 ) .

T h e relatio n b e tween a m an and his m atern al u n c le is sti ll co n si dere d

"
c lo se r th an b etwe en a m an an d hi s pate rn al u n c l e (6) I n the .

A rabi c gen e alo gi c al tabl e s m e tro n ymi c gro u p s are still fo u n d ( 7 ) .

I n Aramai c i n scr i ptio n s fo u n d at Hegra m e tro n ymi c c lan s appe ar 3

.

Noldek e also n o ted that in the religio u s te xts o f th e M an d man s ‘

a m an is d e sc rib e d as th e so n o f hi s m o th er whi ch i n di cates th at ,

amo n g th em there w as a m atrili n e al m e tho d o f re c ko n i n g kin sh i p 4

.

Pe i ser al so po in ted o u t m an y ye ars ago th at amo ng the B aby

lo ni an s a m an co u l d if h e c ho se reno u n c e his f ami ly an d j o in the
,

ki ndred o f hi s wife w hiclf is a reli c o f the same cu sto m

,
.

With referen c e to th e so c ial o rgan izatio n o f th e primi tive Hami tes

w e kn o w m u ch l ess th an w e do o f the S e mi tes p ar tly b e c au se th e ,

cradl e l an d o f th e Hami tes w as fu rth e r remo ve d f ro m th e n ati o ns w ho

-

pro du c ed the Bible an d th e Gre e k an d Ro man hi sto rian s an d p artly ,

becau se n o Hami ti c tribe s have su rvive d u n to u ch e d by the c ivi li

z atio n o f o th er plac es There is n e verth e less so me sligh t e viden ce
.
, ,

1
Nac hri chten d Kgl Gesell d Wi ss z u Gen 1893 , p 4 78 , n 2
. . . . . . . . .

2
Cf S mith s Ki ns hi p, 2nd e d 1903 pp 15 6 fi
’
. . . .

3
f
C CI S , Pt II , V o l 1, No s 19 8 an d 209 S ee als o S mit h s Ki ns hi p, pp 3 13—3 16
’
. . . . . . . .

1
‘
M o n atssc hr if t 1884, p 304 , . .
106 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

th at po ly an d ry h as xi s te d in so me par ts o f the H ami ti c area F o r

e .

e x am ple a s to ry pi c k e d u
p b y Le o R e in is c h am o ng t he A fars o r
l ‘
,

D ank ali s re l ates ho w so me wo me n o f that tribe c am e to thei r ru ler

and ask e d th at the y mi gh t b e pe rm itte d to h ave m o re th an o n e hu s

band W he n ask ed w hy they w ishe d thi s pe rrni ss io n the y sai d

.

o n e h u sb and is fo r u s as s m o k e w h i ch ri se s fro m a fi re a nd d o e s
”
no t sa ti s fy u s T he sto ry go e s o n to tell ho w thei r Chi e f tain de ni e d
.

th ei r re q u e s t I t is hard ly pro b abl e ho we ve r that i n a l and w he re

.
, ,

tradi ti o n and c u s to m c o n tro ls the tho u gh t o f e ve ry o n e th at su c h a

re q u e st sho u ld h ave b ee n m ade at all if b ac k o f it th e re h ad no t ,

b e e n so me c o n s c io u s ne ss that the p rac ti ce de si red h ad o nce b ee n i n

e xi s te n c e Had mo re b ee n k no w n c o n c ern i ng th e o rgan izatio n o f
.

the fami ly li fe o f the e arli est E gyp ti an s po ssibly w e mi gh t fi n d thi s

hin t o f co n d i ti o n s amo ng th e e arlier Afars p arall e l e d in e arly E gyp
‘

ti an so c i e ty T he arch aeo lo gi c al rem ai n s f ro m p re h i sto ri c E gy p t

.

sh o w th at the e arly po p u lati o n o f t hat c o u n try h ad p ass e d thr o u gh

m any ce n tu ri e s o f e vo lu tio n b e fo re th e e arl ie st hi sto ri cal in scrip

tio n s w e re w ri tte n 2
T he e arlie st i n sc ri pti o n s to o are alm o st b arre n
.
, ,

o f ge n e alo gi e s w hi ch thr o w li gh t o n thi s i n te re s ti ng p o i n t If as .

,

in di cated abo ve in C hap ter I the H ami ti c rac e w as d evelo pe d in ,

the re gi o n no w o c cu pi e d by th e S ah ara D eser t as th at l an d w as ,

g r ad u ally d e si c c a te d i t i s p o b abl e that the si m i lar de se rt co n d i tio n s

r ,

pro d u c e d am o n g the Hami tes the re fo re the sam e vari atio n s fro m , ,

the n o rm al f ami ly ty pe w hi ch the y pro d u ce d in A rabi a .

The re is so m e sligh t e vid en ce that am o n g so m e o f the an ci en t

E gyp ti an s w ho it wi ll b e rem em b e red we re Hami te s descen t w as
, , ,

re ck o n ed th ro u gh the m o th e r D u ri ng th e 18 th E gyp ti an dyn asty

.

th e thro n e o f E gyp t w as o c cu pie d by se ve ral ki n gs w ho al tho u gh ,

th e so n s o f k in gs did n o t h ave ro yal m o th e rs

, T h e fir st o f th ese .

w as T ho thm es ki ng o f E gyp t fro m ab o u t 15 5 0 to 15 0 1 B C H e .

w as th e so n o f Am en o phi s I b u t n o t o f a ro y al m o the r
’
,
Am en o phis s .

qu een w as n am ed Ahm o se an d w as the d au gh te r o f Ahm o se I the ,

fo u n der o f the d yn asty Tho thm es did n o t feel hi s th ro n e se c u re

.

Wie n
‘
1
Le o R ein isc h , Di e Af ar S prac he I -
. 18 8 5 , p 8 f
,
. .

2
K S S anf o rd an d W
. . Ark e ll, J
. . P
al e o lithic M an and the N ite F ayu m ivid e, -
D
Chi c ago , 19 29 , ch . V; als o Pti e r e s
’
P rehi stor ic E gypt, L o n d o n , 19 20 ; also ab o ve , c h .

II I , p 8 9 3
. .

3
Jam es H B reast ed , A H i sto ry of E gypt, 2n d
. ed . Ne w Y o rk , 1909 , pp 25 5 , 266,.
 EARLY S OCIAL L IFE 7

u n til he h ad m arrie d his h alf siste r Ahm o se -

. T he o nly issu e of thi s
m arri age to su rvi ve w as the fam o u s qu een H at shep su t Altho u gh - -
.

T ho thmes I had m an y so n s o f se c o n dary wi ves so stro n g w as th e ,

fee li n g th at o nl y the descen dan t o f a ro yal m o th er sh o u ld o c cu py the

th ro n e o f E gy pt th at h e h ad H at she p su t p ro c laim e d c ro wn pri n - -

cess so m e y ear s b e fo re hi s d e ath T h e sto ry o f th e f am ily t an gle .

which re su l ted is differen tly in terpre ted by di fferen t hi sto rian s B u t .

wh eth e r with so m e w e regard T ho thm e s I I as ho ld ing his cro wn by

vi rtu e o f hi s m arri age wi th H at she p su t o r W i th B re aste d regard
1 - -

, , ,

T ho thm e s I I I as h avi n g re al ti tle to th e th ro n e by re aso n o f his m ar

riage wi th h er o r b elie ve that Tho thm es I I an d I I I we re b ro thers
,

w ho su c c essive ly validated th eir ti tle to th e th ro n e by h avi n g h er as

t he i r co n so rt h er who le c aree r is e viden ce that at thi s p e rio d th e
,

ti tl e to th e th ro n e o f E gypt re sted u po n o n e s d e s c en t fro m a ro y al

’

m o the r T e stimo n y to th e sam e fac t is fo u n d in th e later h i sto ry

.

o f Am en o p his I V ( I khn ato n ) an d his su c ce sso rs Am eno phi s I V .

h ad n o so n s o n ly d au gh ter s an d tw o o f h is so n s in law S ake re an d

,
2
,
- -
,

—
Tu t a -
n k am e n
3
(who se n am e has in recen t years be co m e a ho u se
.

ho ld wo rd) bo th o f who m su c c ee d ed him fo r a sho rt tim e o we d his ,

ti tle to th e th ro n e to the fac t that hi s wi fe w as th e dau gh ter o f th i s

'

lin e o f kin gs Fu rther u po n T u t an k amen s death th e thro n e w as

.
,
- -
’

se c u re d fo r at l east th ree ye ars by E ye who se so le l egi tim ate ti tle

4

to t h e thro n e seem s to h ave b ee n th at h e h ad m arri ed Am eno ph is s

’

nurse a wo m an n am e d T iy Th i s series o f f ac ts is e vi den ce o f a

“

.
,

m atrilin eal d esc en t in the ro yal f amily at Th e be s at the b e gin n in g ,

.

o f th e E mpi re perio d I n the c ase o f E ye it is tru e th at th e m at ri

.
,

line al de scen t appears in a m o st attenu ated fo rm b u t th e emph asi s ,

place d u po n his allian ce wi th T iy lu di c ro u s as it may appear to the ,

mo de rn mi n d is e lo qu en t te sti m o n y to th e p o i n t u n d er co n sideratio n
,
.

T he E gy pti an n atio n as po i n te d o u t in C h ap te r I I I c o n si ste d at

, ,

th e b egin n ing o f m an y d ifferen t trib es T he evi den ce j u st qu o te d .

is d e rive d en tire ly f ro m th e n o m e o f The b e s We sho ul d gu ard o u r .

se lve s agai n s t in f erri n

g th at th e c o n ditio n s re ve ale d pre vaile d in
all p art s o f E gy pt I t i s ho we ve r , m o re than p ro b abl e th at am o ng
.
,

1
I bi d .
, Ch ap . 15 .

2
B r e asted , o p . ci t .
, p 39 1
. .

3
I bid .
, p 392
. .

4
I bid .
, p 394
. .
108 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITIC ORIG I NS

at l e as t so me o f the H ami te s d e sce n t k

w as re c o n e d th ro u gh the

m o t he r .

T he se i ndic atio ns s li ght as the y are m ak e it p ro b ab le that amo ng

, ,

th e H am ite s m atri line al desc e n t d id in pre hi s to ri c ti m e e x ist to so m e

e x te n t So m e s light c o nfirm atio n o f th is is aff o rd e d by E gy p ti an

.

co n tr ac ts I n c o n trac ts ( n u m be rs o f w hi c h are n o w k no wn th ro u gh
.

t he re co ve ry o f i nsc ri b e d papy ri ) the n am es o f the mo the rs o f the

c o n trac ti n g p a rtie s a nd o f te n the m o the r s fathe r a re fai thf u lly

’

i w ll h m f h e fathe rs an d th e fath e rs fath e rs

’
g ve n as , e a s t e n a e s o t .

T hi s sho w s th at e ve n d u ri ng the Pto lm aic ti m e s the nam e o f the

m o the r w as so i mpo rtan t that m atril in e al desc e n t w as gi ven al mo st
e q u al w e i gh t w ith pat ri lin e al d e s ce n t T hat co u ld hardly have be en .

b ad the re no t b ee n a rathe r wi de sp re ad c u sto m in the e arli e r ti m e s

o f re ck o n in g d e sce n t thr o u gh the m o the r
1
.

I t is a pe c u liar fac t that in the E gyp tian l an guage the wo rd shs ,

b ro th e r is also the wo rd fo r h u sb an d an d the wo rd sht siste r is

, , , ,

th e wo rd fo r wi fe Amo n g the S emi ti c pe o pl e s as am o ng t h e rac e s

.
,

o f th e w o rl d ge n e rally m arri ages be tw ee n b ro th e rs an d si s te rs w e re

,

n o t allo w ed I t w o u ld ho w e ve r p ro b ably b e wr o n g to inf e r f ro m

.
, ,

thi s ve rb al u sage th at in e arly E gy p tian so c i e ty o r in e arly Hami ti c

so ci e ty m arri ages b e tw ee n b ro the rs an d si ste r w e re co mm o n T he .

ge n e alo gi es w hi ch w e fi n d in th e E gyp ti an p apyri do n o t in di cate

that m arri ages w e re o f thi s type in th e pe ri o d fro m whi c h th e papyr i
co m e o r wh e th e r o u tsi d e th e ro yal f amily su ch m arri age s w e re at all
,

fre qu e n t Plainly in th e ro yal f amily fro m the earli est ti m e s su ch

.
,

m arri ages w e re fre qu en tly m ade p ro b ably fo r th e p u rpo se o f se c ur ing

,

a legi tim ate h e i r t o th e thr o n e by d es ce n t thr o u gh a ro yal m o th er .

I t is ho w e ve r d o u b tful whe th e r th e y w e re o ften en te re d in to by t he

, ,

co mm o n pe o ple Th o u gh it is po ssibl e th at in tho se lo n g ce n tu ri es

.
,

co n c e rni n g w hi ch w e h ave n o reco rd s o f th e se m atte rs su ch a m ar ,

riage m ay h ave be e n th e ru l e it see m s m o re p ro b abl e th at th e e x ,

te n sio n o f th e term s b ro th er an d si ste r to m e an h u sb an d an d wi fe

m ay have b ee n d u e to th e adaptatio n s by th e c o mm o n pe o pl e o f th e
n o m en clatu re e m plo y e d by ro yal ty .

F o r o th e r p art s o f th e H am i ti c fie l d w e h ave n o an c i e n t inf o rm a

1
S im ply as c o n c ret e e xam ples o f th at w hi c h o c c u rs in an e n o rm o u s n um b e r o f

papyri, t h e read er may c o ns ul t Ge o rge M illigan

’
s S elec tio n s f rom the Greek P pyr i
a ,

Camb ridge , 19 12, nos . 20 , 30 , an d 32 .

 EARL Y S OCIAL L IFE 9

tio n , in fo rm atio n fro m m o re m o dern so u rce s as to the co mpo si

an d

ti o n o f the fam i ly is ex cee di n gly sligh t An c ien t G reek o r R o m an .

wri ters w ho deal wi th No rth Afri c a were no t particu larly in tere ste d
in so c i al o rgan izatio n s F o r ex am ple S trabo in B o o k 17 C h ap 3
.
, , .

o f hi s Geography tre at s b ri efly o f M au re tan i a as th e c o u n try o f th e ,

M o o rish an d Alge ri an B erb ers w as then c alled b u t n atu rally gives ,

u s n o i nf o rm atio n as to th e i r so c i al o rgan izatio n Ib n Kh aldo u n s .

’

hi sto ry o th e B e rb e s is o c c u pied wi th ac co u n ts o f th e o rigi n o f th e

f r
1

trib e s an d a hi s to ry o f th e vari o u s d yn astie s whi ch th e y pro du ce d ,

i c u din g A M o had s an d Al o vi —
( M u rabit) Natu rally
A
'

n l l -
m ra d e l .

fro m the M o h amm e dan po in t o f vie w as well as in co n se qu e n ce o f

hi s e arly date I b n Kh aldo u n w as n o t i n te re sted in su ch qu e stio n s
as th e p o si tio n o f th e f ami ly typ e s o f m arri age an d p at rili n eal o r, ,

m atrili n eal de scen t Hi s pages ac co rd in gly co u ld h ardly b e ex

.
, ,

p e c t e d to th r o w l igh t o n th e se qu esti o n s .

T he repo rts o f su ch m o dern t ravelers am o n g the B e rb ers as I h ave

b e en able to exami n e in di cate th at amo n g them mo no gam y 18 the
ru l e S u ch is the i mpli catio n o f D r R an dall M acI ver an d o f R en é
.
2
.
-
,

M au e n i r
3
a d o
n ,
f m
H Si p so n
4
T he p o si tio n o f the wi fe is n o t
. .
,

ac co rdi n g to th ese w ri te rs m o re e le vate d o r se cu re th an am o n g,

o th e r p eo ple s o f a simi lar d e gre e o f c iviliz atio n S he is e xp e c ted to .

b ear chi ldren to her hu sb an d an d if sh e do e s n o t is alm o st su re to , ,

b e di vo rc ed an d re pl ac ed by an o t er h 5
F ran z S tu hlm ann w ho has .
,

m ade a stu dy o f th e B erb e rs in th e m o u n tain s o f S o u th e rn Alge ri a ,

b ears wi tn e ss ho we ve r to the fac t that the trib es w ho were the

, ,

su bj ec t o f hi s rese arc h we re pre vailin gly an d f ai thf u lly m o n o gam o u s

6
.

Sim p so n also b e ars te stimo n y to the fac t that amo n g the B e rb e r

trib e s wi th whic h h e c am e i n co n tac t th e re pu tatio n o f th e wo m en
is as a rul e ab o ve re p ro ach an d the ho m e life pu re On e tribe th e .
,

Dy
'

1
I b n Kh ald o u n , H i stoi re des B erberes et des n as ti es M u su lman es de l Af riqu e ’

S eptentri o n ale ; t rans f ro m t h e Arab ic b y L e B aro n d e S lan e , Alge r, 1847 , 2

. vo ls ; n e w

ed b y
. au l P asan o va C aris, 19 25 , 2 vo ls
. P .

2
D avi d R an d all M ac I ve r,
-
an d An th o n y Wilk in ,
L ibyan Notes . L o n d o n , 19 0 1
p 30
. .

3
R en éM au ni e r, La C o nstru cti o n Collecti ve de la M aiso n en Kabyli e . P ari s, 19 26,
p 14
. .

M W Hilto n S imp so n Amo ng the H ill—

. .
-
f o lk of Algeri a
, , p 219 ff
. . Lo n d o n , 19 21 .

5
S e e S imp so n , loc ci t .

5
F ranz S tu hlm ann , E i n k u lturgesc hic htli c her Au sflu g i n den Aures ( Atlas vo n S tid
Algeri en ) . H amb u rg, 19 12; p 27 ii .
, p 3 3 , p 63
. . fl .
 110 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

Walle d Ab di -
,
fo rm e d a m a rk e d
x ce ptio n Thei r wo m e n we re m u c h e .

in d em and as d an c i ng w o m e n d i vo rc e am o ng the m w as fre q u e n t , ,

and the re p u tati o n o f the w o m e n n o t go o d Ap pare n tly in all thi s .

re gi o n d es c e n t is no w re ck o ne d th ro u gh the fathe r
, I t is d i ffi c ul t .
,

ho we ve r at thi s d i s tan c e to re aso n b ac k to thei r p ri m iti ve c o n di tio n

, ,

so m an y w ave s o f c i vi liz ati o n Ph cr n ic ian R o m an M o hamm e d an , , , ,

and E u ro pe an h av e sw e p t o ve r the i r l an d .

T he assum p tio n o f M c Le n nan w hi ch w as fo l lo we d in S emitic

Ori gins th at m atrili ne ar d e sce n t w as a p ro d u c t o f po lyan d ry an d
that the re fo re its p re se n c e am o ng S em i tes w as a p ro o f o f a p re vi
, ,

o u s s tate o f po ly an d ry is d i sp ro ved by th e s tu d y o f the m arri age

,

c u s to m s o f e xi s ti ng m atrili neal pe o pl es A n um b e r o f the trib es o f .

Au strali a are m atrili ne al an d th ei r c usto m s have be e n stu di e d .

T he re is e vide nc e that gro u p m arri ages have e xi sted ; so m e thi ng

1

co rrespo n ding to th e ju s pri mae n octi s s till e xi sts am o ng so m e tribe s ;

2

warrio rs m ay b e po lygam o u s b u t as a rule af te r m arri age no o ne

3
,

m ay have ac c e ss to a wo m an wi tho u t he r hu sb an d s co n se n t He
‘ ’
.

may l end h e r to a gu est o r to a gu e st o f the m e d i c i ne m an if the 15

,

o n e to w ho m she is lo an e d is n o t wi thi n th e c i rc le o f tho se to w ho m

marri age wi th the wo m an w o u l d b e pro hibi ted Pre nup tial c o n .

n e c tio n s o n the part o f gi rl s in so m e p arts w e re p erm i tted if n o t to o ,

pu bli c in o the rs d isco u raged b u t e x c u sed an d in o the rs no t p rae

6
,
’
,

tise d 3
. Am o n g the M elan e si an s a l arge num b e r o f gro u ps trac e d e
sce n t th ro u gh the m o th er Amo ng them patriline ar d escen t tho u gh
.
,

kn o wn is th e e x c e ptio n rath e r than th e ru le b u t any thi ng like po ly

, ,

an dry is u nk no w n F o r th e p u rpo se o f o u r presen t stu dy the two

9
.

bo o k s that are m o st i llum i nati n g are th o se o f B ro n i slaw M ali no w ski ,

S ex and R epressi o n i n S avage S oci ety Ne w Yo rk 19 27 an d The , , ,

S exu al Lif e of S avages Ne w Yo rk 19 3 0 The se bo o k s are b ased o n

, ,
.

th e au th o r s i n tim ate kn o wle dge o f the T ro b ri an d s o f New G uin ea

’
,

1
S ee S pe n c er and Gille n , Native ri b es of en tral Au stral ia, p 5 6 ff T C . .

2
S pe nce r an d Gille n , o p c i t , 9 0 —94 , an d A W H o w itt, Nati ve ri b es
. . . . T f S ou theas t
o

Aus trali a, p 20 5 . .

3
H o witt, o p c it , pp 20 7 , 2 16 . . . .

I bid , p 25 8
. . .

p 258
3
I bid .
, . .

p 23 2 f
3
I b id .
, . .

p 225
1
I b id .
, . .

3
I bid , p 233
. .

3
S pen c e r an d Gillen , o p . c it .
, ch . I II an d Ho w itt , o p . c it
.
, ch . V .
 EARLY S OCIAL L IFE 1

am o ng who m he has spen t m u c h tim e . T he T ro b rian d s ko n

re c

desc en t th ro u gh the m o th e r , h avin g kno wledge o f th e no fu n c tio n

o f the fathe r in the pro c re ati o n o f a c h ild They believe that a .

spi rit f ro m a b u sh o r so m e similar so u r c e e n ters th e wo m b o f the

mo the r an d c au se s p re gn an c y M arriage is wi th them mo no gamo u s .

as a ru l e an d a f te r m arri age hu sban d an d wi fe are ge n erally f ai th fu l

,

to o n e an o th e r Trib es are rigidly d ivided i n to se c tio n s o r mo i eti es

.

b e tw ee n t he m em b ers o f whi c h m arri age m u st n o t tak e place b u t , ,

apart f ro m th e o b servan ce o f thi s tabo o the re is n o p ren u p ti al re ,

stri c ti o n to i n te r c o u rse b e tw e en th e s exe s B o y s an d girl s o f a .

village play to ge the r in gro u p s w ear li ttle if an y c lo th i n g an d fre ely , , ,

attem pt in the i r gam es to co py tha t whi ch th e y h ave o b serve d th e i r

’

elde rs p rac ti se F o r b o ys w hb have re ac he d th e age o f p u be rty

.

the re are b ach e lo rs ho u se s wh ere they regu larly sl e ep an d to whi c h

‘ ’ ’

the y b ri ng an y girl o f like age who m th e y m ay b e able to per su ad e to

’ ’

share th e i r co u c h fo r the n igh t No stigm a attaches to th e m em b ers .

o f e i th e r se x b ecau se o f the ex erc i se o f th i s f ree do m

'

Wh en o n ce .

m arri age has been co n trac ted h o we ver it is m o n o gam o u s an d the , ,

marriage tie is o o e d wi th a go o d degre e o f co n ti n en c e

h n r
1
A stu dy .

o f th e cu sto m s o f th ese tr ib es m ak e s c lear the fac t th at m atrili ne ar

de s cen t m ay e xi st in the mi d st o f a great vari e ty o f de tail s b u t ,

that it n eve r pre su ppo se s th e previo u s exi sten c e e ith e r o f a gen eral
state o f p ro mi s cu ity o r o f p o ly an dry There is no re aso n the refo re .
, ,

w hy m atrilin e al de scen t am o n g th e Hami te s an d S e mi te s sho uld b e

r egarded as a p ro d u c t o f su ch p o lyan d ry as c an b e sh o wn to h ave

e xi ste d amo n g th em I n deed th e an alo gie s fro m M elan e si a an d

.
, ,

Au strali a Wo u ld l ead u s to b elie ve that S emi ti c m atrilin ear descen t

o ri gi n ate d f o r o th e r c au ses w hi ch w e c an n o t n o w d i sce rn - .

I t i s c u sto m ary to speak o f m atri lin ear d e s cen t as m atri arc h y

‘ ’
,

b u t it is a mistake to su pp o se th at am o n g any peo ple w ho re c ko n ed

de scen t in that w ay wo m en were th e ru lers After the de ath o f a .

wo m an s fathe r her elde st b ro ther b e c am e the h ead o f h er f am ily

’
, ,

an d h er hu sb an d whi le n o t the he ad o f the f am i ly o f whi c h h e w as

,

th e fath e w as if t e o l de st so n th e h e ad o f h is si ste r s fami ly

h I t is
2 ’
r , , ,
.

n o w c le ar that matrilin ear de sc en t n e ve r c re ate s a h u m an so c ie ty

which when its pattern is tran sferre d to m y tho lo gy o r th eo lo gy

, ,

wo u ld m ake go dde sses su prem e in a pan theo n .

1
Chi ef s o nly h ave se ve ral Wives .

2
S ee , e .
g .
,
M alin o w ski , S ex an d Repressi o n in S avage S o ci ety, 9 if .
112 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

T hi rty y ears ago the

w ri te r b e lie ved that such ac ts o f f re e l o ve as
H e ro do tu s attrib u tes to the B aby lo n ians and su ch sac rifi ce s o f
‘

ch as ti ty as L u ci an say s o c c u rre d a t th e fe s ti val o f A d o n i s n e ar

2

Byblo s an d su ch i ns ti tu ti o ns as the sac re d p ro sti tu te s o f I sh tar and

,

Ash tart w e re all su rvi val s o f the sli gh tly re gulated rel atio n s o f the
se x es w hi ch had b e g u n in a po ly and ro u s so c i e ty and w hi c h had b ee n ,

th en c o n se c rate d in th e wo rship o f the m at ri arc h al m o the r go d de ss

by reli gio u s c u sto m an d had co nse q u e n tly b e en p e rpe tu ated after ,

by th e ri se o f a p atriarchal sy s te m a d iff ere nt co d e o f m o re s h ad ,

co m e i n to e xi s te n ce I t has no w b eco m e e vi de n t to him that the

.

re li gi o u s c u sto ms an d i n s ti tu ti o n s in q u e s tio n o ri gi n ate d in a c i r cl e o f

i deas co nne c ted wi th m agi c an d in spi te o f marri age typ es no t b e ,

c au se o i th e m I t is cl ear f ro m th ree di flere n t do c um e n ts w hi ch

.

have b ee n i n te rp re te d o nly wi thi n the l ast twe n ty y e ars that am o n g

the B abyl o ni an s an d S emi te s w ater w as th e sp e rmato zo a o f the m al e
d o f f e r tili ty F r u it f u l se aso n s re q u i red an ab u n d an t o u tp o u r
g o .

ing o f w at e r S u ch an o u tpo u ri ng o c c u rred at the rai ny seaso n

.

o r at th e tim e o f th e ri se o f th e ri ve rs b ecau se the n a go d an d go dd e ss

u ni te d in a m ari tal u ni o I n o rde r to en co u rage su c h di vi n e u n

3
n .

io n s an d so insu re the fe rti li ty o n whi c h the life o f the trib e de pe n ded ,

hum an sex u al un i o n s w e re i n d u lge d in that by sym p athe ti c m agi c , ,

th e go d s mi gh t b e in du ce d to do th e sam e Si n ce fro m tim e imm e .

m o ri al reli gio u s fe stivals h ad b een he ld a p ar t o f the ce le b ratio n o f ,

whi ch w as th e en ac tme nt o f thi s ri tu al and sin ce it w as a ri tual whi c h ,

appeal e d to h u m an passio n it w o u l d b e n atu ral fo r the res trai n ts o f

,

th e m arri age tie to b e se t asi de at su ch a ti m e an d th e free st li ce n se

p ermi tte d 4
In tim e su c h a religi o u s p rac ti c e wo u l d c re ate the b e li e f
.

1
B k I , 199
. .

2 De S yri a Dea, § 6 .

3 T ’
h ese t e xt s are a p assage in Gu d e a s Cyli n der B (c o l . xvu , 2 if ) ,
translat e d in th e
R o yal I ns cri ptio n s S u mer Akk ad , p 25 1, in w hi c h t h e ma ri tal u ni o n is
’
w rit e r s of and .

b et w e e n Nin girsu an d B au ; in hi s M i scellane ou s B ab ylo ni an I nscripti o ns, n o 4 , w h e re .

t h e d e ities are E nlil an d Nin lil ; an d in L an gd o n

’
s so - calle d S u meri an E pic o f P ar adi s e,

the F lo o d, and the F al l of M an ,

in w hi c h t h e d eitie s are E n k i an d Nin tu d .
( Langd o n
has n o t u n d e rs to o d the passage . Fo r a co rrec t t ran slatio n se e Americ an Jo urnal of
Theo lo gy, XX I , p I n all th ese t h ree c as e s th e m ari tal u ni o n o f th e d e iti e s is
.

f o ll o w e d b y an ab u n d ant o u tp o u rin g o f f e rtili z in g w at e r o n t h e e arth .

1 T his has o cc urre d in many p arts o f th e w o rld S pe nc e r an d Gillen , o p c it 9 8 f ,

. . . .

c it e th e in stan c e o f an Au stralia n t rib e in w hi c h su ch li ce n se is o b li gato ry an d w ha t in

o rdi n ary t im e s are th e st ric t est tab o o s o f sexu al in te rc o u rse are se t asid e . Th ey are

at a lo ss t o ac c o u n t f o r it b u t, if w e are n o t mistak e n , it b elo n gs to th e p syc h o lo gical

p ro cess es of w hi c h w e are sp eakin g .

 E ARLY S OCIAL LIFE 113

that in o rd e r to sec u re fertility in h erself , a wo m an mu st pass fro m

virgi n ity by the aid o f so m eo n e se ec te d b y sac re d c han c e , o r by
l 1

co h abi tin g wi th a c hi e f tai n o r a priest

2
I t seem s m o re than pro b .

able that th e cu sto m s an d in sti tu ti o n s in qu estio n o ri gi n ate d in th e

m an n er in di c ated ,
an d th at th ey have n o th n g i to do wi th po ly
an d r y .
3

Th at fratern al po lyan d ry e xi sted at tim es in Arabia the di rec t

e vi d en c e c i ted ab o ve pro ve s Po ssibly at tim e s in d e sert regio n s .

where the stru ggle fo r exi sten c e w as parti c u larly severe there m ay ,

have e xi ste d a Nai r type o f po lyan d ry b u t it w as n e i ther as ex ten ,

sive as fu n d am e n tal o r as i n fi u en tial as w as f o r m erly su ppo se d

4
.
, ,

As already in dic ated an in te resti n g qu e stio n in co nn e c tio n wi th

,

th e so c i al o rgan izatio n o f the early Ham ito S emite s i s the pro blem -

as to whe th e r to tem i sti c co n ce p tio n s aff e c te d to any d egree th e i r

so c ial o rgan izatio n T he re aso n s wh i c h led W R S mi th to b e lieve

. . .

th at the S emi tes passe d th ro u gh a to tem i sti c stage o f d evelo pm en t

will b e re co u n ted b e lo w in C hapter V wh ere reaso n s will b e given ,

fo r rej ec tin g th e th eo ry T h e S emi tic se ttle rs in E gyp t tho u gh .

,

them se lves se ttle d i n a to temi sti c lan d ap pear as th e o nly n o n ,

to temi sti c trib e s in that lan d

'

— a co n d i ti o n wh i c h c o u ld h ardly h ave

1
As in He ro d o tu s, I , 19 9 .

2
Amo ng the Au strali an s it is n o t alw ay s a k in g or priest , b u t c ertain relatives ;

see S pen cer an d Gillen ,

p 92 fi p
o . ci t .
, . .

3
T h e V i ew tak en i n th e text raise s the q u e stio n o f th e relat io n o f magic an d religio n .

M agic is primitive m an s sc ienc e—mi stak en scien c e , b ec au se f o u n ded o n false

’
assu m p

I t is th e w riter s b elief th at m agic p rec ed ed religio n— that

’
tio n s, b u t st ill sc ie n ce
‘

man b elieved t h at h e co uld c o n tro l th e spirits ab o u t him an d m ak e th em w o rk hi s will .

When exp erience tau ght him t h at th e re w e re spirit s that c o ul d n o t be so c o e rc ed , he

then b egan to in t e rced e and p ro p itiate ; t h at w as th e b ir th o f religio n . In o rd e r,

h o w ever, to mak e assu ran c e d o u b ly su re , th e o ld magic al rites w ere co n tin u e d . A

recen t w rite r h as s aid :
“
M en it th at magic d o es no t
re aliz e lo n g b ef o re th ey ab an d o n

w o rk , b u t th ey c ann o t an alyse t h em selve s , an d so th ey c o nf u se th e iss u e an d imperil

the so lu tio n T
h ey refu se to ab an d o n a prac tic e w hich stand s o r f alls b y in tellec tu al
.

t ests, b y j
o b ec tive re su lts in th e ph ysic al w o rld , b e c au se su b c o n sc io u sly th ey realiz e
th at t h e p rac tic e is d erive d f ro m a c o n du c t p atte rn w hic h u se d to assu age their p syc h ic
n ee d s. Th y e appreh en d th eir n ee d , b ut so little c an th ey d efi n e and iso late it that
th ey c an n o t see th at m agic it self is an attem p t t o i so late th e ec o n o mic al an d physic al
b en efi t an d to le ave th e p syc h o lo gic al asso ciation , w hi ch w as th e o nly real b enefi t, aside
—
as a b y pro du c t
”
( Gerald He ard, S oci al S u b stance of R eli gi on , Ne w
. Y o rk , 193 0, p .

4
Th o se wishi n g t o c o mpare S emitic m arri age c u st o m s w i th th e Nair typ e , sh o u ld
read th e lo ng an d in terestin g acc o u n t of th at f o rm of marriage in We stermarck ’
s Hi s
tory of Hu man M arriage ,
5 th c d .
,
Ne w Y o rk , 19 22, ch s . xxix and m in V o l III . .
114 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

o c c u rre d , had the y the m se lve s be e n to te mi s tic b e fo re thei r m i g ra

tio n f ro m A rabi a O n the o th e r hand the ani m al go d s o f the Hami
.
,

ti c c lan s o f E gyp t de tai le d ac c o u n t o f w h ich is gi ve be lo w in C hap

,

te r V I p ro ve that the e arly tri b e s o f t h at race he l d o ne o f the m o s t

,

i m po rtan t c o nce p tio n s o f to te m i sm T he y we re c e rtai nly to te m is ti c .

as re gard s the i r go d s T h e to tem ism o f the Am eri n d s an d o f the

.

A u strali an s ho we ve r had so ci al co n se q ue nc e s I t de te rmi ned o fte n

, ,
.

what m e n and wo m e n c o uld no t m arry W he the r the to te mi sm .

o f the p ri mi ti ve H am i te s c arri e d wi th i t so c i al c o n se q u e n ce s o f a

si mil ar so r t w e have no m e an s o f k no wi ng
, I t is q u ite po ssib le .

that it did b u t so li ttle e vide n ce o f the co n ce pti o n s w hi c h go ve rn e d

,

H ami ti c m arri age in th is far— o ff ti m e has su r vi ve d that it is im po s ,

sib le to d e te rm in e I t is co n c e i vable that Hami ti c to temi sm d if

.

fe re d f ro m that o f the A u st rali an s an d A me ri n d s in b ei n g re l igi o u s

o nly an d in h avi ng no appli ca ti o n to the o rgan iz ati o n o f fam ilie s .

At all e ve n ts w e c an at pre s e n t trace no so c ial co n se qu e n ces o f to

tem ism in ei the r b ran ch o f the H ami to S emi ti c race -
.

Tu rn i ng no w to th e e co no mi c l ife o f the H ami to S em i ti c pe o pl e -

,

w e se e k fir st to asce rtai n th e m e an s o f su ste nan ce o n w h i c h the pri mi

ti ve S e mi te s in A rabi a d e p e n de d Fi shi ng co uld n e ve r have b ee n an .

i m po rtan t featu re o f l ife in A rabi a ex ce pt u po n the seaco asts fo r ,

th e ab se n ce o f large ri ve rs an d i n de e d ex ce p t in th e c ases o f w ate r , , , ,

o f an y so rt w o uld ren d er it im po s sib le

,
Hu n ti n g h as d o wn to the .
,

p re sen t ti m e played so m e par t in A rab ian l ife H ares wild go ats

,
.
, ,

g a z e lle s w i ld
,
c o w s a n d o stri c h e s m ay s ti ll
,
b e f o u n d in sm a ll n u m b e r s;

an d th e S o llu b y t rib e w ho have n o re al h o m e b u t pay tri b u te to all

, ,

th e t rib e s s till li ve largely by h u n tin g

,
1
If th e th e o ry o f Wallace 2
.
,

that thi s re gio n o n ce c o n tain e d l arge r fo re sts an d m o re ab u n dan t

w ater b e tru e it c an o nly have b een m an y m an y c en tu ri es ago
, , ,
.

P ro b ably th e c am el and th e go at to whi ch h e as c rib es the d e stru c ,

ti o n o f the fo rests w e re in Arab ia b e fo re th e S emi te s w e re

,
I t is .

to le rab ly c e rtain that si n c e th e S emi tes e n te re d it th e c o n di tio n s

, ,

o f th e pe nin su la hav e b e e n prac ti cally w h at th ey are to d ay H ere .

an d th e re c as e s ar e fo u n d w h e re a li ttle w ate r pro d u ces grass trees , ,

an d v ege tatio n b u t in m an y o f the se n o thin g o f i m po rtan c e is

, ,

1
S ee D o u gh ty ’
s Arab i a D es erta, I , 28 1 ff ,
362 fi .
,
48 7 II , 9 fi .
,
70, an d 216—218 .

2
Alf red R usse ll Walla ce ,
The Geo gr aphi c Di s tr ib uti o n o f An i mals , V o l I , p 200
. . .
 EARLY S OCIAL L IFE 115

pro du c e d wi th out irrigatio n He re an d the re ho we ve r palm s gro w .

1
, ,

wi tho u t artifi c i al wateri n g 2

M u ch o f th e co u n try is co vered wi th .

vo l c an i c m o u n tain s fro m wh ic h pro tru de b are c rags o f ign eo u s ,

ro c k s an d wh i c h pro du c e alm o st n o v e e tatio n T h e i n te rven in g

, g .

plain s are co ve re d with d ry gravel whi c h is e x c e e din gly u n pro du c ,

ti ve wh ile b e tween the ce n tral an d e aste rn pertio n s o f the pe n i n su la

,

the re ex ten d i mm en se de se rts o f sh iftin g san d 3 T h e l ac k o f w ate r .

an d th e i n te n se h e at m u st h ave alw ay s m ad e it di ffi c u lt fo r sava e

'

g
m an to ve n tu re f ar fro m a sp rin g .

I t is
l th at in su ch a co u n try n o large po pu latio n c o u l d l ive
c e ar

by hu n ti n g ; th e gam e itself wo u ld fi n d the c o n ditio n s o f l ife to o

se vere to exi st in large q u an ti ti es T h e S emi te m u st h ave b e en
“

co m pe l le d to do m e sti c ate th e go at an d c am e l at an e arly d ate in

,

o rd e r to o b tai n the milk wh i ch i s so i m po r tan t a p art o f A rabi an

d iet T h e d ate palm wh ic h e xten de d so F is c he r an d Hehn d e c lare 4

.
, ,

in preh i sto ric tim e s fro m th e C an arie s to Pen jab an d whic h n o w

'

, ,

pro du ce s th e staple artic l e o f di e t o f so m u c h o f th e A rabi an pc pu

latio n mu st h ave e arly reve aled its virtu e s to the Semiti c mi nd an d
, ,

th u s c alle d fo rth S emi ti c in ge nui ty fo r its cu ltivatio n 5 Thu s in .

1
On Arab ian o ase s, c f . Well sted s Travels i n Arabi a
‘
’
,
I , 9 2 ff . an d 27 2 ff ; algrave s
. P ’

E astern Arabi a, I , 20, 48 if Pilgri mage to Nejd,

’
Cen tr al an d ,
25 8 ii , I I , 3 60 ; B lu n t s

Tagb u c h ei ner R ei se i n I u n er Arabi en , pp 68 121, 123 if

’
I , 113 ; an d B u tin g s -
. .

2
S ee D o u gh ty s
’
Ar ab i a D
es er ta, I I , 10 , an d he o b ald F isc h er in e t erm ann s
’
T P
M i tthei lu ngen E rgan z u ngsb an d X I V No 64,
, , .
p . 10 .

3
Cf . Wellste d , o p . ci t ,
I , 24 1; P algrave , o p . ci t .
,
II , 13 2 ff ,
136 —3 5 8
;
B lu n t, o p . ci t .
,
I , 6 7 , 15 6—18 5 ; D o u gh ty , o p ci t . .
,
I , 4 19—
4 22, 424 , 425 , an d E u tin g, o p
.

ci t.
, p 142 ff
. .

4
S ee h e o b aldT F isch er in P ete rm ann s
’
M i ttheilu n gen , E rgan z u n gsb an d X I V .

No 64 , p 1,
. . an d H eh n
’
s Cu ltu rpflanz en u nd H au sthi ere, 6th p 27 3 ed: , . .

5
Th ere sh o u ld be n o real d o u b t that th e d ate p alm w as k n o wn to th e prim itive
S emi tes in an c ient Arab ia . It ext e n d e d in prehi st o ri c t imes f ro m th e an ari es to C
“
Pen jab ( see H au sthi ere , 6th e d , p f ro m th e At
’
H eh n s Cu ltu rpflanz en u nd or . .

lan tic t o t h e H im alayas ”

( so T ’
P
h eo b ald F isc h er, in e te rm ann s M i ttheilu n gen , E rgam
‘

b an d , X I V , No 64 , p 1)
“
z u n gz . . an d b elo n ged t o th e d e sert an d o asi s peo ples o f th e
”
S emi t es (H ehn , o p ci t p . . . T h e f ac t w as d o u b t ed b y vo n Krem er an d Gu idi,
as no t ed ab o ve in ch . I, on lin gu isti c gro u n d s, b u t with o u t su ffi c i en t reaso n . I t is
tru e t h e S emit ic to n gu es h ave n o c o mm o n w o rd f o r p a m; it i s gi shi mmaru in B ab y
"in Arab ic
lo ni an an d Assyri an , di qla in Aram aic , tamar in H eb rew , n ak hlu d tamrt ,
an

in E thi o p ic ; b u t p o in te d o u t ab o ve ( p
as w e . B ertin h as c o rrec tly o b serve d (Jour
n al of the An thro po lo gi cal I n sti tu te, V o l X I , pp 423 th at it is th e anim als an d . .

plan t s w hi c h are m o st c o mm o n w hic h alw ay s h ave th e m o st n am e s, an d t h at so me o f

116 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

A rabi a as h as so o fte n b e e n the c ase in o the r co u n trie s w he re the

,

co n d iti o n s o f li fe are hard n e c e s si ty c o m pe lle d m an a t an e arly

,

pe ri o d to fo rm a so m ew hat ad van c e d so c ial o rganiz atio n T he c o n .

ditio n s in w hi c h s u ch rel atio n s b e tw e e n the sexe s as w e have de

s c rib ed c o u l d e xi s t e ve n if w i th Hi ld e rb ran d a nd Gi ddi ngs w e re co g
, , ,

n ize th at th e y c an e xi s t o nly in a pas to ral a n d se m i ag ri c u ltu ral li fe -

,

m u st have b ee n pre se n t in the pe n insu la n o t lo ng at m o s t afte r the , ,

S em i ti c o cc u p atio n o f the c o u n try .

T he i mpo rtan c e o f the d ate p alm fo r the su ste n an c e an d d e vel o p ,

m e n t o f S em i ti c li fe c an hard ly b e o ve re s tim ate d

,
T he palm le ave s .

are to d ay plai te d in to s tri ng m a ts an d b ask e ts an d th e b ark i n to -

,

ro p es T he d ate s them sel ves fo rm a stapl e arti c le o f A rabi an d i e t

.
,

so m e o f the peo ple h avi n g alm o s t no o th e r so u rce o f s u sten an ce :

1

t h e y are e x po rte d as far as D am ascu s an d B aghd ad an d in re tu rn

2
,

th ese may h ave su rvived in o ne d ialec t and o th e rs in o the rs . I t w ill b e n o t ic ed that

th e H eb rew an d E t hio pic w o rd s fo r p alm t ree are id e n t ic al . S uc h a rese mb lanc e

in t w o suc h w id ely se parated d iale c ts o f th e No rth and S o u t h S e mite s sh o w s, as Ho m

mel lo ng ago po in te d o u t ( Di e Na me n der S au gthiere, p th at th is w o rd w as th e
'

n ame o f it in the p ri mitive S emit ic to n gu e his is c o n fi rm e d b y t he f ac t th at in . T

“ ” “ ” “
Arab ic tarnr me an s d ate , and t he n f ru it in ge n e ral, w h ile tamar a means t o fe ed
” ”
th e t e rm
“
wi th d ates . T he u se o f ta mr as d ate m u st have b ee n a sp ec ializ atio n o f
“ ” " the “ “ ”
fo r p alm , w he n n ak hl u ,
w o rd fo r t ree , w as n arro w e d to me an palm t ree .

Th " th e m o re ene ral te rm c o u ld b e n arro w e d to th e alm s ho w s th at that

at n ak hl a
, g , p
w as th e t ree p ar exc elle n c e T h e B ab ylo Assy rian te rm i s appare n tly b o rro w e d f ro m
.
-

a n o n S e mi ti c p eo ple
-
Wh e nce th e Aramaic daq la c ame, it is n o t easy to say
. aq u t . Y
( in his Geo graphical D i ti c o nary , II , 5 80) spe ak s o f a plac e , Daq al a, in so u t h Arab ia ,
”
d at e palms are f o u nd , w hi c h w o u ld sh o w th at thi s t erm w as also u sed in
“
w h ere

S ab aza . P
e rh ap s i t is t h is f ac t w h ic h le d R o b e rt so n S mi t h t o say ( Reli gi o n of the

S emites , 2d c d , p t h at th e d ate p alm w as in t ro d u c e d int o Arab ia f ro m

. . e me n Y
an d S yria— a s tate m en t im po ssib le o f p ro o f S u re ly th e w o rk daqla is n o t p ro o f On e . .

co u ld m o re plau sib ly pro ve f ro m tamr t hat it w as in t ro d u c ed f ro m ales tin e an d E thi o P

pia, w hic h w o u ld su re ly b e f als e H o mm el, w he n h e w ro te Di e Name n der S au gthi ere,
'

h eld th at t he d ate p alm w as a n at ive o f B ab ylo ni a, b u t late r , th at it w as in tro d u c ed

thi th e r f ro m Arab ia ( H as tin gs
’
ic ti o n ary of the B ib le, I , D
I t is mu c h mo re
lik e ly, as H eh n say s , th at th e p alm w as n at ive t h ro u gh o u t all No rt h Af ric a and S o u th
w este rn Asia . The c u ltu re o f it w o uld p ro b ab ly arise fi rst in an o asis co u n try lik e
Arab ia , an d m ay h ave b een int ro d u c e d th e n c e H o mm e l b elie ves, an d t o B ab ylo nia , as
al s o t o E gyp t , as H ehn thi nk s ( o p cit , p h eo b ald F isc he r, t h e sc h o lar w h o
. . . T
has m o st t h o ro ughly in ve st igat ed t h e d at e p alm , h o ld s t h at Arab ia w as th e o rigin al
h o m e o f its c u ltu re , and it w as t h en c e in tro d u c ed in to B ab ylo nia and E gyp t ( o p cit , . .

p . T h e p o siti o n tak e n in th e t ex t is th e re fo re tho ro u ghly u sti ed j fi .

1
Cf . D o u gh ty , Arab ia D es er ta, I , 14 8 , I I 17 8 . .

2
C entr al and E as tern Arab i a, I , 60 .
 EARLY S OCIAL L IF E 117

t he Arab s are a ble to o b tain a fe w artic les f ro m th e o u tsid e wo rld .

T he sto nes are gro u n d an d u se d fo r the fo o d o f c o ws , she ep , an d

c am els ; sy ru p an d vi n e gar are m ad e f ro m o ld date s , an d , b y so m e
‘

di sregard the b ran dy ; an d alto ge ther the

C o ran kin d of
'

w ho
2
,
a
“
st ate m e n t o f P algrave i s n o t to o stro n g : Th e y are the bread o f the “

”3
lan d th e staff o f li fe an d the staple o f co mm erce
,
The y still
,
.

se rve in so m e parts o f A rab ia as th e stan d ard o f v alu e as c attle

, , ,

do amo n g she phe rd p eo ple s 4

The y cast a d en se shade whi ch in .
, ,

c o n t rast to th e h o t A rab ian atm o sph e re ; m u st b e e x cee di n gly grate

f ul 5
. Eu ro pean s regard the d ate as a n o t al to ge th er pleasin g staple
o f d iet ; b u t in a lan d whi ch pro du ces so sparin gly it is regarded as
6

a divi n e gif t An A rabic pro ve rb de clares th at a go o d ho u sewife

.

kno w s h o w to set b efo re her hu sb an d a n ew pre paratio n o f date fo o d

e ach d ay in th e m o n th M u ch tho u gh t h as to b e devo ted to the
7
.

c u ltu re o f th e d ate palm in m an y p laces in o rde r to m ak e it gro w .

I t m an y parts o f th e p en in su la it m u st b e i rrigated , an d in so m e

p arts water fo r the pu rpo se m u st b e co n du c ted co n siderabl e dis

ta n ce s
8
T h e fem ale flo wers o f th e d ate p alm m u st b e artifi c ially
.

impre gn ate d f ro m th e m ale flo wers u n le ss a m ale tre e happens to ,

w w h h w i d wi ll ll y h p ll h f m l
'

g r o e re t e n s n a tu ra y c arr t e o e n to t e e a e

flo we rs Th i s is n o w so m eti m e s do n e by plan tin g a m ale tree in

.

th e mi d st o f th e fem ale o n e s ; b u t e ven as l ate as th e e arly part o f

th e pre sen t c e n tu ry Wellste d o b se rve d in th e Sin ai ti c pen in su la an
,

o ld m e th o d o n ce pe rh ap s m o re wi d ely u se d in A rabi a o f fasten i n g

, ,

a b u n c h o f th e m ale flo w e rs a n a b ran c h expo se d to th e wi n d an d ,

so pl ac e d th at it wo uld d i ssem in ate th e po lle n o ve r th e flo w e rs to b e

in th e tw o p rec e ding n o te s, c f We llsted s Travels

’
addi tio n t o t he ref e ren c es
1
In ’

i n Arabi a, I , 94 , 164 fl 24 1, 28 8 11 , I I , 112, 122, 4 19 ; B u tin g s Tagb u ch ei n er R ei se

’
.
,

in I m er- Arab i en , pp 5 2, 5 3 ;
. P algra e , o v p . ci t .
,
I , 263 ; an d Zw eme r, Arab i a, p . 123 .

F o r th e st ate m en t ab o u t vin e gar an d b ran dy , see Zw e m e r .

2
I bid .

3
C en tr al and E astern Arabi a, I , 60 .

4
D o u gh ty , o
p ci t , I , 332 . . .

5
Wellsted , op c it , I , 94 . . .

3
P
algrave , op c i t , I , 60 ; an d . . D o u gh ty , o p. ci t .
, I , 14 8 .

7
E rdeku nde, vo n C arl Ri t ter, B erli n , 17 7 9 —18 5 7 ,
XI I I ,
804 . Cf Zw e m er
.
’
s Arabi a,
p 123
. .

3
Cf . Wellsted , o p . ci t .
,
I , 9 2—
p ci t , pp 5 2, 5 3 ; an d Glase r in M it
9 4 ; E u t in g, o . . .

C
,

theilu n gen der vo rderasi ati sc he Gesellschaf t, 189 7 , pp 3 7 3 —3 7 6 an d 4 25 o mpare also . .

th e e vi d en c e o f t h e d o c u m en t s p u b lish e d b y Rh o d o k an aki s in hi s Kataban i sche Texte

z ur B o denw irtschaf t, Wien ,
19 20 an d 19 22 .
118 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

fe rti liz e d M e so po tami a the m e tho d w hi c h th e an c ie nt sc u lp

.
‘
In
tu re s attes t and w hi ch is s till e mp lo y e d w as to c li m b the tre e an d
,
2
,

s pri nkl e th e po lle n o ve r th e fl o w e rs T his i ns u re d the fe rti liz atio n .

o f e ach flo w e r T hat thi s tre e a nd i ts c u ltu re p lay e d a ve ry i m po rtan t

.

p art in the d e velo pm e n t o f an ci e n t S e m i ti c li fe w e m ay the re fo re

we ll b el ie ve M o ham me d is sa id to h ave add resse d his fo llo we rs
.

“
th u s : Ho no r y o u r p ate rnal au n t th e d ate palm I t w as n ame d , .

o u r pate rn al au n t b e ca u se it w as c re ate d o f w hat w as le f t f ro m the

c lay o f A d am ; an d it re se m b le s m anki nd b e ca u se it s tan d s u p ri gh t

in fi gu re an d hei gh t and it d istin gui she s b e tw e e n its m al e an d fe

,

m ale and has the pe c u liari ty ( am o n g plan ts) o f i m pregnati ng the

,
”3
l atte r . T hi s h igh es ti m atio n o f the pal m is c o nfirm e d by an
A ram ai c i ns c ri ptio n f ro m Taim a w hi c h tho u gh m u c h m u tilated , , ,

sh o w s th at a p art o f the f ru it o f th e d ate o rc h ard w as c o n s e c rate d to

a go d an d by the f u rthe r fac t th at N ak hl a o n e o f the se ats o f the

‘
, ,

wo rshi p o f t e go ddess A U a d e ri ve d its n am e fro m the date

h l z z
ls -
,

p a l m . T h e c o nn e c tio n o f th e d a t e p alm wi th th e go dde ss wi ll b e

es tab li she d in th e n e x t c h ap te r an d it wi ll th e re appe ar that th e ,

par t pl ay e d b y thi s tree in the e vo lu tio n o f S em iti c c i vilizatio n w a s of

th e gre ate st i m po rtan c e Fi sch e r d ecl ares th at the role w hi c h the

.

’
A rab ic peo ple have played in the wo rld s h isto ry is c lo sely b o u n d
u p wi th thi s its sc are d tree
6
,
I f w e su b sti tu te S e m i ti c p eo pl e fo r.

Ar abi c the statem en t rem ain s e qu al ly tru e We can u n d erstand fro m

,
.
,

the eco no m ic valu e o f thi s tree an d fro m th e d em and w hi c h its arti

fi c ial p ro pagatio n m ad e u po n the S emi te as an i n c re asin g po pu la ,

tio n m ade su c h artific ial c u ltu re n e c essary so m e thi n g o f th e im ,

p o r t an c e i t w o u l d a ssu m e in hi s e y e s ; b u t to f u lly app re c iate i t w e ,

m u st l earn th e di vi n e si gni fi ca n ce whi ch he attac he d to it the re ,

flex o f h is o w n so c i al li fe w hi c h he saw in it an d ho w he attrib u te d ,

1
Wells ted , o p . c it .
,
I I , 12 .

2
Zw e me r
’
s Arab ia , the
I slam, p 123 C radle o f . .

3 R —
e p o rt e d b y Q az w ini ( 120 3 83 , c f B ro c k elmann s Gesc hic hte d er arabi s c hen
’
.

Literatu r, B d I , Weimar, 189 8 , p

’
. T h e t ext is p u b li sh e d in S d e S ac y s Chresto
. .

mathi e arab e, I H , 17 5 , F re n c h tran slat io n , I II , 3 9 5 .

4
Cf CI S . .
,
Pt I I , V o l I , No 113
. . . .

5
Cf . Wellh au sen s Heiden tu ms , 2d e d , p 36 ; an d H eb raic a, X , 64
’
Reste ar ab isc he . . .

3 “
Wir k onn e n d ah e r sagen , d as auc h di e w eltgeschi c h tli c he R o lle , w elc h e d as
arab isc h e Vo lk ges pielt h at , in engste m Z u sa mm e nh an ge mi t d iese m h e iligen B aum

st eh t
”
. P
et erm ann s M i tthei lu n gen , E rganz u ngsb an d X I V , H ef t , 64 , p
’
10 . .
 EARLY S OC IAL L IFE 119

to it all hi s kno wled ge e spe cially the kn o wled ge o f sex an d pro

,

c reatio n. T he so c i al an d religio u s lif e o f the peo ple are alw ay s

in te rwo ven . The se co n ce ptio n s wh ich are so im po rtan t fo r th e
,

so c i al li fe as we ll as th e re ligio u s f easts which fo rm so large a part

, ,

o f th e so c i al i n te rco u rse o f an y p eo ple ,will b e co n sid ere d later fi

 R E LI G I O US O RI G I N S
HE p re c ed in g page s be gi nni ngs o f
have d i s c lo se d to us the
th e E gy pti an an d B abylo ni an peo ple s at a rem o te pe rio d o f
an ti q ui ty T he the s is o f E B Tylo r th at all pe o ple s have at an
. . .
, ,

early pe ri o d o f the i r d e ve l o pm e n t passe d thro u gh a s tage o f tho u gh t ,

in w hi ch the y c o n c e i ved the w o rld to b e peo ple d w i th i nn um e rabl e

s pi ri ts is n o w ge n e rally tak e n fo r gr an te d b y s tu d e n ts o f re ligi o n
,
.

At firs t th e se spi ri ts appea r to ha ve b e e n vagu e an d ill de fi n e d M en .

did no t i nd i vi d uali z e them su fli c ie n tly to gi ve th e m n am es Of this .

s trat u m o f h u m an tho u gh t w e o b tain gli m pse s in th e Ham ito S em -

iti c te rri to ry T he A rab ian ji nn a wo rd d esi gnatin g a gro u p o f

.
,

spiri ts n u m e ro us ill d e fi ne d u ni n di vi d u ali ze d an d a t fir s t m o rally

, , , ,

un di fle re n t iate d is a goo d e xam pl e o f th e s tage o f th o u gh t un d er

,

co n si de ratio n Whi le th e e arliest strata o f re li gio u s tho ught re

.

co rd e d in th e re li gio u s lite ratu re o f E gyp t an d B abyl o ni a h av e p asse d

be yo nd thi s stage t he y n e verthel ess presu ppo se it as will b e sho w n

, ,

be lo w in greate r de tail I t has su rvi ved in its pure st fo rm in A rab ia

.
,

tho u gh n o w M o h amm e dani sm has t ran sfo rm e d th e jin n in to d em o n s .

One n e ve rthe le ss fin d s t rac e s o f the earlie r co n ceptio n s in th e d e

s cri ptio n s o f Arabi an h e ath e ni sm whi ch have be e n pre se rve d Th e .

jinn (p lural ji nan ) mi gh t tak e the fo rm o f vari o u s b e as ts mi gh t

, ,

play tri cks u po n m e n o r serve them b u t were n e ve r i n di vi du alize d

, ,

by re ce i vin g a pe rso n al n am e 1
.

I n the l apse o f ti m e m an y o f th e se spiri ts w e re in di vi d u alize d an d

n am ed They were tho se w ho were be lie ve d to have th eir ha bi tat in
.

lo cali tie s fre que n ted b y m e n o r w ho dwe l t in regio n s n ear huma n

,

abo d es D o u b tless th e first re l atio n wh i c h the se an ci en t peo pl e s b e

.

li eve d them se lves to have e stab lish e d wi th th ese spiri ts w as so m e fo rm

o f co m pul si o n by c ha rms o r what w e n o w ca ll m agi c
,
L ate r wh en .
,

1
F o r f u ll er d esc ri pti o ns see J . We llh au se n R este arab ische H eidentu rns
, ,
2te Aus .
,

B erlin Le ip z ig , 19 27 , 14 8—15 9 , an d W R S mi t h R el igio n of the S emites

. .
, ,
Lo n d o n ,
1894 , 120 f .
 REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 1

it w as fo u nd th at so m e spir i ts did n o t al ways s u c cu m b to fo rce , em

deavo rs were m ade to se c u re their favo r an d h elp b y me an s o f pro pi

tiatio n an d i f t I t w a s th e n t h a t reli gio n w as b o rn Wh ether the
g s . .

H am ito — S emiti c peo ples b egan to in divi du aliz e th eir spiri t n eigh bo rs -

an d n am e them b e fo re re ligio n b egan o r n o t w e c an n o t n o w d e ter

, ,

min e an d fo r the pu rpo se s o f thi s i n ve stigatio n it is imm ate rial

, , , .

Religio n an d m agi c have existed side b y side u n til the pre sen t tim e ,

an d it is po ssib le th at n o app rec iable i n ter val o f ti m e se parate d th e i r

begi nni ngs .

T o the spi ri ts o f lo cali ties wi th whi ch th e wo rl d w as b elie ve d to b e

p p
eo le d t h
,
e r e w e re ad d e d f ro m t h e e arli e st,
ti m e s in w h i c h w e c an

g a i n a n y d e fi n i te k n o wl e d ge o f th es e p e o pl e s t h e sp i ri t s o f th e ir ,

o w n de ad — e spe c ially the spi rits o f an ce sto rs Whi le the se were .

so me time s ve n e rated a nd in l ate r ti m e appe ale d to fo r aid the spiri ts

, , , ,

o f th e d ead w ere m o re o f te n fe are d T o thi s d ay th e fe ar o f gho sts

.
-

is alm o st u ni ve rsal an d in th e e arlie st epo ch s it m u st h ave be e n q u ite

,

so .

Li ttle defin ite kn o wled ge il w ri tten

o f relig o n c ani be ac qu ired un t

re co rds co m e to o u r aid b u t s o m e dim o u tlin e s are re ve ale d by

,

an thro po lo gi cal mate rials F o r th e Hami ti c field o u r e arli e st

.

g li m p se s are o b t ai n e d f ro m th e g rave s o f th e B ad ari an c i v ili z atio n

in E gypt 1
M agi c had deve lo ped am o ng th e B adarian s fo r th e y
.
,

b elieved pro fo u n dly in am u le ts T hi s is sho wn b y th e anim al h ead s .

attac h e d to the bo d ie s o f th e d e ad Apparen tly th e gazelle an d the .

hippo po tam u s we re b e lie ved to po sse ss attribu te s th at we re very

ben e ficial in thi s regard Th e se an imals were o bj e c ts o f vene ratio n
.

an d co u l d aff o rd th e w e are r o f th eir h ead s p ro te c tio n .

T he B ad arian s appe ar also to h ave ven e rate d o th e r an i m als

'

T he .

do g j ac kal o x sh e ep an d go at we re wrapped in m atting an d give n

, , , , ,

bu ri al like h u m an b eings B elief in the su rvi val o f hu m an b ein gs

.

af te r d e ath is atte ste d b y o ff e ri n gs o f fo o d plac e d in th e graves

‘

Wrappe d in th eir e ve ryd ay c lo th es th ey were laid do w n as if sleeping ,

an d co vere d wi th what m ay h ave b e en a repli c a o f th e i r ho m e .

F o r so m e re aso n i t w as c o n si d ered d esi rabl e th at the y sho u l d b e

,

fac i n g th e setti ng su n Wi th them were plac ed th e ir to ilet arti cle s

.

an d the i mplem e n ts o f the i r c raf t I t h as b een gen e rally be lieve d .

S ee Gu y Bru n t o n
1
an d
'

Ge rtru de C at o n Tho mpso n

— ,
The B ad ari an Ci vili satio n ,
Lo n d o n , 19 28 , p 42 . .
122 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

th at th e i m ple m e n ts w e re pro vi d e d fo r the spi ri t s u se in the o the r ’

li fe b u t re c e n tly it h as be e n sugge s ted th at the y we re plac e d in th e

,

to m b so th at if the spi ri t vi si te d it he m igh t fi nd th e re all th at he

, ,

n ee d e d and so no t t ro u b le the li vi n g I f thi s w e re the re al m o ti ve

‘
. .
,

thei r p re se n c e in the grave w as d u e to fe ar o f the d e ad rathe r than

c are fo r the i r c o m fo rt .

Wh at is si g nifie d by the ani m al b u rials at B adari co n sti tu te s an

i nte resti ng p ro b lem D o e s it m e an that the se animal s w e re sac red ?
.

H ave w e he re e vi d e n ce o f the exi s te nc e o f to tem i sm at thi s e arly

ti m e ? W R S m i th w ho b e li e ved to temi sm to have be e n u ni ve rsal
. .
, ,

t ho u gh t he c o u l d m u s te r e vide n ce to sho w that the S e mi tes had

p asse d th ro u gh a to temi sti c s tage in the pro ce ss o f the i r e vo l u tio n 2
.

T he w ri te r o n c e b el ie ve d thi s th o u gh he no w re co gn iz es th at the
3
,

e v id e n c e fo r it is n o t as d e c i si ve as he o n c e tho u gh t Th at a fo rm .

o f ani m a l w o rshi p e xi s te d am o ng th e an c i e n t E gyp ti an s i s to o w e ll ,

k no w n to n eed de m o n stratio n Ab u n d an t e vi d e n c e o f it is p re se n te d .

by e very b o o k de sc ribi ng th e reli gio n o f that l and T he wo rship .

o f an im als l aste d d o w n to G re e k an d R o m an ti m e s an d e x c i te d the

4

n o ti c e no t to s ay the rid i c u le o f m o st an c i e n t fo rei gn w ri te rs o n

'

, ,

E gyp t .

Th ere is in th e j u dgmen t o f the w ri te r e very reaso n w hy thi s

, ,

sh o u ld b e calle d to te mi sm To temi sm h as in the past b e en to o .

, ,

n arro w ly d efin e d I ts m an ifestatio n s di ff er in A u stralia and am o n g

.

—
th e Am e ri c an I n di an s the tw o ce n te rs in whi ch it h as su rvi ve d to
m o de rn ti m e s To temi sm as c ry stallize d in th e anim al c u lts o f
.

an c i e n t E gyp t diffe re d in m an y respe c ts f ro m b o th the A u strali an an d

th e Am e rin d t ype b u t similarly attrib u ted to an i m al s su pe rn atu ral

,

o r su p e rn o rm al c h arac te ri s ti c s an d do u b tles s w as th e pro d u c t o f ,

th e sam e ge n e ral p h ase o f hu m an tho u gh t wh i c h pro d u c e d to temi sm .

I f the H ami tes w e re to te mi sti c an d th e S emi te s we re an o ff sho o t o f ,

th e H ami tes W R S m i th s b elie f 5 that the spo radi c su rvi vals w hi c h

’
. .
,

1 The B ad ar i an p 42 Ci i li
v s ati o n , . .

2
S ee his K i ns hip and M arriage i n E arly Arab ia , ch . vn , an d R eli gio n o f the S emites ,

13 7 ff .

3
Cf S emit ic Or igi ns , p 3 5
. . fl .

1
F o r t h e E gypt ian ani mal w o rship o f th e Gre e k an d R o man p e rio d s, se e th e mas
‘

t erly w o rk of Th eo d o r H 0 pf n e r, D er Ti erk u lt der alte n Agypter, Wien , 19 14 .

5
Th e argu m e n ts f o r S e mi ti c t o te mi sm w ere su mm ariz e d b y th e write r in S emiti c
Origi ns , p 3 5 ff . .
,
an d n e e d n o t be rep eat ed h e re .
 RE L IG IOU S ORI G I N S 3

h e fo u n d mong th
S emi te s an d wh i c h he explain ed as b eto kening
a e ,

an e arli e r to temi sm mi gh t see m to b e j u stifie d I t is ho w eve r a

,
.
, ,

si gni fi c an t fac t no t hi th erto n o te d I b e lie ve b y an y s c ho lar th at

, , , ,

tho se E gyp ti an n o m e s who se c h ie f d e i ties were o f S emi ti c o rigin ,

o r whi c h c an plau sibly b e sho w n to have b e en se ttled f ro m S em i ti c

te rri to ry had n o sac red an im al

,
Th is fac t no w seem s to the wri ter .

to m ake th e vie w th at Ham i ti c to te mi sm su rvive d in that o ff sho o t

o f th e H am iti c race wh i c h b e c am e S e m i tes so do u b tfu l th at it m u st

b e aban do n ed T h e f ac t s c o lle c te d b y W R S m i th m u st I th in k
. . .
, ,

b e e xplain ed in so m e o th e r w ay .

As the e arly c lan s co n tin u ed to live in de fin ite lo c aliti e s an d c am e

to b e lie ve th at th e i r ac qu ain tan ce wi th ce rtai n spirits adv an c e d th e ,

spiri ts assu m e d i n di vi d u ali ty in the i r tho u gh t an d we re give n in di

vi du al n am es While b u t o n e o f these w as regarded as th e tu telary

.

spiri t o r go d o f e ac h c l an the n u m b e r o f su c h spiri t s th a t we re in ,

di vidu aliz ed an d n am e d w as at fi rst mu ch large r th an th e n u m b e r

th at l ate r deve lo p e d in to im po rtan t de i ti es T h e e vi den c e fo r th is .

is m uch c leare r fo r B abylo n i a th an fo r E gypt b u t eno u gh has b ee n ,

en sh rin ed in th e e arlie st lite ratu re o f E gyp t to e stab li sh th e f ac t fo r

th at c o u n try Thu s in t h e Pyrami d Texts w e fi n d deiti e s th at do

.

n o t appe ar e l se wh e re o r appe ar b u t rare ly an d th e n atu re an d fu n c , ,

tio n s o f whi ch are f re q u e n tly u n kn o wn Examples are Hmn a 1

.
,

g o d w ho se n a tu re i s u n k n o w n ;
2
S w n t 3
o f w h o m th e s a m e m u st b e ,

sai d ; I mn w o f wh o m all that c an b e sai d is th at h e (o r sh e ) w as

4 / 11
,

ei n e der ac t Urgo tt ei ten o f th e pyrami d age

h h di sti n c t fro m Y mn
6
'
,

(Am o n ) o f The be s ; Krlzr an d Krkrw o f who m all that is kn o wn is

’
,

h
t at t e h ir n m r ll
a e s a e fo o w e d b y t e de terh i ative fo deity ; al so
n r
8
m ,

1
K S eth e , Di e Altaegypti sc hen
. Py ramiden texte, L eipz ig, 19 08—19 , V o l I I , p 69 , . .

S p 483 , 1ol 3 d
. .

2
Cf . A E rm an
. an d H . Grapo w , Worterbu ch der Aegypti sc hen S pro che, L eipz ig,
19 25 , I II , 9 5 .

S e th e , p 10 7 , S p 5 06, 1094c
c it
3
o p . .
, . . .

4
Cf . Worterbu ch, I I I , 428 .

5
S eth e , o p . ci t .
, p . S p 5 06, 109 5 b
. .

3
Cf Worterb u ch, I , 8 4
. .

7
S eth e , o p ci t , 109 , S p 5 06, 109 5d
. . . . T o th is sh o u ld b e add e d Hs i ,
t h e spirit of

th e h arp , an d s ft ,
th e sp irit o f c o n siderati o n ( S p 5 06
.
,
lo9 6a) ; cf . Worterb u ch ,
I II ,
16 5 an d I V , 4 69 f .

8
Cf . Worterbu ch V , , 66 .
124 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

O m3 m an d l hmty f w ho m the s am e m ust b e s aid S ir E A

'
‘
1 2
u ,
o . .

Wallis B u dge fi n d s 142 d e itie s in t he Py ram id Tex ts In .

3
thi s li st
the re is a large n u m b e r o f d e i tie s w h i c h play b u t a sm all part in the
re l igio n o f l ate r ti me s I n thi s c lass I wo u ld p lace Dw 3w w ho w as .
,
‘

“
appa re n tly a tad po le go d ; Y mt t go d d e ss o f B u to ; S pdw go d
13 ‘
1 7 - -
, ,

o f the tw e n ti e th n o m e o f t he D e l ta ; l 3hs the go d o f Uppe r

0 1° ’
,

E gy pt ; i 11
nno tf
"
1 "
( T he m o rn ing is h is Y mst ( V ar - - -
.
,

S ml) and ,
w ho wi th Il py o r A pi s w e re the fo u r c h i ld re n , , ,

“
o f H o rus w ho a c te d as g u ard i an s pi ri ts o f the d e ad I n the re fe r .

e n ce s to the s e d e i ti e s w e have glim ps e s o f so m e o f the m ani fo l d

s pi ri ts o u t o f the n u m b e r o f w h ic h t he gr e a t go d s o f E gyp t we re

d e vel o pe d Of the fo u r so n s o f Ho ru s A pi s is the o nly o n e that

.
,

p la y e d a n i m p o r tan t p ar t i n the h i s to ry o f the E gyp ti an re l igio n .

He su rvi ved al o ng wi th O si ri s as a go d o f the U nde rwo rl d and in , ,

th e co m po u n d 3si r hpy o r S e rapi s s u rvi ve d we ll i nto th e C h ri s ti an -

, ,

e ra .

I t m ust no t be s u ppo se d that , as ti m e e lap sed and the gre at go d s

de velo pe d b so rb ed the tho u gh t o f the peo ple bel ie f in the e xi st

an d a ,

e n c e o f a m u l ti tu d e o f s p iri ts w as ab an do ne d On the c o n trary tha t .

be li e f c o n ti nu e d to the l atest tim e s and as ti m e passed in so me , , ,

re spe c ts the n u m b e r o f th e spiri ts i n c re ase d T he n u m b e r o f d e .

p ar te d an c e s to rs w h o w e re v e n e rate d w as co n ti n u ally i n c re as e d by
th e ine vi tabl e p ro c e ss o f de ath ; as e pi the ts we re applied to d ei ti e s
th e e pi th e ts grad u ally c am e in the po pu l ar tho u gh t to d e si gn ate a

1
S e the , p 111, S p 506, l 09 8a
o p . c it.
, . . .

2
I bid , p 115 , S p 5 0 7 , 1l 0 2a, and Worterb uch, I , 123
. . . .

1
S ee hi s Go ds of the E gypti ans , L o n do n , 19 04 , I , 7 9—83 . E ve n if o ne d o es no t

alw ays agree wi th t h e readi ngs o f S ir Wallis , his e n u merat io n se rve s t o ind ic ate h o w
n u m e ro u s t h e d e ities of th e pyrami d age w e re .

S e t he, o p . c it
14 5 , S p 5 11, l 15 5 a .
, p . . .

3
Cf A Gard in e r, E gypti an Gr ammar, Oxf o rd , 19 27 , p 46 6, I , 7
. . . or 8 .

S e th e , o p c it , p 13 6, S p 5 10 , 113 9 a
. . . . .

7
Worterb u ch, I , 7 8 .

3
S e th e , o p . c it.
, p 5 7 , S p 4 80 , 9 9 4 e ;
. . cf . Gardine r, M , 44 K ( p . 4 73 ) an d G, 13
(p .

3
Worter b uc h , IV , 111 .

1°
S eth e , o p . c it
p 5 7 , S p 48 0 , 994c , .
, . . an d p . 122, S p 5 08 , 112C . .

11
Worterb u ch, I , 33 .

S e t h e, p 10 5 , S p 5 0 5 , l o9 2c ; also p 110 , S p 5 06 , 109 7 b

c it
12
o p . .
, . . . . .

13
I bid , p 19 5 , S p 505 , 109 2 c and p 111, S p 5 06 , 199 7 c
. . . . . . .

1‘
Wb rterb u ch, I , 88 ; I V , 7 0 an d 119 ; an d , 3 1 V
'

.
 REL I GIOU S OR I GI NS 25

di ffe re n t go d f ro m th at kn o wn u n der th e o rigin al n am e ; and each

n ew o bj e c t kn o wn
,
or e m plo ye d as c i viliz atio n p ro gre sse d mi gh t , ,

an d o f ten did , co m e to b e re gard e d as po ssessin g a spirit o f its o w n

'

T he m emo ry of m an h as , ho weve r , lim itatio n s As n e w spirits

.

were ad de d , m an y whi ch had b een ven e rate d in fo rm e r tim es we re

fo rgo tten Exam ples o f this are to b e seen in so m e o f the
. u nkn o wn

deiti es o f the Pyram id Tex ts ; n e verth ele ss the n u m b er o f spirits o f

vario u s grad es an d ki n d s wi th wh i ch th e E gypti an s we re tho u gh t

to have po ssibl e re latio n s we re m an ifo ld .

I n B aby lo n i a th e de velo pm en t o f re ligio u s tho u gh t ran paralle l

wi th th at in E gy pt T h e e vide n ce fo r th i s at least as kn o wn to th e
.
,

p re sen t wri te r i s m u c h m o re abu n d an t

,
I n revi e wi n g this e vid en ce .
,

it w ill b e i llumin atin g to b egin wi th th e list o f de ities an d spirits

c o m pi le d as s ch o o l exe rc ises b y stu d en ts in the an c i e n t c ity o f S u ri p
—
pak a c ity whi ch flo u ri she d in preh isto ri c B abylo n i a an d san k in to
in sign ifi c an c e j u st at the d awn o f the histo ri c al peri o d D o u b tless .

the resu lts o f th e e x cavatio n which is b e in g c arri e d o n by th e Un i ver

sity M u se u m at F ara the s i te o f S u rippak will add m u ch to o u r
“

, ,

pre sen t kn o wle dge b u t that co n du c ted by An d rae thi rty y e ars ago
,

h as ac qu ain te d u s wi th the fac t that n o l e ss th an 7 40 go d s an d spirits

were liste d b y the stu den ts in the scrib al scho o ls o f S u rippak at th e
d awn o f hi sto ry Th e se in clu d ed spirits o f alm o st every thing kn o w n
.

to th e B aby lo ni an s o f that tim e 1

Th ere were pre sen t am o n g th e .

spirits ven erate d tho se w ho w e re pro m i n en t i n e ve ry pe rio d o f

B abylo nian hi sto ry b u t also m an y o thers B esid e An u th e sk y

,
.
,

go d there i s the star An

, F ive d i ffe re n t wate r spiri ts are li ste d ;
.

the re are spirits o f sh ri n es spi rits o f fe c u n d i ty spiri ts o f the d ee p

, , ,

spi rits o f th e b ri gh t sk y vari o u s m o th e r spi ri ts s pir i ts o f vario u s

“

, ,

yo u ng anim als a spi ri t o f th e wall b o w spiri ts fi re spiri ts re ed

, , , ,

spirits tree spirits gaz elle spirits sp irits o f v ario u s ki n d s o f du n i

, , ,

an im als n u m e ro u s ho u se spiri ts a vari e ty o f

“
, lo rd s o f d i ffe ren t ,

thi n gs fro m E n —
, lil (L o rd o f w i n d s) an d E n k i (Lo rd o f th e earth ) to -

E n shar (Lo rd o f the garden ) lio n spir

-
i ts su n spirits fo u n datio n , , ,

spiri ts a spiri t o f shi nin g b ro n z e b o u n dary s i rits r an ary sp i rits

, p g , , ,

1
Th ese t ext s h ave b ee n pu b lish e d b y An to n D eim el u n d e r t h e t it l
e S chu ltexte aus

F ara, L eipz ig, 19 23 Wi ssen sc haf tli c he Verofi entli chu ng der
'

T h e b o o k is 43 of th e
'

. no .

deu tsc hen Ori en tgesellsc haf t . Ou r st u d y is b ased on D eim el s w o rk w h ic h ,

’
on pages
9—20 , c o n tain s a f u ll li st of th e d eities .
 126 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

wi nd sp r i i ts , i
var o u s lama
i i ts w hi ch areor g uard ian sp r i i ts ,
sp r
“ “ ”
d e s ign ate d the o f thi s o r thatki ng vario u s c arpe n te r s p iri ts , ,

o r s pi ri ts o f c raf ts n u m e ro u s grai n s pi ri ts a large n u m b e r o f s i ri ts

, p ,

“ ”
w hi c h a re c al le d the lady o f thi s o r tha t and a l arge nu m be r o f ,

go d de sse s w ho se d e si g natio n s b e gi n wi th n i n n i (o r i n in n i) and w ho ,

ar e fo rm s o f the c o m m o n S u m e ri an mo t he r go dd e ss I n ad d iti o n to .

all t he se n u m e ro u s go d s o r s pi ri ts a re li s te d the n atu re o f w ho m

, ,

can no t in th e p rese n t s ta te o f o u r k no wl e d ge b e d e te rm i ne d
, , .

T hi s cr o ss se c tio n o f the tho u gh t o f o ne B abyl o ni an c i ty is a

-

gu aran te e o f the s tate o f re li gio u s tho u ght in o the r B abyl o n ian

ci ti e s o f the ti m e T he w o rld w as to the m e n o f that age peo pl e d
.
, ,

wi th spi ri ts o f all so rts wi th who m it w as i mpo rtan t to m ai n tain

,

f ri e nd ly re latio n s T his d o c u m e n t aff o rd s fo r the M eso po tam i an

.

vall ey m o re ab u n d an t e vide n ce o n thi s po in t than is k n o w n to the

wri te r fo r E gyp t b u t e no u gh h as su rvi ved in Egypt to co nvi n ce u s

,

that s i m ilar co n c e p ti o n s w e re e n tertai n e d b o th am o ng t he H am i ti c

an d S e m i ti c peo ple s o f th is far o ff ti m e -
.

I n B abylo n i a as in E gyp t n e w de i ti e s we re add ed as ti m e ad van ce d .

S o m e tim e s the se we re o ff sho o ts o f o lde r go d s cau se d by the u se o f ,

e pi the ts ; so m e ti m e s the y o ri gi n ate d f ro m th e spi ri ts o f n e w ph ase s

o f ci vi liza ti o n ; an d so m e ti m e s the y w e re the d ei ties o r spi ri ts ve n

c rate d by n e w imm igran ts i n to the co u n try As in E gy p t to o .

, ,

o l d e r spiri ts an d d e i ti es w ere in the l apse o f ti m e f o rgo tte n b u t ,

in e ve ry pe rio d o f h i s to ry the n u m b e r ve n e rate d w as large Pro .

fe sso r D e im e l m ade so m e ye ars ago a c o lle c tio n o f all tho se m e n

, ,

t io ne d in th e li te ratu re f ro m e very peri o d w hi c h w as at that ti m e

kn o w n an d the n u m b er ex ceede d
,

I t wi ll b e n o te d t hat th i s B a bylo n ian li st ca talo gu es n o spi ri t s

o f sp rings alth o u gh am o n g th e S e mi te s spri ngs w e re s ac re d
2
.
,

At fir s t thi s m ay seem s tran ge si n ce there w as su c h a stro n g S em ,

i ti c elem en t in B abylo n ia I n that c o u n try ho wever th e tw o ri ve rs

.
, ,

watere d the lan d and spri n gs were prac ti cally un kn o wn S imilar

,
.

co n di ti o n s e x iste d in E gy p t Th at co u n try also is alm o st to tally .

lacki ng in spri ngs an d the ven eratio n o f water w as co n fin ed alm o st

to th e wate rs o f the Ni le On e sp rin g ho w e ve r e ve n in th e lan d
.
, ,

o f th e Nile e xi ste d in He li o po li s ( On ) an d w as sac re d to th e go d R e

3
.

1
S e e D e im el s
’
P an theo n B abylo n icu rn , R o me , 19 14 .

2
Cf . W . R S mit h , Reli gi o n
.
f
o the S emi tes , 13 5 if .

3
Cf A . . Wied em ann ,
R eli gi o n f
o the Anc ie n t E gypti an s , p p . 4 an d 15 5 .
 REL I GIOU S ORIG I NS 127

Amo ng bo th Ham i te s an d S emi tes tre es were regarded as sac re d , .

I n the religio u s text s o f th e E gyptian s b u t li ttle i s sai d o f th i s phase

o f the i r tho u gh t j u st as alm o st n o thi n g is sai d o f th e i r sac re d an i m als ;
,

n eve rthe less su ffi c i en t e viden ce has su rvi ve d to pro ve its e xi sten ce .

At M atariyeh the site o f an c i en t On a sac re d syc am o re is still

1
, ,

ve n e rate d I ts sac re dn e ss is n o w ac co u n ted fo r by the legen d th at

.

the Ho ly F am i ly so j o u rn e d u n der it du ring the fli gh t to Egyp t .

( M att . b u t the tree is do u b tle ss a sc io n o f o n e th at w as ven

c rate d o n o r n ear th i s lo c ali ty f ro m an c ien t tim e s On th e walls o f .

th e tem ple at Gu rn eh th ree go ds are po rtrayed in sc rib in g th e n am e

“

o f R am ses I I o n a sac re d sy c amo re at On I n th e B erlin M u seu m

2
.

the re is p rese rve d a ste l e in wh ich Nu t is re pre se n ted as seate d in a

p a lm tr ee f ro m th e mid st o f w hi c h sh e p o u r s w a te r f o r t h e d e ce ase d

an d his so u l O ther re pre sen tation s o f th i s o r si milar scen es are

.

said to exi st
3
I t is pro b ably thi s sac re d palm th at is allu ded to in
.

“
the fo llo wi ng passage o f the Pyram i d Tex ts : Thi s Pepi advan ced
to the great i slan d in th e m i dst o f th e fi e ld o f o ff eri n g o ver whi ch ,

th e go d s m ake the swallo w s fly T he swallo ws are the c ircu m po lar .

stars
4
.They give to thi s P epi th i s tree o f life o n whi ch the y live ,
”5
that ye ( P e pi an d the m o rn in g star) m ay live o f it at the sam e ti m e .

As th e palm is the o n e tree o f the regio n f ro m wh i c h o n e co u ld l ive ,

th e re f e ren ce take n in co n n e c tio n wi th th e pic tu re j u st m e n ti o n e d

, ,

is do u b tle ss the palm whi c h is thu s atteste d to h ave b een th e sac re d ,

tre e o r a very sac re d tre e am o ng the E gypti an s

,
I n sh o rt th e ,
.
,

palm appears h ere as the E gyptian tree o f Paradi se

T h e n u m ero u s re p resen tatio n s o f trees o n B abylo n i an an d A ssy r
ian se al c yli n ders an d m o n u men ts attest as several sc ho lars h ave ,

re co gn iz ed a pri m i ti ve tree wo rsh i p fo r th e an c ien t Babylo n ian s

“

o r: h
t e i an c e sto rs
r 6
Th is pi c to ri al testi mo ny is n o w co n firm e d by
.

1
C G A B arto n , A Y ear s
f . .
’
. Wanderi n g in B ib le Lands , Phil d lphi a e a, 19 04 , p 23 3 ,.

an d Wied emann o p , . ci t .
, p . 21 .

2
Cf Wied emann
.
, op . ci t .
, p 23 2
. .

3
Cf Wiedem ann
.
, op . ci t .
, p 233
. .

4
T h e c ircu m p o lar stars ex c ited th e in te re st th e E gyp tian s b ec au se th ey n e ve r s et
of

as do o th e r st ars . No t k n o w in g th e ast ro n o mi c al c au se o f thi s , th e E gyp tian s att rib

u ted toth em m o re divin e q u alities t h an t o o th e r stars . Th y e c alle d them yhm

sw , th e st ars th at h ave n o d ef e c t ” o r
“ ” “ ”
n shu
“
f ailu re , i . e .
,
are imm o rtal .

5
S e th e , Pyrami d en texte, I I , S p 5 19 , 1216 ; c f H B reaste d , . .
J . . D evelo pment of R eli
gi o n and T
hou ght i n Anci en t E gypt, Ne w o rk , 19 12, p 134 Y . .

5
S e e th e n u m e ro u s seals
p ic t u red in W . H . Ward s ’
S eal Cyli nders f
o Wes ter n Asi a ,

Washingto n ,
19 08 ; also hi s S eal Cyli nders i n the C llo ecti o n o f J Pi . er po nt M organ ,
128 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

the tex t f ro m S u rippak y q uo te d While that tex t sho ws th at alre ad .

th e s pi ri ts o f a n u m b e r o f tre e s w e re re ga rd e d as d i vi n e in the pic ,

to rinl re prese n ta tio n s th e palm tree is m o s t o f te n fi gu re d T hi s is .

,

in m o s t ins tan c e s sho w n to b e the fe m ale d ate palm by the hangi ng

,

cl u s te rs o f d a te s M any o f th e re pre se n tatio ns o n the mo n u me n ts

‘
.

p ic tu re a wi nge d b ei ng so me t im e s w ith a hu m an fac e so me ti me s , ,

wi th an e agl e s face ho ld ing in o ne hand a b ask e t o r b u c k e t and

’

, ,

in th e o the r a c o ne w hic h he is applyi ng to the tre e T hat the dif .

fe re nce in se x o f the d ate p alm s w as k no w n to the anc i e n t B ab ylo

n ian s an d A s syri an s is a tte s te d by a fragm e n t o f a li s t o f tre es fo un d

in th e lib rary o f A sh u rb anipal b u t w hi ch w as pro b ab ly c o pi ed fro m ,

a B abyl o n i an li st o f m u ch gr e ate r an tiq u ity in w hi c h gishi mmaru ,

”“
aik aru o r the m ale d ate palm
,
is di s ti ngu ishe d f ro m gishi mmar u ,
”2 “
z in n ishtu o r the fe m ale d ate pal m
,
T hat the pal m i tse lf w as .

re gard e d a s d i vin e is atte s te d by a p ro pe r n am e o f the Ur pe ri o d ,

d
gi s hi mm o r ga d u m u n i
“
T h e p al m-
t ree d e
-
i ty — v e rily he r so n
-
”3
,
- -
.

E B Tyl o r firs t su ggeste d th at the winge d figu res w hi c h ap ply th e

. .

c o n es to th e trees a e e p ese tatio s o f win d s

—
r r r n n pe rso n ifi e d as di vi ne
age n c i es
— in c arry ing the po ll e n o f the m ale flo we rs to the sti g
m ata o f the fem ale flo w e rs to fe rti li ze the m 4
H e fo u n d in th e se ,
.

figu re s th e e xplan atio n o f th e ch eru bim o f Eze ki el an d o f Ge ne si s ,

as w e ll as o f o the r p art s o f t he Old Te stam e n t Thi s seem ed e spe .

c ially app ro pri ate s in ce Ps in a d esc ri p tio n o f th e co mi n g

,
.

o f Yah w e h o n a thu n d e r c lo u d e q u ate s th e ch e ru b wi th th e win d ,

.

Ne w Y o rk , 1909 ; also C
Leo n Le grain , The ultu re of tb e B ab ylo n ians f r om the ir S eal s i n
the ( Uni ve rsity) P
M useu m, h ilad elphi a, 1925 , an d the art ic le b y th e sam e au tho r
in th e M us eu m J o ur n al , D ec ,
19 29 . In t his the seals f ro m th e ea rlies t t ime di s
c o ve red Wo o lley at Ur
by are p u b lish ed Of p arti c u la r in terest fo r o u r su b ec t are
. j
Ward ,
Cyli nd ers of Western As i a, n o s 388 , 389 an d 663 —
. 7 25 , an d Le grain , n o s 168 , .

43 5 , 5 73 , 5 86 , 5 88 , 5 94 , 623 , 67 2, 7 12, 7 44 , 8 11 an d 9 8 1; als o M u s eu m J o ur nal , S ep t .

D ec .
,
19 29 , p 29 4 , . no . 8 1 an d 29 6, no . 87 .

1
In addi tio n to th e re f e re n c e s in th e p rec e d in g n o te , cf . S c hrad er in M o nats b eri c ht
d k gl p re u s Ak d
. . . . Wiss . zu B erlin , 188 2, p 426 ff . .

2
Cf H R , p 46, . . no . 2, 30 .

3
Cf G A B arto n , The H averf ord L ib rary
. . . C ll ti f C
o ec on o u ne ifor m T bl t
a es, or D ocu

me n ts f ro m the emple Arc hives of T

ello h , Pt a e a , 190 5 , PI 25 , n o 66 , iii, T I P hil d lphi
Th e nam e mi gh t also b e re n d ere d sag ga dum u ui , Th e grac i o u s go dd es s —h er
, .
. .

d “
16 .
- - -

” “ ”
so n , T h e grac io u s go d dess w o ul d th en b e I ninn i o r I sh ta r, th e mo ther go dd e ss o f -

th e B ab y lo nian s , w ho was c lo sely ass oci ate d w i th th e p alm .

4
S ee PS B A, X II , 3 83—3 93 .
 REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 129

This View b h as an d affo rd s a mo st

sin c e e en accepte d by o th e r s ,
1

satisfac to r y e xplan atio n o f th ese in te re stin g re pre se n tatio n s So me

o f t h e se po rtray a fi sh go d i e E a in th e ac t o f perfo rm in g thi s ,
. .
, ,

f e cu n d atio n I n th e legen d o f O an n e s as pre serve d in B e ro sso s

.
, ,

an d w hi c h i s in re ali ty a m y th o f E a a fi sh like m o n ste r cam e w e -

, ,

are to ld f ro m th e se a an d tau gh t th e B abylo n ian s th e b eginn in gs

, ,

of c ivilizatio n Amo n g o th er arts h e m ade th em d i stin gu i sh seed s

.
,

an d tau gh t the m ho w to co llec t f ruit . I n his han d s, therefo re , th e

c o n e an d bu c ket wo u ld p ro perly have a plac e .
2

That trees po ssess divin e ch arac ter is a belief whi ch still su rvive s
'

in A rabia whe re c e rtain trees are tho u gh t to b e inhabite d by th e

,

p u n e v e n t o th e p r e se n t t im e
3
S u c h t ree s w e re p r o b ably in th e .

r e I slam i c d ay s regard e d as th e re side n ces o f go d s w h o u po n th e

p
-

, ,

in tro du c tio n o f I slam share d th e f ate o f o th e r de i tie s an d we re de,

p o se d t o t h e r a nk o f e v i l s p i rit s I n li k e m ann er t h e J e w s an d e arly .

C h ri s ti an s re garde d the go d s o f th e h eathen as demo n s 4

So m e .

tim es ho weve r it i s n o t j inn b u t an ge ls w ho are tho u gh t to co m e

, ,

do wn to tab e m ac les in th e trees ; an d it is still the c u sto m in parts

o f Ar abi a fo r th e sic k to go to trees w hi c h are thu s vi si ted an d o ffer ,

sac ri fi ce an d praye r fo r th e re co ve ry o f th e i r h e alth T h e o ffe rin g .

is u su ally a sh ee p o r a go at the blo o d is sp rin kled the fle sh co o ked , ,

at theplace a part o f it is d i vi de d am o n g the f ri e n d s o f th e si c k m an

, ,
a
an d a part lef t h an gi n g o n th e b ran c h es o f th e tree T h e wo rshi pper .

the n lie s do w n an d sleep s co n fid e n t th at th e an gels wi ll co m e in ,

vis io n an d spe ak pre ce pts fo r hi s he alth so th at h e wi ll ri se who le 5 .

S u ch po sse ssed tre e s are b ehu n g with o ld be ad s vo tive sh red s o f ,

c ali co lappe ts o f co lo re d stu ffs an d o the r su ch th ings

,
6
Th i s i s a ,
.

relic o f o ld A rabi an h e ath e ni sm in whi c h o ff e rin gs we re m ade in th e ,

sam e m ann e r T h e trad i tio n s tell th at M o h amm e d referre d to su ch

.

“ ”7
a tree as a tree to han g thi n gs on .

1
Cf .
Jastro w
’
s R eli gio n of B abylo ni a and Assyri a, p 662, . an d Hau pt in Ty o
’
s E z ek i el
in S B OT , pp . 18 1 184 .
-
.

2
T h e f e rtiliz atio n o f the d ate p alm in M eso p o tami a h as to b e pe rf o rmed in p art b y
h an d u n to th e p re sen t tim e ( S e e Z w emer s Arabi a, the radle of I slam, p
’
. C .

T hi s f ac t e xp lain s th e an thro p o mo rphic f o rm o f th e c h e rub Th e win d is c o n ceive d .

as a su p ern atu ral m an applyin g th e f e rtiliz atio n b y han d .

3
D o u gh ty ’
s Arab i a D eserta, I , 3 65 .

4
Cf . D eu t . an d I Co r
. .

D o u gh ty ’
s Arabi a D es erta, I , 449 ff .

6
I b id .

’
7
S m i th s R eligi on of the S emi tes , 2d cd .
, p 18 5
. .
130 S E M ITIC AND HAM ITIC O RI G I NS

S u ch trace s f
wo rshi p are no t no w fo u nd in c o nn ec tio n wi th the
o

palm tree in A rab i a b u t m o re o fte n wi th the acaci a tho u gh at ti m e s

, ,

wi th o th e r tre e s and e ve n wi th s h ru b s So m e e vide nc e s o f the w o r .

ship o f the palm t re e in an c i e n t ti m e s a re s ti ll e x tan t T ab ari re fe rs .

to th e s ac re d d ate palm o f Ne g ran w he re the tre e w as in all respe c ts ,

tre ate d as a go d 1
T he re s ide n c e o f Al U zza at N ak hla w ho w as
.
-
,

in re ali ty an Ath tar is sai d by I b n Abb as to ha ve b e e n a gro u p o f

2
,

S amu ro t re e s in o ne o f w hi c h the go d de ss e spe c i ally d w e lt

, T he .

S amuro tree is e x plained b y a s c ho lio n to I b n H isha m ( p 145 ) to b e .

a pal m tre e T he re liab ili ty o f th e s e s tate m e n ts has b ee n u nj us tly

3
.

su spe c te d by We llhau se n an d R o b e r tso n S m i th T he s to ry o f the .

b irth o f Jesu s as to ld in the C o ran vo u c hes fo r the an ci e n t sac re dness

, , ,

o f th e p al m Ac c o rd inging to the s tate m e n t o f M o h am m e d w h i ch

.
,

p ro b ably co m e s f ro m A rabi an C hri stians M ary re ti red to a p alm ,

tre e ( S u ra ,
as the ti m e o f he r d e li ve ry d re w n e ar an d w as ,

mi rac ulo u sl y no u ri she d by d ates pro d u c e d o u t o f se aso n

S u ch a s tateme n t re veals the c o n ce p tio n that the palm tree w as
c l o se ly re late d to th e divin e All th e se re fe re n ces co in c i de wi th a
.

n u m b e r o f fac ts f ro m o th e r p ar ts o f th e S e m i ti c wo rl d w h ic h i n d i ca te

tha t the d ate p alm w as sac re d an d th u s re ce i ve a co n fi rm atio n w h i ch

,

estab li sh e s a s tro ng pres um p tio n o f th ei r tru th .

I n Abyssin ia as in E gyp t th e sy cam o re w as a sac re d tree and in ,

so m e in stan ce s sti ll m ai n tain s th is c h arac te r

4
.

T he te re bi n th w as a sac re d tre e in P ale stin e I t play s a p ro m i .

n e n t part in th e tradi tio n s co n ce rn i ng Ab rah am ( Ge n .

Gideo n re ceived a m essage fro m an angel u n de r o ne (J u d .

an d in the day s o f Ho sea i n ce n se w as b u rn e d u n de r te re b in ths

( H o s 4 :. T h e re a re t rac es a lso th a t th e d ate pa lm w a s a s ac red

tr e e in I srae l D e bo rah is sai d to have sat u n der a p al m tree an d is

.
,

call e d a p ro p he tess (J u d th e in fe re n c e b e ing th at th e palm

.

Cf A n nal es quo s s cr ips it aL Tab ari , van M

. .
J
d e Go e je , Le y de n , 18 7 9- 189 7 , I , 9 22,
.

an d Geschic hte der P

ers er u nd Ar ab er z u r Z
ei t d er S as s n id e n a us d er arab isc h hro n ik C
des T
ab ar i , vo n T h Nold e k e , Le y d e n , 18 7 9 , p 18 1
. S m ith ( 0 p c it , p 185 ) ho lds
. . . . .

th at th e state me n t is inc re dib le b ec au se i t re s ts o n th e au tho ri ty o f a liar ; b u t liars

so me tim es tell th e tru th .

2
Cf H ebraic a ,
. X , 5 8—
66 .

3
We llh aus en ’
s R es te arab is c he H eid entu ms , 2d cd .
, p 38
. . We llhau se n s u spe c te d

thi s s ta te me n t , b ec au se th e vale o f Nak hla ( P alms ) w as so ne ar . Th at, h o w e ve r, d oes

no t p ro ve th e s tate m e n t w ro ng .

.
’
C
Cf B e n t s S ac red ity of the Ethio pia ns , p 2 10 . .
 RE L I GIO US O R I GI NS 1

w as sacre d , an d th at it he lpe d h e r in spi ratio n to b e n e ar it . So me

s ch o lar s en d eavo r to ide n tif y thi s wi th th e te re bi n th o f Ge n . b ut
wi tho u t su ffi cient gro u n d Th e re is re aso n as will appear be lo w
.
1
, ,
“

to b e lieve that the tree o f k n o wledge in Gen 3 w as a date palm . .

E vi den ce o f this also co m es to u s fro m the Je wi sh bo o k o f E no ch .

I n th e o lde st po rtio n o f th e E thio pic E n o ch w e are to ld (c h 24) .

ho w E n o ch vi si te d parad i se an d fo u n d that the tre e o f li fe w as a ,

date p alm 2
T he ful l sign ifi c an c e o f th i s statem en t will app e ar at a
.

late r po in t ; it is en o u gh to n o te at p resen t that it affo rd s e vi den ce

that th e d ate palm as a sac re d tree playe d a ve ry impo rtan t role in
th e tho u gh t o f an c i en t I srael O ther e vi den ce o f th i s is no t wan ting
. .

T he sto ry o f Ju dah an d Tam ar (G en 3 8) in dic ates sin ce Tam ar .

,

m ean s palm that a clanw as i n c o rpo rate d i n to the tribe o f Ju dah

, ,

whi ch c o n side red i tself c lo sely c o nne c ted wi th the palm an d there ,

fo re re garde d it as a sac re d tree Fu rther o n th e co n fin es o f Ju dah .

,

an d B en j ami n the re w as a plac e B aa l—

,
Tam ar whi ch to o k its n ame , ,
“ ”
fro m a go d w ho m u st h ave b e en c alle d lo rd o f the p alm (Ju d .

Ea e it seem s to ave b ee c a e
rli r h n ll d B aa la —
t Tam ar o r ,

I n all pro b ability the n am e w as de ri ve d fro m

“
lady o f the palm .

an e arly co nn ec tio n o f a d eity wi th a sac re d tree

’

At E lim o ne o f the sta , tio n s at wh i ch the I sraelite s are sai d to h ave

_

sto ppe d o n th e w ay o u t o f E gyp t th e p alm h ad a sac red sign ific an c e , ,

s in ce it i s co n n e c te d wi th th e sac re d n u m b e r s even ty an d wi th twe lve

“
s ac re d we lls ( Ex Jeri cho to o w as c alle d the c i ty o f
.
, ,
”
p alm tree s ( D e u t J u d . a n d it i s p ro b ab le th at . .

the re in e arly time s the p alm h ad a s ac re d sign i fi c an c e T h e fac t .

th at the palm tre e an d c h e ru b fo rm e d p art o f the ado rn m en t o f the

in te ri o r o f the tem ple o f E z eki el (Ex 4 1 : 18) an d o f the temple o f .

S o lo mo n a ffo rd s fu rthe r pro o f o f the sam e thing We c an no t do u b t .

,

th ere fo re th at th e palm w as a sac re d tre e am o n g th e He b re w s o r

'

the ir imm e diate an ce sto rs .

When w e appro ach the stu d y o f in d ividu al d eities it appears that ,

th ere is no de i ty e i the r in E gyp t o r in S emi ti c te rri to ry that can b e

1
S o M o o re , J udges in I n ter Cri t Co mm
. . .
, p . 113 , an d B u dde , Richter, in M arti
’
s

Ku rz er H and C o mmen tar , p 3 5 . . On the o th er h an d , c f H . . P . S mith

’
s S amu el in I n ter .

Cri t . C
o mm , p 67 . . .

2
Cf . Ch arle s s
’
The B o o k f
o E n oc h 1893 . . Ch arles righ tly d ate s th is po rtio n of the
b o o k b ef o re 17 0 B C .
13 2 S E M ITI C AN D HAM IT I C ORI G I NS

sh o wn to have
b ee n wo rs h ippe d fro m the t im e b e fo re the S e mi te s
s e pa ra te d f ro m the H am ite s O u r o n e so u rc e o f i n fo rm atio n fo r
.

an c ie n t H am iti c he athe ni sm is the lite ratu re an d art o f E gy pt In .

all o the r H am i tic c o u n trie s e ithe r t he in fl u e n c e o f I slam o r o f Ku s h it e

,

o r N e gro i d t rib e s have so o ve rl ai d th e co n c e p ti o n s o f that far o ff -

ti m e th at th e y c an no t wi th c e rtai n ty b e i d e n tifi e d I f w e c e n te r .

o u r atte n ti o n u po n E gy p t w e fi n d it d ifli c u lt to p ro ve th at any d e i ty

,

d e s crib e d in the lite ratu re is re ally p rim i tive T he E gypti an s w e re .

no t po sse ss e d o f p h ilo s o ph ic po w e r D u ri ng the lo ng c e n tu ri es o f .

E gyp ti an hi s to ry an d pre h isto ry m any w aves o f tho u gh t sw ep t o ve r ,

th e m in ds o f the pe o ple At o n e ti m e th e go d s w e re Ch tho n ic an d

.

an i m al in fo rm ; a t ano the r the y assu m e d h u m an sh ape b u t re tai ne d

th e h e ad s o f ani m als ; a t ano th e r th ey w e re i d e n tifi e d wi th c e le sti al

,

o bj ec ts All th e se co n ce p ti o n s are re gi ste re d in the religi o u s lite ra

.

'

tu re , no t in c o ord in ate fash io n , so as to aflo rd a co n siste n t pic tu re ,

o r e ve n to m ark an l ine o f d eve lo pm en t b u t they are thro wn
o rde rly ,

to ge th e r so mi s c ellaneo u sly that it h as b e e n asse rte d th at w e c an

,

ga in n o c e r tain k n o wl e d ge o f t h e b e gi nn in gs o f E y
g p t ian go d s ; t h at
an y th eo ry o f th ei r o rigin is o b tain ed o n ly at the co st o f i gno rin g

th e state m e n ts in re ligi o u s te x ts w hi ch c o n trad c t iti I

Ex treme as .

th is s tatem e n t is it appe ars to b e li te rally tru e

,
.

An o the r d iffi c u lty ari ses f ro m th e preo c c u patio n o f the E gyp tian
mi n d wi th th e life b eyo n d T he gre at bo d y o f the li te ratu re is
.

in te n t n o t u po n d e sc ribi ng th e go d s o r as c ribi n g to th em ho n o r
, , ,

b u t in o u tlin in g th e fo rtu n es of th e so ul af te r th is life h as e n d ed .

S u c h li te ratu re y i n ci d e n tally th e n atu re o f the

re veals to u s o nl

d eities .F o r th ese reaso n s it is i m po s sibl e to disco ve r in the who l e

field o f o u r stu dy any de ity th at h as ce rtainly su rvive d fro m th e
ti m e w he n H am ite s an d S emi te sw e re still o n e peo ple .

No twi th stan d in g thi s the re is a gro u p o f d e i tie s co mm o n to E gyp t

,

an d th e S emi ti c co u n tri es Th ey are vegetatio n go d s an d w e re

.

d e ve lo pe d o u t o f th at prim itive tree wo rshi p w h i ch has already -

b een sho w n to h ave e xisted b o th in th e S e mi tic are a an d in an c ie n t

E gyp t I t is ho we ver gen e rally agreed that th e E gyp tian m em b ers
.
, ,

o f thi s gr o u p o ri gin ate d in S emi ti c te rri to ry an d w e re ca rri e d to

E gyp t by o n e o f tho se preh isto ri c waves o f S emi tic imm igratio n ,

Wie de mann ,
R el igio n f
o the A nc ie nt E gyptian s , p 4 f . .
 R E L IGIOU S O R IGI NS 13 3

to wh i c h atte n tio n w as c alle d ab o ve in

C h apte r I I I Th e se de i ties .

were in E gypt c alled I sis an d O siris an d w e re in m an y way s th e mo st

'

p o p u l ar o f a l l E g y p t i a n g o d s T h ere i s e v ide n ce th o u h th at at
.
g , ,

Abydo s whe re the y we re wo rshippe d th ey were no t th e pri

, ,

m itive dei ti es b u t that th ey c ro w de d o u t e arlie r go d s

, T he e vi .

den c e that they we re S em i ti c is tho ro u ghly c o n vi n c in g B o th th e .

dei tie s an d the n am e th ere fo re o rigin ate d in S emi ti c te rrito ry

, ,

( A ra bi a ) a n d w e re c a r ri e d f ro m th at ce n tr al S e m it i c te rri to ry to

ad j ac e n t c o u n tries in preh isto ri c ti m e .

T h e Vie w th at I fo rm erly en tertai n e d th at th e asherah w as o ri g

’

in ally a wo o d en po st wh i c h m ark e d the lim its o f th e S em i tic san c

tu a yr a n d l a te r b e c a m e a g o d d ess
1
n ee d s I am n o w co n vi n ce d mo d i
, , ,

fi catio n A mo re pro bable theo ry is I n o w b elieve that the term

.
, ,

whi ch w as so m e fo rm o f the Arabi c athr (perhaps d iki r exqu i site ’ ’

,
‘
,

fri en d ) w as an e pith e t applie d to th e palm tree go d d ess

’ ‘ ’
e x celle n t
‘ -

o f A rabi a an d th at sh e w as wo rsh ippe d o ri gi n ally in palm gro ves

,
.

As S em i te s m i grated an d wo rsh ip c am e to b e o ff e re d whe re th ere

were no su ch tre es o r where th e trees died wh en plan ted th e
, ,

ashera by d egrees b e c am e a po s t whic h m igh t m ark th e li m i t s o f th e

’

san c tu ary
2
o r b e place d b e fo re th e san c tu ary
,
3
T h e nu m b er o f .

asheras in tree fo rm fo u n d in C y pr u s by M ax Ohn e falsc h Ri ch te r

- — 4 -

favo r the th eo ry o f su ch a d e velo pm e n t M ean tim e the n am e al so .

su rvive d as the n am e o f a d e i ty Thi s de ity w as so m etime s mascu

.

li n e an d so m e ti m e s fe mi n i n e T h e ge n de r in e ac h co mm u n i ty w as
.

p ro b a bly d e t er m i n e d by so m e th i n g e ith e r i n th e a n t ec e d e n t s o r th e

so c i al o rgan i z ati o n o f th at co m m u n i ty b u t w e c ann o t n o w alw ay s ,

di sc o ver wh at th ese fac to rs we re Thu s in B abylo n ia in th e tim e .

o G
f u d e a a b t
o u 2 4 0 0 B C, s aA h r u
5
w s a go d
a. .
— a go d o f the h ar vest
, ,

1
Cf th e
. artic le
“
Ash era in the J wi h E
e s n cyclo pedi a .

2
Th i s is an inf e re n c e f ro m th e f ac t th at in th e Ph oeni c ian in sc rip tio n f ro m M a su b
‘

lik e its p hilo lo gic al eq u ivalen t as hirtu , as hrati o r in Assy

’
asherah, eshr itu , eshrati

an d Ak k ad ian is e mplo y e d to d e signate s an

‘ ’
rian c tu ary .

3
Cf the many
. re p re se n tatio n s o f Ph oen ic ian sanc tu arie s in CI S , I , an d th e tw o

po sts b ef o re th e e arly sanc tu ary at T ll h i Dé

e o n cou vertes en Ch lde
a e no . 1 . Cf th e w ri t
.

er s
’
tran slatio n of th e in sc rip tio n ac c o mp an y ing th e las t me n tio n e d in J AOS , vo l . XLI I ,

338—3 42 .

4
S ee his Kypros , L o n do n , 1898 .

A kk ad , Ne w H ave n 19 29 , pp
’
5
S e e th e w rite r s R o yal I ns cripti o ns o f S u mer an d .
.

23 8 , 23 9
 13 4 S E M IT I C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

p e rh aps an o th e r n am e fo r Nin g irsu

Si mi larly in A ssy ri a A shu r w as .
l
,

a go d w ho g ave h is n am e fi rs t to the c i ty A s h u r an d the n to the

,

c o u n try o f the sam e n am e A m o ng the Am o ri te s o f the regio n o f .

the Le b ano n M o u n tai n s an d also in N o rthe rn t n ic ia

2
A she rat
w as in th e fo u rtee n th c e n tu ry B C a go dd e ss 3
as s he w as am o n g .
,

th e e arly H e b rew s u nd e r the n am e A she rah (J ud 3 : 7 ; 1 Kgs 18 : 19 ; . .

2 Kgs 23 : . Si milarly in S o u th A rabi a the name o f the po s t he

c am e am o ng the V atab a n ian s a go dd e s s Ath irat w ho in ti me se e m s
‘
, ,

to h ave b e e n i d e n tifi e d w i th the su n ; at le as t she tak e s the p lace ,

o f the M in ze an an d S ab a e an s u n go d de ss in V atab an ian tri ad s

“ -
.

I t h as lo ng b ee n th e o pi nio n o f B re aste d an d o the r E gyp to lo gi sts

that th e c u lt o f I si s an d O si ri s w as o f S em i ti c o ri gi n A ltho ugh the .

p re se n t w ri te r w as fo r a lo ng tim e no t co nvi nced o f the co rre c tness

, ,

“
o f thi s vi e w he no w b eli e ves it to b e e stabli she d
,
T he p roo f co n .

si s ts o f fo u r co n si d erati o n s 1 At Thi s O si ri s d i splaced the w o r ship

. .
,

o f an e arl ie r d e i ty ; at B u si ri s am o n g D el ta n o m e s o f late r o rigi n h e , ,

app e ars as th e o ri gi n al d e i ty b u t n o t lik e n ati ve E gyp ti an go ds , , ,

asso c i at ed wi th an an i m al In th e n ei gh bo ri ng n o m e o f Cab asm a .

,

where I si s w as th e ch ie f d ei ty the re w as al so no sac re d ani mal At , .

Si u t whe re fo r a ti m e he w as wo rshipped he gai ne d no p erm an en t

,
7
,

fo o th o l d 2 T he c h arac te r an d re l ati o n o f I si s an d O si ri s are prac

'

. .

ti cally i de n ti ca l wi th the c h arac te r an d re latio n o f I sh tar an d T am

muz B o th pai rs w ere vege tatio n dei ti e s ; bo th we re regarde d o ften as
.

hu sb an d an d wi fe tho u gh so m e ti m e s tho u gh t o f as b ro the r an d si ste r

,

o r m o th e r an d so n B o th to o we re at tim e s asso ci ated wi th fertiliz

.
, ,

1 Thi
fo llo w s f ro m th e fac t that in th e pas sage in q u e stio n ( Gu dea , Cyl B ) th e c o n
s .

tex t is c o nce rn e d w i th the ind u c tio n o i Ningi rsu an d B au in to the n e w te m ple w hic h
Gu d e a h as b u ilt . In col . iii, 9 , Ningirsu is s aid to c o m e f ro m E rid u ; in iv, 1, Asha ru
is carrie d in to the te m ple ; w h ile in v, 1, Nin girsu is c arried in to th e te mple . E ithe r
th e S e m itic Ash aru is h e re id e n ti fi ed w i th Ningirsu , or h e h as b e c o m e a f o reru nn er of

Ningirsu w h o p re pare s th e w ay f o r him .

2
Cf AOS L I I 22 1—23 1; an d the w rite r
’
Archaeolo gy and the B i ble, 6 th cd
e g J s

—
. . .
, , ,
.
,

p . 5 34 5 3 7 .

3
Cf Knu d tz
. o n, D ie El Ama rn a Taf el n , 84
-
.

Cf H o mme l, A uf s atz e
.
’

a nd A b handlu ngen , I I , 211 if , an d D . Nie lsen , H an db uc h

der altarabisc hen Altertu ms k u nd e, Ko pe nh age n , 19 27 , 188 an d 226 . Cf . also Rh o d o
k an ak is , Katab anisc he exte, I T
pp 5 8 an d 122 . .

5
Cf N ie lse n , o p c it 226 an d 233
—
. .
, .
.

5
S ee JAOS , XXXV ,
213 223 .

7
Th i s app ear s f ro m S e th e , Py ramid entexte, S p 3 66 , 630 ; Cf B re aste d ,
. . D evelopment

f R el igio n
o and Thou ght i n A nc i en t E gypt, p 3 9 . .
 REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 13 5

ing waters 3 T h e n am e O si ri s (in E gyp ti an 3sr) o f wh i c h I si s

}
.
,

( E gy i s ) i b h f m i i f m is co m po se d o f the
2
in p t a n 3 t s u t t e e n n e o r -
,

sam e rad icals as th e n am e s o f th e S e m i ti c d eities d erived f ro m th e

tree o r po st Th i s stem affo rd s a sati sfac to ry etymo lo gy o f these

.

n am es su ch as n o Hamitic ro o t affo rd s an d ac co rd s wi th th e large ,

S emi tic elem en t in the vo c abu lary o f the Egyptian s demo n strated
by E rm an E mb er an d Alb righ t
3 4
,
5
4 T h e sym b o l o f O siris at
,
. .

D e du (B u siri s) w as a po st an d the pic tu re o f this symbo l be c ame

6
,

th e hi ero glyph o f th is go d
7 8
Th ese co n sideratio n s make the theo ry .

o f a S emi ti c o ri gin o f I si s an d O si ri s irre si stib le I t wi ll appe ar as .

,

o u r d i sc us sio n p ro c ee d s th at th e S emi ti c d ei tie s who se n am e s w ere ,

exp ressed by th e ro o t T R ( S R ) whi c h we re so m etim e s m asc ul in e

’

,
'

an d so m e tim e s femi n i n e were o rigi n ally d eiti e s o f f ertili ty differi ng , ,

in n o fu n dam e n tal w ay fro m tho se who se n am e s were derived fro m

th e ro o t TTR ST R ) T he fac t th at th e n am e s o f I sis an d O si ri s
‘ ‘
.

are e tym o lo gi cally co nn e c t ed wi th a di ffere n t ro o t fro m th at o f th e

n am e s I sh tar A starte e tc is n o argu m en t again st th e View advo

, ,
.
,

c ated h ere T he o n e u n i qu e phe no m en o n p re sen ted by th e E gyp tian

.

m e mb ers o f th e gro u p is that a m asCu lin e an d fem ini n e p ai r b earin g

‘

n am e s o f i d en ti c al o rigin , are asso c i ate d to ge th er as co n so rts Thi s .

is a su rviv al in E gyp t o f a co n ditio n wh i c h m ay w ell have e xi sted

in S em iti c territo ry in ages e arlier th an tho se fro m wh i c h the do c u

m en ts b earing the se S em i ti c d ivi n e n am es c o m e Whil e Asharu
“

an d A sh u r t h e earli e st o f t h e S em it i c d ivi n e n am e s c an n o t as
, ,

yet b e traced e arli e r than abo u t 2400 B C O siri s an d I si s m u st h ave . .

,

be en c arri ed to Egypt by a wave o f S emitic m igratio n 1500 o r 2000

years e arli er than that tim e .

1 F o r E gyp t , c f B re aste d , op c i t , p 20 ; f o r th e Asiatic mate rial, b elo w , p 13 7 f

. . . . . .

2
Th e liq u id r h as f allen o u t b ef o re th e d e n tal t, th e f emin in e en ding , p erh ap s hav
in g fi rst b een assimi late d to it , as th e liq u id s n an d l are f re q u en tly assimilate d .

3
Cf E rman , Z D M G, XL VI 9 3—126 an d Z ei tsc hrif tf Aegypti sche S prache,
‘

.
, , .

v . 14 , p 8 . .

4
Zei tsc hrift f . Aegypti sche S prache, v . 49 ( 19 11) p 87 ; . v . 50, p 86; . v . 5 1, p 110 ; .

v . 5 3 , p 84 . .

5
I bi d .

5
E rman , H and b o o k f E gypti an
o R eli gi o n , L o n do n , 190 7 , p 16 . .

7
Cf . e .
g .
, Alan Gard in e r, E gypti an Grammar, S ign — List , R 11 .

8
Th e d —
d po st w as also c o nn e c ted w i th S et : cf S e th e , Urgesc hi chte , 81 an d
. T J C
. . .

B aly , J ou r .
f
o E gypti an Arch , XVII ,
266 . T h at c o nn ec tio n h ad p ro b ab ly b een made
b e f o re th e in tro du c tio n of
Osiris in to E gyp t . T h e tran sf er o f th e sy mb o l to Osiris w as
natu ral, b o th on ac co u n t o f th e n atu re o f Osiris an d o f h is gre ater po p u larity in E gyp t
as time elap se d .
136 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C O RI G I NS

A no the r divi ne name w hi c h o ri gin a te d in the S e m iti c c rad le land -

in prehi sto ri c ti m e w as the n am e A sh tar o r Ath tar I f A rabi c p re .

se r ve s the fo rm s o f p rim iti ve S e mi ti c s pe e c h b e tte r th an the o th e r

S e m itic d iale c ts its p rimi tive fo rm w as pro b ab ly Ath tar T hi s

, .

n am e w as appli e d to th e s am e typ e o f d e ity o f fe rtil ity w ate r and , ,

ve ge tatio n to w hic h t he n am e Ath r o r A l b ir ( A s he ra t A shu r O s iri s) , ,

had also b e e n ap pli e d I n the his to ri c pe rio d the se d e i ti es w e re

.

s o m e ti m e s m as c ul in e an d so m e tim e s fe m i ni ne a s w e re the d e i ti e s ,

w hi c h bo re the o the r d e s ignatio n tho u gh the re is so m e re as o n to ,

thi nk that the fe mi n ine fo rm o f all the se d e i ti e s o f fe r ti li ty is o ld e r

than the mas c u lin e fo rm I t wo u ld appe ar th at the d e s ign ati o n.

Ath tar fo r thi s ty pe o f d e i ty aro se later than the d e si gnatio n A tb it o r

Ath r fo r w h il e the latte r n am e w as as h as j u s t bee n s ho w n i n tro
, , ,

d u ce d i n to E gy p t lo n g b e fo re the d awn o f h isto ry the fo rm e r appe ars ,

in E gyp ti an tex ts fi rs t in the E m pi re p e rio d afte r E gy p ti an co n

q u es ts o i S emi ti c te rri to ry in A sia Tho u gh Ath tar seem s to h ave .

o rigi n ate d late r than Ath ir its o ri gi n d a te s f ro m a ti m e e arli e r th an ,

th e di spe rsio n o f the S em i tic peo ples to thei r vari o u s n atio n al h o m es .

I t is the o n e d ivi ne n am e th at is fo nd ly em plo yed b y e ve ry S e m i ti c

peo pl e I t ap pe ars to have b e en carrie d i n to B abylo n ia in preh is
.

to ri c ti m e by Akk ad ian s am o n g w ho m A sh tar ( o r Ash d ar) w as a ,

go ddess H e r n am e appears as a c o m po n en t p art o f the n am es o f tw o

.

e a rl i
y k gs o Ki s
n f h As d ar m u ti l an d E n bi Ashdar
h ,
2
U n der the - -
.

i n flu en ce o f the pec u liar pho n e ti c tend en ci es whi ch pre vai le d in

B abylo ni a the n am e so o n b ecam e co rru pted to I sh tar in whi ch fo rm
, ,

it w as th e designatio n o f th e m o st wi d e ly wo rshi pp e d go ddess o f the

S emi ti c B abylo n ian s and A ssyri an s to the latest ti m e s I n S o u th .

Arabia Ath tar w as a m as c u lin e de ity as w as A star in Abyssin ia

3 “
, ,

an d A sh tar in no rth ern P h oen ic ia an d w as f u se d wi th C h e m o sh in

,
5

Cf The R o yal I ns cr iptio ns

. o f S u me r a nd A k k ad , pp 3 5 2, 3 53 . .

2
I bid , pp 6 an d 7
. . .

3
Nu mero u s insc rip tio n s at te s t th e f ac t '

see e .
g .
, CI S , Pt IV ,. T o me I, no . 4 7 , w he re
Ath ta r is c alle d
“
lo rd of th e w ate r -
su pply . Nie lse n , o p . cit .
,
228 s ay s th at Ath ta r
was a masc u lin e Ve n u s . D o ub tle ss thi s is tru e f o r th e p e rio d f ro m w hi c h the insc rip
ti o ns c o me , j us t as in B ab y lo ni a I sh ta r w as in the h is to ric al p e rio d id en ti fi ed w ith tha t

plane t, b u t in n e i the r c as e c an th e s te llar c harac te r have b e lo n ge d to the d e ity in t he

e arlie s t time s Al l go ds o f f e rtility , w e are c o n vi nc e d , w e re o ri ginally Ch tho ni c
. .

S ee D . H M ul le r, E pi graphis che Denk maler n aus Ab essi n ie n , Wie n , 18 94 , pp 3 7 , 3 8

.
‘

. .

5
I n th e R as S h amra te x ts ; J AOS LI I 221 23 1;
, ,
-
an d t he w r iter
’
s Archaeo lo gy
a nd the B ible, 6 th ed .
p 5 34 fi. .
 REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 13 7

an c e n t i M o ab .
l
Am o n g A tar th e Aram aean s her n am e ap e ars as
p ,
2

m n d th e d o u b lin g w e ake n ed
( th e th b e i n g a s si ilate d to th e t a ) w h ere , ,

as in B abylo n ia w itho u t th e add itio n o f th e f em in i n e e n din g it

,

d esign ate d a go d de ss Am o ng the Ph oeni c i an s the femin in e en ding.

w as ad de d m aki ng the n am e As ta t (whi c h th e Gre e k s to o k o ve r as

,
h r 3

L —
A starte) wh ile H eb rew write s d i sto t e d t to s to eth a fo rm
,
r r i A h r

fam i liar to all read ers o f th e Old Te stam en t T h e prehi sto ric o rigi n .

o f the n am e i s atte ste d by it s w id e u se in e ve ry par t o f th e S e m itic

wo rld an d its widespread su rvival is e viden ce that it w as a wo rd

,

whi c h de sign ated so m e fu n c tio n o f the d eity o f fertility widely re c

o gn iz ed by th e S e m iti c pe opl e as f u n d ame n tal to he r n atu re an d

c lo se ly b o u n d u p wi th th eir e co n o mi c life .

I t see m s u nn e ce ssary h e re to re c all t he vario u s e tym o lo gies o f thi s

d ivin e n am e th at have be e n pro po se d T he wri te r h as se veral tim es .

“
u bli sh ed d i scu ssio n s o f th e su bj e c t in whi ch t h ese are re co u n te d
p .

Th e e tymo lo gy pro po se d by h im in S emi ti c Ori gi n s th irty ye ars ago ,

by which th e n ame is regarded as a re flexive o f th e ro o t tr m eta

.
‘

th e si s havin g taken pl ace b e twe en th e i n serte d t an d the se c o n d

rad i c al as o c c u rs also in so m e o th er S em i ti c wo rd s has b een ac
6 ’

, ,

c e pte d by P ato n an d seem s to b e we ll e stabl ish e d A c co rdin g to

7
.
,

th is V i e w th e nam e o rigin ally d e sign ate d T he se lf watere r an d

‘ ’
-

w as applied to th e spiri t o f a spring wh i c h i rrigate d an d re n dere d

fe rtil e th e adj acen t lan d— a m o st appro priate n am e fo r th e go dd e ss
o f an Arabi an o asi s Su ch a deity might also b e appro pri ately .

c alle d Athi r
’ ‘ ’
Ex c e llen t On e F ri en d ,
‘
,
.

1
Cf S m en d
. an d S o c in , Di e I n s chrift M es a vo n M o ab , F re ib u rg , 188 6, or G A
. .

C North S emi tic I nscri pti o ns , Oxf o rd , 1903 p 1 if , o r Lidz b arsk i , No rdsemi tische
o ok e, , .

E pi graphik , Weimar, 1898 , afel I T

A tran slatio n is also f o u n d i n th e w riter s Archw
’
.

o lo gy and the B ible, Phil d lphi a e a, 1933 ( 6th p 45 9 f

. .

2
Ou r o ld est me n tio n of th e go d d ess, in p ro p er n am es , o c c u rs in th e in sc rip
e xc ep t

tio n s of Ashu rb an ip al, w h o c am e in c o n tac t w i th h e r w o rshi pp e rs i n h is Arab ian c am

p aign ; ci
'

. V
R , pp 8 , 11 112 , 124 . . .

S ee e g , CI S , Pt I , n o 1
3
. . . . .

S ee e g , 2 K gs
4
. . .

5
Cf H eb rai ca,
. X ( 1893 ) , pp 69 , 7 1; S emi tic Origi ns , 19 2, pp 10 2 104 , 0 . and J AOS ,

XXXI , pp . 3 3 5 33 9
-
.

Cf th e Assy rian k u stara , t en t ; th e H eb re w , sen ter eth, tu b e ( ec h 4 : 12 ; the

6
.
‘

’
’ ’
Z .

’
E thio pic k hartama, to b e u nf o rtu n ate o r w re tc h e d , k uestara, to c lean se o r sc o u r ,
’ ’

‘ ‘
f te ab o u t ,
’ ’
k an tas a, to plu c k o r gath e r
an d
’ ‘
ga
°
e, to tu rn .

“ ”
Ashtart (Ash to rath) , Astarte in H astings E n cyclopaedi a f
7 ’
S ee th e artic le o

R eligi o n a nd E thi cs .
13 8 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C O R IG I NS

In an A rabi an o as s i the m o s t i m po rtan t p ro d uc t o f fe r ti lity is to

th is d ay t he palm tre e . T he e co no mi c i m po r tan c e o f th is t re e has
be e n ful ly se t fo rth in
C hapte r I V . I n th e e arlie s t ti m e s , be fo re the
d isc o ve ry o f th e c u lti vatio n o f grain the e c o no m ic i mpo rta n c e o f th e ,

palm m u s t have b e e n re lati ve ly e ve n gre ate r than it is to d ay As .

th e t ree g re w by the ne ve r failing spri ng it w as i n e vi tabl e that the

-
,

s pi ri t o f the tre e a nd th e s piri t o f t he s pri ng s ho u ld b e asso c i ate d in

th e po pu lar m in d an d the re latio n s hi p b e tw e e n th e tw o i n te rp re te d

,

in te rm s o f hu m an re latio n s hip T h u s the tre e w as re gard e d as the .

so n o r b ro th e r o r h u s b an d o f the spri ng a s d iffere n t m y th s to e x

, ,

p l ai n th e re l ati o n s hi p w e re d e ve lo pe d in d i ff e re n t l o ca l iti e s o r in

d ifle re n t age s .
—
I t th u s h appe n e d th at th e d ate p al m th e m o s t
wi de ly u se fu l o f all the tree s o f No rth Af ri ca and A rabi a be cam e —
also th e m o s t wi d e sp re ad sym b o l o f d i vi ni ty I ts s u rvi val as the .

ho m e o f a go d in E gy pt is e vid e n ce th at the c o n d itio n s w e have mad e

p ro b ab le fo r A rabi a also p re vai le d in the o ases o f the H ami ti c c radl e
l and ; in the S emi tic wo rld its su rvi val as a sac red tre e to gethe r wi th ,

the s u rvi val o f its s tu mp as a s ac red po st w h i ch e ve n i n vad e d E gy p t ,

as th e sym b o l o f O siri s a ttests the palm as the t ree w hi ch h ad be e n

, ,

in th e mi n ds o f e ar ly S emi tes m o st wi de ly re ve re n ce d as a go d ,
.

T he e vi de n c e add u ced ab o ve f ro m whi c h it ap pears that th e ,

e pi th e t f ro m w hi ch O sir i s A shu r Ashirta Athirat an d A she ra, , , ,

s p rang is o l d e r th an th at f ro m w h i c h Ath tar I sh tar an d th e ki n dr e d , ,

n am e s aro se m ak e it pro b ab le th at th e fir s t gro u p o f n am e s o ri gi

,

n ate d w h e n th e d ate p al m w as to t he S e mi te s s till a wi ld tree t he ,

f ru i t o f w hi ch th e y h ad learn e d to prize an d so calle d t h e palm ,

tre e spiri t F ri e n d w h ile th e l atte r gr o u p o f n am e s o rigin ate d af te r

‘ ’
,

it h ad b ee n l e arn e d ho w to in c re ase th e d ate su pply b y c u l tivati o n .

T h e term self wate rer is an alo go u s to th e t erm b a al whi c h as th e

‘ ’ ‘
-
, ,

l ate W R o b ertso n S mi th d em o n str ate d 1 de sign ate d l an d that

.
,

n ee d e d n o irrigati o n an d a n u m b e r o f wo rd s d e rive d f ro m it s ro o t
,

are s ti ll applie d to pro c e sse s o f p alm — tree c ul ture Thu s athii r ‘

.

m e an s a ch ann el th at is d u g fo r th e pu rpo se o f irrigatin g a pal m

” “ ”
tree su ch as is c all e d b a al ; athr su ch as i s w ate re d by rain al o n e ;
' ‘

,
“ ” “ ” ”
an d athri du st e arth m ad I t th u s se em s pro b ab le
‘

, , or ,
.

that all these di vin e n am e s are de ri ve d f ro m te rm s whi ch at d iff e re n t

The R eligio n f the S em ites

1
o p 97 fi
, . .

2
E . W . Lan e , Arabi c Le xi co n , p 19 5 3 . .
 REL I GIOU S ORI G I NS 39

stages o f c v i iliz atio n were applied by th e an c ien t S emi te s to dei tie s

co n n e c te d w ith th e palm tre e an d its cu ltu re .

As A rab ia an d No rth Afri c a b e cam e m o re an d m o re d e sic c ated ,

the life o f th e se an c ien t trib es c e n tere d m o re an d m o re in the o a ses .

T he B e du co mi n g in fro m th e arid de sert to a gree n an d fru i tfu l

,
“ ” “
o asis wo u ld n atu rally say the frien d or th e self irrigatin g (o r ,
-

”
fru it pro d u c in g) go dde ss has h er abo d e h e re
-
Th at o asi s thu s .

be c am e to hi m a garden o f h is go d ; its waters an d tre e s vi sible repre ,

sent at ive s o f h is d e ities .

Wh en S emi ti c Origi n s w as wri tten the writer b e lieved th at the ,

ear li est fo rm o f S e mi tic so c ie ty w as m atri arc h a l an d th at th at so c i al ,

o rgan iz ati o n so m o u ld e d reli gio u s c o n ce p tio n s th at th e m o th er go d

de ss w as in th e earliest religio n su prem e

,
I n th e lap se o f ti m e,
.

fac t s then u n kn o wn h ave c o m e to ligh t whi ch n o w le ad him to thi n k

an o ther V i e w m o re pro b able B riefly th ese fac ts are as f o llo w s :
.
,

Th ere are three passage s in B abylo n ian lite rat u re which sho w
th at wate r w as regarde d as t e spe h rm at o o a o f th e go d s an d th at
z
1
,

th e ri se o f th e water in t he tw o gre at rivers whi c h irrigate that c o u n

try w as tho u gh t to b e d u e to se xu al u n io n b e twee n a go d an d an
e ar th go dd ess I n o n e case it w as E nl il an d Nim
. l il ; in an o the r
2
,

E n ki an d Nin tu (d) ; an d in t e t i rd case Nin girsu an d B au

3
h h 4
In .

the se c ase s th e m o th e r go dd ess re presen t s th e pro du c in g earth ,

all -

whi ch is m ade f e rtile

waters wh i ch are by th e tho u gh t o f as po u re d
fo rth by the go d as spe rm ato zo a is di sc h arge d by the h u sb an d in
m ari tal u n io n T he who le co n ce ptio n is so n ai ve th at it su rely m u st
’

h ave su rvi ve d fro m th e e arli e st tim e s I n th i s B abylo n i an c o n cep tio n .

t h e water is re garded as a m ale p rin c iple Th at the sam e w as tru e .

in A rabi a is in di c ate d b y the fac t th at in th at co un try Ath tar the ,

self w ate rer w as a m asc u li n e d e i ty

-
,
I t is pro b able th at in A rabia .
,

as in B aby lon i a the e arth go d d e ss w as at th at ti m e th o u gh t o f as a

,

1
Thi
is w h y th e sign a, w h ic h m e an s w ater in B ab ylo n ian , an d w as o rigin ally
s
‘ ’

th e p ic tu re o f a river o r c an al, also m ean s f ath er an d so n ; see th e w riter s Ori gi n and

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ’

D evelo pment of B abylon i an Wri ting ,

L e ipz ig , 19 13 , no . 5 21 .

2
S ee th e w riter
’
s M i sc ellaneo u s B abylo ni an I n scripti o ns , New H ave n , 19 18 , no . 4,

p 34 ff
.
.
.

Cf th e w riter s Arche olo gy

’
3
.
, p
346, an d f o r a tran slatio n o f
an d the B i ble, 6th cd . .
t

the p assage , The Amer ican J o urnal of heolo gy, X X I , p 5 8 1 T . .

4
Cf Gu d ea, Cy l B , c o l x vii , tran slate d in th e writer s R o yal I ns cripti o ns of S u mer
. . .
’

and Akk ad , p 25 1 f . .
140 S EM ITI C AND HA M ITI C ORIG I NS

mo the r b u t he r primi tive n am e has no t su rvive d ; w e o n ly k no w he r

,

u n de r s u c h e pi the ts a s Al La t the go dd e s s Al Uzza , the m igh ty

‘ ‘ ’
- -
, ,

’
o ne e tc
,
I t s ho u ld fu rthe r b e o b se rve d that it d o e s no t se e m im
.

p ro b ab le i d e a tha t wate r is a m ale e m anatio n m ay go b ac k

t ha t the

to th e far— o il ti m e w he n the H a m ite s a n d S e m ite s w e re o ne

p pe
e o l .

I n E gy p t t h e Ni le g o d H a p i w a s a m a le an d a f a the r go d l
I t h
, as ,
-
.

lo ng b e e n a pe rple x ing fac t t hat in the E gy pti an re l igio n Ge b the ,

e arth d e i ty w as m as c u line w hi le in all o the r k no w n re l igi o ns e x c e t

p
that o f the M ao ris the earth d e ity is fe m ini ne T he fac ts re c i te d .

ab o ve wo u ld s e e m to a fTo rd an e x planati o n o f thi s pe c u liari ty o f t he

E gy ptian re ligio n As sp rin gs are s itu ate d in the e arth and we re

.
,

lik e the Ni le m asc u line the sex o f the thing co n tai ned w as tran s
, ,

fe rre d to th e c o n tai ne r and so by m e to no m y the e arth be c am e m as ,

c u line .

At al l e ve n ts , w ate r w as m asc u line bo th in the tho u gh t o f th e

S emi tes an d in that o f the H am ite s an d acco rd i ngly in the p ro b le m , ,

o f o rigi n s w e m u s t se e k to e xp lai n ho w t he nam e c am e to b e ap plie d

,

at tim e s to fe m in in e d e iti e s T hi s d o es n o t m ean th at all the po si .

ti o n s tak e n in S emi ti c Origin s w e re mi s t ak e n as the re are still in ,

s ta n ce s in w hich fem al e d e i ti e s w e re tran s fo rm e d i n to m ales It

2
.

d o es m e an ho we ve r th at the pro b le m o f o ri gin s is m u c h m o re co m

, ,

p li c a te d t h a n t h e w ri te r th o u h
g t it to b e thi rty y e ars ago .

F ro m the fac ts as no w kn o wn to u s it wo ul d appe ar th at in the

pri mi ti ve S e mi tic religi o n the spi ri t o f th e sprin g ( th e self w ate re r)
-

w as m ale th e e arth go ddess w as fe m ale an d ve ge tat io n spiri ts w e re

, ,

re gard e d as the ir chi ldr e n We canno t no w de te rmi ne whet he r .

r o r ti r (A sh e rah ) w as in th e fir s t in stan ce a i e d to the e arth

’

Z , ppl
o r to t he t ree We o nl y kn o w that in later tim e it w as as so c iate d
.

wi th the tree o r po st and w as so m e tim e s m as c ul in e and so m e tim es ,

fem inin e I n thi s respe c t it re p rese n te d th e b i sex u al n atu re o f th e

.
-

palm t re e .

S id e by s id e w hi c h s eem to j u s tify
wi th th e f ac t s j u st no te d ,

th e co n clu sio n w e h ave dr awn it m u st b e rem e m be re d th at am o n g ,

th e No rt h S em itic peo ples wi th t h e e x ce ptio n o f M o ab an d , ,

in th e e arly tim e n o r th e rn P h oeni ci a th e d e iti es w hi c h b o re th e

, ,

1
S ee Wied emann ’
s Rel igio n f oA n c ithe
e n t E gyptia ns , pp
14 5— 14 7 . .

2
S u c h w ere all th o se masc u li n e B ab y lo nian d ei ties w h o se nam e s b egin w i th th e w o rd
N I N , lady ,‘ ’
as e .
g .
,
Nin gir su .
 REL I GI O U S O R I GI N S 41

n am e o f S elf waterer ( I sh tar Ash tart A sh to reth Atar) we re

the
‘
-
’
, , ,

all f em in in e I n o th e r wo rds in p rac tic ally all th e N o rth S e mi ti c

.

te rrito ry thi s n am e w as applie d to a f e m in in e d e ity I t will b e sho wn .

b elo w ( C hapte r VI I ) th at thi s d ifferen tiatio n in the sex o f the typ e

o f d e ity to whi c h thi s e pi th e t w as applie d to o k place in S o u th A rabi a

itself so that it is p ro b able th at that regio n w as the cradle lan d o f

,
-

th e No rth e rn S e m i te s as we ll as o f the S o u th e rn I t i s pro b able .

that am o n g th e No rth S em i te s th e typ es o f m arriage kn o wn as b een a

an d mo t a lo n g pre vaile d Th i s o rgani z atio n o f th e family an d th e
‘
.

sib o r c lan po ssibly pro du c e d a typ e o f so c ie ty whi c h pre fe rre d a go d

de ss as the su prem e dei ty S o j u st as th ere had b ee n a ten d en c y .

,

in th e primi tive S emi ti c ho m e to apply the term At hi r ( A sh er , ,

A sh era) in di scrimi n ately to go d s an d go dd esses so th e No rth ern ,

S emi tes gradu ally applied to a go dd ess a term which h ad o rigin ally
b een co in ed fo r a m as cu lin e de ity This di sti n c tio n w as m ain .

tain e d th ro u gh all l ater hi sto ry Am o n g th e S o ut hern Semi te s .

,

Ath tar (A star) w as a go d ; am o n g No rth e rn S em i te s Ashd ar ( I sh tar ,

Ash tart Atar) w as a go d d ess

,
.

Wh ile w e cann o t in th e presen t state o f o u r kno wledge trac e

, ,

amo n g th e Hami tes e x c ept in th e i n st an c e o f th e I sis O siri s c ul t al

,
-

re ad y c i ted (an d th i s u n d e rwe n t gre at tran sfo rm atio n in E gyp t ) ,

th e i n flu en ce o f th e primi tive c o n di tio n s wh i c h appear to b e well

e stabli sh e d fo r th e A rabi an d eser t th ey lef t th e i r m ark in m an y ,

way s o n th e later traditio n s o f th e S emi tes On e o f th e m o st n o te .

—
wo rth y o i these w as the sacre dn ess o f th e p alm th e tree o f life and —

th e c o n ce p tio n o f P arad i se .

I n th e bibli c al pi c tu re o f P aradi se in th e J do c u m en t ( Gen 2 .

4b —3 : 24) a n u m b e r o f differe n t e l em e n ts are c o m bi n e d F irst Y ah .

w eh is sai d to h ave fo rm e d m an f ro m th e d u st o f th e earth as th e

-

go ddess A ru ru fo rm e d E n ki du in th e Gilgam e sh e pi c Af ter t h at

1
“

h e fo rm ed th e ani m als b u t fin ally as n o an im al pro ve d to b e a su i t

,

able co m pan io n fo r m an h e f o rm e d wo m an I t i s im plie d th at b e

,
.

fo re th e c re atio n o f wo m an m an h ad co n so rte d wi th the ani m als

'

as in th e Gilgam esh e pi c E nk i du co n so rte d wi th th e ani m a ls

'

, ,
2
The .

1
Cf . J e nsen s
’
tran slatio n in E . S c hr ade r
’
s Keili nsc hrif tliche B ibli o thek , VI , 12 1, or

th e w ri te r
’
s Arc haeolo gy and the B i b le , 6th ed .
p 3 12,
. or R . C . T h o mp so n , The Gilgo
mish E pi c , Lo n d o n , 19 28 , p 10 . .

2
Cf E S c h rad er, o p
. . . c it.
, VI , 121, or R . C Th . o m p so n , The Gilgami s h E pi c , L o n d o n ,
19 28 , p 11 . .
142 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C O RIG I NS

m an wo m an are the n pu t in a garde n at the m o u th o f th e ri ve rs

a nd ,

appare n tly in th e ge ne ral re gio n o f Ur a n d E ri d u I n th i s gard e n

1
.

th e re is a tre e o f k no wl e d ge o f the f rui t o f w hic h the y are fo rb idd e n

,

to e at Te m pte d by the se rpe n t this pri mi tive p ai r ate o f thi s fo r

.

h id de n f ru i t and thei r e y e s w e re o pe ne d and th ey pe rc e i ve d tha t

th e y w e re nak e d B e fo re this the y had b ee n n u de in the p re se n ce
.
,

o f e ach o the r wi tho u t sh am e C learly this tale w as to l d to e xplai n .

,

am o n g o the r thi ngs ho w the k no wl edge o f s e x d aw ne d an d it at

, ,

t rib u te s th at k no wle d ge to the ac t o f e ati ng th e f rui t o f a tre e .

F ro m w hat w e have le arn e d o f the p alm t re e its ge ne ral d i strib u tio n , ,

its diffe re n ce o f se x and its e co no mi c i m po rtan c e to the S emi tes

, ,

th e s u gg e s ti o n th at the tree o f k no wl e dge w as a p alm tree li e s c lo se

to o u r han d T h is s u gge stio n is co n fi rm e d by a pi c tu re o n a B aby
.

lo nian se al w hi c h re pre se n ts the p ri m i ti ve m an and wo m an si tti ng

o n e i th e r s id e o f a p alm tre e f ro m w hi c h c l u s te rs o f d ates are ha n g ,

ing B e hi nd th e wo m an a s erpe n t stan d s e rec t o n h is tail appar

.

e n tly w hi spe ri ng in th e w o m an s e ar C riti c s h ave lo n g re co gn ize d

2 ’
.

th at in th e o ri gin al fo rm o f th e sto ry in Ge n e si s th e re w as b u t o n e
tree
— th e tre e o f kn o wl e dge As the tex t n o w stan ds the re is i n tro.

d u ce d i n to th e tex t ( see Ge n 3 : 22) a tree o f l ife Thi s w e tak e . .

to b e ano th e r i n te rpre tatio n o f th e m e ani ng o f the o ne t re e — th e

o ri gi n al p alm w hi ch w as so f ar as thi s w o rld w as c o n c e rn e d a real
, , ,

tree o f life to the S em iti c peo pl es T he J w ri te r e m plo y s the term .

“ ”
li fe he re in a s li gh tly di ff e re n t se n se to m ak e the s to ry ac co un t ,

fo r th e fac t that m an d o e s n o t live fo reve r b u t in do i n g so he b u t ,

1
I n th e d esc rip tio n of th e s itu a tio n o f P aradise in Ge n .
—14 ,
the name s of th e
Tig i r s an d E u ph rate s h ave b ee n lo ng re c o gniz e d , b u t th e na m es o f th e o th er tw o rive rs

h ave cau se d mu c h sp ec ul atio n I t is p ro b ab le tha t th ey are rep rese n te d b y th e Wady s ,

.

Karu n a nd Al B atin , w hi c h le ad i n to t h e
-
T
igr is E u phr ates valley ne ar the po in t w h ere -

at the d aw n of his to ry the rive rs fl o w ed i n t o th e P e rsia n Gu lf . At the d aw n of his to ry

an d i n p re his to ric t im e , th ese Wady s mu s t h ave c o n tain e d s tre ams o f c o n side rab le s iz e ;

se e C L Wo o lley , The S u me r ians , Ne w

. . o rk , 19 28 , p 2 T h e te x t Y . . of Ge n .
“
A
ri ve r w en t o ut of E d e n to w a te r th e gard e n ; an d f ro m th e n c e it w as p arte d an d b ecame
”
f o u r he ad s , has so m e tim es b ee n mis u n ders to o d b y s c h o lars , w h o h ave su ppo se d t h at

they m u s t lo o k fo r th e lo c at io n of P aradi s e at th e so u rc e o f th e Tig i r s an d E uph rates ,

an d ha ve ac c o rdi ngly so u gh t f o r it in Ar m e nia . Th e au th o r w as , h o w e ve r, d esc rib in g
th e w ay th at o n e w h o saile d o u t o f P aradi se w o u ld fi n d th e ri ve rs d ivid in g , an d b y th e
w o rd
“
h ea ds
”
h e d e signa te d the ir so u rc es . I t is o nl y so th at ri ve rs
“
di vi d e .
”
Th ey

do n o t split u p , as a ru le , f ro m a s in gle ri ve r in to man y .

2
Cf . W . H . Ward , S eal Cyli d n e rs o f Wes ter n As ia Washi ngto n , ,
190 8 , no . 3 88 , and

B art o n , A rchazo logy and the B i ble, F ig 29 3 . .

 REL IGIOU S O RIGI NS 143

d i ffe ren tiate s tw o aspe c ts o f th e i

c o n ce pt o n s wh i c h h is an cesto rs

had e n te rta i n e d o f th is o n e 1 —
i m po rtan t tree th e palm .

Th i s sto ry c am e to the Heb re ws fro m B abylo n ia Thi s is sho wn .

by the fac t th at h e c arefu lly place s Paradise at the co n flu en c e o f the

ri ve rs as do e s th e Gilgam e sh e pi c an d by t h e fac t th at h e c alls P ara
'

2
, ,

di se a garden a re al B abylo n ian te rm

W
’
In
‘
e ve r of
-
.
,

wh at w e h ave learn e d o f th e co nditio n s o f early S em i tic life it i s ,

n o t h ard to see b ac k o f th is bibl i c al n arrati ve wi th it s B abylo n i an ,

s e tti n g ane arli er s to ry in whi c h th e prim al m an an d wo m an are

,

dwellin g in an A rabian o asis an d wh e re wi th the aid o f th e serp e n t , ,

th e y gai n fro m the e xam ple o f th e d ivi n e tre e a kn o wle dge o f se x .

T o thi s o pen ing o f th e i r e yes th e m y th trac e d vario u s e l em en t s o f

‘ ’

c ivi lizatio n su ch as w hy m e n w e ar c lo th in g ; w hy man i s co mp elle d

,
/

to till th e e arth to wre st a livi n g f ro m it ; w hy pain ac co m pan ies

c h ild birth ; On e an o th e r ; w hy wo man
slik e sn ak es .

stran d s h ave
b een wo ven to ge th er It apt grAan d its B abylo n i an cou n terpart
.
,

wo m an is re presen ted as en ti c ing m an fro m in terco u rse with the

b easts ; in C h ap te r 3 th e serpen t a b e ast is re pre sen te d as u rgin g,
, ,

the u n io n o f m an an d wo m an T h e pu rpo se o f b o th re prese n tati o n s .

w as ho we ver to e xpl ain h o w m en cam e to attai n to a k n o wle d ge

, ,

o f sex an d ho w h o m e s ‘ n d so c i e ty w e re fo u n d e d T h e e ffe c t o f
'

tastin g th e di vi n e f ru it w as th at m an w as b ro u gh t to a k n o wle dge

o f go o d an d e vil ie an ho o d ; h e w as
‘ ’
. .
, ,

led to ado pt c lo thi n g ,

var o u si f e atu res o f c iviliz atio n . Thi s vi ew o f th e m e an in g o f go o d ‘

“
an d ev il ’
is co n firm e d by th e f ac t th at in D eu t 1 : . h avin g n o
”
kn o wled ge of go o d an d e v il is e qu ivale n t to n o t h avin g attai n e d
th e age o f
p u b ert y .

B u t w hy sho u ld the tree appe ar in the sto ry at all ? Why sh o u ld

its fru i t e ve n sym b o li c ally represen t the ac t o f m arital un io n ? T h e
an swer is, I b elieve to b e fo nd in th e f ac t that th e b egin n ings of
,
u
1
A p assage in th e Py ra mid T exts alre ady c ite d p re su p p os e s su c h a p aradi se
in E gyp tian th o u gh t T
his im plie s e ith e r tha t th e c o n cep tio n o f an o asis p aradis e
.

wi th th e p alm as th e tre e o f lif e is o lder th an th e sep aratio n o f th e H ami tes an d S e m ites,

or th at th e c o nc ep tio n w as c arrie d to E gyp t wi th th e I sis -
Osiri s c u lt .

2
Cf S ch rader, loc
. .
p 24 5 , an d B arto n , Archz olo gy an d the Bi ble, 6 th e d , p 3 39 ,
cit . . . .

also R . C ampb ell T h o mpso n , The E pic of Gilgamish, L o n do n , 1928 , p 5 3 . .

144 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

S e m i tic c v i i liza tio n w e re c o n ne c te d wi th the d ate pal m , that a

k no wle d ge o f the difl e re nc e o f se x in the se tre e s w as ac q u ire d at a
’

ve ry e a rly ti m e a nd tha t the m ar ve lo u s e fTe c t o n the palm s o f the

,

fe r ti liza ti o n w ro ugh t by t he wi n d appe are d to the e arly S e mi ti c

m in d as a divi ne e xh ib itio n o f se x u al fe rtiliza tio n a nd d i vi ne ap
ro v al o f i t T h us the tw o wo u ld b e c o m e asso c i ate d i n the S e m i ti c
p .
,

m ind and in ti m e the ac t w o u ld natu ra lly b e pi c tu re d as the fr u i t

,

o f the t re e T hat th is v ie w re pre se n ts the tru th is fu rthe r i ndi

.

c a te d by the fac t that in th e b ib lical n arrative c h e ru bi m a re plac e d

in th e gate o f the gard e n to pre ve n t th e re tu rn o f m an to his E de n o f

se x u al u n co n sc i o us n e s s T he c h e ru bi m w e re re pre se n tatio n s o f
.

th e wi n d s w hi ch bo re t he f ru c tifyi ng po l le n o f the m ale flo w e r s to

,

th e fe m ale an d th e i n tro d u c tio n o f the c h e ru bi m at thi s po i n t is th e

,

s u r vi val o f an e arlie r fe e lin g th at the c o n stan t e n ac tio n o f thi s

,

d ivi ne pro ce ss o f fe r ti liza tio n in the tree w hi c h s to o d in the gard e n ,

o r o asis o f hi s go d an d w hi ch su stai n e d li fe fo rce d m an o n w ard by ,

its d i vin e e xam ple to si milar ac ts w i th all thei r co n se q u e n ces T he .

e ve r pre se n t ch e ru b im o f th e palm k e pt ali ve h e tho u gh t the se xu al

-
, ,

p a ss i o n in h i m se lf w hi c h m ad e ab stin e n c e and a re tu rn t o w h at h e

re gard e d as p ri m itive a li fe in w hi ch wo m an play e d n o part)

i m po ssib le 1
.

As alr e ad y no te d a co m pari so n o f Ge n , wi th Ge n an d . .

re ve als th e fac t th at in th e o ri gin al fo rm o f th e s to ry o nly o n e

t re e is m e n ti o n e d T he tree o f life in the tw o last m e n tio n ed

‘ ’
-
.

v e rses is an ad d itio n
2
That su ch an addi tio n sho uld b e m ade to the
.

su b stru c tu re w e ha v e su ppo se d is sh o wn to b e ve ry n atu ral b y th e

fo llo wi n g fac ts T he i d ea o f a fu tu re life play e d n o i mpo rtan t part

.

in pri mi tive S e mi ti c th o u gh t T he life o f th e spiri t after d eath .

w as tho u g t h b y t h l
e B aby o n i an s
3
an d He b e w s to b e a c o lo rless
r
4

1
Th u s an Arab ic po e t d esc rib es an d ad d resses th e p alm
He lif ts his b eams in th e su nb ea m glan c e
“

As th e Al me h s lif t th e ir arms in dan c e ;

A s lu m b erso m e m o tio n , a passio nat e sigh ,
Th at w o rk s in th e c ells o f th e b lo o d lik e w in e .

0 t ree of
lo ve , b y that lo ve o f t hi ne
T ea c h me ho w I shall so f ten min e
”
.

S ee K B u d d e , Di e bi blische Urges chic hte , Giesse n , 1883 , p 53 ti

2
. . .
, an d C . H To y ,
.

J B L, ,
X
12 fl .

2
S ee th e po e m I sh ta r s esc e n t
’
D of w hi ch th e re a re ma ny t rans latio ns ; e .
g .
,

o ne is c o n ta ine d in B arto n , A rcha olo gy e

and the B i ble, 6th ed .
, p 5 29 ff
. .

1
F o r H eb re w th o u gh t cf I sa . .
—11 an d Ps . an d also Ez e 3 2
.
 REL IGI OU S ORI GI NS 145

an d u n d es ra i ble o n e , an d to th e Arab s o f the de sert th e i de a o f an

u n de r wo rld seem s h ave b w h lly l i

k g T he pro blem
1
to e e n o a c n .

whi ch in tereste d th em w as th e c au se o f pre sen t su ff e rin , an d n o t

g
th e p ro blem o f an i mm o rtal li fe As the th irst fo r an imm o rtal life .

aro se b u t b efo re th at li fe h ad b e e n ac c epte d as a fac t th e sto ry o f

, ,

the cau se o f hu m an su ff e rin g wo u l d n atu rally b e m o d ifie d to m ake ,

it ex plain w hy m an co u ld n o t li ve fo re ver Th i s i s th e fo rm o f it .

wh i ch lies b efo re u s in th e bo o k o f Gene si s As tim e passed a pro

. .

vis io n al i mm o r tali ty o f 5 00 years w as ac c e pte d b y so m e (E th E n o c h .

,

an d th e tre e o f kn o wledge d i sapp eare d f ro m E d en an d th e

tree o f life to o k its plac e (E th E n o ch 24 Thu s did He bre w .

, ,

tho u gh t tran sfe r th e sto ry f ro m an explan atio n o f to il to th e pro mi se

o f f u tu re re ward
2
Thi s tran sfer w as easy ; fo r in ano th er sen se
.
, ,

t h e tree w as to th e prim i tive S em i te alway s a tree o f li fe as we ll as

a tre e o f k n o wle dge T he parallel s whi c h the B aban i sto ry aff o rd s
.

to th e n arrative o f Gen e s i s vo u ch fo r the B abylo n i an derivatio n o f

the latter Thi s is also sho wn in the fac t that the garden is si tu
.

ate d in th e E as t ( Ge n an d that th e Ti gri s an d E u p hrate s

.

ri e s a e m e n tio n e d in co n n e c tio n wi t
v r r h it ( Gen 2
3
.

There are in th e E ab an episo de as has b een already po in ted o u t

i
f

, ,

featu res whi ch were d erive d fro m th e pri mitive co n d i tio n s o f S emi ti c
so c i al lif e Altho u gh these featu res have b een so m e wh at veiled in
.

the bibli c al n arrative the y are n e ve rth e le ss pre s en t an d th at n arra

, ,

tive also c o n tain s an o th e r prim i tive fe atu re wh i ch is still mo re pro m i

1
Cf . C . Grii n eisen , Di e Ahn en k u ltus di e Urreli gio n I sraels , H alle , 1900 , p 33
u nd . .

2
On th e vie w p re sen te d in th e t ex t th e hi sto ric al o rigin o f th e H eb rew idea s o f E d en
an d th e h e avenly parad ise o f Ne w eru salem J are as
m
f o llo w s : T h e p ri itive c o n c ep tio n s
o f a sac re d e n c lo su re , w h e re th e go d d w elt an d th e sac re d t ree w as , gre w o u t o f an

Arab ian No rth Af ric an , at a still e arlie r time ( see b e lo w )

o asis, o r p o ssib ly a his w as . T
tran sf e rre d to B ab y lo n ia, w he re it b ec ame a gard e n his c o n cep tio n w as tak en o ver . T
b y th e H eb re w s an d is rep re sen ted in Gen 2 an d 3 As tim e passe d o n an d e ru salem . . J
J
w as d estro y ed an d reb u ilt, th e e w ish id e al p asse d f ro m a gard e n to a c ity A garden .

may h ave b ee n th e h o m e in th e b egin nin g , b u t a c ity b e c am e th eir ide al f o r th e f u tu re .

As Apo c aly p ses w e re w rit ten an d th eir au th o rs so u gh t f o r image ry u n d e r w hich to

sh ado w f o rth th e ir h o pe s o f th e h e aven ly f u tu re , th ey so m e tim es to o k th e pic tu re o f

J
“

Ed en as d id th e au th o r o f E th E n o c h , 24 , 25 ; so me tim e s th e c ity o f eru salem , as did

.

th e au tho r o f Psal S o l 17 ; an d so m e tim e s th e tw o w e re c o m b in

. . e d as in th e Ap o c alyp se

of J o hn , w h e re it i s a c ity wi th tw elve gate s (c h . an d y e t it h as a river wi th a tre e of

lif e , i . e .
, a garde n (c h . Th us th e im age ry b o rn in p reh isto ric times in th e
.

Arab ian o asis w ith its p alm tre e app e ars , tran sf o rm e d an d e le vate d i t is tru e , b u t s till
app e ars o n th e las t p age s o f th e N e w T e stam en t .

3
S ee D e litz sc h s
’
W
0 L ag das Parodi es , L e ipz ig , 188 1, an d Hau p t, in Ueb er L and u nd

Meer , 1894—
95 , No . 15 .
146 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

ne n t . T he n arrat ve i in Ge n 3 . re p rese n ts Go d , m an , and th e se rpe n t

as fo rm i ng o n e so c a i l c i rc le . T he se rpe n t is w i se r than m an ; he
talk s to the wo m an a nd his po w e r o f s pe e ch cau ses he r no as to ni sh
,

me n t T he se el em e n ts o f the tal e m us t have tak e n shape in a pri mi

.

ti ve so c i e ty in w hi c h ani m als w e re re ally b el ie ve d to po sse ss su c h

po we rs ; l o it re fle c ts the c o nd i tio ns o f pri m iti ve S em i ti c and n o t
. .
, ,

o f H e b re w tho u gh t .

T he fac t th at in G e ne sis Yahw e h is re p re se n te d as fo rb idd i ng the

ac q ui si ti o n s o f the k no wl e d ge o f go o d an d e vi l o n th e p art o f man ,

has I thi nk no thi ng to d o wi th the p ri mi ti ve fo rm o f the sto ry ;

, ,

it is b u t the lo c al co lo ri ng gi ve n to the tal e by the Yahwi s ti c w ri te r .

Thi s w ri te r in th e sto ri e s o f C ai n and h is d e sc e nd an ts w hi c h fo llo w

, ,

attrib u te s the b e gi nn ings o f c i vi liz ati o n in e ve ry i n s tan c e to tho se

w ho d i so b e y e d Yah we h Wh e n he do es so in the narrati ve o f E d e n

.
,

he is b u t fo llo wi ng o u t his pre vail in g te n de n c y An o ppo rt u n i ty .

w as aflo rde d hi m to thu s i n te rp re t th e tal e by o n e o f the featu res

o f th e B ab ylo n i an s to ry p reserv ed o n a f ragm e n tary tab le t w h i c h

, ,

m ay fo rm a part o f the Gilgam e sh epi c This rep rese n ts B abani as .

c u rs ing Uk h at w ho had p ro mi sed to m ak e h im a go d an d w ho had

,

ins tead b ro u g t hi m to death

h 1
T hi s s to ry pro b ably re fle c ts the .

e vil e fle c ts o f the u n re s trai n e d sex u al p rac ti c e s o f the S em i tes as ,

do es al so that passage in the six th table t o f the e pi c w he re I sh tar s

’

lo ve is represen te d as so terri bl e th at she had smi tten and c ri ppled

all her h u sb an d s S u ch lo o se sex u al habi ts as tho se trac ed abo ve
.

wo u l d ne cess arily pro du ce ven ere al d i se ase and d eath an d su ch ,

d ire effe c ts mi gh t we ll b e i n te rp re te d as e vi de n c e o f the an ge r o f the

go d I n th e E ab ani e pi so de thi s vi e w is so far as w e can te ll n o t
.
, ,

E ab ani s an ge r is d ire c ted again st th e wo m an al o n e ; h e

’
tak e n .

do e s no t se em to b e co n sc io u s th at he h as an gered a go d Thi s .

l atte r in feren ce ho we ve r lay c lo se at han d an d co u ld hardly fail

, , ,

to b e m ade b y a w ri te r who se atti tu d e to ward c iviliz atio n w as l ike

that o f th e Yah wi st Si de by si d e wi th the B abylo ni an vi e w j u st
.

d escrib ed an d o lde r th an it w as an o the r wh ich attrib u te d c ivi li

, , ,

z a tio n to th e k n o wle d ge o f sex an d wh ic h re garde d b o th as a b le ss

in g Divi n e appro val w as m ani fe ste d th ro u gh the exam ple o f the

.

1
Cf Hau p t , N i mro depos , pp 16 , 17 , an d B A , V o l I , p p 3 18 , 3 19 ;
. . . . . . also J as tro w ,

R el igion of B ab ylo n ia and A ssyria, p 4 7 8 , and AJ S L , V o l XV , p 209 . , . . .

 REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 14 7

s ac re d tree , whi ch w as th e h o m e o f th e divi n ity .

I t is th u s o n ly

that w e c an ac co u n t fo r th e re fe re n ce o f c vil i izatio n to se xu al rela

tio n s, fo r th e sacre d c h arac ter attac h e d to tho se i

re lat o n s a m o ng
the S emites an d fo r the co n n ec tio n with th e sacred tree o f b o th
1
.
,

Ou r Vi ew o f th e o rigi n al fo rm o f I sh tar is co n firme d sin ce in the

p a lm t ree w hi c h g ro w s
,
by e v e ry A r ab ian sp ri n g an d wh i c h has ,

w h i m i h b i d A rab ia fi d h at th e S e mite
2
g ro n t e re s n ce a n n a t at e w e n t ,

saw th e em b o d i m e n t o f all th o se featu re s o f ve ge tab le an d an i m al

fe rtili ty wh i ch charac te riz e thi s primitive S emi tic c u lt an d wh i ch ,

fo u n d su ch e xp ressio n at a l ate r tim e in its reli gio u s prac ti ces an d

in it s m y tho lo gy .

Sin ce w e are led by su ch reaso ns to the se co n c lu sio n s it seem s m o st

.
.
,

n atu ral to fin d in th e rite o f c ir c u m crsio n w hi c h h as su r vi ve d am o n g ,

th e Arab s Aby ssin ian s Syrian s Ph oen i c ian s an d He bre w s a

, , , , ,

c o n firmatio n o f th em an d in th e m an e x plan atio n o f S emi ti c c ir

,

c u m c isio n C ircu m cisio n has been fo u n d am o n g m an y peo ples o f

.

th e w o rld an d is u su a ,
lly e xplain ed like tatto o i n g cu tti ng o ff a fin ge r ,

j o in t an d o th er m u tilatio n s as em b raci n g th e two fo ld idea o f o ff e r

, ,

in g a sac ri fi ce to th e go d an d fu rn i sh in g a trib al m ark by whi c h the

go d m ay easily kn o w h is fo llo we rs an d th e y m ay b e kno wn to e ac h
-

o th er Th at it had th i s latter fo r ce am o ng th e S emi tes is attested

.

by its histo ry am o n g th e He b re ws T he Yah wi sti c wri ter repr e .

sen t s Yah we h ( Ex 25 ) as tryin g to ki ll M o ses o r hi s so n as

.

tho u gh h e w e re o f a fo reign sto c k u n ti l Ge rsho m w as ci rcu m c ise d , ,

when Y ahweh d esi sted ; wh ile the prie stly writer regarded c irc u m
c isio n as th e sign o f Yah we h s co ve n an t wi th hi s peo ple ( Gen 17 : 10
’
.

12 Ex ,
. S u ch p as sages attest th e religio u s im po rtan c e o f
the ri te am o n g the I srae lite s an d th e stru ggle wh i c h S t P aul an d ,
.

th e early C h risti an s w h o tho u gh t like him we re co m p elle d to u n d er

t ake to gain em an c ip atio n is su ffi c ien t to m e n tio n n o o ther e vi den c e , ,

to sho w th e im po rtan ce attach e d to it by th e Je w s as th e vi sib le

1
Th e B ib lic al w riter rs in this rep rese n tatio n also
p arallele d b y an o ther B ab ylo ni an
“

tale , th e Ad ap a my th VI , pp 9 2 ( cf KB Vo l
. .
, . . T
his myth rep resen ts th e go d
E a as p reven tin g b y a d ecep tio n th e e atin g o f th e b re ad an d w ate r o f lif e (i e , th e . .

gaining o f imm o rtality ) b y a mo rtal Cf Gu n k e l, S ch ofi i n g u nd hao s , p 148 ff , an d

. .
‘

C . .

J as tro w , R eli gi o n o f B ab ylo ni a and Assyri a, p 549 fi . .

2
S ee Th e o b ald F isc h e r in P e te rmann s M z tthei lu n gen , E rganz u n u n gsb an d XI V ,
’

No 64 , p 11,
. . an d ab o ve , Ch ap te r IV, p . 115 .
148 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

si gn to the i r go d a nd to o n e He ro d o tu s an o the r o f the i r fide lity .

‘

m e n ti o ns the Sy ri an s and t n ic ian s amo n g tho s e w ho p rac ti se

c i rc u m c i io b u t o f the d e tai ls o f its p rac ti ce am o ng the m w e k no w

2
s n ,

no thing Of its p rac t ic e amo ng the an c i e n t A rab s w e have f u lle r

.

i n fo rm ati o n I t is m e n tio ned by J o se phu s an d S o zo m e n as a p rae

.

ti c e o f the no rthe rn A rab s an d by Ph ilo sto rg iu s as a p ra c ti c e o f the ,

S ab ze an s 1
S haras tan i m e n tio n s it as o ne o f th e p rac ti c e s w hi c h
.

I sl am co n firm e d as a re ligio u s d u ty ‘
T he w ay in w hi c h it is o h .

se rve d in A rabi a at th e p re se n t ti m e atte s ts the tru th o f thi s s tate

m e n t A mo ng the B e daw i it is the o c ca sio n o f a fe ast at w hi c h the

.

ri te is pe rfo rm e d o n c h ild re n o f thr e e f u ll y e ars T he re is d anc i ng .

o n th e part o f th e m ai d e n s w h il e the yo u ng m en stand ab o u t an d ,

se l e c t f ro m the d an c i ng th ro ng th ei r wi ves A shee p is sac rifi ce d .

,

its fl esh co o k e d an d e ate n ne ar su n do wn at a fe ast w h il e the e n ,

trai l s ar e l e f t hangi ng o n a t ro phy b u sh o r s ac red tree A fter th e ,

.

fe as t the d an c i ng b egi n s agai n and co n ti n u e s i n to the e ve n i ng l s

.

Am o ng o the r Arab s it is the c u s to m to m ake the c hil d ri de o n th e

back o f the sacrifici al shee p 6
At M ecca th ere still e xi sts a si milar .

c u s to m o f perfo rm i ng c irc u m c i si o n in c o n n e c ti o n wi th a sac rifi c i al

fe ast 7
.He re the o pe ratio n is p erfo rm e d fro m the thi rd to the
s eve n th year an d i s perfo rm e d o n fem ale c h i ld re n as w e ll as u po n
,

m ale .

T he c rc um stan ce s u n d er
i whi c h it is p erfo rm e d in
A rabi a po i n t
to the or i gi n o f c rcum c sio n as a sac ri
i i fic e to the d e i ty o f fe rtili ty ,

by whi ch th e chi ld w as plac e d u n de r he r p ro te c tio n an d its re pro

“
1 Fo r a c o nc ise sk e tc h o f th e h isto ry of the ri te in I srae l se e the artic le c irc u m

c isio n
”
b y M ac ali ste r in H astin gs
’
Di ti c o nary o f the B ib le, or b y Be nz inge r in th e E n
F o r the Ab y ss ini an c u s to m , c f Wy ld e s M odern Abyssi n ia, p 16 1
’
cyclo ped ia B iblic a . . . .

Ci r c u m cis io n is s ti ll p rac tis ed b y Ab y ss inian h ris tian s in e rusale m , c f Go o d ric h C J .

F ree r, I n ner J erus al e m, p 121 . .

Bk II , ch 104
2
. . .

J
'

3
An t I , 122; S o z o m en , H E
o se ph u s , . . .
, V I , 3 8 ; Ph ilo sto rgiu s, H E . .
,
III , 4 . Cf .

No w ac k s Archaeologie , V o l I , p 16 7
’
also . . .

’
4
S ee Haarb rii c k e r s tran slatio n S h arastan i, V o l I I , p 3 5 4
of . . .

5
Do u gh ty
’
s Arabia D es erta, I , 340 , 3 4 1 .

D o u gh ty , o p . c it .
,
I , 39 1 .

M ekk a I I 14 1—143 Amo ng the Hamitic S o ma lis

’
7
S ee S n o u ck H u rgro n je s , ,
. of

E as t Af rica , w ho are d ee ply pe ne t rate d w i th Arab ic in u en c e , b o y s are c irc u mc is e d a t fl

se ve n y ea rs o f age , an d gir ls are infib ulated at t e n The h air is c u t sh o rt at th e same .

tim e , so th at a lo n g hai red p e rso n an d an u nc ircu mc ise d are ide n tical

-
. Cf R e in isc h ,
.

S o mal i S prac he, pp 110 , 111, e tc ; B d I o f his S uda rab ische E xped itio n
-
. . .
‘

. Wien , 19 00 ,
 REL I GIOU S ORI G I NS 14 9

du c tive po w ers co n se c rate d to h e r se rvi ce T h e slau gh ter o f the .

sh e e p w as o rigi n ally n o t si mply fo r do m e stic pu rpo se s, sin c e all

slau gh ter o f do m e sti c

im al s w as sacrifi cial Th e co n se c ratio n an .
1

1d by su ch an o ff eri n g in add i tio n to th e regu lar sac rific i al

'

o f the ,

vi c tim is paralle l to th e sacrifi ce o f c h asti ty by wh ic h wo m en co n

,

sec rate d th e i r wo m b s to th e go dde ss o f c h i ld b e ari n g at B ab lo n i a

y
an d B yblo s
2
I n the dan c e an d th e selec tio n o f fu tu re wive s by th e
.

y o u n g A ra b s in th e B e d aw i ri tu al w e se e a su r v i va l in a pu rified fo rm

o f an o ld lo ve f e ast su eh as m u st h ave ac c o m pan ie d in o n e fo rm o r

,

an o th er all th e f easts o f the S em i tic m o th er go dde ss an d to wh ich ,

Au gu stine an d E phraem b e ar w itn ess it O riginal ly c irc u m c i sio n

seem s to have b een a prep arati o n f o r co nn u b ium I ts tran sfe r
4
.

to inf an c y m ay as W R S m i th su ggests h ave b ee n a l ater d e ve lo p

5
,
. .
,

m en t Ci rc u m cisio n thu s re ceive s fo r th e S emi ti c peo ple s a fitting

.

exp l an atio n an d an e xplan atio n n o t o u t o f h arm o n y wi th th at

,

u su ally gi ven it by m o d ern s cho lars fo r o th er pe o pl e s .

Circu m c i sio n w as also prac ti sed by the Egypti an s at a very e arly

date w ho perfo rme d the ri te o n yo u th s o f m arriage ab le age
6
,
"
an d H ero do tu s w as so i m pressed by th ei r prac ti ce o f it th at h e

c l ai m s th at o th e rs l earn ed it f ro m them A c co rding to S trab o the y

8
.
,

like th e m o de rn M e c c an s c irc u m c ise d b o th men an d wo m e n 9

The ,
.

Gallas an o ther Hami ti c trib e also prac ti se it

,
” I t wo u ld thu s ( ,
.

seem th at th e ri te h ad its o ri gi n in th e H am ito S emi ti c c radle l an d 1 - -

,

while th e tw o sto c k s were still o n e peo ple .

I n a sy stem o f religio u s tho u gh t in wh ic h th e sexu al fu n c tio n s o f ,

th e ani m al wo rld fo u n d a co u n terpart an d an apo th eo si s in th e pro c

esse s o f th e sac re d tree an d in whi c h f re e l o ve w as at ce rtain tim es ,

a re li gi o u s d u ty wh at m o re n atu ral th an th at th e organ s o f repro

,

S ee S m ith the S emi tes , 2d cd pp 234 , 24 1, an d 3 0 7

’
1
s R eligio n o f .
, . .

2
Hero do tu s, I , 199 , an d Lu ci an
’
De S yri a
s Dea, 6 Cf H eb rai ca,
. . X , 21 an d 31.

3
Cf E ph rae m , Opera,
. I I , 4 5 8 , 4 5 9 ; Au gu stin e , De Ci i t t v a e Dei , II , 4 ; also H ebrai ca,
X ,
5 1, an d 5 9 .

Cf Gen 3 4, and also E x 425 , w h e re c ircu m c isio n is c o nn e c ted w i th th e ide a o f

4
. . .

b ridegro o m
‘ ’
.

K
5
Cf R el . . o f S em , 2 c d
. .
, p 3 28 ;. Wellhau sen , H eid en tu m, 2 e d .
, p 17 5
. .

6
E b ers, Aegypten u nd di e B uc her M o ses , I , 283 .

7
S ee W M ax M ulle r, E gyptolo gical R esearches, Washi n gto n , 19 06 , 1, Pl 106
. . .

3
Bk . I I , 104 ;
9
S trab o , B k . XVI I . 25 .

1° M ac alister in H astings Dictio n ary of the B i ble I 444 ’

, , .
15 0 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

d u c tio n sho u ld b e pl ace d u nd er the c are o f the tu te lary d i vi ni ty by

s u c h a sac ri fi c e ? I ndee d the A rab s o f to d ay w ho a re m u c h wi th , ,

fl o ck s and he rd s de clare tha t o n ly in m an is an i m pe dim e n t l ik e the

,

fo re ski n fo u nd an d they wo n d e r ho w it is po ss ib le fo r re pro d u c ti o n

,

to o c c u r am o n g u n c i rc u m c i se d C h ri s ti an s 1
Po ssib ly the i r re m o te .

S e m iti c an c e sto rs re aso ne d in the sam e w ay an d so c o n ce ive d the ,

n e c e ss ity o f m aki ng th i s sac rifi c e to th e go dde ss o f p ro d u c ti vity ,

that the y as w e ll as o the r c re a tu re s m i gh t re c e ive the b le s s ing o f

fe rti li ty .

Tru m b ull has co l le c te d a c o nvi nc i ng arr ay o f i n s tanc e s o f the

sacred c har ac te r o f th e th re sh o ld am o ng the B aby lo n ian s Ph oen i ,

cian s H e b re w s an d A rab s
,
2
w hi ch p ro ve th at the th re sh o ld amo ng
, ,

the S e m i te s as am o ng peo ple in m any parts o f th e w o rld had the

, ,

san c ti ty o f an alta r T he ex plan atio n w hi c h T ru m b u l l o fle rs fo r the

.

sacr e dn e ss o f the thre sho ld t hr o u gho u t the wo rld is th at pri mi ti ve

m e n e ve ryw he re m ak e by so m e c o mm o n psy c ho lo gi cal p ro c e ss a

, ,

co nn e c ti o n b e tw e e n th e rel ati o n b e tw e e n th e thre sho l d an d doo r

po st o n the o ne han d and the re l ati o n o f the sexes o n th e o th er

1
.
,

T he resu lt o f o u r i n ve stigatio n i n to S emi ti c re li gi o u s o ri gi n s c o n firm s

th i s co n c lu sio n in so far as it appli e d to th e S emi tes A p eo pl e w ho .
,

lik e th em attrib u ted to the sex u al rel ati o n th e b e gi nn i n gs o f in te lli

,

g e n t li f e th e k
,
n o wl e d ge o f c l o th i n g ag r i c u l tur e a n d t h e a r t s o f , ,

c ivi lizati o n an d w ho ,
in the ir co n ce p tio n s o f d i vi n i ty an d in the i r
,

reli gi o u s ri te s gave s u c h pro mi n e n ce to sex u al re lati o n s an d f u n c

,

tio n s w o u ld m o st n atu rally in ve st th e thresho l d the app ro ach to the

, ,

te n t o r ho u se w here the f rui ts o f the se d ivi n e ly o rd ain e d fu n c tio n s

were sh eltered wi th so m e thi n g o f the san c ti ty o f the f u n c tio n i tself
,
.

Thi s wo u ld b e e spe cial ly e asy fo r early m an as so o n as any stru e

tu re b eyo n d a m ere te n t fo rm e d hi s d we llin g T h e o ld S e m itic .

do o r so ck e ts an d po sts wo u l d by th ei r ve ry fo rm re adi ly su ggest th e

o rgan s o f f e r tili ty No do u b t th e n asb o r mo sse b o w hich bo re a
.
,

ge n e ral resem b lan ce to a phallu s afterw ard b e cam e th e sym bo l o f ,

S emi ti c deity fo r a simi lar reaso n .

Up righ t sto n e pillars so m e tim es stan din g alo n e so m etim es ar , ,

ran ge d in c ir cl e s o f gilgals an d so m e tim es arran ge d so th at tw o su p ,

1
D o u gh ty
’
s A rab ia D es erta , I , 341 an d 4 10 .

2
The Th res ho ld C ovena n t, P hil adelphi a , 1896, pp . 108—164 .

2
Op . c it .
, pp . 19 3—203 .
 RE L I GIOU S ORI GI NS 15 1

po rt a ho rizo n tal sto n e , thu s m akin g a men hi r , are fo u n d in Japan ,

I n dia Persia the C au c asu s the C rim ea B u lgaria ; al so in Palestin e

, , , , ,

Tripo li Tu n i s Algeria M o ro c co M alta S o u thern I taly S ardin ia

, , , , , , ,

C o rsi c a the B e learic I sles Spain Po rtugal F ran ce the B ri tish

, , , , ,

I sle s S c an dinavi a and the Germ an sho re s o f the B alti c 1 As a ru le

, ,

th ese m o n u me n ts are fo u n d n o t mo re th an a hu n dre d m i le s fro m the

se a Whe ther they were all ere c te d by o ne rac e o f m en w ho m i
.

d by h b pp d r wh e ther th e c u sto m w as
2
g ra te s e a a s as e e n su ,
o se o ,

b o rro wed fro m peo ple to peo ple w e do no t kno w Where th e ,

.

c u sto m o f e re c ti n g su c h pillars fi rst o rigi n ate d is e qu al ly ve il e d f ro m

us .Clearly su c h pillars were in Pale stin e b efo re the co ming o f the

1

He b re ws w ho ado pted th em fro m the ir predece sso rs b u t it is n o t

, ,

so c lear th at the y w e re in No rth A fri ca b efo re th e Hami te s The .

E gyptian o be li sk w as d e ve lo ped o u t o f su ch pillars by a gradu al

p ro cess o f e lo n gatio n wh i ch m ay b e trace d in mo nu m en tswh i ch have
su rvi ve d
3
I n E gypt the m o n
. u m en ts seem to have b een tho u gh t

o f in the hi s to ri c al perio d as ph alli o f th e su n go d P o ssibly the -

.

—
Ham ite s fo u n d them ready to th eir h an d su rvivals o f the han di
wo rk o f an in terglac ial race o f men The E gyp tian u se o f them .

in dic ates that the Ham ite s like the S em ite s re garde d them as sym, ,

bo ls o f their dei tie s o f fertilrty ; an d gave them a place in the o rgani

z atio n o f the re ligio u s ri tes whi c h c o n sti tu te d th e wo rship o f th e se
'

go d s .

In S emi ti c life re ligio u s an d so c ial the ho g o r re ligio u s festival

all , ,

has alway s playe d an impo rtan t p art Amo ng the an cien t Heb rews .

th e re we re th ree su c h fe stival s wh i c h all re ade rs o f th e B ible will

.

re adi ly re c all
— the P asso ve r n e ar the ve rn al e qu i n o x th e fe ast o f
, ,

Week s at the en d o f the h arve st seven we e k s af ter t he P asso ve r , ,

an d t h e fe ast o f I n gat h eri n g o r T ab em ac le s at th e tim e o f th e grape

harvest in th e se ven th m o n t h Of th e se re cen t b iblic al sc ho lars

.
,

regard th e first o n ly as pri m i tive an d ho ld that th e o th e r s we re agri ,

c u ltu ral f e sti vals ado p te d by th e I srae li tes af te r th e se ttlem e n t in

Archaeo lo gy and the B i ble, 6th c d , p 14 7 , fo r refe ren c e s to d iff eren t

’
1
S e e th e w rite r s . .

so u rce s o f inf o rm atio n .

2
S ee Ann als A h l d A h l l V i l 13 112—128
f ro
c aeo o gy an n t ro p gy,
o o V o ,
L ve rp o o ,
19 , pp . . .

3
S ee B o rc h ard t, Di e Grabden k mal des K o n i gs Ne u ser— re, 190 7 , an d Bre asted , H i story
‘ '

f
o E gypt, Ne w Y
o rk 1909 , p 124 ,
, . also th e w ri ter
’
s A Y ear ’
s Wand eri ng i n B i ble L ands ,
p 236
. F o r th e
. f u lly develo pe d ,
e lo n gate d o b elisk m any o th e r w o rk s m igh t b e c ited .

I t is, h o w e ve r, do u b tless f amiliar to e ve ry re ade r .

 15 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

C an aan T he re is m u c h e vide nce ho we ve r to sho w that tw o o f

.
1
, ,

th ese th re e fe s ti val s have th e i r ro o ts in pri mi ti ve S e m i ti c p rac ti ce s ,

an d that w ha t the se ttl e m e n t in C an aa n d id fo r the m w as n o t to

o rigi n ate them b u t to gi ve the m a n e w i n te rp re ta tio n

,
All s ch o l ars .

agree that the p asc hal po r ti o n o f t he P as so ve r fe s ti val as di s ti n ,

g u ishe d f ro m the u nle ave ne d b re ad fe atu re s o f it exi ste d in the ,

no m ad i c li fe o f pre C an aan itish d ay s This sa c rifi c e o f a shee p

-
.

o c cu rr ed in th e m o n th Ni sa n i e in th e sp ri ng o r at the be gi nning ,
. .
, ,

o f th e O rien tal s u mm e r S im ilarly in Cy pru s as w e l earn f ro m .

,

Jo han nes Lydu s a s ac rifi ce o f a sheep w as m ade to Ash tart T hi s

2
,
.

o c c u rred al so in the spring o n th e se co n d o f Ap ril I n B abyl o ni a ,

.

th e re w as also a Ne w Year s festi val w hi c h w as hel d in Ni san

’
, ,

w hi c h at diff e re n t ti m e s and in di ffe re n t pl ac es w as asso c i ate d

, ,

wi th d ifle re n t go d s Wh e n w e c an fir st trace it in the day s o f .

G u dea it is the fe sti val o f B an o ne o f the m o the r go ddesses i n to

,
“
, ,

w hi ch a p rim i ti ve mo the r go dde ss had de velo ped in the p e culiar

B abylo n ian co nd itio n s 4
L ate r in co n se qu en c e o f the fo rces whi c h
.
,

“
w ro u gh t the d evelo pm en ts d esc ribe d b elo w it appears as a feast o f ,

“
M ar d uk o f B abylo n I n th e e arli e r ti m e w hen w e can trace it as a
.

fe sti val o f the go ddess the o fferi ngs w ere lam b s sheep ca ttl e e tc , , , ,
.

Wellh au sen Ro b ertso n S mi th an d Wi n c kler have sho wn that in

, ,

Ar abi a th e festival in th e mo n th R agab o rigi nally co rrespo nde d bo th

in ti me an d in charac ter to the se sp rin g festi vals am o ng the o ther
S emi tes 7
T w o charac te ri sti cs are c o mm o n to all the se fe sti val s
.

th e y o c cu rre d in the spri ngt im e an d the y i n vo l ve d the sac rifi ce o f

lam b s In A rabi a the do m esti c ani m al s b ri ng fo rth o n ce a y e ar
.
,

1
Wellh au se n , P rolegomena z u r Geschi chte I sraels , 5 th ed
1899 , p 9 1; R este arab.
, .

is che H eid entu ms , 2d c d , p 9 8 ; W R o b e rts o n . . . S mith , Prophets of I s rael, 2d e d , pp 38 , 5 6, . .

an d 3 84 , also Old es ta men t i n the ewi s hT hu rch, 2d J C cd .

, pp 240 , 269 ; H arding in
.

Has tings ’
D i ti c o na ry o f the B i ble , I , 8 60 ; an d B u d de , R el igio n of I srael to the E xi le, p 7 3 . .

2
Cf his De M ens i bus , Bk IV , 4 5 ,
. . an d H eb raica, X ,
45 .

“ ee
S KB , V o l I II , pp 5 9 , 6 1, 69 ,
. . an d 7 1; also J astro w
’
s R el igion f
o B ab ylo n ia
an d Assyri a , pp 5 9 an d 6 7 7 E
. .

4
S ee b elo w , Ch ap te r VI I I .

Ch ap ter VI I I .

KB .
, . J
V o l I I I , p 15 , an d as tro w , Reli gi o n of B abylo n i a and Assyria, p 6 7 7
. . .

7
We llhau se n , R es te arabis che H eid entu ms , 2d ed , p 9 7 fi : R o b e rts o n S mi th , . . .

Rel igio n f
o the S emi tes , 2d cd .
, p 227 ff ;
. an d Win c kle r ,
Alto ri en tal i sc he F o rschu ngen ,
2te R eih e , V o l I I , pp 3 24—3 5 0 , e spe c ia lly p 3 44
. . . . On th e c h arac te r o f t he o ff e ri n gs

at th e R agab fe as t, cf S mi th , i b id , 11 . . .
 RE L I G IOU S ORI GI NS 53

an d th e yean ing time is in th e

Ex 34 the Yahwi sti c spr n gi .
1
In .
,

D e calo gu e the earliest o f existing He brew l awbo o ks this spring

, ,

festival is co nn e c te d wi th the gift o f fi rstlin gs to Yah we h (vv 18

, .

There c anb e little do u b t m V 1ew o f the se fac ts that o rigi nally th e , ,

n o m ad i c S em ites kept a sp ri n g festi val to th e m o the r go dd e ss o f

fertili ty T he l am b s ki ds an d yo u n g c am els we re he r gif ts an d to

.
, , ,

her it w as right that a j o yo u s feast sho u l d b e held in ho n o r o f her

g r a c i o u s b le ssin gs .

T he c i rc u m c i sio n fe stival s whic h were wi tn e sse d by D o u ghty o c

cu rre d at th e sam e tim e o f th e ye ar
?
The se feasts are still aeco m
p a n i e d a s w e,
n o t e d a b.
o v e by th e sa c rifi c e o f a sh ee p t h e d
,
an c in g o f ,

g i rl s a n,
d t h e se l ec ti o n o f wi v es W e c an n o t t h e r e fo re b e f ar .
, ,

wro ng in regard ing th em as a su rvival o f thi s o ld sprin g festival As .

already po i n ted o u t E phraem an d Au gu stin e d esc rib e d th e f e sti val

,

o f th e S em i ti c m o th er go dd e ss as it w as kn o w n to th em , as l e w d 3 ,
.

O riginally th erefo re the spri ng fe stival w as ac co mpan i ed by th e

, ,

r i
sac fi c e o f m a i d e n vi u e
r t — a sac rifi c e o u t o f wh i c h gre w th e c u sto m

de scribed by He ro do tu s as we ll as th e sac rifi c e o f th e fo re skin o f

4
,

yo uth s P ro bably ac ts o f free lo ve o n the part o f all were al so a p art

.

o f t e p i mi tive it a
h r r u l 5
.

T he sprin g fe stival in thi s f ar o ff pri me val ti me w as the n an o c -

casio n wh en th e m o th e r go ddess w as ho n o re d by sac ri fi c e s to h er o f

so m e o f all her m an y gi f ts o f an i m al f e rtili ty in the w ay s whi c h w ere

,

tho u gh t to b e ple asin g to h e r T h e ti m e w as appro pri ate sin ce sh e .

,

w as re ve aling in th e spri ng h er po we r th ro u gh the o ff sprin g o f th e

flo c ks an d herd s thro u gh th e flo wering date p alm s where h er ac ts o f
,

fe rtilizatio n w e re takin g place an d thro u gh th e n atu re whi c h sh e ,

had given m en .

S b the in fan t w as c o n se crate d to he r servi c e by c i rcu m c i sio n t h e ,

m aiden by th e sac rifi c e o f h er c h asti ty an d all b y ac ts o f free lo ve ,

.

At the sam e ti m e th e b o n d s o f trib al kin ship w ere m o re c lo sely kn it

by the co mm en sal m e al whi ch w as no do u b t ac co mpan ied by bo i s ,

1
D o u gh ty ’
s Arabi a D es erta, I , 429 .

2
D o u gh ty ’
s Arabi a D eserta, I , 3 40—3 42 .

3
E ph raem , Oper a , I I , 458 ff .
, an d Au gu stine , De Ci oi tate Dei , B k . II , 4 . Cf .

Heb raica, X , 51 an d 59 .

4
B k I , 199
. . Cf H ebrai ca,
. X ,
20 .

5
S u ch , as I tak e it , w as the o rigin al mean ing of the d an ce d esc rib e d b y D o u gh ty ,

ib id .
, p 3 41
. .
15 4 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

te ro u s man i fe s ta tio n s o f jo y ,by so ngs w hi ch wo ul d b e ex trem ely

and

c o arse w he n j u dge d by the m o re re fi ne d s ta nd ard s o f late r age s .

We llhau se n has made it to le rably c l e ar that in the pre I slami c -

d ay s th e A rab s d i vi de d the y e ar ro u ghly i nto hal ves and that the 1

,

s e c o n d hal f w hi ch o ri gi nally b e gan in the au tu m n w as i n au g u rate d

by the S a far fe sti val as the o the r hal f w as by the R agab festi val .

Thi s feas t he c o ordi nate s w i th the He b re w feast o f T ab e m ac les ,

w hi ch c ame in the m o n th Tish ri an d w hi ch re prese n te d to the Pal e s

ti n i an H e b re w s th e c o n cl u s io n o f th e grap e gathe ri ng Exi ste nc e .

o f pi c to ri al e vide n c e o f t h i s fe as t is fo u n d in B abylo ni a I ts ce le .

b ratio n is ac tually pi c tu re d o n a seal f ro m Ur z

T he charac te r o f .

thi s fe as t amo ng the p ri mi ti ve S em i tes it is no t hard to gu ess T he .

“
harves t o f th e date pal m c o m es at j u st thi s ti m e w he n the A rab s ,

gi ve the m sel ve s to glad n e ss an d ho spi tali ty an d th e n o m ad s vi si t

‘
,

th e o ases to lay in a s u pp ly o f d ate s fo r th e wi n te r “

We cann o t .

do u b t b u t th at in an c i e n t ti m e s su ch an o cc asi o n w as m ad e a festi val

to th e go dde ss o f the p al m tre e o r that it w as c h arac te rized by o rgi e s
su c h as w o u l d b e fi t the re j o i c i ngs o f a p eo pl e po sse ssi ng s u c h a

so c i al o rgan izati o n an d pe rvade d by su c h reli gio u s i d e as I n the .

e arli est ti m es the o ases w e e hi mas

r “ o r t rac ts sac re d to the go d s ; ,

th e gath eri ng o f the d ates to o k place th erefo re in a sac re d trac t as

well as fro m a sac red tree an d wo u l d ac co rd i ngly b e n atu rally re
garde d as a re li gio u s ac t Thi s au tumn festi val s till su rvi ves in
.

Aby ssin i a I t has b een C hri sti anize d an d is called M ascal o r the
.
,

C ro ss I t is c el eb rate d in S eptem b e r an d a part o f its ri tu al ia

.
,

c la d e s th e li gh ti n g o f fires o n h i gh pl ac e s b e fo re d awn w h e n o x e n ,

are slau gh tered as in a h e athe n fe sti val I t is ce l e b rate d to o wi th .

, ,

d an ci n g d ru mm in g an d pl ayin g the si stra d u ri ng th e w h o l e n i gh t

, ,
7
.

C o n si d e rabl e e lem e n ts o f h eathe nish ri te s h ave e n tere d i n to all the

1
R es te arabis c he H e identu ms , 2d ed .
, p 9 6 ff. . Cf . Win c k ler ,
Altor ie ntalische F or
sc hu ngen , 2te R e ih e , V o l I I , p 344 , w h o mak e s th e s ame di vi sio n
. . as We llhau se n ,
b ut
mak es it b egin wi th M u h arram , th e m o n th b efo re S afar .

2
S e e M u s eu m J o ur n al , S ep t —D ec
19 29 , p 29 5 , seal n o 80 . . . .

3
D
S ee D o u gh ty s Ara bia eserta , I , 5 5 7 an d 5 6 1; also Z w e m e r s Arabia , p 125
’ ’
. .

4 ’
T
Wells ted s ravels i n Arab ia, II , 122 .

D o u gh ty , i b id .
, as n . 3 .

S mi th
’
R eli gio n the S emi tes , 2d cd 2 4 2—144 , an d 15 6- 15 7 ; Wellhau se n
s f
o .
, pp 11
.
,
1 ,

H eid entu ms , 2d cd p 105 if

.
, . .

7
S e e B en t
’
s C
S ac red ity of the E thio pian s , pp 5 3 , 83 , 84 . .
 REL IGIOU S ORI G I NS 55

ph ases of th e ritu al o f the Aby ssin ian c h u rc h , b u t it i s no t diffi cu lt

to d e te c t the so u rc e when ce th is f east h as co m e .

Of a th ird f estival w e xisted in

c an n o t be so co n fiden t . If it e

p r im i tiv e tim es it m u s t h a v e b ee n co n n e c te d with th e o d Tamm u z

, g .

Traces o f a fe stival o f the go d Tam mu z pre c ed ed b y wailin g fo r him , ,

are fo u n d in B abylo n ia P alestin e an d P h oen i c i a I t appears fro m

, , .

“
the p o e m kno wn as I sh tar s D e scen t th at there w as in B aby ’
,
“ "
lo n i a a day o f Tamm u z 1
I t is u su ally he ld sin ce th e fo u rth o f
.
,

th e B abylo n ian m o n th s b o re th e n am e o f thi s go d th at it w as th e n ,

th at hi s fe stival w as ce le brate d an d Jastro w o n thi s b asis h o l d s ,

th at it w as a so l ar fe sti val c e l e b rate d in th e fo u rth m o n th at th e

“

appro ac h o f th e su mm e r so lsti ce H e like m an y o thers c o nn e c t s

?
, ,

thi s fe ast wh ich w as pre ce d e d by w

,
ailin g f o r th e d e ath o f th e go d
“
an d ce le b rate d b y re j o ic i n gs at h is resu rre c t i o n as si gn ifi c an t o f th e ,
’
ann u al d e ath o f v e ge tatio n wh i ch o n J astro w s in terp re tatio n wo u ld,

b e du e to t h e bu rn in g h eat o f th e su mm e r su n I t appe ars h o w e ve r .

, ,

th at in Ph oen i c ia an d P ale stin e th e festival w as c e le b rate d n o t in th e

fo u rth b u t i n th e six th m o n th E z ekiel (c h 8 ) date s it acco rdin g
1
. .

to th e Masso re ti c te x t at th at tim e tho u gh the LXX plac e it in th e ,

fif th m o n th M an y m o dern sch o l ars fo llo w th e LXX b u t as it

.
, ,

seem s to m e wi tho u t su ffi c ie n t re aso n

,
4
T he c u n e ifo rm n o n S em .
-

“
it i c exp re ssio n fo r the sixth m o n th w as the mo n th o f the Mi ssio n o f
”
I sh tar as tho u gh it w as then that she de sc en ded to the lo wer wo rld “
,
.

T h e n am e o f th e sixth m o n th Elul has b een e xplain e d fro m th e , ,

wailing fo r Tamm u z 5 an d alto ge ther it seem s pro b able that the

,

wailin g o rigin ally o c c u rred in the six th m o n th an d w as fo llo wed ,

b y th e fe stival o f d ate h arve st at th e begin n i n g o f the se ve n th o f ,

wh i ch w e have alre ady spo k en I f th i s b e th e c ase th e sacri fi c e .

,

o f c has ti ty o f whi ch Lu c ian speak s in co nn e c tio n w 1th th e se ri tes at

B y blo s w as a su rvival fro m the rite s o f jo y with wh i ch th e date

h arve st w as c ele b rate d in pri m i tive S e mi ti c ti m es That th e feast .

1
Cf I V R . .
, p 3 1,
. re v . H eb ra ica, IX , 15 1; an d J e remi as s
’
Leb en n ach dem Td
o e,

p. 23 .

2
R el igi o n o f B abylo ni a and Assyri a, p 68 2 . .

Dea , 6 ; H eb rai ca, X , 3 1; Pie tsc h mann Geschi chte der

’
Cf Lu c ian , De S yr ia
3
. an d s

Pho eniz i er , p 219 . .

Cf T o y s E z eki el, in H au p t s S B OT
4 ’ ’
. .

Cf M u ss Am o lt l n JE L , X L , 88 , 89 ;
.
-
. an d B ru nno w
’
s Classifi ed Li s tof Cuneif orm
I deogr aphs, No . 10 7 5 9 .
15 6 S E M ITIC AN D HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

o fTamm u z s ho uld in so m e fo rm go b ac k to pri m i ti ve S em iti c c o n

d itio n s is i ndica te d b y the my th w hic h m ak e s Tam m uz the so n o f
I s h tar and w hi ch as w e have no te d c o u ld o nly ha ve b ee n fo rme d in
, ,

a so c ie ty o rgani z e d o n the li ne s o f the so c al le d m atri arc h al c la n -

.

Winc k le r s c o n c lus io ns as to the o ld A rabi c cale ndar i nc l ude the

’

o pi ni o n that the re w as i n A rabi a a si m ilar s u mm e r fe s ti val in J u ly

A ug u s t 1
T he spe c i al c harac te ris ti c s o f thi s fe sti val are no t c le arly
.

k no w n I t see m s li k ely ho we ve r th at it w as a s u rvi val f ro m th e

.
, ,

o ld w ai li ng fo r the d e ath o f ve ge ta tio n w h ic h p re c e d ed th e glad

fe s ti val o f the date harve s t P ri m ari ly the n thi s feast w as a so rt .

, ,

o f L e n t p re ce din g th e glad ti m e o f th e au tu m n festi val w h e n the ,

tree o f Tamm u z an d I sh tar yi e l de d its f ru i t .

“
Fo llo wi ng R o b e rtso n S m i th I exp ressed in the I sh tar C u lt
2
,

th e o pi n io n tha t the wailin g fo r Tamm u z w as o ri gi n ally the w ai li ng

'

fo r a sac rific i al vi c ti m 1
I still i n c li ne to thi nk th at this vi e w is
.

ri gh t al th o u gh as the n I th i n k that at a ve ry e arly pe ri o d i t m ay

, , ,

have re c e i ve d a n e w exp lan atio n w hi c h c o n n ec te d it wi th the death

o f ve ge tati o n I n th e d ese r ts o f A rabia w hen th e b u rn in g s u mm e r
.

su n d ri es u p th e p astu re s and in co n se q u en ce the m i lk o f th e do m e s

ti c an i m als l argely fai ls w hi le th e su mm e r heat re n de rs li fe alm o st

,

u n en d u rabl e
4
it m ay we ll h ave se em e d to th e no m ad s that Tam m u z
,

w as de ad Th u s the wai li ng whi ch o riginally ac co mpani ed th e de ath

.

o f th e vi c ti m at th e f esti val w as I th i nk ex ten d ed to co ve r a po r tio n

, , ,

o f ti m e pre ce d in g h arve st Thi s pro du ced a p erio d o f glo o m to b e

.

tu rn e d to lif e w hen h arvest cam e wi th its e vi de n ce s o f th e go d s

’

re tu ni n g life
r .

R o b e rtso n S mi th has wi th great plau sibili ty c o n n e c ted th e fasti ng

an d h u mi li atio n o f th e Je wi sh D ay o f A to n em e n t wi th thi s Tamm u z

w ai lin g “
S u ch co n n ec tio n is fro m e very po in t o f Vi e w ex ceed i n gly
.

p ro b a bl e T h e D ay o f A to n em e n t cam e at th e b eginni n g o f au
.

tum n a fac t whi ch co n fir m s o u r vi e w that it o rigin all y o c c u rred in

,

“
c o n n e c tio n wi th the au tu mn fe as t I f th i s vi e w b e co rrec t it is n o t .
,

1
Alto riental ische F o rschu ngen , 2te R e ihe , II , 336—
344 .

2
R eligio n f
o the S emites , l st ed .
, p 3 9 2,
. n .

“H eb raic a X , 74 .

4
D o u gh ty s Arabia D es erta , I, c hs . x vu an d xviii , e sp .
p 4 7 2 ff
. .

R eligio n f
o the S emites , Le c t X I , . esp .
p 4 11
. .

F raz er, Go ld en B o u gh, ch . iii , c o nn ec ts th e dea th o f T amm uz w i th th e c o rn ( w heat)

h arve st— the slay in g o f the divin e grain . Thi s c ann o t h ave b ee n p rimi tive , o n ac c o u n t
 REL IG I OU S ORIG I NS 57

dif ficu lt to u n derstand ho w the Tamm u z wai ling and ritu al m ay have
b een B abylo n ia to th e fo u rth mo n th T he fir st
tran sfe rre d in .

h arvest o f whe at an d b arley is in that c o u n try re aped at the ti m e

o f th e su mm e r so l stice an d at su c h a tim e a fe stival amo n g an agri
,

c u ltu ral peo ple i s a m o st n atu ral o c c u rren c e I f in o rd e r to m ee t .

thi s n ee d th e Tamm u z fe stival were pu t fo rward a fe w we e k s the ,

in flu en ce o f Babylo n i a o n P ale stin e in th e E l— Am arn a perio d wo u ld

lead (if lo c al in flu en c es h ad no t alre ady do n e so ) to th e e stabli sh
m e n t o f a festival at the en d o f harvest the re Th i s afterward s the .

Hebrew s ad o pted as the feast o f Week s M ean time the direc t in flu .

e n c e o f Arabi a see m s to h ave b een su fli c ien t in P h oen i c ia an d

Pale stin e to keep the o riginal Tamm u z fe stival at its o w n perio d in

th e au tumn se parate f ro m the festival at the e n d o f th e b arle y h ar -

ve st .So m e thi ng like th i s m ay have b een th e co u rse o f d e velo pm en t

in B abylo n i a T h e fac t that the fo u rth mo n th bo re th e n am e o f
.

Tammu z is a so mewhat slight basi s fo r su c h co n j ec tu re sin c e th e ,

m o n th m ay h ave b een given th e n am e fo r o th e r reaso n s .

We co n c lu de ho wever th at b u t tw o Semi ti c fe stival s were pri m

, ,

itive the festival o f th e yeani n g ti me in the spri n g an d th e fe stival o f

,

th e date h arvest in th e au tu mn Ou t o f the se the o th er fe stivals o f

.

th e S emi ti c wo rld have b een d e ve lo p ed e x ce p t as so m e o f th em h ave,

b een b o rro we d fro m th e p eo ple s o f the lan ds in whi ch the y se ttled .

I f n ow w e t u rn to the Hami te s fro m who m o ri gin ally the S emi te s

,

se parate d them se lve s w e fin d so m e in d i c ation s th at th e i r p rim i tive

,

in stitu tio n s were similar to tho se o f the pri m iti ve S em i te s if n o t ,

i den tical with them Ci rcum ci sio n was as w e have already n o ti ced
.
,
1
,

prac ti sed by th e E gyp ti an s an d the Hami ti c Gallas ; an d No wac k

2

an d B en zi n ger still h o ld wi th Hero do tu s that the Se rn itic ri te w as

3
’

bo rro wed fro m Egyp t D o wn to the tim e o f the Cmsars wo m en

.

an d girl s w e re li c e n se d to a li fe o f i mm o rali ty by co n sec ratio n to the

servi c e o f Am o n at Th e b e s The se wo m en were held in su ch hi gh

.

e steem th at th i s pu bli c co u rse o f li fe d id n o t preven t the m f ro m m ak

ing go o d m arriage s whe n age c o mpelle d them to wi thdraw fro m thi s

of th e ec o n o m ic c o n d itio n s o f Arab ia, th o u gh po ssib ly it w as a late r agricu ltu ral ex

plan atio n .

1
S ee p 149
ab o ve , . .

2
Archceolo gi e I , 167 .

3
Archaeolo gi c, p 15 4 . .
15 8 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI GI NS
“
se rvic e M as pero
i n te rpre ts thi s as a reli c I n its o f po ly a n d ry
1 2
. .

late r s tage s thi s po ly and ry w as e n d o gam o u s si nc e it pe rm i tte d th e ,

m arriage o f b ro the r and si s te r and so me time s o f fathe r and d au gh te r ,

.

I t has b e e n tho ugh t that o ne o f the le ga c ie s le f t to E gyp t b y th is

“ ” “
ty pe o f po ly an d ry is th e u se o f the wo rd s b ro the r and s is te r
” ”4 “
in the se n se o f lo ve r an d m is t re s s T hi s stage o f the c iviliz a .

ti o n is he th o u gh t fu rth e r i nd ic ate d by the fac t th at in the te m pl es

, ,

o f th e ch i e f go d s the re w e re w o m e n d e vo te d to pu rpo s e s s i mil ar to

th o se fo r w hi ch th e y w e re a tta c he d to the te mp le o f A m o n w hi l e in ,

“
the te m ple s o f the fe m ale d ivini ti e s the y he ld the ch ie f pl ace s T he .

te m pl e o f Khn u m e g had a re ligio u s h are m “

,
. .
,
.

I t has ho w e ve r be e n po in te d o u t in C hapte r I V th at w e no w
, ,

i n te rp re t th e se fac ts d iffe re n tly I n the li gh t o f p re se n t k no wledg e .

th e y d o n o t p ro ve the e xi ste n c e o f a po ly an d ri c so c i al o rgan iz atio n .

We have the n in the o lde st Hami tic c i viliza tio n trac es o f circ u m
, ,

ci s io n o f a m o the r go dde ss w ho re p rese n te d w e l l w ate re d l an d as

,
-
,

am o ng th e S em i tes T he d ate p alm w as also k n o wn an d there is

.
,

at l eas t o n e t rac e o f it as a go d
7
I ts c h arac te r w as su ch that the .

“
tre e play e d a part in the l o ve po e try o f late r ti m e s .

Amo ng th e H am i te s w ho lived to the west o f E gyp t simil ar c u s

to sm app e ar T h u s H e ro d o tu s t e.ll s u s
“
th a t th e N a sam o n e s a ,

trib e o f B e rb e r H am ite s lo
m ade ye arly e xp e di tio n s to a d ate p al m ,

o asi s to gathe r th e f ru it an d th ei r se xu al c u sto m s in ge ne ral re ,

se m b le d c lo se ly m u ch w hi c h w e fi n d am o n g the S e mi te s .

W ith re fe re n ce to these i n sti tu tio n s w hi ch th e an c ien t S em i te s

an d H am i tes had in c o mm o n the re are thr ee po ssibl e o pin i o n s : ( 1) ,

They m ay h ave d evelo pe d th em in the e arly day s b e fo re th e tw o

pe o ples se parate d w he n as ye t the races w ere o n e ; ( 2) the y may
,

h ave de velo ped th em i n de pen de n tly th ro u gh th e i n flu en c e o f simi lar

1
S trab o , Bk . XVII ,
46 .

2
Cf . P e trie , S oc ial Lif e i n A nc i en t E gypt, pp 6 7 , 7 3 , . an d 77 .

“M as
pero
’
s D aw n of C
i vi liz at io n , p 50 . .

4
I bid .
, p . 51 . S ee , h o w e ve r, ab o ve , Ch IV , p 108
. . .

I bid , p . 126 .

E S ny s, V il de Peto seres , p 8 1, B russ els 1927

. . .

7
I b id , pp 27 an d 121, n 1
. . . .

8
W M ax M uller
.
,
L ieb po es i e der al ten Agypter , Le ipz i g, 1899 , p .

2
B o o k IV , 17 2 .

1°
S e rgi, M editerra n ea n R ac e, p 4 7 . .
 RE L I G IOU S OR I G I NS 15 9

may h ave bo rro we

'

e n v ro n m e n ts ; o r
i ( 3) o n e rac e d fro m the o the r at
a co mparat ive l late perio d
y .

T he last o f th e se po ssibilitie s mu st b e re e c te d at o n ce
j . We have
sho wn abo ve ho w all the se in stitu tio n s o f prim itive S emiti c life ,

i n c lu ding e ve n c irc u m c i sio n gre w n atu rally o u t o f the de sert an d

,

o asi s life su ch as th e y were su bj e c te d to in A rabi a I t is pu re ly .

arbi trary the re fo re to assu m e wi tho u t po si tive pro o f th at an y o n e

, ,

o f th ese i n sti tu tio n s w as a l ate i n tru d e r i n to S em iti c prac ti c e T he .

th e o ry o f He ro do tu s with re fe ren c e to c irc u m c i sio n m u st the re fo re

b e aban do n ed On the o the r han d fe w will b e fo u n d to m ain tain
.
,

th at it o r any o f th e o the r i n sti tu tio n s u n d er d i s c u ssio n we re b o r

ro we d by th e E gypti an s f ro m th e S em i te s A p eo pl e wh i c h reache d .

su c h a h igh state o f c ultu re at su ch an e arly e po ch is n o t like ly to

h ave bo rro we d a re ligio u s an d so c ial practi ce f ro m so ru de a peo ple

as th e S e m i ti c A rab s at a tim e whe n th e tw o m u st h ave b ee n se pa

rated by sea an d d e sert .

Of the o the r tw o po ssibili ties the first is u n de r th e c i rcu m stan c es

'

, , ,

by f ar the mo st p ro b able Wh ile o f co u rse tw o peo ples o f kin dred

.
, ,

rac e m ay in si m ilar e n vi ro n m e n ts h ave de ve lo pe d si mil ar in stitu

tio n s i n depen de n tly o f o n e an o th er it m u st b e re m em b e red th at the ,

en v i ro n men t o f th e E gypti an s fro m the ti m e o f the i r se ttlem e n t in

,

Egyp t w as no t si milar to that o f the S emite s o r o f a c harac ter to

, ,

pro du ce in stitu ti o ns similar to theirs Egyp t is n o t a lan d o f o ase s .

,

b u t a ri ve r— lan d simi lar to M eso po tami a I t w as an agri cu ltu ral .

c o u n tr y ric h an d p ro d u c tive
, As w e sh all sho w b e lo w the c ivili
.
,

z atio n p ro d u ce d in su ch a l an d w as n o t po lyan d ro u s No rth .

Afri c a o u tside o f Egypt w as fo r the mo st part a b arren co u n try

, ,

wi th o c c asio n al o ase s in its gen eral featu re s no t u nlike Arabia

,
1
It .

is alto ge th e r pro b able th at as these regio n s fille d u p c o n ditio n s

, ,

we re pro du c e d by the c ro wded po pu latio n s sim i lar to tho se wh i ch '

w e have pro ve n fo r Arabi a an d th at in co n se qu e n ce a sim i lar c ul

,

tu re o f th e d ate palm a sim ilar o rgan izatio n o f th e c l an a simi lar

, ,

wo rship fo r th e fem in in e pro du c tive prin c iple an d in gen eral sim ilar , ,

1n stitu tio n s we re in so m e
po r tio n s p ro d u ce d th o u gh t h e fe r til e valley s ,

in so m e po rtio n s o f No rth Afri c a pro b ably p re ve n te d th e pro d u c tio n

o f the se in stitu tio n s o n so wi d e an d so u n i fo rm a sc ale as in A rabi a
°
.

1 Fo r a d e sc rip tio n of No rth Af ric a an d i ts o ases , see th e I ntern ati o nal Geo graphy,
ed . b y H u gh R o b e rt M ill, Lo n d o n , 1899 ; fo r M o ro cc o , p 9 05 . .
160 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS
No w w di ng o f the co u n try m u st have o c c u rre d b efo re
s u c h c ro

the S e mi ti c m igratio n an d m u s t h ave b e e n its c au se

,
S o m e s uch .

fo rc e m u s t h ave i m pe ll e d the fi rs t i m m i gran ts to e n te r the u nattrac

ti ve A rabi an p e ni n sul a We have th e n in th e p ri m itive H am ito
.
, ,

S em i ti c ho me the e l e m e n ts p re se n t fo r the bi rth o f the se i ns titu tio n s

b e fo re the se p aratio n fo r the tw o grand d ivisio n s o f the rac e We .

ho ld it p ro b abl e the re fo re th at the to te m is ti c c lan the c u l tu re o f

, , ,

th e d ate pal m wi th its w o rshi p the m o th e r go dd e ss as the ty pi cal ,

d i vi ni ty an d c i rc u m ci s io n had to so m e e xt e n t th ei r b e gi nn i ng s at
, ,

the ti m e w he n th e H am i te s an d S em i te s w e re li vi ng in that co m m o n
ho u se o f thei r i n fan c y in w hi c h thei r ki nd re d to ngues we re bo rn
, ,

n o tw i ths tan ding that t he d i ffe re n c es in tho se to ngu e s b ear wi tne ss

to the f ac t th at they se p arate d in p re hi sto ri c ti m e tho u san d s o f ,

y e ars b e fo re .

I t will b e n o te d that in co nn ec tio n wi th the fe asts as the y su r

vi ved am o ng the d i ff e re n t n atio n s the re w as a go o d d e al o f sexu al,

l ax i ty Wh e n S emitic Origi ns w as w ri tte n it w as i n fe rred that su ch

.
,

l axi ty w as a su rvi val f ro m a p ri mi tive po lyand ry I t wi ll also b e .

fo u n d that in the d ifle ren t agri c u ltu ral c o mm u n i tie s o f the S em ites
o f l ate r tim e qed esho th o r reli gi o u s pro sti tu te s w e re co nn ec ted wi th

te m pl es an d in B abylo ni a acco rdi n g to H e ro d o tu s e ve ry wo m e n

, ,
1
,

w as e x pec te d o n ce in h er l if e to pl ay th e h i ero d u l e I n E gyp t to o

?
,

“
harem s w ere co n n e c ted wi t h m
t e te p es in t e hi sto ri c p eri o d an d
h l h ,

th e wri te r o n c e e xpl ai n ed all the se i n sti tu ti o n s as su rvi val s o f a

p o ly a n d ro u s t yp e o f m arr i age o f an e a rli e r ti m e D u r i n g th e p as t .

fif tee n y e ars ho w e ve r e vi denc e has c o m e to li gh t w hi c h has co n

, ,

v in ce d hi m th at an o th er ex pl an ati o n is p ro b ably th e tru e o n e It .

h as alre ad y b ee n po i n te d o u t th at am o n g the B abylo n i an s an d

p r o b ab ly a l so am o n g th e H am ito —S em i te s wate r w as regarde d as ,

th e sp erm ataz o a o f the go d s I n ad d i tio n to th i s it sho uld b e n o te d

.
,

th at am o ng early p e o pl e s b eli ef in sym p ath e tic m agi c i s p rac ti cally

u n i versal F u rther am o n g su c h peo ple the di stin c tio n b e twee n
.
, ,

m agi c an d re li gi o n is n o t sh arply d e fin e d I n c o u n tri e s ac co rdi ngly.

, ,

l ike B abyl o n i a an d Egy pt wh e re fe rtili ty de p en de d u po n th e ri se

,

1
Bk . I , 199 .

’ “ ”
S ee also th e w rite r s art ic le Hie ro d u le in H as tings E nc yclopaed ia R eligio n
2 ’
f
o

a nd E thi cs .

4
S e e b elo w , Ch V I , p 19 6. . .
 REL I GIOU S OR IGI NS 16 1

o f the i like P alestin e where it depen ded o n the rain fall th e

r ve rs , o r , ,

flo w o f fe rtili zin g wate rs w as n atu rally tho u gh t o f as the resu lt o f

a d ivi n e Se xual ac t
— th e m arital u n io n o f a go d an d a go dde ss In .

th at stage o f th o u gh t it W o u ld b e e qually n atu ral that th e y sho u ld

thi n k th at the ir de i ties co u ld b e e n c ou rage d to su ch a u n io n by

hu m an e xam ple s .I t is pro b able th at at th e religio u s fe asts it w as
the c u sto m to in du lge f ree ly in su ch ac ts o f u n io n in o rd er to e n
‘

c o u rage th ei r d ei ti e s to do like wi se th at th e f e r ti lizin g wate r s m i gh t

,

flo w th e e arth b e fertiliz e d an d fru i ts pro du c ed fo r th e su sten an ce

, ,

o f m an kin d . Fro m wh at w e n o w kn o w bo th o f th e ir so c ial o rgan i

z atio n an d c o n c e ptio n s as to th e se o ther m at te r s su c h a mo ti ve se em s ,

the real e xplan atio n o f t he o rigin o f su ch in sti tu tio n s .

At thi s po i n t an in terestin g qu e stio n a ri ses I f su ch w as th e .

o rigin o f th e c u sto m s in que stio n d id th e y e xi st in the d eser t o asis

,
-

lif e o f th e H ami to S emi tes o r are th e y a b y—

-
,
pro du c t o f agricu ltu ral
lif e ? I n the de se rt fe rtility w as n o t d epen den t u po n rainfall si n ce ,

the fe rti liz i n g wate rs c ame f ro m n ever f ailin g sprin gs an d the rain -
,

whi ch mi gh t fall u po n rare o c c asio n s h ad pro b ably to e arly m en n o

co n c e ivable co nn e c ti o n wi th th eir c ro ps An o th er asp e c t o f their
.

e co n o mi c li fe m ay h o we ve r h ave aff o rde d a m o tive fo r si mi lar

, ,

re ligio u s c u sto m s Atten tio n h as b een called to the i mpo rtan ce

.

o f the d ate p alm to the o asi s— dwellers to th ei r kn o wle dge o f th e b i

,

sexu al ch arac ter o i the tree an d to th e re li gio u s sign ifi c an c e w hi ch

,

the y attach ed to it I t is qu i te p o ssible th at du ri n g th e lif e o f th ese

.

e arly d w e llers in th e o ases o f A rabi a an d th e S ah ara it m ay h ave

seem e d to th em j u st as im po r tan t to in du ce th e i r go d s to j o in in th at

m ari tal u n io n whi c h fertilize d th e d ate palm an d rend e re d it f ru it -

fu l as it later se em e d to th e in h abi tan ts o f rain irrigate d co u n trie s

,
-

to in du c e th em to po u r fo rth u po n th e e arth th e f ru c ti fyin g w ate rs .

Wh ile the eviden ce h as no t su rvived to en able u s to pro ve that thi s

is so w e sho u ld b e pred i sp o se d in Vie w o f all the co n d i tio n s ec o n o m i c
, ,

an d p sy c h o lo gi c al to p o stul ate it
,
‘

We th erefo re c o n sider it pro b

.

able th at th e b egin n in g o f su ch cu sto m s an d o f su c h i n stitu tio n s as

the qedesho th m ay b e trac e d to th e e arliest tim e s .

No do u b t it wi ll b e di stastefu l to m an y to b elie ve th at th e be gi n
n in gs o f S em i ti c reli io n as th e y w ere co n ce ive d b th S mi te s th e m
g y e e

selve s go b ac k to se xu al re latio n s I t m u st b e rem em be re d th at su ch

.

thi ngs w e re tho u gh t o f an d tre ated mu c h mo re in n o ce n tly in prim itive

16 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C O R I G I NS

tim e s th an w o uld b e i ndi ca te d b y a si m il ar t reatm e n t no w I n .

re ali ty to o the Se mi te ac tu al ly h it u po n a featu re o f hu m an life

, ,

which is as s cie n tific i n ve sti gatio n is sho wi ng u s i n ti ma tely c o n

, ,

ne c te d wi th reli gio u s fe e ling a t the pre se n t d ay an d has had m o re

1

re al i n fl u e n ce in d e ve lo pi ng mo ral al tru i s ti c an d hu m ani tari an , ,

fe e lin g in the pas t than any o the r T he p ro lo ngatio n o f the pe rio d .

o f he lple ss n e ss in i n fan c y an d the co n se q u e n t d e ve lo pm e n t o f

mate rn al l o ve o u t o f w hi ch feeli ngs o f o b ligatio n and c o nsc ie n c e ha ve

,

g r o w n is n o,w see n t o lie a t th e ro o t o f t h e m o ral an d re ligi o u s p og

r

T he p ri m i ti ve S e mi te s co n c e p tio n o f h is go d de ss
’
ress o f the rac e
2
.

an d he r se rv ice to w hi ch h e attrib u te d the be ginn i n gs o f i n te ll ige n c e

,

and ci viliza tio n w as in a ru de bli nd w ay an e m p h asi s o f the sam e

, ,

tru th C o n si de ri ng the an im al pas sio n s o f h u m an n atu re it is li ttl e

.
,

wo nd e r that th e p ro c esses o f p ro c reatio n o fte n attrac ted mo re at

te n tio n th an the o ff sp ri ng i tse lf ; b u t th e d e li gh t which all S e mi te s
too k an d s ti ll tak e in th e i r ch ildre n is wi tn ess to the fac t that su ch
, , ,

re li gi o n w as n e ve r w h o lly d ege n e rate S emi tic sac rifi ce in part .

,

co mm e n sal as R o be tso r n m
S t i h h a s s oh w n “
it to b e em bo d i es in a ,

g r o ss w a y t h e p ri n c i p le o f t h e re li g i o u s l if e w hi ch is e xp resse d in the
“
hi ghe st spiri tu al fo rm in Jo hn I in thee an d tho u in m e that
th ey may b e pe rf e c te d i n to o n e so th e S e mi ti c co n c e p ti o n o f d e i ty

as w e have trac e d it em bo di es th e t ru th —
gro ss ly in d eed b u t n e ve r ,

th ele ss e m bo di es i t — “
th at Go d is l o ve
”
.

Thi s re ligio n co n tain in g a kern e l o f pe rpe tu al tru th altho u gh it

, ,

w as fo rm ulate d thu s c ru de ly fo rm ed th e su b stratum o f the re ligi o n ,

o f th e S em ites in hi sto ri c al t im es I t w as m o di fie d h e re an d t he re
.

by e co n o mi c ch ange s an d th e co n se qu en t c han ge in so cial c o n ditio n s

whi ch fo llo we d At o ther tim es fo re ign i nflu e n ce s co m bin e d wi th
.

the se to e fle c t a tran sfo rm atio n In I srae l its b aser e l em e n t s w e re

.

e limi n ate d by th e p ro ph e ts w h o e re c te d o n its fo un d ati o n a stru c

,

u r f
t e o sp i t i r u al re li gi o n
4
T rac e s o f these pri m itive co n ce ptio n s
.

1
See Le u b a in J o u rnal o f P y h l gy
s c o o , 18 9 6 ; S tarb u c k
’
P y h l gy
s s c o o of R el igio n , Ne w
Y o rk , 1900 , P art I o n c o n ve rs io n ; an d C oe s
’
S pi r itua l L if N e, Y ew o rk , 1900 . Th e
j
p sych o lo gic al aspe c ts o f this su b e ct w ill b e d isc ussed in th e li gh t o f t he late st in
ves t igat io n s in th e w rit e r s M vsti c i sm i n the Rel i gi o n s of the World , w hic h i s in p re p a
’

rat io n .

2
S ee D mmo nd
ru
’
s Asc ent of M an , Ne w Y o rk , 189 5 , c hs . vu an d viii an d F i sk e
’
s

Th ro u
g h N atu re to God , B o sto n 1899 ,
pp 96—130 . .

3
R el igio n of the S emites , Lec tu res VII to XI .

4
See b e lo w ,
Ch ap te r X .
 REL I GI OU S ORIG I N S 163

appe ar th ro u gho u t the . S em i tic wo rld as witn esses to the pe rpe tu al

in flu en c e of the se fu n dam en tal co n ce p tio n s o f re ligio n an d
life ; an d

o w in g t o i n flu en ce th ro u gh th e Ph oenic ian s u po n the

it s Gree k s
an d

th ro u gh Gree k so c i e ty u po n the e arly C h ristian s an d also its in flu

,

en c e o n th e He b re w s an d th ro u gh th e m u po n th e c h u r c h it s effec ts
,

in m an y w ay s ab ide to th e presen t ho u r .
 VI
E G Y PT IA N RE LI G IO US O RI G I N S
T HAS be e n i ndi ca te d in p re ce di ng c hapte rs ho w d iffi c u lt it is to
g a i n a ny c l e ar i d e a o f E g y p ti a n o ri gi n s T h e gr e at a n tiq u i ty o f .

th e se ttle m e n t o f the Nil e Vall e y th e e vi d e n t m i ngli n g o f rac es ,

wi thin it the co m parati vely re ce n t d ate f ro m w hi c h the o lde s t

,

Egyp tian rel igio u s li terature c o me s ( in spi te o f its an tiq ui ty as c o m

p ar e d wi th m o s t o th e r re l igi o u s l ite ra t u r es ) an d th e pre o c c u p atio n ,

o f th at li te ratu re wi th the fo rtu ne s o f th e s o u l af ter d eath m ak e it ,

we ll n igh i mpo ssible to draw aside the ve il wh i ch hi des f ro m u s the

-

re al o ri gin o f m o s t E gy p ti an d ei ti e s P ar tly b e cau se o f thi s and .

p artly be cau se the p ro blem s p rese n te d by the religio u s li terature

that h as co m e to u s are o f su ch ab so rb in g i n te re st tha t the e ff o rts
o f th e stu d e n ts o f the E gyp ti an re li gi o n h ave b ee n de vo ted to th ei r

so l u tio n it h appe n s th at li ttl e has b een d o n e to so lve th e u lti m ate

,

p ro bl em s o f E gyp ti an e ligi o s o i gi s
r u r n T e w o rk s o f Naville
h l
.
,

Wi edemann E rm an Pe tri e an d S tei do rff are b ri e f d escri ptio n s o f

’ 3
,
4
,
n ,
5

the go d s the i r gro u p ing an d wo rshi p in th e d i ff e re n t hi sto ri cal

,

peri o d s w hi l e th e wo rk s o f B u dge an d W M ax M ii ller are d evo ted

6 7
.
,

to as pe c ts o f th e m yth o lo gy In addi ti o n to th e se the re are n u

.

m ero u s m o no grap h s o n spe ci al to pi cs su c h as the p ri e sts an d tem ,

ples o f th e H el len i stic peri o d an d th e wo rshi p o f anim als in the

8
,

s am e pe ri o d B reaste d ha s wri tten a b rillian t phi lo so ph y o f the

9
.

d e ve lo pm en t o f the religio n in the hi sto ri cal p erio d 10

b u t the o nly ,

e ffo rts m ad e in re c e n t y ears to pe n e trate th e m y steri es o f prehi sto ri c

The Old E gyptian F aith, Lo n do n an d Ne w Y o rk , 1909 .

2
R el igio n of the A nc ient E gyptians , Lo n d o n an d Ne w Y o rk , 189 7 .

3
H and b uc h der ptisc he R el igio n , 2te Auf B e rlin 1909
aegy .
, .

C
R el igio n and o nsc i enc e i n Anc ient E gypt, Ne w o rk , 189 8 Y .

5
Rel igio n of the An c ient E gyptians , Ne w o rk an d Lo n do n , 19 05 Y .

6
The God s of the E gyptian s o r S tud ies i n E gypti an M ytho lo gy, hi cago , 19 04 C .

7
E gyptia n M ytho logy in Gray s M ytho lo gy of all R ac es , V o l XII B o s to n 19 18
’
.
, , .

3
S ee W . O tto , P r ies te r n nd T mp l i
e e n: hellen istiscen Agypten , Le ipz ig u nd B e rli n ,
190 5—190 8 .

9
S ee T . H 0 pf n e r, Der Ti
erk ul t der alte n Agypter n ac h d en gr iec hisc h -
r o misc hen
' ’

B er ic hten u nd de n w ic htiger n Den k nuzl er n ,

’

Wien ,
19 14 .

‘0
The D evelo pme nt of Rel igio n and Th o ught i n A nc i ent E gypt, Ne w Y o rk , 19 12 .

164
 E GY PTIAN REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 165

or igins whi ch have co m e to the no tice o f the presen t writer are

tho se o f S A B M erc er an d Ku rt S e th e
1
Of the wo rk o f M e rc er
2
. . . .

it mu st b e sai d th at it is b ase d o n to o m eager a co lle c tio n o f fac ts to

S eth e s bo o k o n th e o th er han d is b ase d o n the
’
b e co n vi n c in g .
, ,

fu llest kn o wle dge an d e vin c es o n every p age pen e trating i n sigh t, .

I ts o n e f au lt in the o pi n io n o f th e p resen t writ er is th at its au tho r

, , ,

in in terpre ti n g his fac ts ma ke s to o little u se o f the fi n dmgs o f an ,

th ro po lo gic al re sea rc h e s am o n g o th e r peo ple s .

I t is perh aps who m Egyp to lo gy is an avo catio n

rash fo r o ne to
rath er th an a vo catio n to say an y thi n g ab o u t so d i ffi cu lt a serie s

o f pro b lems b u t it is th e w ri te r s co n vi c tio n th at a c le are r u n d e r

“
’
,

stan d i n g o f the p ro b ab le co u rse o f d eve lo pm en t o f th e E gyptian .

religi o n an d p eo p le m ay b e o b tai n e d by co mpari n g th e p h en o m en a

p res e n te d i n th e N i l e v a lle y wi th f a c t s f ro m o u t si d e th e field o f

te chn i cal Egypto lo gy I f th e presen t w ri ter h as an y c o n tribu tio n

.
,

ho wever sm all to m ake to the su bj e c t it is becau se fo r the greate r

, ,

p a r t o f a lo n g li fe h e h as b ee n a s tu d e n t o f t h e b e gin n in g s o f re li gi o u s

p h e n o m e n a as t h e y m a nif es t th e m se l ves in a k i n d re d fi e l d a n d h as

been led to in terpre t them by simi lar phen o m en a in o ther parts o f the
wo rld I t c an no t h o we ver b e to o stro n gly em ph asized that in the
.
, ,

en d o u r re su l ts are ten tati ve an d h ypo the ti c al T he w riter he arti ly .

ado pts as h is o w n the wo rd s wi th whi c h S e th e p refac e s hi s Urges

chi chte3

D ie ses B ild d u rch au s h yp o th e tisch e n Ch arac te r h at E s ist e in .

person li ch es V o rstellu n gsb ild , das sich selb stve rstandlich n ich t b ewei sen ,
'

so n de rn nurwahrsch einlich o der wen igsten s glaub h af t m ach en lasz t .

Wer es nich t glau b en will m ag e s n ich t glau b en ,

.

In th e h i sto ri c al pe rio d E ypt w as d iv ide d i n to d i stri c ts whi ch g

—
we re called sp t The Gree k s c alled th ese vo no i a wo rd th at h as
. .

b e enAn gli cized as n o m es The se n o m e s c o rrespo n d ed ro ughl y to

‘
.
’

th e S h i res o r c o u n ti es o f En glan d and S co tlan d The re were twen ty

“

tw o o f th em in Upper E gypt an d twen ty in th e D elta E ac h o f ,

.

th ese n o m e s h ad its spe c ial go d tho u gh in th e h i sto ri c al p e rio d so me ,

of th em h ad m o re th an o ne ; in m o s t c ase s , to o , e ac h n o m e h ad its
sac re d an im al . E ac h no me h ad l
a so a c ap ital c i ty ,
tho u gh in So m e
1
S . A B M e rc e r, Etud es
. . s nr les o ri gi n es de la r eli gi o n de l E gypte, Lo n do n , 19 28 ;
’

cf . B aly , J o u r n al o f E gypti an Archaeolo gy, XVI I ,

265 fi .

2
K S e th e , Urgesc hi c hte a n d alteste R eligi o n der Agypter , L e ipz ig , 19 3 0
'

. .

3
Cf o p ci t , §3 , at th e en d
. . . .
16 6 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

of the no m e s d iffe re n t c i ti es we re ,
i n t he c o u rse o f th e hi sto ry , ac

c o rd e d that ho no r . To w ho a pp ro a c he s t he s tu dy o f
E gyp ti an
o ne

o rigi n s it is te m pti ng to ass u m e th at e ac h o f the s e fo r ty tw o d is

,
-

tric ts so m any o f w hi c h po sse sse d a d i s ti n c t to tem i s t ic sy m b o l

, ,

m u s t have be e n o ri gin ally the ho m e o f a se parate tri b e T he p ro b lem .

is no t ho w e ve r so si m p le as it at fi rst appe ars

, ,
Fo u r p ai rs o f .

n o m e s ( the thi rtee n th an d fo u rte e n th tw e n ti e th an d tw e n ty fi r s t ,

-

in U pp e r E gy pt ; the fo u rth an d fi fth an d e i gh tee n th an d ni n e te e n th

'

in Lo w e r E gyp t) bo re the sam e n am e s the m em b e rs o f the p ai r ,

b ei ng d i sti ngu i shed by the adj ec ti ves No rth and S o u th T he se ‘ ’ ‘

.
’

pai rs o f n am e s w e re an alo go u s to No r th C aro l in a an d S o u th C aro li n a .

F u rthe r the s e ve n th and e i gh th n o m es in Lo w e r E gypt bo re the

sam e n am e b u t w e re dis tingu i she d by the ad j e c ti ves E as t an d
‘ ’
,
‘
We st l ik e the p arts o f vario u s to w n shi ps in the U ni te d S tate s o f
,
’

A m eric a I f the theo ry that the no m e s rep rese n t the h abi tats o f
.

o ri gi n al ly d iffe re n t trib e s h as an y vali di ty it w o u ld fo llo w tha t ,

th ese te n no m e s re p rese n te d o ri ginally the se ttl em e n t o f b u t fi ve

trib es an d th at the y w ere af terw ard s d ivi d ed I t seem s to the .

w ri ter th at th at is a te nable theo ry b u t the di vi sio n s d id no t appar ,

e n tly o c cu r f ro m pe ac e ab le m u lti pli ca ti o n b u t in m o st c ase s f ro m ,

the i n vasio n o f h o stil e trib es so m e ti m e s o f strange bl o o d fo r ge n , ,

e rally tho u gh the i r n am e s are ki n d re d the i r sac re d ani m als are

, ,

d iff ere n t .

S e the is o f the o pi n io n that the divi sio n i n to n o m es i s no t pri mi

ti ve .H e ho ld s th at in Uppe r E gyp t th e pri m i tive u n i t w as th e c i ty ;
th at th e d i vi si o n i n to n o me s w as fir st ap pli e d to Lo w e r E gyp t an d
af terw ard e x te n de d to U pp e r E gyp t
1
I n h is o pi n io n th e d i vi sio n .

o f all E g p t i n to fo r ty tw o n o m es w as fir s t m ad e b y M e n a th e fir st
y
-

ki ng o f U n i te d E gy pt w ho fo un ded the c ity o f M em ph i s ,

2
S e th e .

b eli e ve s th at M en a c alle d th i s n o m e in to existen c e as a se p arate

e n tity Hi s re aso n fo r th is is th at the n am e o f th e n o m e w as I n b hd
.
-
,

the n am e o f th e c i ty o f M em ph i s fro m th e fir st to
’
o r W hi te w all
‘
-

th e six th dyn asty I t is ho we ve r n o t i m po ssible th at th e n am e o f

.
, ,

th e n e w po te n tate s i m po rtan t c apital su pe rse d e d an o l d e r n am e

’

pre vi o u sly b o rn e by this territo ry Ho wever as there is reaso n to .

,

to b e lie ve that im po rtan t c h an ges in th e n o m es o c c u rre d at a l ate r

Op . c it .
pp 6 fI
, . . an d 3 8 fl .

’
I bid .
, p 42. .
 EGYPTIAN REL IGI OU S ORIGI NS 67

tim e , the o pin io n o f so care fu l a spe c alist as i Se the sho u ld no t be

l ightly se t asid e .

S e the
’
s be lief that n o m es o r the i r e q u ival en t d id n o t ex st in i Upper
Egypt in the e ar li est tim e s , b u t that the
i t w as th e c i ty do es n o t un ,
1

seem to th e presen t writer in ac c o rd an ce w ith pro b ab ility I n the .

far o ff tim es o f wh i c h w e are spe ak in g th e c itie s we re b u t th e fo rti

-
,

fi e d resi den c e s o f trib e s w ho su b si ste d by fishin g h u n tin g o r agri , ,

c u ltu re o r by a c o m bi n ati o n o f all th re e

,
C o mm e rc ial c ities su c h .
,

as d eve lo p e d late r w e re u n kn o wn A c ity pre su ppo se d a co n sider

,
.

ab le te rrito ry whi c h th e trib e c u ltivated an d o ve r whi c h it h u n te d If ,

.

the te rm n o m e h ad n o t b ee n applie d to the e thn i c o r septic di vi

‘ ’

sio n s o f U ppe r E gypt a t this peri o d it i s n ecessary to su ppo se th at ,

the tribal d ivi sio n s o f te rri to ry wh i c h af te rward c o n sti tu ted the

,

n o m e s e xi ste d an d th at o u r b est m e an s o f asce rtain in g wh at th e y

, ,

we re i s thro ugh the re ligio u s an d to tem i stic phen o m en a afterward

em b alm e d in the o rgan iz atio n o f th e re ligio n o f th e d iffe ren t n o m es .

T he an aly sis o f th e se ph en o m en a is m ade d iffic u lt by the fac t that

i n p reh i sto ric tim e th ere w as in so m e in stan ce s c o lo n i z atio n o f o n e

no m e o r p arts o f it b y pe o ple f ro m an o th er n o m e S e the has o f .

fe re d pro o f o f in stan c e s o f thi s an d ad di tio n al i n stan ces will b e

2
,

po in te d o u t be lo w This fac t wh ile it in cre ases o u r diffic u ltie s

.
, ,

do e s n o t m ake it i mpo ssible to d i sce rn wi th so m e de gree o f c learn ess

th e o l der stran d s in a m ixe d c i vi liz atio n .

S e the h as with c lear in sight di scern e d th at the o lde st go d s

, ,

represen te d in the w ri ti ng w ere n o t livin g to te m i sti c an im al s b u t ,

c ru d e represen tatio n s o f i do ls in b ird fo rm c ro co d i le fo rm j ac k al -

,
-
,

fo rm e tc ,
3
H e see m s to in fe r fro m th is th at the re ligio n repre se n te d
.

b y th e fe ti sh ido l de i tie s is ol der th an th e reli gio n in whi ch th e go d

"

is pi c tu re d as a livi n g bi rd H e co n fesse s that th e fe ti sh o f a bi rd

.

ido l gre w o u t o f an o lde r wo rship o f a livi n g bi rd and he rein sees ,

a p arado x Ne vertheless b e cau se arti stically it w as e asier to po r

.
,

tray th e i do l in wri ting th an th e livin g bi rd an d b e c au se in Lo we r ,

Egypt Ho ru s is repre sen ted in the hiero glyph s by the drawing o f

an i do l whi le in Upper E gy p t he is re presen te d by the d rawi n g o f
,

th e li vi n g h awk S e th e in fers th at th e wo rshi p o f Ho ru s o ri gi n ated

,

1
Urgesc hichte, § 39 .

-2
Ibid .
—162 .

3
I bi d .
, § 11 .
16 8 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIGI NS

in Lo w e r E gy p t and w as l ate r carried by ize rs to Uppe r E gyp t l

co o n .

T hi s reaso ning may b e co rre c t b u t to th e prese n t wri te r it seem s to,

( o nf u se th e o rigi n o f a c u lt w i th th e h i sto ry o f its po r tray al in h i e ro

glyp h s .T h e fac ts ci te d m ay m e an no mo re th an th at wr i ti ng d e
ve lo pe d in Lo w e r E gyp t a n d w as o n ly i n tro d u c e d i n to U ppe r E gy pt

af te r so m e ski ll in its u s e had b ee n ac q u i re d S e the hi m self co n .

fe ss e s tha t the u se o f th e fe ti sh bi rd i do l p re s u ppo se s the wo rshi p o f -

th e li vi ng c reature— a fac t that see m s to argu e fo r the greater an tiq

u ity o f th e ho ru s o r h awk c u lt in tho se p arts o f the l an d w he re th e

go d w as re pre se n te d by th e li vi n g bi rd On th i s po in t the p rese n t .

w ri te r fe el s c o m pe ll ed to p art co m p an y wi th S e th e an d to ho l d that ,

it is m o re p ro b able that the Uppe r E gyp ti an n o m e s in w hic h the

hawk w as regarde d as the to tem o r sac re d an i m al have no t b ee n sho w n
to b e e mi gran ts fro m Lo we r E gyp t b u t are q u i te as like ly to b e ,

inde pe nde n t se ttlem en ts o f H ami ti c trib es f ro m the regio ns to th e

w e st o f th e Nile T he p re se n t wri te r so regards them
. .

On an o th e r po in t he has reac hed d i ff ere n t co n c l u sio n s f ro m tho se

se t fo rth by S e th e ; th at is the e tym o lo gy an d m e an i n g o f th e di vin e
,

n am e H atho r S e th e fo llo w s the e tym o lo gy first su ggested I

.
,

thin k by Ho mm el th at Ht hr t( th e E gyp tian spe llin g o f Hatho r)

, ,
-
.

’ ’
m e an s Ho u se o f Ho ru s in th e sen se o f M o the r o f Ho ru s
‘ ‘
1
Two .

o bj e c ti o n s to th i s in te rp re tati o n o f th e n am e see m to th e p re se n t

wri ter in superable Ho u se do es n o t m e an m o ther and the

.
‘ ’ ‘ ’

Egyp tian s h ad a go o d and co mm o n wo rd fo r m o ther F u rth er ‘

.
’

th e e lem en t hr is n o t expre ssed by th e pi c ture o f th e falco n by w hi ch

th e go d Ho ru s is de sign ate d b u t by th e pi c tu re o f a h um an face
, ,

by whi ch the p re po si tio n u po n is mo st o f ten e xpre ssed and wh i ch

‘ ’
,

in th e Pyrami d Text s wh e n fo llo w ed by a he ad in pro file exp ressed

, ,

T o m e th ese fac ts i n d i cate th at th e n am e

’ ‘
u pp e rm o st hi ghest
‘ 2 ’
.
,

Ht hr t m e an t S he o f the lo f ty templ e I t w as an e pi the t appli ed

‘ ’
-

,
. .

I b elie ve to go ddesses o f di ffe ren t o rigi n after E gy pti an c i vi lizatio n

,

h ad so d e velo pe d th at te m ple s o f co n sid e rable size w ere co n stru c te d .

I t is a phrase analo go u s to S u blim e po r te b y w hi ch th e go vern m e n t

‘ ’

o f th e late T u rki sh e m pir e w as re gularly calle d O rigi nal ly I .

,

be lieve it n o m o re applied u n if o rmly to o n e deity th an th e epi the ts

,

alm i gh ty o r kin g o r lad y w e re re stri c t e d to o n e d ei ty S o f ar

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
.

1
Ibid .
, § 67 .

2
S e e E rm an u nd Grapo w , Wo rterbuc h ,
I I I , 140 .
 EGYPTIAN REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 69

fro m be lie vin g ,

th e re fo re , that there w as
Hatho r wo rshi ppe d o ne

in o n e c en te r f ro m whi ch all o the r H atho rs we re derive d it is th e ,

p re s u p po si tio n o f thi s w o r k th at by th e e m p lo ym en t o f a n e pi th,et

deri ve d fro m lo fty tem pl e s o f whi ch the wo rshi ppers o f th e go dde sses
were p ro u d o n e n am e c am e in tim e to co ver go ddesses o f d iverse
, .

o ri gin .

S e th e s in vestigatio n is based o n o n e assum p tio n whi c h th e writer

’

h as lo n g b elie ve d to b e tru e b u t whi ch so far as th e w ri te r kn o w s

, , ,

n o E gyp to lo gi st h ad u n til S e th e s b o o k a
’
pp e are d advo cate d
,
Th at ,
.

is th e assu mptio n th at th e go d s o f E gypt w ere at th e b egi nn i n g , ,

lo ca l ani m al go ds an d th at the deifi c atio n o f co smi c o bj e c ts an d

1
,

fo rc es su ch as th e e arth th e Nile th e sk y an d su n o c c u rred

, , , , ,

o nl y later wh en th e E gyp tian mi n d h ad reach ed a greater d e gree

,

o f re fle ctive po wer Thi s assump tio n un derlie s all th e presen t

.

wo r k .

S tein do rff has argu e d that w e have no evi den ce th at th e chi ef go d

2

o f a n o m e s c api tal c ity w as th e go d o f th e n o m e as a w ho le

’
In .

r eply it mi gh t b e sai d th at w e h ave n o e vi d en c e to th e c o n trary

,
It .

is ho we ver tru e th at in e very n o m e m an y spiri ts were venerate d ; the

‘

, ,

sam e w as tru e o f e ach Capi tal c i ty Co uld it b e sho wn that th e .

ch i e f dei ty o f th e capi tal c i ty w as n o t o ri gi n ally th e c h i e f go d o f th e

n o m e b ecau se it h e ld th e h egemo n y o f th e pri n c ip al c i ty i t wo u l d

, ,

ulti m ate ly b ec o m e th e ch i ef go d o f th e no m e i tself I f su ch a go d .

em b o di ed th e i d eal o f a typ e o f li fe su ch as fi shin g h u n ti n g o r , , ,

agri c u l tu re his pre stige po in ts to a peri o d in th e hi sto ry o f th e

,

n o m e w h en th at type o f e c o n o mi c li fe p re do min ate d

,
.

Wi th the prin ciple s h ere enu n c iated in mi n d w e p ro ceed to an ,

f

an aly si s o f th e e lem en ts w hi ch en ter in to th e m .

ak e u p o f e ach -

Egyp tian n om e as in di cated by th e no m e n ame the n am e o f its -

,

c api tal th e n am e o f it s go d
,
an d its sac re d ani m al ,
F o r th e sake .

o f c le arn ess w e t ake th em in th e o rd er in whi ch th e n o m e s are e n u

m erated in th e later E gyp ti an lists b eginn in g w i th tho se o f Uppe r ,

E gypt This m e tho d p re sen ts the disadvan tage o f stu dyin g first
.

n o m es that we re in so m e i n stan ce s o verlai d b y later i m mi gratio n

1
Urgeschic hte, 35 , an d 69—7 5 .

“
2
S e e hi s ar tic le D ie agyp tisc h e n Gau e ihre p o litisc h e E n twi ck e lu n g i n
u nd

A b handlu ng d er k . s ac hs . Ges ells c haf t d Wi ssensc haf ten , phi l hi s t lasse B d 27 , 19 09

. .
-
. C . . .

p 87 1
. .
17 0 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

fro m o the r n o m es , b u t thi s is l e ss c o n f us ng i th an an ar bi trarily

se le c te d o rd e r w o ul d be , o r a n o rd e r b as e d u po n an u n pro ve d hy
po th e sis .

B egi nni ng wi th the no m e s o f Uppe r E gyp t and taki ng the m

, the n ,
in th e o rde r o f the l ate r li s ts w e have ,

1 T he no m e the c api tal o f w hi c h w as o n an i sland in the Fi rs t

.

C atarac t T hi s no m e w as call ed T3 sty S o u th l and o r F ro nf le r

.
-
,
‘
-
,
’ ‘

l and o r as S e the re nde rs it N u b ian —

,
’
,
land l E rm an and G rapo w
‘
.
’

c all it T he l an d (o f E gypt) in its so u t e rn p art

h
’
I ts capi tal w as
‘ 2
.

3bw G reek 1 176 Ele phan t and w as si tu ated o n an i sl and in the

‘ ’
, , , ,

c atarac t A c co rdi ng to S e the the place w as so n ame d b ecau se in

.

the e arly ti m e he re al o n e did the E gyp ti an s co m e in co n tac t

wi th peo pl e w ho e mplo ye d E lepha n ts a
T he n am e w as l ater
"
.

w ri tten 31; 1s w hi ch co u ld b e i n te rp re te d D esi rin g to re cko n

-
, ,
‘

— a n am e app ro pri ate to a t rad i ng po st wi th fo rei gn e rs T he -

.

G reek s c alled it E lephan ti ne I t w as the fro n tier to w n at whi ch ‘

.
’

tradi n g w as c arri ed o n wi th the N u b ians T h e n am e S wn m eani n g .

,

w as l ate r gi ve n to a trad i n g po s t at the Fi rst C atarac t an d -

su r vi ves to thi s d ay in th e A rabize d fo rm A ssu an S e the fin d s in ‘ ’

.

the n am e S o u th l an d o r N u bi an l an d e vi de n c e th at the no m e
‘ ’ ‘ ’
- -

w as c o l o n iz e d f ro m th e n o rth 6
I ts go d w as Kh n u m w ho se n am e .
,

w as d eri ve d f ro m a ro o t (hn m) whi c h m ean s u ni te j o in b e n ear ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’

, , ,

(an agri c u l tu ral dei ty o f se ve ral m o re n o rtherly

‘ ’
gi ve res t e tc
7
.
, ,

n o m es) an d th e sac red ani m al o f the n o m e w as a ram

, T he n atu re .

o f th e d e i ty an d o f t h e s ac re d ani m al po i n t to th e se ttl em e n t o f th e

n o m e by an agri c u l tu ral peo pl e T h e settl em en t w as ac co rdi ngly .

, ,

re l ati ve ly l ate S e the is pro b ably righ t in b elievi ng that the E gyp
.

t i an s w h o gave the se n am es to the di stri c t e mi grate d hi the r f ro m

o lde r n o m e s f u rth e r n o rth T he fir st n o m e ex te n de d no rthward .

to Ge b e l Silsileh w he re th e h ill s co m e do wn to the w ate r an d the ,

1
Urges clzic hte , § 15 2 .

1
Cf E rm an
. u nd Grap o w , Worterb uc h , II I , 3 0 6 . S te ind o rff , o p c it , p 8 7 1, ma in . . .

tain e d th at thi s w as n o t t h e e a rli es t n a me of t he n o m e , b u t, if so , th e e arlie r name has

b een lo s t .

1
Cf lo c . . c it .

Cf E rman. u nd Grap o w , o p . c it .
, I , 6, an d I II , 166 .

5
I b id .
,
I V , 68 .

5
Lo c . c it .

7
Cf E rm an
. u nd Grapo w , o p . c it .
,
I I I , 3 7 7 ff .
 EGY PTIAN REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 71

N ile flo ws b etween th ro u gh a n arro w c hann el Th e se h i lls fo rme d .

l “

a n o rth e rn b arrie r whic h m ad e a n atu ral se parati o n b etwe en th e

first n o m e an d its n o rth ern n eigh bo rs Wi thin thi s n o m e in later .

tim e th e re w as a c ity Ko m Om bo s wh i c h playe d an im po rtan t part

, , .

I t w as in th e Gree k pe rio d the c api tal o f th e n o m e I ts go d w as a .

hawk go d o r Ho ru s
-
2
T h e fac t th at h ere n o t o nly m an y m u m m ified
.

h awk s are fo u n d b u t m an y m u m m ifie d cro c o diles also in di c ate s

, ,

that he re b o th th ese ani m al s were sac re d I t wi ll b e seen as o u r

3
.

in vestigatio n pro ceed s th at b o th these c reatu res were to tem anim als
to so m e o f th e Ham ite s I t is po ssibl e th at they m ay h ave b een .

b ro u gh t hith er by the co lo n i sts who m Se the has di scerned b u t it ,

s e em s to th e wri te r qu i te as po ssible th at th ey m ay h ave b ee n th e

to t em s o f e arly H am itic se ttlers w h o prece de d tho se i mm igran t s .

2 T h e sec o n d n o m e lay n o rth o f th e first an d w as c alle d Wts t —

. hr ,
‘
T h e b e are r o f Ho ru s o r T h e ex alter o f Ho r u s
"1
S e the tran slate s
’ ‘
.
,

it D er Tragsessel d e s Ho ru s T he se dan chair o f

‘ 5 ’ ‘
-

T he c api tal o f the n o m e w as I) b 3 wh i c h m e an t Flo at

‘ ’
I t w as _ ,
.

expressed by the pic tu re o f a pap ru s flo at wh i c h w as m ad e fo r hu n t

y
in g the h i pp o po tam u s 6
Wh en fo llo wed by a c ertain de termi n ative
.

T he n am e Of th e c ity ( 1 263)
’
i t de sign ate d the h arpo o n o f Ho ru s 7 ‘
.

w as af terw ard c h an ge d to B hd t m ean i ng Th e th ro n e (o f Ho ru s)

‘ ’
, ,

an d its go d w as c alle d Ho ru s o f B ek h de t T h e go d o f the thi rd

‘ ’
.

n o m e o f Lo w e r E gypt w as also in th e e arli est ti m e Ho ru s an d h e ,

b o re th e sam e apellatio n 8
B ec au se th i s Ho ru s w as at o n e ti me the
.

go d o f a k in gdo m o f th e West D elta an d b ecau se h e b e c am e in the , ,

my th o f th e w ar b etween Ho ru s an d S e t th e go d o f th e who l e o f ,

Lo wer Egypt S ethe b elieve s th at th e th ird Lo wer E gyptian no m e

,

w as hi s o rigin al h abi tat an d th at h e w as c arrie d t he n ce to th e seco n d

,

n o m e o f U ppe r Egy p t by em i gran t s w ho co lo n ize d th at n o m e

°
.
.

While the se re aso n s m ay no t seem alto ge ther c o n vin cin g it is im ,

po ssible to di spro ve thi s Vie w an d th e c h an ge o f the n am e o f the ,

1
S ee S e th e , Urgesc hi c hte, Karte 3 .

I bid , §26
. .

a
l b id , §3 7 ,
n o te 2 .

1
‘
Cf E rman
. u nd Grapo w , Worterb u ch ,
I , 3 82 .

5
Op . ci t .
, § 15 0 .

5
S ee Gard in e r, E gypti an Grammar , S ign List , T ,
25 .

7
E rm an u n d Grap o w , o p ci t , ,
5 60 . . V .

§ 67
8
S e th e , o p
. ci t
.
, .

9
I bid .
,
—15 1 .
17 2 S EM ITI C AND HA M ITI C OR IG I NS

ca p i tal ci ty f ro m Db } to B hd t
Ho rus o f . arg u e s in its favo r . T he
thi s n o m e w as by the G re ek s i d e n tifie d w i th Apo llo fo r the y cal led ,

th e c api tal Apo llo no s po lis M ag na I t is no w c all ed E d f u T he . .

sa c re d an i ma l w as the hawk .

I n th e e arli es t n am e o f the c api tal c i ty w e d i sce rn a se ttl em e n t -

an te d ati n g th e c o l o ny w hi ch c am e f ro m Lo w e r E gyp t T he to w n .

w as the m o o ri n g pl ac e o f the flo ats o f fi sh e rm an an d hippo p o tam u s

-

h u n te rs P e rhaps e ve n th e n its pe o p le wo rs hipp e d th e hawk go d

.
-

Ho ru s and c o m bi ne d hu n ti ng wi th fi shi ng I n spi te o f the l ate r .

infl u x o f pe o pl e f ro m th e so u th w e i n cli ne to the b eli e f that the ,

ca pi tal o f t i s se co n d no m e w as o n e o f the earli es t se ttl e m e n ts o f

h
Ham i ti c fo lk in E gy pt .

3 T he sym bo l o f the thi rd no me w as the 3tf c ro wn a c ro w n

.
- -

wo rn by its go d de ss I ts e arly p ro nu n ci atio n is u n certai n I ts . .

a c i e t capi t l w as Ne k b
n n a h e t o n t h e e as t b k o t e Ni e f ro m
an f h l 1
, ,

n hb t ge rmi nati o n
’
s ho o ti ng u p an d w as c alle d E ileithyiaspo lis by
‘ ’ ‘
, , ,

the G ree k s no w E l Kab I ts go d de ss w as N ekh be t w ho se n am e

,
-
.
,

m ean t o f co u rse T he germi n ato r

’
S he w as regarde d as th e go d
‘
.
, ,

d e ss o f ch ild bi rth as the G ree k n ame o f the c i ty i n di cates In

‘

.
,

P to lem ai c ti m es its capi tal w as Lato po li s o n th e west o f the ri ve r , ,

n o w S e ni t ( E s n e ) T he ani m al s sac re d to her w ere the v u l tu re and

.

th e l atu s fi sh These fac ts pro b ably po i n t to a p ri mi ti ve se ttl em en t

.

o f agri c u ltu ri s ts w ho se l ife w as de vo ted to th e w o rshi p o f a p rim i

,

ti ve go ddess o f f e rtili ty an d w ho w e re still I n the to tem i sti c s tage ,

o f th o u gh t I t is th e typ e o f l ife fo stere d in th e o ase s o f e arly ti m e

. .

Fi shes m u l tiply rapi dly an d after se ttl em en t w as m ade o n the N ile , ,

wo u ld n atu rally b eco m e the sym bo l o f a go ddess o f ferti li ty Wh e .

th e r the v u ltu re w as sele c te d arbi trarily o r wh e ther its c ho i c e w as ,

d ic tated by th e fac t th at its n am e c o i n c i ded wi th the wo rd fo r

m o th e r o r b y so m e dark wo rkin g o f th e prehi sto ri c mi n d that w e
,

can no t n o w f atho m w e cann o t tell Ex cavatio n o f the s ite h as ai

,
.

fo rd ed arch ze o lo gi cal e vi den c e o f its ani tq ui ty 2

S e th e has sho wn .

th at th e re w as in prehi sto ri c tim e a mi gratio n f ro m the fif th n o m e

o f Lo we r E gyp t w hi ch b ro u gh t to t h i s n o m e th e wo rshi p O f the

go dde ss N eith an d co n fu se d it with th at o f th e go ddess N e kh b e t

3
.

1
S e th e , Urgeschic hte §45 .

1
S e e Q u ib ell, E 8: Gree n , F J . . . W .
, H i erak o npolis , Lo n do n , 19 00 0 2 -
.
( Vo ls . 4 5,
P ub lica ti o ns of th e B ritis h S cho o l of Ar c he o lo gy in E gyp t .
)
3
Op . c it .
§ 142 .
 E GY PTI AN REL I GIOU S ORIG I NS 17 3

4 . T he n am e o f th e fo u rth n o m e an d o f its cap i tal w as in E gyp tian

W3s t .
,
‘
scepte r .
’
I ts s ym bo l w as a s c e pte r , de co rate d , as so o fte n

were pi c tu res o f de ities in the early time wi th a feather b en e ath , ,

whi ch hang the en ds o f the string with whi ch it w as tied to th e

sc ep t er
1
Thi s scep ter w as c learly an Old fetish i do l F ro m the
.
-
.

e arli est ti m e M o n t th e H awk go d w as wo rshi ppe d in th e n o m e

,
-
, .

M o n t fi girre s in th e writing at a perio d so early th at hi s n ame is

ac c o m pan i e d by th e pi c tu re o f th e h awk ido l rath er th an b y th e -
,

livi ng h awk I ts c api tal w as Nra t the c ity ; th e Greeks calle d it

.
,
‘ ’

Th e b es Af ter the Eleven th dyn asty its go d w as Y mn (Am en )

.
,

T he hidden o n e so c all ed ap paren tly as th e go d o f th e d e ad H is

‘ 2 ’
.
,

sac red an i m al w as th e ram These fac ts po in t to th e s ettlem en t o f

.
,

the n o m e by an e arly tri b e (pro b ably Hami ti c ) wh i ch wo rsh ipp e d

bo th a hawk— go d an d a s ce p ter fe tish Later the n o m e w as o verru n .

by a peo pl e w ho wo rshi ppe d Y mn (Am en) an d were de c idedly agri

c u ltu ral an d w arlik e Tho ugh in gen eral the wo rshi p o f Am en
.

su perse d ed th at o f M o n t M o n t rem ain ed to th e en d as lo rd o f

,

W3s i an d go d o f w ar T h e first fo u r no me s o c c u pied territo ry o n

. .

b o th side s o f th e Nile .

5 T h e an c i en t n am e Oi the fif th E gyp tian n o m e w as Hrwy T h e

‘
.
,

tw o h awk s I t lay o n b o th s i des o f th e Nile n o rth o f th e fo u rth

’
.

no me I ts c apital w as in th e e arly tim e GS3 fro m a ro o t that m e an t

3
.
, ,

in clin e an d as a n o u n co uld m e an b e d I t w as l ater Qn s (Ko p

‘ 5 ‘ ’
.
,

to s) T h e p h en o m en a c o nn ec te d wi th th e n o me are co m plex an d
in dicate a lo ng an d mi xed hi sto ry On the west b an k o f th e Nile .

lay ano th e r c ity c alle d in early ti m es Nb w t Go ld c i ty b e cau se go ld

‘ ’
-

, ,

w as fo u n d in the regio n b ac k o f it 6
T he Gree k s c all e d it O m bo s . .

I n th i s ci ty the go d S et who se n am e w as wri tten b y th e pi c tu re o f

,

an ex ti n c t an im al w hi ch w as h is to tem w as wo rshi pp ed T he go d 7
.
,

o f the n o m e as a who le w as in th e hi sto ri c perio d M in w h o w as ,

pi c tu red as a m an wi th ere c t ph allu s b u t who se sym b o l w as an ,

e n i gm ati c al f e ti sh w hi ch S et he b e li eve s f ro m th e fo rm in w hi c h it
, ,

1
S e e S e th e , Urgesc hichte, §46 .

2
E rm an u n d Grap o w , Worterbu ch, I , 25 9 .

3
S e th e , Urgeschi chte, §4 7 .

4
E rman u n d Grap o w , Wo rter b nch, V ,
20 5 .

5
I bid .
, p 206
. .

6
S e the , Urgeschi c hte, §8 6 .

7
I bi d , § 2 1
. .
17 4 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

appe ars in the Py ra m id Tex ts , to have b e en p ic tu re s o f —

tee th per
h ap s the te e th o f so m e
i m al w hi ch h ad b ee n se c u red fe ro c io u s an ,

and re gard e d as a fe ti s h ‘ T he tw o hawk s b y w hi c h the no m e is .

d es ign ate d p ro b ably re pre se n te d tw o e arly d e i ti e s S e the c o nj e e .

t u re s that the y we re ri val de i ti e s that s tro ve fo r s u p re m ac y as H o ru s

an d S e t are s ai d in the late r m y th to have do ne 2 I f thi s b e t ru e .

they m ay have b e e n the d e i ti e s o f s ib s w ho li ve d o n o ppo si te b ank s

o f th e Ni le I t m ay b e ho we ve r that i n ste ad o f b ei ng ri val s the
.
, , , ,

h awk s w e re f ro m the b e gin n ing in th i s c ase a m al e and fe m al e p ai r , , .

I n e ithe r c as e the ir p re s e n c e i n d i c ates th e se ttl e m e n t o f a Hami tic

c l an a t a ve ry e arly d ate T he pre se n ce o f the go d S e t at O m b o s .

po i n ts to the se ttle m e n t o n the w e st b an k o f the Nil e o f a sib w ho se

—
to tem w as the S e t an im al an anim al w hi c h has b ee n i d e n tifi e d wi th
-

th e pig the ass and the e x tin c t 0 k apl b u t w hi c h as S e the say s

3
,
‘ 5
, , , ,

w e ca n no t i de n tify 6
We o nly k no w that it w as an ani m al that is
.

no w e x ti n c t an d th is fac t gu aran te es the an tiq u i ty o f th e trib e w ho s e

,

to te m th e ani m al co u l d b e F ar do w n i nto pre hi sto ri c ti m e S e t .

,

rem aine d the go d o f O m b o s .

T hese e arly se ttl e rs appe ar to h ave su ff ere d i n vasio n by ano the r

trib e th at h ad wo rshipp e d as a fe ti sh the tee th o f so m e f ero c io u s
an i m al b u t b e c o m i n g agri c u ltu ral h ad co m e to regard th e i r go d
, , ,

as a d e ity o f fe r ti li ty T hey c alle d him M in appare n tly fro m the .

,

ro o t mn re m ain b e pe rm an en t Hi s sac re d ani m al w as

’ ‘ ’ ’
abi d e 7‘ ‘
.
, , ,

the ram A f ter the go d s were c o n ce i ve d to po ssess hu man fo rm

.
,

ab o u t the ti m e o f the se c o n d dy n as ty M in w as po rtray e d as a m an ,

wi th phal lus e re c t Thi s m ay b e seen in the e arly statu e o f h im

.

fo u n d by P e tri e at C o pto s an d no w in the A shm o lean M u seu m at

Ox o f d an d al so in the pic tu re o f him l e ft by H at sh ep su t o f the
8
r ,
- -

e igh tee n th d yn as ty o n th e w al ls o f th e tem pl e o f D e r— el B ak h ri 9 -

.

1
] bid .

1
I bid .
, § 47 .

1
Cf Gardi n e r, Gr ammar , S ign lis t , E 20 , 21; an d the
.
-
re f e re n c e s give n the re .

1
E A W B u dge , The Go ds of the E gypti ans , I , 10 2
. . . I n late r p ic tu re s , w he n S e t
.

in h u ma n f o rm wi th thi s ani mal s

’
w as rep rese n te d h e ad , th e hea d lo o k e d no t u nlik e
th at o f an ass . S ee Wie deman n , R eligio n f the A nc ie nt E gyptia ns
o , p, 222 .

5
Th eo . H 0 pfn er, Ti er/eul t d er alter Aegypter, p 10 1 f . .
,
106 .

S e th e , Urges chic hte, § 8 7 .

7
E rm an u n d Grap o w , Worterbuc h, I I , 60 .

S e th e , Urges chic hte, § 21; also Capart, L es deb u ts de l art, p 2 17

’
. .

9
Cf E Navil le ,
. . D
ei r cl B ahar i , V , ( Lo n d o n , h o t XXXI
-
P . an d XXX I I .
 EGYPTIAN REL IGI O U S ORIGI NS 17 5

I n th e se var e d
i ble to d i scern tho u gh so m e wh at
fac ts w e are a ,

d iml y ho w ,
af te r tribe an d c i vi liz ati o n af te r c iviliz atio n str u g
trib e
l e d fo r t h e m a s te ry in th is impo rt an t n o m e th ro u gh th e lo n g ce n
g
tu ries o f pre hi sto ri c ti m e .

6 T he sixth n o m e w as perhap s c alled 43m an d lay o n the w e st o f

.

the Nil e I ts c api tal c i ty w as calle d in e arly t i m e I wen t c o lu m n

‘ ’
.
, ,

e rh ap s b e c au s e o f a m asse b ah la te r T 3 n —
t3 rr t T h e lan d o f th e
‘
p
- -
, ,

l—
do u b tless a re feren ce to th e fac t that th e sac re d an im al
’
w e t n u rse
-

o f th e n o m e w as a co w I ts go ddess w as li t hm S he o f the lo fty

‘
-
.
,

te m pl e
— a n am e wh i c h in tim e o n the l ip s o f fo re i gn ers w as co r
’

ru pte d to H atho r I n th ese fac ts w e c an trace n o thi n g very

.

primi tive T he co w w as c le arly the to tem o f a pasto ral o r agric u l

.

tu ral co mm u ni ty A lo fty temple had b e en e re c te d to her fro m

.
,

whi ch as alre ad y i n dic ated the n am e by wh i ch the go ddess w as

, ,

kno wn w as derived We h ave no m ean s o f kno wing by what n ame .

th e go ddess w as o rigin ally c alled I n the Oldest list (th at o f Ab u

'

Gu rab) an d in the li st o f Abydo s the n am e o f the no me is wri tten

by the pi c tu re o f a c ro co di le wi th a feather (later pi c tu re d as a k n ife ) 2

in his he ad S trabo an d Ju ven al b ear wi tness to th e fac t th at the

3
.
4

c ro c o d il e w as ho n o red in th i s n o me S tein do rff s su ggestio n that

5
‘
’
.

the co w go ddess h as c o n qu e re d a c ro c o d il e go d i s m o st p ro b ab le
- -
.

Thi s wo u ld m ean that the no me had be en o cc u pied by an e arly

trib e w ho wo rsh ipped the c ro co dile b u t latte r gave w ay to an ,

agri c u ltu ral trib e w ho wo rshi ppe d an earth go ddess u n der th e fo rm -

o f a co w .

7 T he
. n am e o f th e se ve n th n o m e w as ex pre ssed by the pi c tu re
o f a s stru m an d
i w as , pe rh aps , shin , th e Egyptian wo rd fo r th e sis
t rum So m e tim es in th e Older perio d the head o f a co w di splaced
‘

t he sistru m Thi s no m e lay o n the west b ank o f the Nile I ts

.
,
.

c apital w at Ht shm w Ho u se o f th e sistrum T he R o m an s c alled

‘ ’
-
.
,

it D io spo lis P arva I ts go dd ess like the go ddess o f D e n de reh w as

.
, ,

calle d li t km S he o f the lo f ty tem ple o r Hath o r

‘
-
, Th i s do es n o t ,
’
.

imply i den ti ty o f o rigin ; it o n ly i mplie d rivalry be tween c o n tiguo u s

1 E rman un d Grapo w , Worterbu ch , I I , 43 9 .

assu mes §4 9
1
S e th e th at th e fe athe r is o lde r th an th e k nif e , Urges c hi chte e
.

3 Bk . XVI I , 8 14 .

1
S atires , x v, 33 ff .

5
S te in d o rfl , o p. c it .
, 872 f .
17 6 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
no m e s w hi ch le d to the ado p ti o n o f th e sam e n am e . T he Hatho r o f
thi s n o me had ,
so far as w e k no w , no s acre d ani m a l . C L Wo o l
. .

ley co n te n d s th at the S u m e rian i n ve n tio n and w as

s s tru i m w as a

i n tro d uc e d f ro m M eso po tam i a i nto E gy p t 1

T he e vi d e nc e gathe re d .

by Pe tri e fo r the b eli e f in the mi gratio n i n to E gypt o f t rib e s

f ro m El am o r M eso po tam i a o r o f tribe s w hi ch had ab so rbe d the ,

c i v iliza ti o n o f th at re gio n has b ee n s u m m ari z e d abo ve in C h ap ,

te r I I I I t is po ssib le that thi s se ve n th no m e w as s e ttl e d by i n

.

vad e rs f ro m th e E as t w ho c am e o f a no n to temi s ti c s to c k an d w ho
,
-
,

b ro ugh t the wo rsh ip o f a go ddess wi th them T hi s go d dess w as .

c all e d n hm t w 3y S he w ho seize s the ro bb er and to the l ate s t

‘ ‘ 2 ’
-
,
.
,

t im e s h e r sym bo l w as the sistr u m a

.

8 T he ei gh th n o m e w as in e arly ti m e s T3 wr T he gre at l an d
‘ ‘ ’
-
.
, ,

o n th e w e st o f the Ni le I ts e arli e r capi tal w as Tny ( Th i s) ; its

.

l ate r c api tal w as Abdw o r Abydo s I ts sym bo l w as a spe ar dec ked

,
.

o u t as a stan d ard
6
whi c h w as in th e histo ric p e ri o d the i deo gram
,

fo r e as t If it had th e sam e m e an i ng in th e earli est p eri o d per

.
,

h aps it i ndi cate s th at the n o m e w as se ttl e d f ro m the Kh arga o asi s

w hi ch lay d i re c tly we st o f Abydo s If so th e n ame G re at Lan d .
,
‘

wo u ld n atur ally b e given it as a p art o f th e Ni le Valley in c o n trast

wi th the o as i s I ts sac red ani m al s were the j ac kal o r do g and
.
,

th e b ee tl e I ts o ri gi n al go d w as Y n hrt H e w ho fe tch e s the

‘
-
.
,

in ti m e hi s n am e w as co rru p ted to On u ris T h e n am e .

p ro b ably w as an e pi thet derive d fro m th e do g to tem w ho b ro u gh t -

,

th e pre y wi thi n th e pu rvi e w o f the hun ter In thi s ch arac teri sti c .

o f hi s sac re d ani mal th e go d w as b eli e ved to sh are In these fac ts .

w e o b tain a glim p se o f o n e o f th e e arli est phases o f the E gyp ti an

religi o n .I n later ti m e the w o rship o f On u ri s w as by co lo n i ,

z atio n f ro m Lo w er E gy pt di spl ace d by th at o f O siri s w h o as al

, , ,

re ady po in te d o u t w as o ri in al ly a S em iti c go d
g , A ll t hi s h o w e ve r .
, ,

to o k pl ace in prehi sto ri c ti m e .

1
Cf his S u mer ia ns , Ne w
. 19 29 , p 18 6 Y o rk , . .

2
E rma n u n d Grapo w , l V o rter b uc h, I I , 29 7 , an d S e the , Urges c hic hte , § 28
’ ’

3
S e th e , Urges c hic hte, § 5 0 .

Py rami d T e x ts , 18 6 7 .

5
Gardin e r, Gr a mmar , S ign list , R , 16 -
.

S e the , Urges c hic hte , § 22 S e th e , i b id . .

, § 63 ,
t h ink s On u risim po rte d go d , tho u gh
an

he d o es no t say w he n c e the im po rta tio n ca m e . I w o u ld su gge s t th e Kha rga o asis

as the so u rc e .
 E G Y PTIAN REL I G IOU S ORI GI NS 17 7

9 . T he n am e o f Hm o r Y hm (Akhmim ) o n
th e n n th n o m e w as
i , ,

th e e ast o f th e Nile ; its c api tal w as Y pm a wo rd th at m ay b e i de n ,

ti cal with th e d e m o ns trative pro n o u n th at b u t m ay b e o f qu ite

‘ ’
,

d iffe re n t derivatio n I t w as c alle d b y the Gre e k s P an o po li s

. I ts .

go d w as M in wh o se n ame w as written b y the same hiero gly ph as

,

that o f the go d o f C o p to s o f th e s am e n am e an d h is sac re d an imal ,

w as th e ram We co n j e c tu re therefo re that th i s no me h ad an o ri

.
, ,

gin similar to that o f C o pto s wh i ch it ad j o i n e d an d that it may , ,

h ave b een fo rm e d b y a co lo n y fro m that n o m e o r by an o ff sho o t o f it .

10 T h e ten th n o m e wh i ch lay n o rth o f th e ni n th o n bo th sides o f

.

th e Nile c o n s i sted appare n tly o f tw o parts T h e o n e part a w as .

, ,

c alle d W3 d t T h e papyr u s c o lo red snake ; its c api tal w as Tb w its

‘ ’
-
.
,

later c apital o n an o ther site w as c alled by th e Gree ks Aphro di tes

, ,

— r t S h e o f th e lo f ty tem le
H h
’
li dd an e pi th e t
‘
p o s I t s go. ess w as t p .
,
-

which co n cealed her o rigin al n am e and co n fu sed her wi th the o ther ,

H atho rs S h e w as o rigin ally a sn ake go ddess ; late r her sacre d

.
-

ani m a l w as the co w the to tem o f an agri c u ltu ral peo ple ,

.

T h e o ther part o f th e n o m e b w as c alle d nty wy T he talo n s o f

‘ ‘
-
, , ,

th e tw o bi rds o f prey b u t in the Abydo s li st it is i n di c ated b y a

’
,

sn ake an d a harpo o n o r f eath e I ts c apital city w as D u ka whic h

1
r .
,

the Gree k s c all ed An taeo po lis ; its go d w as Ho ru s ; its sac red an i m al

w as th e h awk These fac ts po in t to the presen c e in th e no m e o f
.

tw o strand s o f se parate o rigin wh i c h in religio n we re n e ver fu se d ,

.

T he o n e represen ted by the h awk —

, go d go e s b ac k to a h u n ti n g c u l ,

tu re fo r its be ginn in gs an d wo rshi ppe d a m asc u li n e d e i ty ; the o the r ,

re p re sen ted by th e c o w g o dd ess o f f erti li ty i s o f later p asto ral o r -

,

agri cu ltu ral o r1g1n P erh aps the lac k o f fu sio n is to b e expl ain e d
.

by the f ac t that the Nile sep arated th e tw o parts .

11 T he e le ven th m in e o f Upper E gy p t wh i c h lay we st o f th e

.
,

Nile bo re the n am e o f th e go d S et an d its n am e w as writ ten by

, , ,

pi c tu ri n g the an im al o f th e go d S e t as a h i ero glyph

2
Wh at th at .

an i m al w as I s n o t ye t d efin i te ly d e term i n ed T h e c api tal c ity o f

3
.
,

the n o m e w as S 3 htp t whi c h pe rh ap s m e an s H er repu l se is at

‘
-
,
.
, ,

1
S e e A S t G Cau lfeild , The
. . . T mpl
e es o f the Kings at Ab ydos , L o n d o n , 19 02, PI .

XVI II .

2
A d ifle ren t designatio n is e mplo y e d in th e list of S e ti I at Ab y d o s ; cf , Cau lfeild ,
T mpl
e e o f the Ki ngs at Abydos , Pl . XVI I I . P erh ap s it is an e arly spe llin g o f H n mw ;
-

cf E rman und Grapo w , A egyptisc hes H andw o rterb n ch, p 229

' '

. . .

3
S ee the disc u ssio n ab o ve u n der th e f th n o m e fi .
17 8 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITIC ORI G I NS

re st
" T he G reek s
. cal e d l it Hy pse le o r M o u n tai n hei ghts
‘
I ts -
.
’

go d w as , in the hi s to ri c p e rio d , K h nu m , and its sac re d ani m al the

ra m . In l ate r trad i ti o n S e t w as the go d o f the d ese rt . If w e are

no t mi stak e n , the se fac ts b e to k e n lo ng d e ve lo pme n t in the pre a

hi sto ri c pe ri o d T he re gi o n w as se ttle d by a to tem i s ti c trib e f ro m

.

the dese rt w hi c h he l d thi s rare ani m al sac re d and wo rshipped

th e go d S e t T his tribe d we lt he re so lo ng that its nam e c l u ng to
.

the no me l o ng af te r the trib e h ad b e e n o ve rw h e l me d by ano the r .

T hi s o the r w as an agri c u ltu ral o r p as to ral trib e to w hi c h the ram ,

w as sac re d Wh i le th is se co n d trib e i m po se d o n the no m e the w o r

.

ship o i its go d the n am e o f the n o m e p e rp e tu ate d the n am e o f the

,

o l de r d ei ty w o rsh ippe d the re D o u b tless the i n vasi o n by the l ate r

.

p eo pl e w as no t ac co mpli shed wi tho u t lo ng s tri fe Whe n ho we ve r .

, ,

peace w as m ade and the tw o p eo pl e s m ade a treaty o f ami ty th e

, ,

fac t appe ars to have b een p erpe tu ated in the n am e o f the c api tal
ci ty w hi c h they b ui l t .

12 T he name o f the tw elf th no m e w as Dw f M o u n tai n o f th e ‘

-
.
,

ho rn e d vip e r o n the e ast b ank o f the N ile

’
,
I ts l ate capi tal c i ty .

w as Nw t n t b 3 k Ci ty o f thy i n ce n se ( O its go d w as Ho ru s
‘
- - -
,

an d its sac red an i m al the h awk T he n o m e co n tai n ed an o ther c i ty

.
,

M a ab de in whi ch m an y m umm ifie d c ro co dile s we re fo u n d

‘

,
2
Ap .

p a re n tly th e re g i o n w as in e arly d ay s t h e h o m e o f m o re t h a n o ne

H am i ti c to temi sti c sib Here w e appare ntly fi n d a se ttlem en t o f

.

an e arly trib e o f w hi c h th e hawk w as the to tem an d w ho se go d

, , ,

lik e the go d s o f the o the r hawk — trib es to o k its n am e f ro m the b ird ,

.

T he n o m e w as n am e d fro m the fac t that the pre ci pi to u s b ank s o f the

all u vi al plain w e re th e ho m e o f the ho rn e d vi pe r .

m m N — A —
13 T h
. e t h ir t ee n th n o e w as n a ed df t h en t l at e r tef h e n t ,

so u th e rn )
’
whi ch m e an t apparen tly T he fir st , ,
‘
atef tree
3 -
.

I ts c api tal w as S 3yw t ( l ater Siu t) call e d by the G reek s Ly co po li s

.
,
.

I ts sacred ani m al w as th e j ac k al I ts go d w as calle d Wpt— . w 3t ,

‘
Open er o f way s wh ic h w as l ater i nterp re te d to m ean H e w ho pre
,
’ ‘

t h w a f r th e kin g in b attle
"1
b t w hi h b bl ri i n a lly
p a r e s e y o u c p ro a y o g ,

1
E rman u nd Grapo w , Wo rterbuc h , II I , 4 12 . I t is th e C o p tic ( g e r m mo d e rn S hu tb
,
.

2
S e th e , Urges c hi c hte , Karte 2 an d §3 7 , n 2 . .

1
E rman u n d Grap o w , Worter b uc h, I , 23 I t has b e e n . j
c o n e c tu re d th at atef do e s
a spe c ies o f mea n s f ruit tree S ee M e ye r, Allgerne i n e Ges
’
d esigna te t ree , b u t
‘
no t -
.

c hic hte, I , i , B e rlin , 188 7 , p 209 . .

E rman u n d Grap o w , Worter buc h, I , 304 .

 EGYPTIAN R E L I G I OU S O R IGI N S 17 9

r e fe rre d to t h e do g to te m , w ho ran ah e a d o f h is m aster to pre pare -

the w ay in h u n ti ng I n th is n o e , the re fo re , w e se e ano ther se ttle . m

m e n t o f o n e o f the early to temisic trib e s , b u t , as in the c ase o f Aby
do s , a hu n tin g tribe wh i c h had alread y do m e stic ate d the d o g .

14 . The kno wn as Ndf t phw t later

fo u rtee n th no me was -
,

Atef phwy T h e h in d ermo st (o r n o rthern) atef tre e

‘ ’
-
,
I ts c api tal ~
.

Was i ( C u sae ) a n am e wh ic h I am u nable to an alyze I ts sac red ,

. .

an i mal w as t e c o w a d ts go dd ess H hr t
h n i t— S he Of the lo fty temple
‘ ’
, , ,

Thu s this n o m e appears to have been settle d by an agri cultu ral

,
.

p p
eo l e ki n d re d
,
in c u lt u r e to th e s e ttl e r s o f D e n d e re h an d A p h ro

d itespo lis B o th th e th i rtee n th an d fo u rte en th n o m e s lay to the

.

west o f the Nile The ir nam e s S ho w that the y had a simi lar o rigin . . .

Perhaps they cam e in to exi sten ce like No rth an d So u th D ako ta ,

b y th e divisio n o f a territo ry th at e arli e r h ad bee n a u n i t Thi s is .

S e the s V Iew H e also b elieves that the n ami n g o f the n o m e s fro m

’ 1
.

a tree in di c ates that th e tree w as a f e tish o r as I wo u l d prefe r a

“

, ,

to tem I f there w as su c h a divisio n it to o k place b e fo re the fif th

.
,

dyn asty fo r bo th n o m es are m en tio n ed in th e to m b o f Ptahhe tep

,
"

w ho lived in the reign o f I ssesi 2

.

15 T he fif teen th n o m e o n bo th ban k s o f the Nile w as c alle d Wn t

’

.
, , .
,

the h are n o me S e th e rightly ho ld s that a t the beginni n g the

-
.

p p
eo l e w o r sh i ppe d a h a r e g o d 3
I ts c api tal Hmn w bo re a nam e -
.
, ,

iden ti cal wi th the n u m e ral e igh t an d the n am e w as expresse d in

‘ ’

writing b y that n u m eral Perh aps it m e an t the Eightfo ld c ity .

‘
.
’

I ts sac re d an i m al w as the b abo o n an d in th e h i sto ric period its , , ,

go d w as Q hwty (Tho th ) wh o se n am e w as e xpre sse d b y the p i c tu re ,

of an ibi s T he Gree k s w ho i den tifie d Tho th wi th Herm e s c alled

.
, ,

The se fac ts seem to b e to ken a se ttle

"

the c apital c ity Herm o po li s .

m en t in which tw o stran d s we re blen d ed B o th stran d s were to

'

temi sti c : to the o n e the ibi s w as sac red ; to th e o ther th e b ab o o n .

S e the rightly ho lds that th e Ibi s go d Tho th w as b ro u gh t i n to th is -

, ,

n o me b y mi gratio n f ro m th e fif tee n th n o me o f Lo we r E y t whi c h

g p ,

w as his n ative h abitat 4

Th i s wo u ld ac co u n t fo r his in vasio no f the .

te rri to r y o f th e h are b ab o o n go d -
.

1
S e th e , Urges c hic hte, § 5 7 .

2
S ee N G avie s, The M astab a
. . D o f Ptahhetep and Akhethetep at S aqqareh I I , ,
L o n do n ,
190 1, PI X I V , lo w est
. registe r .

3
S e the , o p . ci t .
, § 60 . P e rh ap s in e ar ly pic tu re -
w riting t h e b are an d th e b ab o o n
w e re n o t distin gu ish e d .

I bid .
, § 143 .
180 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

16 x te e nth no me o n th e e as t bank o f th e Nile w as named

. T he si , ,

M 3 hd a nam e w hi ch w as w ri tte n wi th the pic t u re o f a h awk an d a

-
,

i o f an o ryx I s ca pi ta l w as a o r H ib iu vario us ly
‘
p c t u re t w .
, ,

call ed in l ate r times Hi ppo no n I b iu and R ibi s I ts go d w as Ho ru s

2 ’
.
, ,

and w hile no G ree k o r R o m an w ri te r as si gn s to th e no m e any sac red

an imal as th e no me w as d es ign ate d by the o ryx o r an te lo pe and

, ,

its go d w as the hawk go d Hr o r Ho rus it is po ssibl e that bo th the se -

,

c re ature s w e re regarde d as to te m s I f so th ese fac ts po in t to th e

‘
.
,

ble n d ing o f tw o stran d s o f po p ul ati o n in thi s no m e in pre hi sto ri c

t im e o n e o f w hi ch asso c i ate d the o ryx w i th its d e i ty w hi le th e o th e r
, ,

wo rshipped a hawk go d o ne o f man y that be cause o f id e nti ty o f -

, ,

to te m were bl e n de d in to the l ater go d Ho ru s

,
I t is po ssible that .

the t w o pi c tu res w e re s i m ply o rtho grap hi c I n l ate r his to ry thi s .

no me played at tim es a pro m ine n t part I t w as called th e N u rse

‘

"
.

o f Kh u f u th e b u i lde r o f the great pyrami d an d it w as wi thin the

, ,

limi ts o f thi s no m e th at Ameno phi s IV b u il t his capi tal Akh e tato n ,

the ruin s o f whi ch are fo u n d at th e m o d ern E l Amarna The -

.

famo us to m b s at B e nih asn co n stru c te d in the X c dyn as ty are , ,

also wi th in its lim i ts .

17 T he se ve n tee n th n o m e o n th e west b ank o f the Ni le w as

.
, ,

call ed Y n pw (An u bi s) I ts ca pi t al w as in later tim es K 3 s 3 t Ox

‘
-
.
,
.

bac k c i ty I ts go d w as An u bis an d hi s sac red anim al th e j ac kal

’ ‘
. .
,

I n the XI I th dy nas ty lis t a t Lis h t it is w ri t te n w i th t he o ry x alo ne ; c f

1
E .
J . .

Gau tie r e t G J eq ui e r , M emo ir s ur les f o u illes dc L ic ht , ( To m V I o f M emo i res pub ls

. .

par les me mb res dc l i ns titut f r anra is e d ar c heo lo gie o r ie ntate) , airo , 190 2 p 24
’
I n the
’
C , . .

lis t o f S e ti I at Ab y d os th e o ry x is ac co mpan ied b y a sym b o l that is unk no wn t o me ;

Cf Caulf eild , Temple of the K i n gs at A bydo s , Pl XVIII
. . .

2
S o B u dge ( o p c it , p 98) an d H 0 pfn e r, ( o p c it , p
. . . . . .

2
Cf E M ey e r, Ges chic hte des alte n A egypte ns , Be rli n , 188 7 , p 19 3
. . . .

S te in do rfl think s th e no me na me was the w ri ti ng o f the name o f a ve ry -

o ld capi ta l

of it He d ou b ts tha t th e gaz e lle ( o ryx) w as a sac re d animal in th e n o me , sinc e he fi n ds

.

no men tio n o f th e fac t in o ld E ypy ti an so u rces Th e o ry x gu red in th e myth o lo gy o f . fi

th e Grae c o — R o ma n pe rio d ( cf H 0 p fn e r, o p c it , 99 . . . b u t th e my th s d o n o t c o n s

nee t i t w i th this n o m e S e th e , h o w e ver , Urges chic hte .

§6 1, as su m es fro m th e anal ogy
o f o the r n o mes tha t th e o ryx was at th e b eginni ng the di vin e ani mal .

5
Cf E M ey e r , Ges c hic hte de s al te n A egyptens , p 19 2
. . . .

S e th e , Urges chic lzte , p 19 po in ts o u t t hat in an o rig inal .

, w rapp in g o f an anima l

mumm y , pu b lis he d in th e B ulld i n of the M etro polita n M useu m of N ew Y o r k , S u pple

me nt 19 14 p 18 , Anu b is as go d o f th e d ead is rep res en te d b y a po s t o n w hi c h the ski n
, , .
, ,

o f an ani mal is h u ng . Bef o re see in g this th e w ri te r ha d n o te d a si milar pic tu re , carried

apparen tl y , as a n o m e stan dar d , in th e V th dyn as ty . Cf G Bo rc hard t, R e H eil igtu m

. .
-
 EGYPTIAN REL I GIOU S O RI G I NS 18 1

B o th th e na me of th e go d
were written wi th the an d o f th e n o me

pic tu re o f a rec u m be n t j ac kal o r do g T h e c ity w as called by the .

Gre e ks Cyn o po lis These fac ts indic ate th at a tribe whi ch in the
.
,

hu n ting stage o f cu ltu re had ado pte d the do g o r j ac kal as its to tem ,

se ttle d h e re an d passe d i n to th e agri c u l tu ral s tage Of c ul tu re It .

p pet te
e r u a d t h e wo rs hi f
p o its o ld j k dei ty
ac a l 1 -
.

18 T he e igh teen th n o m e lay east o f th e Nile an d w as c alled S p

.
,

appare n tly f ro m th e ro o t sp3

’ ‘ ’
to fly le t fly I t w as w ritte n wi th
2 ‘
.
, ,

th e h ie ro glyph o f a flying b ird an d pro b ably m e an t th e n o m e o f th e

‘
,

fly ing h awk 3
.
’
I ts go d in th e hi sto ric pe rio d w as An u bi s an d its
, , ,

sacr e d an i m al th e j ac k al I t seem s c lear th at an e arly Hamitic .

trib e w ho wo rshi ppe d t he flyi n g h aw k se ttle d th e n o m e Th e s e .

e ar ly se ttle rs we re later o verwh elm e d b y emi gran t s f ro m th e An u b is

n o m e w h o se ttl e d o n th e e as t b an k o f th e Nile an d se parat ed fro m

, ,

th e ir ki n sfo lk by th e ri ve r blen de d w i th the e arlier se ttl ers T he ,

.

c apital o f th e n o m e in late times w as Ht— Ro yal tem ple whi c h ‘ ’

s tn t .
, ,

th e Gree k s called Al ab astro po lis .

19 T h e n i n e teen th n o m e whi ch lay o n the west o f th e Nile o p

.
,

po site th e e igh teen th b o re the n am e W3bw t a wo rd o f u n cer tain ,

.
,
"
s ign ifi catio n P erhaps as emplo yed h ere it w as th e ro pe o f a
.
, ,

fishi ng bo at o r a fi sh lin e I ts capital w as in later tim e Pr m dt

4
.
, ,
-
‘

whi ch might b e tran slate d Ro ad ho u se I ts go d w as S e t an d its

‘
-
.
’
,

sac re d ani m al th e sh arp no s e d fi sh

5 -
.

20 T h e twe n ti e th n o m e like th e thi rte en th w as n am e d after a

.
, ,

I t w as c alle d N r t— hen t T h e fo re mo st (o r So u th ern ) n r

‘ ‘ ‘
tree . .
,

des K o n igs Ne w os er - -
re, B e rlin , 19 05 , B d I I , B latt 13 , . u pp e r register . Thi s is ve ry

in te re stin g, as the Sig

f o r th e go dde ss I sh tar in e arly B ab ylo nian app ears to have b een
n

a p o st simi larly b ehu n g wi th th e sk in o f an animal, as H o mme l su ggeste d m o re than

thi rty y e ars ago S e e OB W, I I , n o 116

. hi s symb o l, w h en o n c e rec o gniz e d , ap pe ars
. . T
o n a nu mb er o f o th e r m o nu me n ts in o th e r c o nn ec tio n s , c f . Cau lf e ild , o p c it , Pl XV , 5 ,
. . .

P e trie , The R o yal T mb

o f
s o the E arliest Dy n asti es , L o n do n , P
190 1, art I I , ] X 2, X I 2, P .

I II A 5 , 6 . It app e ars to h ave h ad a f airly wid e u se , an d th e stre amers attach e d to a

large nu mb er o f stan dard s ( c f f o r e xamp le

.
, Cau lf eild , o p . ci t .
,
Pl I I , XI I ,
. XI I I ,
XI V )
w ere , p e rh ap s , a c o n ve n tio n aliz atio n o f it .

1
Cf S e th e , Urgesc hic hte,
.
—12 .

2
Cf E rman u n d Grap o w ,
. Worterbuc h ,
III , 44 1 .

§ 62
3
S o S e th e , o p . c it .
, .

E rm an u nd Grap o w , Worter bu c h , I , 25 1 .

5
I d o ls in th e f o rm of fi sh es w e re m ad e h e re u n til th e Greek p e rio d ; cf . S e th e,
Urgesc hi chte, §3 7 , n . 4 .
18 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

t re e " . I t lay bo th si de s o f
Ni le P ro b ably in the be gi nni ng
on t he .

the tre e nym p h w as th e to te m o f t e i n habi tan ts o f th e no m e

-
h 2
I ts .

c api tal in th e l ate pe ri o d w as Nn y ns w t m e an ing appare n tly T he

’ -
‘
, , ,

c hild w hich is hi s o r as a w ho le
’
T he c i ty o f th e c hild w hi c h is his
‘ ’
, , .

T he s ign firs t w ri tte n m i ght also b e re ad s tn R o yal T he m e an i ng

‘ ’
.
,

wo ul d the n b e T he c i ty o f the ch il d w hi c h is ro yal and the refe r

‘
,
’

e nc e w o u ld b e to a d e ity T he G reek s call ed it He rak leo po lis . .

l ts dei ty w as calle d ll y sf He w ho is o ve r h is l ak e —a re fe re n c e
‘ ’
- -
,

to the po o l ( pe rhaps artifi c ial) n e ar the te m ple T he ram w as .

sa c re d to h im La te r he w as i de n tifie d wi th Kh n u m T hese fac ts

. .

i ndi cate tha t th i s no m c j ust so u th o f the F ay um w as se ttl ed by a , ,

p a s to ra l o r ag r i c u lt
,
u ral pe o pl e w h o se d ei ty w as the d e i ty o f fe r ,

tility co nc e i ve d as th e c hi ld o f the tree go dd e ss He ca n h ardl y -

.

have be e n O si ri s fo r h e is n o t i de n tifie d by any stratu m O f E gyp ti an

,

th o u gh t wi th that go d H e is rathe r so m e de i ty o f H am i ti c o r N u .

bian o ri gin w ho m w e canno t n o w i den tif y mo re c lo sely

,
.

2 1 T he twe n ty fir st no m e like th e te n th w as co m po se d o f tw o
.
-
, ,

parts e ach po sse ssed o f its o wn ch arac teri sti c s

,
T hi s n o m e c o m .

p ri se d th e Fay u m di stri c t wi th its lak e an d the l an d be twe e n th e ,

F ay um an d the Ni le T he G reek s called it th e Ar sino ite no m e . .

T he fi rst p art a w as calle d N r t pk w T he hi n derm o st (o r n o rthe rn )

‘ ‘
-
.
, , ,
'

n r t re e .
—
I ts cap ital w as S mn b r t T h e go o se o f Ho ru s
’ 1
I ts go d .
,
‘
,
’

w as Khn u m an d th e ram w as sacre d to him , T hi s part o f the no m e .

w as an o ff s o o t o t e tw e n ti e th n o m e
h f h 6
.

T he n am e o f th e seco n d part b w hi ch lay in th e F ayu m w as T3 , , ,

I ts c apital c i ty w as M h d t w h i c h th e G ree k s c alle d

’
‘
L ake lan d -
.
-
.
,

C ro co di lo po li s I ts go d w as S ble an d his sac re d an im al th e c ro co

.
,

dile I n these fac ts w e see e vi d en ce o f a lo n g hi sto ry

. In th e .

F ayu m there de velo ped an e arly trib e d e vo ted to the c ro c o d ile go d ,

-

S o b ek Late r an agri cul tural trib e pe rhaps an o ff sho o t o f the

.
,

H e rak leo po lite n o m e o c c u pi ed the part o f th e i r te rri to ry w hi c h ,

N tre e w hic h f u rnishe d w o o d fo r b uildin g cf E rm a n u nd

’
ship s ; Gra
1
r w as a .

po w , Worter buc h , II ,
208 ;
— p e rh ap s the po m egran ate tree ; cf . Griffi th , J o u r nal f
o

E gypti a n Ar f
hae o lo gy , II I , 142 .

2
S e th e , o p . c it .
, § 59 .

S o Gardin e r, Gr ammar , S ign lis t, A 17

1
F o rm e rly it w as -
. read H nens u ; so B u dge ,
o p c it , p 9 8 , an d H 0 pfn e r, o p c it , p 9
. . . . . . .

1
S ee E rman u n d Grapo w , Worter buc h, I V , 13 6 .

5
S e the , op . c it.
, p 59. .
 E GYPTIAN REL I G IOU S ORIG I NS 183

gave them an o u tle t Nilew ard , an d the tw o l

e em en ts we re n e ve r

qu ite fu se d .

22 T h e twen ty
.
-
se co n d n o m e , th e l ast no me o f Upper Egypt ,
lay
on the e as t o f th e Nile o ppo si te th e twen ty fi rst -
no me . I ts n ame

w as M tn
pelled M tenn n t in Pian k hi s in scriptio n I t apparen tly
,
s
‘ ’
.

w as t e n am e o f a kn ife o r h atc he t
h 1
I t s c api tal w as Tp k 3 t Ove r .
-
.
,
‘

I ts go ddess w as Ht—
’
the c attle o r C hi e f o f the h erd
‘ ’
hr t (H atho r)
‘

.
, .
,

S he o f th e lo fty tem ple ; he r sacre d an i m al w as th e c o w

‘ ’
C learly .

th i s n o m e w as o f simi lar o rigi n to th at o f the sixth an d seven th

n o m es P erh ap s it w as first peo pled by e migran ts fro m the sixth
.

n o m e w ho fin d in g th e l an d fu lly o cc u pi e d o n th e w e st b an k o f th e
, ,

Nile were co m p elle d to c ro ss it an d gain ed a fo o tho l d here

, , .

L OWE R E G PT Y
T he twen ty n o m es o f
Lo wer E gypt affo rd the fo llo wing facts .

1 T he first n o m e o f thi s se c tio n whi ch o c cu pi e d bo th b ank s o f

.
,

th e Nile j u st ab o ve the D e l ta w as c al le d a hd Whi te wall

‘ ’
-
, , ,

fro m the w all o f the c i ty o f M emph i s I ts c api tal city o ri gi n ally .

,

kn o wn fro m th e co lo r o f its wall as a hd w as fro m th e V I th dy -

,

n asty o n w ard s k n o w n as M en — B eau tifu l M o n u men t fro m ’

n of er
‘
, , ,

the n am e o f the pyram i d o f Pe p i I wh i c h w as bu ilt n ear to its wall 2

,
.

By the Gree k p erio d it w as co rru p ted to M emphi s T he go d o f .

th e no m e w as P tah to who m the b u ll w as sac re d ,

T he bul l in .
,

wh i ch the go d w as b elie ved to b e i n carn ate d w as c alle d Api s p ro b , ,

ably the n am e o i a b u ll go d T he n am e o f the go d P tah is co n -

. .

n e c te d by E rman wi th th e S em i ti c ro o t m e which in ‘ ’
to o p en , ,

Egypti an w as emplo ye d n o t o nly in the sen se o pen b u t also to ‘

,
3

s gn i y to s ap e o r fo rm
h and t o w
h As Ptah w as re
’
i d
‘ ’ ’
f w 3 ‘ ‘ ‘

r o n
~

.
,

g a r d e d as th e g o d o f ar t i san s it w a s d o u b tless app li e d to h im to ,

‘ ‘ ’
sign ify T h e S h ap er Fashio n er o r M aker ’ ‘ ’
.
, ,

I n th ese fac ts m ay b e re ad th e sto ry o f a lo n g de ve lo pm en t T he .

n o m e w as se ttl ed by an agric u ltu ral trib e o f H am i tes w ho w o r

shi pp e d th e bu ll go d I n to th i s settlem ent th ere cam e later a

-
.

S emitic gro up o f c raftsmen w ho we re fu sed w i th the Ham i tic trib e , ,

ado p te d the ir go d b u t gave him th e e pi th e t M ak er,

which later ‘
,
’

1
E rman u nd Grap o w , o p . c it
.
, I I , 17 1 .

2
Cf B re as te d , H i story
. E gypt, p 13 2 f o f . .

E rm an u n d Grap o w , Worter bu c h, I , 5 65 f
2
.
18 4 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

s u e rse d e d
p i gi nal name W hate ve r the Ori gi nal n am e o f the
his or .

t ri b e m ay have b e e n it h as b e e n o b s c u re d by the n am es g ive n at ,

vario u s ti m e s to its c api ta l c ity S e the b eli e ve s the re gio n to h ave .

b ee n fi rst o rganize d as a no m e by M e na 1
.

2 T he se co nd no m e lay o n the w e s t b ank o f the Ni le j u s t at the

.
,

b e gi nni ng o f th e D e lta I ts n am e w as ex pre sse d by the hi e ro gly ph .

w hi ch pi c tu re s the d isse ve re d fo releg o f an o x an d is vario u sly re ad ,

b y E gyp to l o gi sts 2
I ts c api tal w as Hm l ate r S hmt
“
.
,

c all e d by the G re e k s L e to po li s I ts sac re d ani m al w as the hawk .

,

an d its go d w as Hr w r T he gre at hawk o r The gre at Ho ru s He

‘ ’ ‘ ’
-
.
, ,

r h
w as wo s ipp e d at a n e a rly it m e i n t e fo rm o f a bi rd i do l an d w as
h 5
1 -

c all e d Eh ly n i r ty T he e ye less Ap pare ntly w e have he re ‘

- -
,

an o the r o f tho se e arly H am i tic trib es d e vo te d to the h awk to te m -

.

S e the be li e ves that Ho ru s wo rshi p w as c arri ed f ro m he re to C o pto s

in Uppe r E gy pt .

3 T he thi rd no m e o cc u pi ed the we st sho re o f the D e lta at the

.

e x trem e n o rthw e s te rn c o rn e r I ts sym b o l s w e re a fe ather an d a .

I t w as c alle d po p u l arly Y mn t T he w est L ater it w as ’

hawk
‘
. .
,

cal le d th e Lyb ian n o m e I ts capital w as Nw t— n t—

hyp T he c i ty
‘
. .
,

o f H ap i a b u ll go d I ts d ei ty w as Ht hr t S h e o f the lo fty te m ple

’ ‘ ’
- -
. .
, , ,

an d h er s ac red ani m al the co w Apparen tly in thi s n o m e there w as .

a b le n din g o f di ff e re n t p h ases o f c u l tu re an d o f d ei ti es o f fe rti li ty .

T he wo rshi p o f the h awk w as h ere ve ry pri mi tive S e the b el ie ve s .

th at it w as fro m h e re that it spre ad to the o the r no m es w he re it is

fo u n d 7
I n thi s n o m e w as an an c i en t c i ty B hd t ( B e k h de t) appar
.
,

e n tly th e earli est c api tal o f the n o m e w hi ch w as call e d D my n Hr ,

- -
,

T he restin g ( place) o f Ho r u s w hi c h he tran slates T h e n ati ve lan d

‘ 8 ’ ‘
,

( Heim at) o f Ho ru s Thi s plac e still su rvi ve s as D am anhu r ( Co p ’

.

ti c T imi nho r) a pl ace sixty — fo u r k ilo m e ters f ro m A lexan dri a o n th e

,

rai lw ay to C ai ro 9
U n do u b tedly the n o m e is o n e o f the o ldest
.

1
Urges c hichte , W .

2
Bu dge , it It he ns u ; H0 pfn e r, o p c it , p 9 , Ao , w hi le E rman
c it 9 9, rea d s
'

o p . .
, p . . . .

u n d G rapo w , H and w orterbuc h, p 230 , read dw gw The last is d o u b tless c o rrec t

'

. . .

11
S e th e , Urges chic hte , § 11 .

B u dge , o p . c it .
, p . 99 .

5
1
S e the , Urgeschic hte, § 11 .

6
I bid , § 14 1. .

7
S e th e , Urgesc hic hte , § 7 7 .

2
E rman u n d Grapo w , Worter buc h, V , 453 ff .

S e th e , § 85
2
o p . c it .
,
.
 EGYPTIAN REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 18 5

Hamitic se ttlem e n ts in th e
Ni le valle y Hith er c am e a tri be o f .

hu n terS w ho se to tem w as th e h awk an d th e n o m e w as n am e d fo r

'

him 1
.Th ese e arly se ttlers were later in vad e d b y agri c u ltu rists w h o
b ro u gh t with th em th e wo rsh ip o f a go ddess o f fertility w ho in tim e , ,

b e c au se o f h er lo fty temple w as c alled Ht hr t S he o f th e lo fty ,

-
.
,
‘

’
tem ple an e pi th e t w hi ch
, as w e h ave see n w as f ash io n abl e in
, ,

m an y parts o f E gypt T o h er th e c o w w as sac re d

. T h e n am e o f .

th e l ater c api tal sho w s th at wi th h e r th e b ul l — go d Apis w as w o r

S h ip p e d .

4 T h e fo u rth n o m e whi c h lay apparen tly fairly n o rth o f th e

.
,

se c o n d b u t ac ro ss th e w e sternm o st o r Ro se tta b r an c h o f th e Nile

, , , ,

h ad fo r its h i e ro glyph a s hi eld c ro ssed b y tw o arro ws fo llo we d b y th e

hie ro glyph fo r so u th
’
I t is re ad S py ref o r S py Smi S o u the rn
‘ ‘
- -
.
, ,

S epy in c o n tradistin c tio n to th e fifth n o m e

’
,
T h e c ro sse d arro ws .

we re the an cien t sym bo l o f th e go dd ess Ne ith 2

T h e n o me m u st .

ac co rdin gly h ave b ee n a late o ffsh o o t o f th e fif th n o m e T h e c apital .

o f th i s n o m e w as Da (D h e q a) whi ch p erh ap s sur vi ves in th e mo d

‘
3
,

e rn Tu kh 4
109 mi les fro m Ale xan dria o n the Alexan dri a C airo
,
-

railw ay I ts sac re d d e i ti es were S o b e k I sis an d A m e n ; in late r

‘

.
, ,

ti mes its sac re d an im al w as th e ram I t wo u ld seem t h at at least .

fo u r strata c an b e detecte d in thi s n o me There w as first a ti m e .

w h e n it w as p art o f the Ne i th n o me Th en c ame Ham iti c settlers .

w ho wo rsh ipped the c ro c o d i le — go d With th e se were m in gled .

S emi ti c i mm igran ts w ho b ro u gh t the wo rshi p o f I si s I n the hi s .

to ric al perio d after the ri se o f Th e b es th e c u lt o f Am en w as in tro

, ,

d u ce d P ro b ably it w as th e in tro du c tio n o f th e se ex tran eo u s e le

.

me n ts whi ch le d to the se paratio n fro m the fif th n o m e

‘

5 T he fif th n o m e lay d irectly n o rth o f th e fo u rth

. I ts sym bo l .

w as th e sam e sh i eld c ro sse d b y tw o arro w s b u t in th i s c ase it w as ,

fol lo we d by th e h ie ro glyp h h3 (also read mh) m e an in g n o rth

‘ ’
.
,

T h e p eo ple o f th i s n o m e then we re the No rth ern S epys As ‘ ’

.
, ,

D timich e n lo n g ago saw th e fo u rth an d fif th n o m es at the b eginn in g

,

fo rm e d o n e se ttlem e n t w h i ch w as late r d ivi de d T he c api tal c i ty .

1
Cf th e . ref e re n ce to H o ru s an d th e H o ru s no m e in S e the , Altaegypti sc he Py ra mid
texte 211, b S e th e , Urges chi chte, § 13 5
, c , an d al so .

’
2
S e th e , Urgeschi c hte, § 19 , an d Gardiner, Grammar , S ign list, R 24 -
.

S o D iim ic h e n , in M ey er s Allgemei n e Ges chi chte I , p 25 0

3 ’
. .

’
B ae dek e r s E gypt, L e ip z ig, 19 02, p 23 . .
18 6 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

o f the fi fth ( S ai s) I ts ei ty as t e go d de ss Nr t
no m e
d w h w as 1
S 3m l . . .

"
( Ne ith) , m c aning The te rrib le o ne , and its sac re d ani m al the v ul tu re
’2
.

T hi s no m e w as cl e arly se ttl e d by o ne o f the e arly Ham itic trib es

w ho wo rshi ppe d a go ddess that w as bo th a d ei ty o f fe rtili ty and o f
w ar and w ho p ri de d the m se lve s u po n th e i r p ro we ss in arm s u nd e r
,

he r b anne r T he no me appare ntly w as o n c e the seat o f a pre his

.

to ri c D e l ta ki ngd o m and in the late hi s to ri c pe rio d f u rni she d E gy pt

1
,

-—
its tw en ty six th dy nas ty a dy nasty w hi c h re ve re n ce d E gyp t s lo ng
’

past T he charac te ri sti c s o f the fo u nde rs o f the no m e w e re ne ve r

.

re ally o bli te rate d u n til E gyp t p assed fo re ver u n d e r a fo re i gn yo k e .

6 T he six th no m e w as calle d in the earli e r ti m e Dru k }

‘
C attl e -

"
.
,

As the n am e m o u n tai n w as m ani festly i nappro pri ate

’
m o u n tai n
‘
.

to the p apyr u s m arshe s o f the regio n it w as l ate r c hange d to s ml— k3 ,

‘

(l ater pro no u nce d H3s w )

’
1
C attle desert o r C attl e p astu re
6 -
,
‘
.

T he earlie st se ttl em e n t w hi c h w e c an t race in the terri to ry wi th the

m ea h h
‘ ’
c i ty w as Q b w
7
i T h fi d i 8
I
'
t n n g p e r a p
-
s e n g e
,
r s ape o as s n , ,
-
.

th e early ti me the wo rship o f tw o de i ti es can b e trace d in the c i ty ,

th e po i so n o u s u ra e u s se p e n t an d the h awk go d Ho ru s
r “ T he c i ty
- -
.

b ecame the c api tal o f o ne o f the prehi sto ri c ki ngdo m s o f the we ste rn
D el ta an d fro m th at time it w as kn o wn as T he thr o ne ci ty (P
,
‘
-
’

o f w hi ch B u to is a co rru p ti o n Af te r thi s c i ty had held its sway

‘ 10 ’
.

fo r a l o ng ti m e an d w o n fo r i tse lf a place in E gyp ti an trad i ti o n that

is reflec te d in vari o u s p assages o f the Pyr ami d Text s it de c li n e d 11
,

an d ano th er c api tal S i tu ate d c o n si de rably to the so u th o f B u to o n

,

the east b an k o f th e R o se tta b ran c h o f th e Nile e m e rge d I t w as ,

.

c alle d H3s w t the co rru pti o n o f th e O ld n am e o f the n o me m e n

-
.
,

tio n e d abo ve I t c am e i n to Gree k as C ho i s an d as su c h played

.
, ,

it s part in th e later h isto ry I n th e l ater no m e l ists th e go d o f this .

-

s ix th n o m e is A m e n re an d its s ac re d an i m al th e ram
12 -
.

1
S e e Gardin e r, lo c . c it .

2
S e e E rman u nd Grapo w , Wo rterb uch ,
I I , 27 7 .

1
S e th e , Urgeschic hte, §8 1 .

S e th e , Urgesc hic hte, § 63 ; cf . t he s ign -

lis t , O 26 , in G ardin e r s Grammar
’
.

5
S e th e , o p . c it .
, § 18 6 .

’
1
O 25 , of Gardi ne r s lis t .

p c i t , § 17 0
7
S e th e , o . . .

1
S ee E rm an u n d Grapo w , Wo rterbu ch V , ,
5 62 fl ,
an d I , 380 .

S e th e , o p . c it .
, § 63 .

1°
I b id .
§ 70
, .

11
S ee § § 60 1a 7 3 4C ,
an d 148 8b .

12
Cf E rm an
. und Grapo w , H and w o rterb nc h, p 23 1, . an d H 0 pf n e r, Ti erk ult, p 9 . .
 EGYPTIAN REL IG IOU S ORIGI NS 18 7

I n the se f ac t s perceives a lo n g an d varie d h i sto ry

o ne I n e arly .

tim e s three d i stin c t sib s, all o f Ham iti c o rigin , se ttle d in th e n o m e .

On e wo rsh ipped ke deity Th i s tribe apparen tly c am e fir s t

the sn a -
.
,

fo r this u raeu s serpen t wh i c h w as the tu telary d eity o f the ro yal

-
,

lin e Of B u to an d whi ch b e c am e in t h e hi sto ric peri o d the sym bo l

, , ,

o f rrfi alty w as th e m o st c h arac te ristic go d o f B u to

,
I n to this .

terri to ry th ere c am e l ate r a sib whic h wo rshippe d th e h awk go d ; -

rh a s i t m i ra te d h i t h e r f ro m t h e thi rd n o m e S til l l ater b u t s t ill

p e p g .
,

in preh i sto ri c ti m e th e re c am e ye t an o the r sib wh ic h h ad as its ,

to tem a wi ld b u l l o f th e d esert mo u n tai n Th i s sib pro bably o c .

c u pie d te rrito r y ab o u t th e si te o f the c i ty o f C h o i s b u t b e c am e so ,

p o w e rf u l t h a t i t u lti m a te l y g a v e it s n am e a n d sym b o l to th e n o m e

as a who l e F ar do wn in the hi sto ri c p erio d afte r th e M id dle

.
,

Ki n gd o m h ad m ade the wo rship o f Am en co mm o n to th e who le '

c o un try an d A m en h ad b e en bl en de d wi th R e a su fli c ie n t n u m b e r ,

o f the d e vo tee s o f th i s go d m igrate d h ith e r fro m th e T he b an n o m e

to ab so rb in the wo rship o f their go d the o lde r cu lts an d to m ak e h is

sac re d an i m al th e ram su pe rse de th e o l der to tem s
, ,
.

7 T he n am e s o f th e se ven th an d eigh th n o m e s we re i d en ti c al
.

e x c e pt that th e y w ere d isti n gu i sh ed by the ad j e c tives e ast

‘ ’
an d
‘
we st similar to E ast Farnham an d West F arnham an d similar
,
’

n am e s in m o de rn ti m es O ri gi na lly th e y c le arly fo rm e d o n e n o m e
.

fo r the y we re still o n e in th e tim e o f th e fifth dyn asty 1

T he n am e .

o f the se v en th n o m e i s writte n wi th th e pic tu re o f a b o at e q u ip ped

with a b an k o f c ars abo ve which is th e o n e pro nge d har po o n w ,

-
,
‘

( Gard T m o st o ften e m plo ye d in late r w ri tin g to expre ss th e

.
,

nu m eral o n e As y e t w e are in do u b t ho w th e an c i en t E gyp tian s

2 ‘ ’
.

vo c alize d th e n o m e n am e I rf th e n am e o f thi s sevent h n o m e th e se

-
.

s y m b o ls are fo llo w e d by th e S ign Y mt we st T he n o m e lay at th e

‘ ’
.
,

so u th ern po in t o f th e m i dd le D e lta e ast o f S epy — re s the fo u rth , ,

no m e T h e E gyptian n am e o f its c api tal in l ate tim e w as S n ty

.

nj r t m e an in g B e au ti fu l co p a term appl ie d to a templ e as a co py

’ ‘ ’
3
.
, y ,

T he Gree k s calle d it M e te lis I ts go d w as H3 T h e

‘
o f h e ave n
4 5
. .
,

1
S ee N G . . D avies , The M astaba of Ptahhetep and Ak hethetep at S aqqareh, I I , p l .

XV ,
lo w e r register . Cf , also S e th e , Urges c hi c hte, §4 1 ,
n . 3 .

2
S ee S e th e , o p . c it.
, §4 1 ,
n .3 .

5
S o B u dge , Go ds of the E gypti ans , p 9 9 , an d H 0 pfn er, . Ti erk u lt, p 9 . .

4
Cf E rman u n d Grapo w , Wo rterb nc h, I I I , 45 6 ff
' '

. .

5
E rman u nd Grapo w , H andw b rterb uc h, p 23 1
‘

. .
188 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITIC ORIG I NS

d e se r t w ho se name so far as I k no w plays no i m po rtan t

sp ri it ,
’1
, ,

ar t i n t he l ate r re l igi o n N e i t he r B u dge no r H o pfne r ass ig n a

p .

s ac re d an i m al to t hi s n o m e n o r d o e s any o the r m o d e rn w ri te r k no w n
,

to m e H o w e ver Ae lian in his De na tu ra an i nzaliu m X I 17 says :

.
, , , ,

I n M e te lis o f E gy p t a se rpe n t ( sp am ) is sac re d ( Zepé s) an d is

“

ho no re d in a to w e r an d has atte n dan ts an d se rvan ts an d a tabl e ,

”2
a n d p u n ch b o wl are p re pare d fo r him I t is e vi de n t the n tha t the .
, ,

se rpe n t w as sa c red to this go d H3 T hese fac ts po i n t to the s e ttl e .

m e n t o f the no m e by a d ese rt trib e w h o se to tem w as a s e rpe n t 11

In .

th e ir E gyp ti an ha bi tat th e y firs t m ain taine d the m se l ve s by fi shi ng ,

an d in l ate r ti m e pe rp e tu ate d the m e m o ry o f thi s p e rio d by t he

sym bo l s o f the b o at an d h arp oo n T hey w e re Ham i tes an d the .

se ttl em e n t o f the n o m e w as e arly .

8 T he n am e o f the e igh th no m e w as e xp resse d by the s am e sym

.

bo l s as th at o f the se ve n th ex c e p t that th e si gn fo r west w as re ,

‘ ’

pl ac e d by the S ign Y 3bt e ast ( G ard R I t lay to the east o f

,
‘ ’
.
,

th e se ven th n o m e adj o i ni ng Wady T u m ilat the n atu ral highw ay ,

fro m the D el ta to the R e d S e a I ts c api tal s w e re f lat S u c co th a .

, ,

go o d S emi ti c wo rd an d Pitu m Ho u se o f the go d T u m o r T m

‘ ’
.
, ,

I ts go d w as Tm o r t
1
w ho w as app are n tly an e arly agri c u l tu ral
‘

, ,

d ei ty 5
T he n o m e had so far as w e kn o w n o sac re d an i m al
.
,
Th i s ,
.

n o m e w as app are n tly fo r a l o n g ti m e a part o f th e se ve n th n o m e .

In to it S emi tic i mm i gran t s f ro m Asi a c am e fo rmi ng at first a ten t ,

1
S o S e the , o p . cit .
, § 20 .

2
Q u o te d b y H o pfn e r in h is F antes H is tor iae R eli gio ni s Aegyptic ae, 19 22—25 , p 42 5 ; .

it w as p u b lishe d nin e y ea rs late r than h is i erk ult T .

1
As a se rpe n t g o d d e ss w as f o u n d at T ll B
e e it M irsim ( Alb righ t, Arc haeology of
P ales ti ne and the B ib le p . an d a t B e th sh ean a se rp en t d e ity w as w o rshi ppe d , ( see
Ro we, M us e um J o u r n al ,
XIX , 1928 , p an d as a se rpe n t d e ity w as w o rshi ppe d a t
.

D e lphi in Greece ( no t to me n tio n o ther parts o f the w o rld) , an d as ne ither S e mi te s n o r

Greek s w e re to te mi sti c , the re may b e so me reaso n to do u b t w he the r th e se rpen t a t
M e telis w as a to te m I n vie w , ho w e ver, o f th e f ac t th at in at le ast t w o o th e r n o me s
.

( t he te n t h of Upp e r E gyp t an d th e s ix th of Lo w e r E gyp t) se rpe n ts w e re to te ms ,

th e w e igh t o f p ro b ab ili ty is in favo r of th e vie w e xp re sse d in the te x t .

4
E rman u nd Grap o w , Worterb uc h V , ,
30 1 .

T he sle dge w as , amo n g th e E gyp tians , th reshi ng in stru m e n t an d ind ee d s till

5
a

( see th e Arc haeo lo gy T u m ( Atu m) w as ,

’
is ; w ri te r s a nd the B i ble, 6 th cd .
,
F ig . ac

c o rdin gly , pe rh aps go d of S e the , Urgesc hic hte , § 114, d e c lares tha t the n ame
the h arve st .

Tm m ean s all the sledge p ic tu re is u se d ph o n e tically ) an d th at the go d Tm had

‘ ’
-

n o ea rly e xi s te n c e as a sep arate d e ity , b u t w as an ab strac tio n o f th e p ries ts Of On .

T h e p rese n t w rite r is n o t c o n vin ce d o f th e c o rre c tn ess o f thi s vie w , b u t , if it is c o rre c t ,

th e w ho le de ve lo p me n t o f this e igh th n o me w o ul d b e c o mp arati vely late .

 EGYPTIAN REL I G IOU S OR IGI NS 89

c ity wh ich b ec am e S u c co th I n tim e th is n e w elem e n t b e cam e agri

.

c u ltu ral an d ado pte d E gyp ti an c i vi liz ati o n m ak in g t h e sp i ri t o f th e ,

sle dge th e ir go d T h e se co n d c api tal Pitu m w as m ade i mpo rtan t

.
, ,

in the histo ric p e rio d b y th e bu il di n gs o f R am s e s I I .

9 T h e ni n th n o m e lay co n si de rab ly n o rth o f th e seve n th o n th e

.

we st side Of the m ain b ran c h o f th e Nil e in the eastern D elta I ts .

’
e arly n am e w as n d t m e an i n g U n in j u re d
‘
an e p ith e t o f O si ris ; 1 i ts
‘

later n am e w as Y ty P rin ce al so an epithe t o f O siri s

’
-
, ,I ts c api tal .

w as Pr 3sr c o rru pte d l ater to B u si ris ( th e m o de rn Ab u S ir) an d m e an

-
, ,

in g D wellin g o f O siri s I ts go d w as O siri s an d it h ad in th e h isto ric

‘ ’
.
,

p e r i o d n o sa c r e d a n im a l T h ese f ac ts a s i s g erally re co gn i z e d
e n.
, ,

p o i n t t o t h e se t tle m e n t o f t h e n o m e b y an e ar l y i n v asio n o f S em ites .

10 T he te n th n o m e lay o n the e ast o f th e D ami e tta b ran c h o f

.

th e Ni le n o rth o f th e th i rtee n th n o m e
,
I t w as c alle d K 3 k m .
-
,
‘
B lac k B u ll o r B lac k C attle later Km w r Great blac k
“ ’ ”
,
-
,
‘

I ts c apital w as Ht— Tem ple o f the lan d in th e m i dst o r ‘ ’

t3 hr 3b - -

,
-

‘
Temple o f the mi ddle lan d 2
I ts go d w as th e h awk go d H o ru s .
’
-
,

an d the sh re w m o u se w as s acre d to him -

T h e capi tal c i ty w as
calle d by th e Gre ek s A thr ibi s C learly w e have here a settlem en t .

o f a Ham i ti c c l an th at wo rshippe d the shr e w m o u se wh ic h w as l ate r -

,

in vade d b y o n e o f th e m an y h awk c lan s an d wi th who se wo rsh ip -

,

th at o f th e e arlier d e i ty w as fu se d Pro b ably the y were settl ed .

befo re Sem ites in vade d the lan d an d h emm e d th em in o n th e so u th ,

e ast an d n o rth
,
T h e n am e o f the c ap i tal in di c ate d pe rhap s th e ir
.
, ,

c o n s c i o u sn ess Of the ir c en tral p o si ti o n in th e l an d .

11 T he e le ven th n o m e lay di rec tly n o rth o f the ten th

. I ts n am e .

w as K 3 hs b — C attle co u n ting ; its c apital c ity Hsb k3 t had th e

,
‘ 3 ’
,
-
.
,

sam e m e an i n g Pe rh aps the n ames m ean t a R o un d u p o f C attle

.
‘
e .
’

T h e c ity w as b y th e Gre e k s calle d Kab aso s I ts go d w as I sis to .

,

who m n o an im al w as sac re d The se fac ts po in t clearly to the o rigin .

o f th i s n o m e as a se ttl em en t by p asto r al S em i tes .

12 T he twelfth n o m e lay o n the e ast o f the D ami e tta b ran ch o f

.

th e Ni le to the no rth o f th e ele ve n th I ts n am e w as I h k g Co w

‘
.
,

an d c alf
4
an d its c api tal c i ty I b—
,
’
n tr i Divine C alf to wn th e Greek ,
‘
-

,
’

1
S eth e , Urgesc hic hte, § 10 6 .

2
P — ‘ ’
e rh ap s hr sb i s to b e re n de re d in th e h e art, in th e se n se o f de ar, ins tead
‘ ’
of
‘
in th e midst .
’
T he n am e w o u ld th e n me an ‘
T mpl e e of th e lan d d ear ( to th e
3
E rman und Grap o w , Worterbuc h I II , ,
166 .

1
‘
E rman u nd Grap o w , Worterbuch V , ,
36 1; cf . S e th e , Urgesc hichte, § 103 .
190 S EM IT I C AN D HAM ITI C O RIG I NS

S e b e n ny to s . T he no m e - nam e
xp resse d by the pi c tu re o f a b u ll is e
“
a n d a gam bo li ng ca lf an d pro b ab ly d e si gn ate d it as a
,
C attl e
"
rai si n g no m e T he n am e o f the c i ty wo ul d in tha t c ase si gni fy
.

T he c i ty o f t he c attl e rai si n g go d I ts go d w as Y n hr t On u ris

‘ ’
- -
. .
, ,

whi c h is e re spe l ed so as to me n e
h l H h h
o fe tc es f ro m he ave n
‘ ’
1
a w .

T he b e e tl e w as sac re d to him T he se fac ts p o i n t to the vi e w that

.

the n o m e w as a se ttl em e n t o f H am i te s w ho o rigi nal ly w o rshi pp ed

the do g go d On uris b u t w ho havi ng se ttle d in the fe rtil e D el ta

-
, ,

l an d b e cam e c attl e rai sers P e rhaps be cau se the b e e tl e b ree ds

,
.

so rap id ly in m an u re an d re f u se an d b ec au s e rapi d b ree ding is ,

impo rtan t to c attle rai se rs t hey in ti m e ado p te d the b ee tl e as thei r, , ,

to tem an d the do g to te m o f the h u n ti ng s tage o f the i r li fe fell i n to

,
-

d i su s e I n the R o m an pe rio d the no m e w as d i vi ded i n to t w o

.
,

S eb enny to s am r é n w v o f w hi c h Pach no m u n is w as the capi tal an d

, ,

S eb e nny to s Khr w T é fl w V o f w hi c h S e b en n y to s w as the c apital

'

,
2
.

13 T he th ir te e n th no m e lay o n the e ast b an k o f the Nile j u st

.

o ppo si te the se co n d at the so u thern ap ex o f the D el ta I ts n am e .

w as Hq d (o r h h d
’
-
‘
e r f
S p e o p o sp e ri ty o r P ro sp e ro u s she p
r
‘ 3 ‘

I ts capi tal w as n ( On ) w hi c h app are n tly m e ani ng co l

’
he rd
‘ ‘
, ,

u mn ,
p ro b ab ly de si gn ate d o ri gi nal ly a sac re d pillar o r masseb ah .

T he G reek s c al le d it Helio po li s I ts go d w as at the fi rst t (A tum )

.
,

w ho sin ce h is n am e w as e xpre sse d by the sl edge — a threshin g in st ru

,

—
m en t w as do u b tl ess l ik e the go d o f the e igh th n o m e an agri c u ltu ral
, ,

dei ty 5
B efo re the tim e o f the Old Ki ngdo m he h ad b een i den tifie d
.

wi th the su n an d gi ven the nam e R e ; hen ce the G ree k n am e fo r the

p l a c e T .h e h u ll w a s sa c re d to him T h e e vi d e n ce aff o r d e d by .

these f ac ts i n d i c ate s that the n o m e w as se ttl e d by a H ami ti c trib e

in th e agri cu ltu ral stage o f d e ve lo p m e n t I n the l o ng cen tu ri es o f .

p re hi s to ri c t i m e t h is n o m e b e cam e th e capi tal o f an E ast D e l ta ki ng -

do m e as hd B h pi ta o a West D e l ta ki ngdo m
l f I t th u s
6
,
t w a s t e c
. a -
.

attai n e d a p r e em i n e n c e h i n r
—
w i c t e ve lo st an em i ne n c e wh i c h w as
h

1
Gard in e r, Gram mar , S ign lis t, N , 1 -
.

2
S e the , Urges chic hte, § 68 .

3
E rman u nd Grapo w , Worterb uc h ,
I , 23 9 .

1
S ee Gardin e r , Grammar , S ign lis t, O 28 -
.

5
R e as o ns f o r re gardi ng Atu m as m o re th an a late ab s trac tio n alrea d y

e xp resse d ab o ve in discu ssin g no me 8 .

5
S e e S e th e , Urges c hic hte, § 13 5 .
 EG YPTIAN REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 19 1

e nh an c e din t h e hi sto ri c perio d by the fac t that its priestly fam ily
fu rn ish ed the fif t h dyn asty .

14 . T h e fo u rteen th no me lay apparen tly at the ex tre m e n o rthe ast

of th e D e lta . I ts eastern b o rder w as the line o f th e pre sen t S u e z
C an al an d the so u thern en d o f Lake M en z aleh I t bo re the n am e .

H y3 i l
’
E f i i w as T3 rw
‘
b Lio n glo b u le ‘ ’
n i -
t a s te rn ,
ro n t e r ; ts c ap ta -
,
-

—
o r Li o n kern e l
‘ — a c o m po u n d w hi c h in th i s c o nn e c tio n is o f u n
’
, , ,

ce rtai n si gn i fi c at io n T he Gree k s c alle d the c i ty S ile

. I t i s th e .

m o de rn E l Kan tara 1
I ts dei ty w as a hawk go d o r Ho ru s to who m
.
-
,

bo th the hawk an d lio n were sac red T he fac ts in d i c ate an o rigin al .

se ttle m e n t b y a H am i tic trib e h avi ng a lio n to te m wi th w h ic h l ate r

-

, , ,

a t rib e wi th a hawk to te m m in gle d

'

I ts c api tal c ity lo ng co n sti

-
,

tu te d an E gy pti an f ro n tier stro n gho l d to ward Asi a .

15 T h e fi fte en th n o m e lay o n th e e ast o f the D ami e tta b ran c h o f

.

o f th e N ile n o rth we stwar d f ro m th e fo u rtee n th n o m e

,
an d w e st ,

fro m th e L ake M en z aleh I t s n am e w as Dw ty the n am e of the go d

.
,

Tho th ; its c apital w as Pr—dw ty Temple o f Tho th wh i ch th e ,

‘
,
’

Gree ks calle d Herm u po li s an d whi ch has been i den ti fied wi th the ,

m o de rn B ak liyeh 2
I n the Ro m an pe rio d th e c ap i tal w as T h m u is
.
,

wh ere ac co rd ing to S t Jero m e the he go at w as sac re d

,
.
3
I ts go d ,
-
.

w as Tho th to who m the Ibi s an d th e b ab o o n we re sacre d

,
S e the .

be lie ves that thi s Ibis go d Th o th o rigin ated h ere an d th at he w as

4 -
, , ,

c arri e d fro m h e re to th e fif tee n th n o m e o f Up pe r E gy p t by m i gratio n .

I n th i s vi e w th e p resen t wri ter co n cu rs As po in te d o u t in d i sc u ss .

in g the fiftee n th n o m e o f Upper E gypt th e b abo o n w as th e sac re d

'

an i m al o f th at n o m e an d th e ibi s o f th e n o m e w e are n o w d i s c u ssi n g

,
.

Th at th e b ab o o n sho u ld h ave b e co m e sac red in th e Tho th n o m e o f -

Lo wer E gy pt is do u b tless due to re fle x in flu en ce fro m th e U ppe r

Egyptian n o m e after th e tw o sib s had b een fu se d in Upper E gypt .

T h e six teen th n o m e lay to the so u th o f th e fifteen th I ts .

n am e w as e xpresse d by o n e o f th e pi c tu res o f t h e o x yrh in c u s fi sh H3 -

,

an d pe rh aps w as pro n o u n ce d Kh a As th e n am e o f its e arly de ity

‘ ’
.

me an t T h e po in t o f the fi sh the fi sh w as pro b ably the to tem o f

‘ 5
,
’

1
E rm an und Grap o w , Wo rterb u ch V , , 3 55 .

2
S ee B ae d e k e r , Agypten , ed . 19 28 , p 17 6
. .

5
Cf S e th e , Urgesc hi chte,
.
§ 68 , an d H o pf n er , F o n tes H ist Aegypt , p 64 1 . . fl .

1
Urgeschic hte, § 143 .

5
S e th e , Urges c hic hte, § 64 .
19 2 S E M ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

t he e arl y i tal in the his to ri c pe ri o d w as Pr b 3

s e tt e rs l . T he c ap , ,
-

T he te m pl e o f the so u l o f the l o rd o f th e tw o O siri s po s ts

‘
n b d dy J
’
- -
, ,

T he G re e k s co rru p te d it
’
late r u n de rs to o d to b e lo rd o f e te rn ity
‘
.

to M e n de s T he l ate r go d w as Kh n u m an d the o x o r ram w as

.
,

s ac re d to hi m T he e vi d e n c e appears to re ve al a se ttl e m e n t by a
.

n ati ve H am i ti c tribe i n to w hi c h a S e m i ti c e le m e n t w as af te rw ard

,

i n tro d u ce d .

17 T he se ve n te e n th no m e lay o n the M e d i te rrane an c o ast d i

.
,

re c tly to the w e s t o f w h at is n o w L ak e M e n z ale h I ts n am e w as .

S m3 b hd t w hi ch m ay po s s ib ly have m e an t Uni o n w ith Ho ru s o f

‘
-
,

B ek hd e t 1 I ts c api tal w as P3 hn n ymn w hi c h co u l d m e an T he

’ ‘
- - -
.
,

si n ge r ( glo ri fi er) o f A m e n I ts go d w as A m e n R e an d no ani m al

2 ’
-
.
, ,

so far as is k no w n w as sac re d to him T hese fac ts po i n t to tw o

,
.

s e ttl em e n ts o f th e n o m e by em igran ts f ro m o th e r n o m es T h e fir s t .

w as a mi grati o n f o m t e t i d Lo w e
r h h r r Egyp ti an no m e and to o k
5
,

p l ac e i n t h e p r e h i s to r i c p e ri o d T h e m e m o ry o f t h i s se ttl em e n t .

s u rv i ve d o nly in th e n o m e n am e T h e seco n d m i gr atio n w as fro m

-
.

t he fo ur th n o m e o f U ppe r E gyp t an d o cc u rr e d no t e arlie r than the ,

M i ddle Ki ngdo m I t b ro u gh t to the n o m e th e wo rsh ip o f Am e n

.

R e an d de termi ne d the n am e o f the l ate r c api tal o f the n o m e .

C u rio u sly w e h ave no e vi de n c e th at ei th e r the h awk o f Ho ru s o r

,

th e ram o f Am e n su rvi ve d as sac re d an i m als .

18 T he e i gh tee n th n o m e w as apparen tly at fir s t calle d a

.
1
hn t -

( late r I m hn t) T h e first (o r so u th ern ) ro yal c hi l d T he n am e

’ 5 ‘ ’
-
.
,

w as e vi de n tly the e pi the t o f a d e i ty I t is e vi de n t fro m the n am e s .

th at th e e igh te e n th an d n i n e tee n th n o m e s w e re o ri gin ally o n e .

S e the h as c o nj e c tu re d that at th at tim e the c api tal w as I m t Thi s

6
. .

h i
w as a c i ty t e s te o f w i c h h r h
w as l ate in t e nin tee n t h no m e
! a ~

c i ty w hi ch h ad o n ce wo r sh i pp e d the papyru s co lo re d u raeu s serpe n t - -

w 3 ay an d so w as c alle d w 3 dy t an d lik e its si ste r c i ty in th e Wes t

,
.
, ,
-

e rn D e l ta w as c alled by th e G re e k s B u to B y th e h i sto ri c p e ri o d
7
.
,

1
E rman und Grap o w , Wo rterb uc h , I I I , 448 .

2
Ibid , § 286 .

5
Cf S e th e , Urgeschic hte, § 8 5
. .

Cf Gardin e r s Gr ammar , S ign list , A 18

1 ’
-
. .

5
Cf S e th e , Urges chic hte , § 65
. .

5
Ib id .

7
I t w as late r fam o u s f o r its w in e . T he s ite is the mo d e rn T ll N b
e e esh e ; c f . S e th e
 EGY PTIAN REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 193

th e no me been d ivi ded an d th e c apital o f its so u thern po rtio n

h ad ,
’
w as Pr bst Temple o f B ast later c alle d B u b astis I t is the Pi
‘
-
,
.
,

b e se th o f E z eki el I ts dei ty w as th e go ddess B ast to who m ,

T h e wo rd b st al so m ean s o il jar
‘
th e c at w as sac re d T he h is
’
-
. .

to ry that c an th u s b e trace d is a lo n g an d co mpli c ate d o n e We .

h ave first th e se ttlem e n t o f B u to by H ami tes who wo rshippe d the

u raeu s serpen t -
Later th e n o m e w as in vade d by a peo ple w ho w o r
.

shippe d T e ro yal chi d

h
‘
l — r h a p s O s i ri s I f so t h
’
e y were S em i tes
p e .
, .

Thi s invasio n m u st have b een late in the p rehi sto ri c p erio d Later .

th e so u thern part o r th e eigh teen th n o m e w as se ttle d by a H am iti c

, ,

trib e wh i c h w o rshippe d a go dde ss who se to tem w as the cat an d ,

whi c h in its n ew ho m e deve lo pe d the cu ltu re o f so me fo rm o f o il ,

I n ti m e the y c am e to regard the ir go dde ss as th e

'

m an u fac tu re .

at ro n ess o f t h i s c u ltu re T h e d i v i si o n o f th e n o m e in to tw o w as
p .

p r o b ab ly o c c a si o n e d by t h i s i mm i g r a t i o n T h e n o m e lay to t h e .

so u th o f the mo d ern Z agaz ig .

19 T he n i n e teen th n o m e w as c le arly o ri gin ally p art o f th e e igh

.

m —
te en th fo r its n am e w as a pfg y ( l pk wy) L ast (o r
‘
,
w at er Y -
_
,

n o rth ern ) ro yal chi ld I ts c api tal w as at vario u s ti mes Pr w 3 dt

’
-
.
, ,
‘
Temple o f W3 dt o r B u to _ Tan is an d S am T he fo rtre ss
’
, , ,
‘
,

i e i Pelu siu m
.
,
1
I ts go dde ss w as W . the p apyru s co lo re d u raeu s -

sn ak e to w ho m th e sh rew mo u se th e i chn eu m o n an d the serpe n t

,
-
, ,

were sacre d S he Was al so rep re sente d wi th a lio n s head It

.
’
.

seem s c lear th at at di ff eren t time s se ve ral H ami ti c sto c k s settle d in

th e n o m e eac h b rin ging its di stin c tive to tem

,
As alre ady su gge ste d .
,

Sem iti c wo rsh ipp ers o f O siri s were p erh ap s am o n g th em I t is .

well kno wn th at m the h i sto ri c perio d the Hyk so s kin gs w ho were ,

in vaders fro m Asia m ade Tan i s the ir c api tal Po ssibly the y were,
.

its fo u n ders Thi s h i sto ri c fac t b ro u gh t in to the n o me a large

.

A si ati c e lem en t ( S emi ti c an d Hu rrian) after the time o f the

Mi ddle Ki n gdo m .

20 T he twe n ti eth n o m e whi ch lay to the so u th o f the n in e teen th

.
, ,

alo n g th e fro n ti er w as c alle d i n an c i e n t ti me S pd o r S o pdu S harp ‘

, , ,

I ts go d bo re th e sam e n am e
’
po in t . B o th n am e s were wri tten .

b y the sam e sym bo ls— an u pri gh t tho rn fo llo we d by th e arch ai c

pi c tu re o f a fal co n S pd m ean t po in te d sh arp an d w as at o n c e
2 ‘ ’ ‘ ’
.
, ,

1
Cf E rman
. und Grap o w , H andw orterbuc k , 23 1, an d S e the, Urgeschic hte, § 65 .

2
Cf Gardin er S ign list, G 13
’
. s -
.
194 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

d e s c ri pti ve o f the tho rn an d o f a s c i k ne ss .

‘
T he se rpe n t w as sacre d

to hi m . S e t he po in te d tho rn i ndica ti ng sh arp ne ss

thi nk s th at the , ,

po i n ts to an o rigi nal fe ti s h o f s harp te e th l ik e the sym bo l o f the go d

M in an d that the hawk go d w as a l ate r i ntro d u c tio n As the to
,
2 -
.

te m o f the n o m e w as a se rpe n t it see m s to the p re se n t w ri te r m o re

,

p ro b able that the shar p po in t d e no te d the se rpe n t s to ngu e On ’

.

th is hy po th esi s the no m e w as fi rs t se ttle d by a se rpe n t wo rshi ppi ng

-

clan wi th w hi ch a hawk w o rs hi ppi n g c l an afterw ard fu se d T he

-
.

n o m e lik e t he th i rd o r Ly b ian no m e appe ars to h ave b e e n o ne o f

, ,

the o l de st in th e D e lta T he sym bo l o f its go d S o pd u w as a hawk

.

res ti ng o n a b e d
3
th e s ign ifi c an ce o f w hi c h is o b scu re
,
S o pd u is .

so m e ti m e s call e d in th e Pyr ami d T e xt s H e w ho is u n de r the k sb

‘

t re e an d the capi tal Pr spdw t w hi ch lay n ear the e n tran ce o f the

’ -
.
, ,

l an d o f G o she n Ho u se o f the k sb tree

,
‘
The se w e re fru i t trees ‘ -
.
’
,

so th at the n o m e m u st have b e e n f am e d fo r these tree s I n l ate r .

tim e s thi s w as calle d the Ar abi an n o m e .

We have n o w co m ple te d o u r su rvey o f th e fo rty tw o n o m es o f -

E gyp t U n certain as m any o f o u r co n clusio n s co nf essedly are w e

.
,

be li eve that th e appli catio n o f the p rin ciples deri ve d fro m the stu d y
o f e xi stin g p reli te rate re li gi o n s to E gyp t s go d s anim al wo rship
’
-
, ,

l a c e n a m e s an d th e sym bo l s by w hi c h th e se are wri tte n gi ve u s a

p
-
, ,

real gli m pse o f th e hi sto ry o f th e se ttl em e n t o f the Nil e vall e y w hi ch ,

su ppl em e n ts co n vi n c i n gly the pi c ture p rese n te d by th e am azin gly

ill umin ati ve research e s in to E gyp ti an p rehi sto ri c arc h mo lo gy .

S u ch a hi sto ri cal vi e w w as i m po ssible as lo n g as all th e se ve n hawk

o d s w e re tho u gh t to have b e en o ri gi n ally sun go d s th e fi ve H a
g
-
,

tho rs as always o n e an d the sam e go d dess an d t he fi ve Khn u m s ,

as having h ad o n e an d the sam e o ri gin Our an alysi s re ve al s to u s .

th e Hami ti c trib e s as th e desic ca tio n o f th e S ahara fo rc e d th em to

,

see k the m o re f ert i le h ab ita ti o n o f th e N ile vall ey slo wly thr o u gh ,

c e n tu ri e s tri c klin g in to it b ri n gi n g wi th the m th e to tem s the y ha d

,

ado pted in th e hi ghe r lan d o f th e ste pp e s till in so m e ca ses co n tin u ,

ing to h un t as th e y had do n e o n th e plain s grad u ally l e arni n g fi shing ,

an d agri c ul tu re in th e rive r v alle y an d so m e tim e s ado p tin g n e w

S ee E rman u nd Grapo w , Wo rterbuc h , I V , 108 .

2
Urgeschic hte , § 19 .

Se th e , ib id , . an d 68 .

S ee E rman u n d Grapo w , Wb rter buc h, V 14 1, an d I I , 245

'

, .
 EGYPTIAN R E L I G I OU S ORIGI NS 195

to tem s fro m th ese , m ul tiplyin g in th eir n e w se ttlem en ts u n t il it w as

diffic u lt fo r th e i r te rrito ry to su ppo rt a who le tribe , an d the n in
se ve ral c ases sen din g o u t emi gran ts to establi sh o th er se ttlem en ts in

o th er parts o f th e co un try . We
Arab ia see , to o , S emiti c c lan s fro m
fin din g the i r w ay b o th i n to Upper Egypt an d the D elta (b u t partie
u larly the D e lta) fo rc i n g th e i r w ay in to th e lan d gaini n g a p e r ,

m an e n t fo o tho ld an d leavin g in de lible m ark s o n th e re ligi o n an d

,

l angu age o f th e lan d .

I n all thi s w e see b u t li ttl e i nflu en ce o f th e pal m tre e c u lt o f the -

o ases As n o te d in the last ch apter the m em o ry that the tree h ad

.
,

b een sacre d su rvive d in art b u t when these settlem ents o c cu rre d , , ,

th e tho u ght o f the Ham ites w as still su ffi c i en tly plasti c to e n able it

to ado pt m an y sym b o ls fro m it s n ew o c c upatio n s an d en vi ro nm en t .

D u rin g the lo ng c ent u ri e s wh i ch pre ce de d the b egin n ings o f wri tten

hi sto ry in Egyp t in tere st in c e le sti al ph eno m en a w as aw aken e d the ,

cen te r o f th o u gh t w as to a d egree tran sferred f ro m the an i m als t o

, ,

the c o smi c o bj ec t s ; th e e arth an d t h e Nile th e su n an d air were ,

deifie d an d gradu ally so m e o f the o ther go d s we re i den tifie d wi th th e

,

su n . I n the early d y nastic p erio d to o th e go ds whi c h p revio u sly , , ,

h ad b een i den tifie d wi th th ei r to tem s b egan to b e c o n ce ive d as havi ng ,

hum an fo rm s 1
Thi s an thro po m o rphi sm w as h armo ni z e d wi th the
.

e arli er th erio mo rphi sm by c o n c e i vin g th e go d s as h av i n g th e b o d ie s

o f m en b u t h ead s o f th e b e asts an d bi rd s w hi c h h ad in e arli e r t im e

b een their re sp ec tive to tem s Thu s w as fixe d the co n ce p tio n o f .

e ac h o f the i m p o rtan t go ds w h i c h c o n ti n u e d to appe ar in E gyp ti an

ar t thro u gho u t all o f th e n ati o n al h isto ry T he w ay w as thu s pre .

pare d fo r that stran ge mixtu re o f tho u ght whi ch w e fi n d in the

Pyrami d Texts .

I n this perio d to o so m e o f the m yth s m u st have o ri gl n ated whi c h

, ,
.

late r play e d so large a part in E gypti an sto ry

'

Af ter the se ttlem en t .

o f th e S e m i ti c c lan s in th e D e lta an d th e c o m in g o f I si s an d O si ri s

to E gy t the m yth o f th e de ath o f O siri s m u st h ave c au ght th e

p ,

fa n c y o f th e wo rsh i pp ers o f th e se de iti es and at least the k ern e l o f ,

th at sto ry wh i ch w as later e lab o rate d in so m an y w ays b egan to b e

, ,

to l d .

I t is po ssible to o th at th e m y th o f the stru ggle b etwe en S e t an d

, ,

1
Cf S te in d o rfi , R eligi o n f the Anci en t E gypti ans S e the , Urgeschz clzte,
'

. o , p 24,
. an d

33 .
19 6 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

Ho ru s had its b e gi nn i ngs in thi s e arly pe rio d w hile m o st o f the no m e s

we re i nde pe n de n t u ni ts S tei ndo rff tho u gh t that it co mm emo rate d
.

a w a r b e tw ee n U ppe r E gy pt an d Lo w e r E gy pt l S e t b ei ng th e go d ,

o f th e fo rm e r an d H o ru s t he go d o f th e l atte r an d th at th i s m y th ,

w as late r w he n thi s w ar had fade d f ro m m em o ry gi ve n t he i n te r

.
, ,

pre tatio ns w hi ch afte rw ard b e c am e po p ul ar I t is to the m i n d .

,

o f the p re se n t w ri te r m o re pro b ab le that it h ad its b e gi nni ngs in a

,

w ar b e tw ee n the te n th an d el e ve n th n o m es o f U pp e r E gyp t o n the

w e s t si de o f the N ile o f w hi ch Ho ru s an d S e t w e re the re spe c ti ve
,

d ei ti es an d w hi ch m u st have had m an y q u arrels wi th o n e ano the r

,

o f w hi c h the s to ry tell e rs an d b ar d s p erpe tu ate d th e m e m o ry

-
.

Si nc e th e grad u al u nio n o f E gyp t i n to tw o ki ngdo m s w as ae co m

li h e d a s w e n o w k n o w th ro u gh the fo rm ati o n o f p re vi o u s ki ng
p s , ,

do m s by grad u al co n q u e st an d the re seem s to b e n o c l ear e vi den ce ,

th at afte r Uppe r E gy pt b e c am e o ne ki ngdo m S e t w as e ve r regarde d

as go d o f th e w ho le it seem s pro b abl e that the m y th b egan in the
,

s to ry o f an i n te r no m e w ar -
.

E ve ry fo rm o f religio n has its festival s an d that o f e arly Egyp t ,

w as n o ex ce p tio n Whi le there is no de fin i te i n fo rma tio n as to the

.

fe asts o f p re hi sto ri c tim e so m e thi ng o f the ir n atu re may b e ascer ,

tai n e d f ro m the i m pli c atio n s o f th e fe as ts o f th e h i sto ri c p eri o d In .

the h i sto ri c p eri o d there w as ce le b rate d e ac h ye ar at The b e s the

Fe ast o f Ope t 2
I t w as o b served d uri ng the se co n d m o n th o f th e
.

first seaso n th e m o n th Pao phi,

3
T h e fe ast w as the ce le b rati o n o f .

the m arri age o f Am en wi th hi s co n so rt M u t D u ri ng thi s fe sti val .

Am e n m ade a j o u rney f ro m K am ak to the tem ple o f Luxo r wh i ch ,

b o re th e n am e Hari m o f Am en “ Thi s tem ple w as the headqu ar

‘
.

te rs o f the m u si c i an pri este sse s w ho w ere design ate d the co n c u

‘
-

bi n es o f Am en
’ 5
T he ac tu al high pri e ste ss o f the shri n e w as the
.

wif e o f the ki ng w ho b o re the ti tle Wife o f the

, T he pi c tu re
‘

1
S te in do rff , i b id .
, p 30 ,
. an d S e th e , Urgeschic hte, 5 1, 53 , 9 2, 9 3 , 129 , 13 1—133 ,
13 5 , 13 8 .

2
Cf B reas te d , Anc ient R ec ords , I ,
. 42 , 545 , 5 7 3 , 583 , 5 8 5 , 630 , an d II , 17 1,
23 3 , 23 9 , 240 F o r the fi ve day s pre ceding th e Ne w
. Y e ar the re w as also th e F e as t of

Ope t ; see B reas te d , i bid , I I , 5 9 1, 809 , 88 7 , 88 8 , e tc

. .

3
W Wo lf
.
, Das s c hon e
'

F est Opet, 19 3 1, p 1 ti
vo n . .

Cf . J o urn al o f E gyptian Archaeolo gy, V II , 19 21, 15 .

5
I bid .

5
I bid .
 EGYPTIAN REL I GIOU S ORIG I NS 19 7

of Amen em b racin g the queen carved o n the walls o f the temple o f

D er e l B akh ri whi ch is re pe ate d o n th e walls o f th e temple o f Lu xo r
1 -
,
2
,

re m o ve s all do u b t as to the c h arac te r o f th e festival Like the Ne w .

Year s festival o f the B abylo nian s at L agash it celeb rated in a

’ 3
,

realisti c w ay th e m arri age o f a go d an d go dd ess D o u b tless as in .

,

B abylo n ia th ese u nio n s were tho ught by a kind o f sym pathe tic
,

m agi c to in su re fertili ty o f th e so il an d a go o d fo o d su pply

, The .

c h arac ter o f th is f e sti val is a gu aran tee o f it s e x trem e an tiqu i ty .

An o ther feast whi ch in th e hi sto ri c perio d w as c elebrated all o ve r

,

Egyp t b egan o n t he 12th o f the mo n th Cho iak h the last mo n th o f

, ,

the fir st se ason and c o n tin u e d th ro u gho u t the re m ain der o f th at

,

m o n th 4
I t c e le b rate d th e de ath an d re su sc itatio n o f O siris
. On .

the 12th an e fii gy o f O siris w as filled wi th b arl ey an d san d On th e

‘
.

l t the barl e y an d san d we re re plac e d by dry my rrh

,
T he e ffigy .

w as ex po se d e ach day f o r ab o u t an ho u r to the sun On the 22n d .

it w as sen t o n a ceremo n i al vo yage o n a sac red lake ac co mpan ie d ,

by th irty fo u r d ivinities in as m an y b o ats T he bo ats were illu

-
.

—
min ate d by 3 65 c an dle s o n e fo r eac h day o f the E gyp ti an ye ar .

On the 24th at tw o ho u rs afte r su n se t the effigy w as pu t in a wo o den ,

b o x an d placed in a certain c ham b e r At the n i n th h o u r o f the .

n igh t th e effigy o f th e p re vi o u s ye ar w as take n f ro m its se pu l c h e r

an d place d u po n sy cam o re twigs On th e 25 th the effi gy o f th e c u r .

ren t ye ar w as pl ace d in th e se p u l c hral c h am b er calle d the Ho u se o f

‘

On th e 30 th o f th e m o n th th ere o c c u rre d the rai sin g o f the

’
So kar .
‘

— — —
Dapo st th e sym b o l o f O siris whi c h u n do u b te dly sym bo lize d th e
’

re su sc i tatio n o f th at go d On th e first d ay o f the fo llo win g m o n th .

th e fe ast o f Nech eh Kau th e Un io n o f Kau w as ce l e b rated

‘ ’
-
.
, ,

Gardiner has su ggested that thi s latter festival m ay c eleb rate the
'

u n i o n o i all E gyp t He S ethe an d Ho o ke all thin k o f the u n io n

.
, ,

1
Naville , The T mpl f D i
e e o e r el B ahari , I I , 189 7 , pls XLVI ff . .

2
A Gay er, e e
. e e L T mpl d L u xor , 1894, pls L XII I ff . .

3
Cf RI S A, pp 239 and 25 1
. . .

T h e f estival calen d ar , w hic h give s the inf o rmatio n h ere s tate d , is in sc rib e d o n the
w alls o f th e te mple o f en d erah D
I t h as b een pu b li shed b y V L o re t, R ec u eil de
. .

1 ; I V , 18 83 , 21 if ; , 18 84 , 8 5 if ; H B rugsc h , Z ei t f ii r agyp
traoeau x, III , 18 82, 43 1 V . .

tische S prac he, X IX , 18 8 1, 7 7 fi ; D u emich en , Geographische I nschr if ten altagypti sc her

'

Denk maler, I I , 1866, pls I fi ; A M arie tte ,

'

end erah, I V , 18 7 3 , pls 3 5 fi

. . F o r di s
. D . .

J J
‘

eussio n s , see G F raz e r, Ado ni s, Attis, Osiri s, I I , 1914, 8 6 ff ; A Gardi ne r, ourn al

. . . .

f
o E gypti an Archaeology, I I , 19 15 , 122 fi ; an d A . . M B lac k man in M yth
.
,
and R i tu al ,
e dite d b y S H H o o k e , Oxf o rd 19 3 3 19 if
. .
, ,
.
19 8 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

o f E gyp t u n de r M e na as the o c c as o n o i f its o rigin , b u t it is po ssible

th at it h ad a s till e arl e r s ign ifi c an c e ,
i —the i
un o n o f Kas w i th thei r

b o d ie s —a k i nd o Ho w e ve r the c e l eb ratio n o f thi s

f all- sa n ts i d ay .

fe sti val m ay h ave b e e n e m plo y e d in hi s to ri c al time s to c e l e b rate the

k ingshi p it is cl e ar that its b e g inn ings lik e tho se o f the Fe ast o f O pe t
, , ,

g o b ac k f a r i n to p re his to ry an d o rig in ally c e le b rate d t he d e ath a n d

re s u rr e c ti o n o f ve ge tatio n .

T he c e le b rati o n o f thi s fe stival o f C ho iak h at M e m phi s in ho no r

o f t he go d P tah w he re it w as ca lle d th e S e d —
,
festival w as ac c o m pa ,

n i e d by the re c i tati o n o f a c re a tio n s to ry

1
As P tah w as a go d o f -
.

c raf tsm e n d o u b tle ss thi s fe atu re w as c o mm e m o rati ve o f h is p e c ul i ar

,

fu n c tio n .

On the l s t d ay o f Pasho n , the n n th

i m o n th of the E gyp ti an y ear ,

th ere w as ce e l b rate d the fe ast o f E rn u te t , m i stre s s o f the gran ary ,

w ho w as sai d to h ave gi ve n bi rth to Ne pri , the go d o f grain In .

2

the hi s to ri c al p eri o d thi s fe sti val w as ke p t all o ve r E gyp t Ei ther .

on thi s day o r at the new mo o n of the sam e m o n th , o c c u rre d the

gre at h arvest festi val of M in whi ch is d e pi c te d on th e R amm ase um a

an d th e tem ple M edi ne t H ab u T he ki ng is figu ratively re pre

of
‘
.

se n te d as reapi n g spe l t fo r his father O si ri s

5
Al tho u gh adapted to .

th e co n di ti o n s o f the kin gship o f the h isto ri c peri o d thi s festi val ,

m u st h ave b egu n in rem o te an tiq u i ty an d h ave b ee n c o e val wi th th e

b egi nni n gs o f agri culture .

We co n cl u de then that the e arly E gyptian s like th e S em i te s

, , , ,

c e l e b rate d tw o fes ti val s : o n e at th e so wi n g ti m e w hi ch emph asize d ,

f e rtili ty in o rder to s e cu re go o d c ro ps an d ano ther w hi ch ce le b rate d ,

th e in gath e rin g o f the h arve st He ro do tu s i n fo rm s u s that m an y .

Egyp ti an s travele d in th e fifth ce n tu ry to B u b astis to c ele b rate the

fe ast o f the go ddess B ast th at the y e xerc i se d o n th e w ay gre at ,

f ree do m o f mann ers an d th at th e fe stival w as cele b rate d by o ff e rin g

,

sa crifi ce s an d the dr inking o f m u c h wi n e 6 As th e fo o d pro m i se d .

Pe pi in P ar adi se co n si ste d o f ten th o u san d l o ave s o f b re ad te n ,

Cf A M B lack mann in H o o k e M yth K S e the , Dramat

1 ’
. . . s and R itual , 26 ff . an d .

isc he T exte, 1 ff .

1
Cf . Gardin er, J ou r nal o f E gyptian Arc haeo lo gy, I I , 125 .

1
Le p sius, Den k mdler aus Aegypten Aethio pien , III , pls 162 fi
a nd . .

G . Wilkin so n M an ners and

, C us to ms of the A nc ient E gyptians , 3 rd e d 18 7 8 , pl LX . . .

5
Cf Gardi ner, lo c
. . c it .

5
H e ro do tu s, Histo ry, H , 60 .
 EGYPTIA N REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 199

tho u san d j u gs o f beer te n tho u san d

b ee ves an d ten tho u san d geese 1
, , ,

w e m ay i n fe r th at th e e arlie st sac rifi c e s we re simi lar Th e y W e r e .

fo o d o ffere d to th e go d s o f whic h the wo rshippers also parto o k, .

F u rth er it is pro b able th at in the e arlie st tim es if n o t far do wn

, ,

in to the histo ri c perio d hu m an vi c ti m s w e re so m e tim e s c o n su m e d

,

at th e se f e sti v als T h e m em o ry o f this is pe rpetu ate d in a fam o u s

.

p a s sa g e in t h e Py ra m i d T e x ts b e gi nn in g
“
K in g U ni s is o n e w ho e ats
, ,
”2
m en an d l ives o n go d s an d t h en go e s o n to de sc rib e ho w th e y are
,

c o o ke d o f r h im 3
I t is n o t n e cessary to su ppo se th at c ann ibalism
.

h ad su rvive d to th e ti me o f Un i s at the en d o f th e V th dyn asty b u t ,

the figu res em plo ye d wo u ld h ave b ee n sho c kin g o r m eani n gle ss to a

p p
eo le to w h o m c ann i b alism h ad b ee n a lw ay s u nk n o w n M o reo ve r .

arc h a eo lo gi c al e vi d en ce o f su c h p rac ti c e s h ave I b e li e ve b een fo u n d

4
.
, ,

T h e ex c avato rs attri bu te th e state m whi ch th e y fo un d c ertai n

“ ”
bo n e s to ri tu al di sm em b erm en t I t seem s in reality to b e a .

eu phemi sm f o r an u gli er wo rd .

’
S u c h in bro ad o u tlin e were the b egi n n ings o f Egyp t s rac i al
, ,

mixtu re an d so c ial an d re li gio u s life I t is n o t th e pu rpo se o f thi s .

bo o k to trace its l ater hi sto ry That has already b een do n e by tho se .

m o re c o m pe ten t th an the p resen t wri ter to deal wi th the m an i fo ld

in tri cac ies o f the later hi sto ri c al deve lo pment .

1
S e th e , Pyramid entexte, §2027 .

2
S e the , Py ramid entexte, §400 ff .

3
Fo r a tran slatio n of th e wh o le p assage , se e B reaste d, D pment of R eli gi o n and
evelo

Th o u ght, 127 129

-
. For a c o mm en t o n its signifi c an ce , see the w riter s artic le m BL
’
J
XL I X ,
13—19 .

4
Cf . W . F . MQ . P e trie an d B alaJ
s ,
Lo n.d oEn ,.18 9 6, p 3 2
ui b el,
, Naqad a and .

P
an d e trie , Wain w righ t, an d M ack ay , The Labyri nth, Girz eh and M az ghu n eh, Lo n do n ,
19 12, pp 8— 15 . .
 V II

S O UT H S E M I T I C RE LI GI O US O RI GI N S
l ts o f o u r in ves tigatio ns em bo d ied in p re vio us chap
resu

are valid w e ha ve al re ad y learned m u ch o f Arabian re ligio us

,

o ri gins Arabia was the cradle land o f the Se mi te s and in its cle s
.
-
,
.

e rts and o ases a Se mi ti c po pu latio n w as de ve lo ped who se eco no mi c

life cen tere d in the a iltu re o f the palm tre e an d w ho regarded wate r ,

as the spe rm atam a o f the s piri ts w hi ch d we l t in sp rings He re w as .

the b irth place o f tho se tree d e i ti es w hi ch passe d u nde r the vario us

-

fo rms w hi ch the wo rd alln r assum ed in pass ing to o the r Se mi ti c

'

lan ds an d to Egyp t an d he re the re also de velo ped th at c lass o f

,

water d e i ti es o f fertili ty w hi ch calle d by the vario us fo rms w hid i

-
,

the e pi the t o th e r ass ume d in difi ere n t Semi ti c d ial ects passe d to
'

all Sem i ti c lands I t remains no w to in quire w he th er it is po ss ible

.

to trace the c o nne c tio n b e tw ee n the facts w hi ch seem thus to be

es ta blishe d fo r the Ar abia of p re -
Babylo nian an d pre -
Egyp tian
ti mes and Arab ian hea the nism as it is k no w n to us fro m later his
to ri cal so urces . Unf o rtu nately be tw ee n the far o ff tim e o f Se mi ti c
-

be ginnings in w hi ch the d ei ties j us t ref erred to de ve lo ped and th e

earlie
s t o f th e his to ri cal so u rces fro m Arab ia the re is a gap o OOO
to 3000 years o rthe tho usan ds o f inscrip tio ns gathere d fro mSo u th
.

Ara bia by Osiande r Hal ev y Glas er an d o thers th e gm t majo ri ty

, , , ,

co m e fro m So u th Ar abia whi ch we co nclu ded w as the Se mi ti c

,

cradle lan d -
.

This part o f Arabia is o f vo l ca n i c fo rmatio n co ns isting o f ext e n ,

si ve u plan ds b ro ken by mo un tain ranges an d in ters pers ed wi th

,

s s where fro m tim e imm emo rial th e lan d

valle ys o f su r pas sin g ri chn e ,

has been lai d o u t in terraces the water o f th e rainy sea so n sto red in
,

ci s terns fo r irri gati o n an d man y natural ri vu l e ts co urse do wn the

,

hills 1
.Th ese vall eys pro d u ce wheat barle y maize mi lle t and , , , ,

co ffee as wel l as pa lm tree s o ran ge lemo n q u in ce

,
m an go pl um
, , , , , ,

1
G . R ed us, -e m
'
 S OUTH S E M ITIC R E L IG I O US OR I G I NS 20 1
’

a prico t ,
pple po m egranate and fig trees T he pa lm
peac h, a , , .

flo u rishe d es pe c ially 1
T he vine lso g o ws the e l u xu rian tly
a r r .
2
This .

is the Arabia Fe lix o f t he anc ie nts He re a Semi ti c kin gdo m had .

bee n es tabl ishe d pro bably as early as 1250 years b e fo re the C hris
,

tian e ra and pe rhaps earlie r

,
T he c laims o f G lase r an d Ho rnme l .

that a M inazan kin gdo m p rec ede d the S ab aean o n this so il seem to
me to b e we ll mad e o u t T he M ina e-an sar co phag us o f t he P to lema ic
.

peri o d disco vered so me years sin ce in Egyp t is no o bj e ctio n to this ;

,
3

it o nly sho ws that the c i ty o f Ma i n ke pt its ide n ti ty so m e time afte r

it w as do min ate d b y the S ahman po we r T radi tio n ha s it tha t a .

q uee n o f S ab ma visi te d So lo mo n and S argo n king o f Assyria

‘
, , ,

co un ted I t amara k ing o f S ab aea amo ng h is t rib u te

‘

p ayers in the year 7 15 B C 6

I n the ri c h val le ys o f so u th wes te rn . .

A rabia agric ultu ral co mm u ni ties mus t have b ee n fo rmed at a very

le ve l he re far so o ne r than in o the r parts o f Arabia Rec lus dec lares .

6

that in thi s mo un tai no us re gio n the very so il and c lima te rende r a

no mad i c l ife almo st i mpo s sib le There are vast u pla nds b etwee n .

the mo un tains and valle ys where t he B e du have se ttled in to a

In this part o f Arabia three disti nct tri b es can b e trac ed each wi th ,

its c i ty o r c ente r and each w i th its pe c uliar pa nthe o n o f go ds

,
.

The y are M a i n S ab a and Qatabah I t has be en mad e clear in

, ,
.

w as Central an d No rth Arab ia I t w as the highway fro m the .

,

remo tes t t i mes b e tw een Egyp t o n the o ne hand an d M e so po tami a

,

an d Elam o n the o the r One sho u ld theref o re b e prepared to dis .

co ve r that d u ring the si le nt mi llenn ia whe n o u r so u rces afi o rd u s no

F o r p ic tu re o f a b ro nz e tab le t dec o rate d w i th palm trees

1 cf , Nie ls en Altarabi sche
Mend Religion , 9 115 . .

2
Z we me r, op cit
. .
, p 57 . .

Cf Co lo ni schefi ,
1
. in the S t
e te rsb urg S api sk i , 1893 , p 219 fi ; H Mi ller , in
. P . . D .

Wiener Z eitschri/t f d Karate dc; M organlandes, 1894, p 1 if Ho mm e l, BS BA , X VI ,

. . . ,

Gesellschaf t, 1901, Ge i t I, 42 .

4
1 Kgs 6 .

Cf K R , II , 54 , 5S ; and Glaser, Die Abersin ier i n Arab ia

. a nd Af r ik a, p 29 . .

1
0 p cit , p 438
. . . .

7
Z we me r, op cit , p 68 . . . .
 V II

S O UT H S E M I T I C RE LI GI O US O RI GI N S
F THE resul ts o i n ve s ti gatio ns e m bo died in pre vio u s c hap
f o ur

te rs are vali d w e have alre ad y l e arn e d m u c h o f A rabi an reli gio u s

,

o ri gi n s A rabi a w as th e c radle l an d o f the S e mi te s an d in its de s

.
-
,

e rt s an d o ase s a S e m i ti c
po pu lati o n w as d eve lo p e d w ho se e co n o mi c
li fe c en te re d in the c u ltu re o f the palm tree an d w ho regarde d wate r ,

as th e s pe rm ata zo a o f the spi ri ts w hi c h dw e l t in s p ri ngs He re w as .

the bi rth pl ace o f tho se tre e de i ti es w hi ch passe d un de r the vari o u s

-

fo rm s w hi ch th e wo rd atlt ir assu me d in p assin g to o the r S em i ti c

l an d s an d to E gy pt an d here there al so develo p e d th at c las s o f
,

w ate r d eiti e s o f fertili ty w hi ch call ed by th e vario u s fo rms w hi ch

-
,

th e e pi the t athtar ass u m e d in d ifi ere n t S emi ti c di al e c ts p asse d to

'

all S e mi ti c l an d s I t re m ain s n o w to i n qu i re wheth e r it is po ssib le

.

to trac e th e co nn ec tio n b e twee n th e fac ts w h i ch seem thu s to b e

e sta bli sh ed fo r th e A rabi a o f pre B ab ylo ni an an d pre E gy p ti an - -

tim es an d A rabi an h eath eni sm as it is kn o wn to u s f ro m l ater hi s

to ri cal so urces Unfo rtun ately b e tween the far—
. o fi tim e o f S emi ti c
'

b eginni ngs in whi ch the d ei ties j u st refe rre d to d eve lo pe d an d th e

e ar li e st o f th e hi sto ri ca l so u rces f ro m Ar abi a th e re is a gap o i 2000
_

to 3000 ye ars Of th e th o u san ds o f in scri ptio n s gath ere d f ro m S o u th

.

Arabia by Osian der Halevy Gl as er an d o thers the gr eat m aj o rity

, , , ,

c o m e fro m S o u th A rabi a whi ch w e c o n c l u ded w as th e S emi ti c

,

c rad le l an d -
.

Thi s part o f Arabi a is o f vo l cani c fo rm atio n c o n si stin g o f e xt e n ,

si ve u pl an d s b ro ke n by m o u n tain ran ge s an d in te r sp er se d wi th
,

vall ey s o f surp as sin g rich n e ss w h ere f ro m tim e imm em o ri al th e lan d

,

has b een l ai d o u t in terrace s the w ater o f th e rain y seaso n sto red in

,

c i stern s fo r i rri gati o n an d m an y n atu ral ri vu l e t s c o u rse d o wn th e

,

hill s 1
. The se valleys pro du ce wh e at b arley m ai z e mi lle t an d , , , ,

c o ff ee as w e ll as p alm trees o ran ge l em o n q u i n c e m ango pl um

, , , , , , ,

1
Cf R ec lu s,
. Th Ee arth and i ts I n ha b ita nts , Ne w Y o rk , 188 5 , IV , 438 ii . an d Z w em
w e r, Arabia , the C dlra e o f I sla m, c hs . V an d VI .

200
 S OUTH S EM ITIC REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 20 1

i
apr co t , p each ,
ap ple , po m e gran ate , an d fi g trees T h e pal m
.

flo u ri she d e spec ially vine also gro w s there .

1
T he lu x u ri an tly 2
T hi s .

is the Arab ia Felix o f th e an c i en ts Here a S em itic kingdo m h ad .

b een e stablishe d pro b ab ly as e arly as 125 0 years b efo re the C h ri s

,

tian e ra an d p e rh ap s earlie r
,
T h e c lai m s o f Glase r an d Ho mm e l .

th at a M in aean kin gdo m pre ce de d th e S ab aean o n th i s so il seem to

m e to b e we ll m ade o u t T he M in aean sarco phagu s o f the P to lem aic .

peri o d d i sco vere d so m e ye ars sin ce in E gypt is n o o bj ec tio n to t hi s ;

3
,

it o n ly sho w s th at th e c ity o f M a i n kept its i den ti ty so m e tim e afte r

it w as d o mi n ated by th e S ab aean p o we r Traditio n h as it th at a .

qu een o f S ab aea vi sited S o lo mo n an d Sargo n king o f A ssyri a

4
, , ,
‘
co u n te d I t am ara ( Jeth a am ara) kin o f S ab aea am o n g h is trib u te
‘

g
-
, ,

p ayers in th e year 7 15 B C 5
I n the ri ch valle y s o f so u thwe stern . . .

Arab ia agri c ultu ral co mm u ni tie s mu st have b een fo rm ed at a very

e arly tim e S em i ti c so cial life wo u ld therefo re reach a c ivi lized
.

le vel h ere far so o n er th an in o th er p arts o f Arabia R ec lu s d e c lare s 6

.

that in th i s m o u n tain o u s regio n th e ve ry so il an d c li m ate ren der a

n o m adi c lif e al m o st i m p o ssible There are vast u plan d s b e tween .

the m o u n tain s an d val le y s wh ere th e B e d u h ave se ttle d in to a

pasto ral life

7
.

I n thi s part o f Arabia th ree d i stin c t trib es c an b e trac ed each wi th ,

its c i ty o r cen ter an d e ach wi th its pec ul iar p an theo n o f go d s , .

Th e y are M a in S ab a an d Qatab an I t has b een m ade c lear in

‘

, ,
.

previ o u s ch apte rs that th i s part o f Arabia w as n eve r as i so lated as

w as C e ntral an d No rth A rabia I t w as the h igh way fro m th e .
,

rem o te st t i me s b e tw een E gyp t o n th e o n e han d an d M eso po tami a

,

an d Elam o n th e o th er On e sho u ld th erefo re b e pre pared to dis .

co ver that d u rin g th e sil en t millenn i a when o u r so u rc e saff o rd u s n o

1F o r pic tu re o f a b ro nz e tab le t d eco rate d w ith p alm trees cf . Nielsen Altarabische

M and R eligi o n , p 115 . .

2
Z w eme r, o p . ci t .
, p 57 . .

3
Cf Go leni sch efi , in the S t
. . P e te rsb u rg
S apis ki , 189 3 , p 219 H M ijl le r, in
. D . .

Wi ener Z ei tschrif tf . d Ku nde dos

. M organland es , 1894 , p 1 ff ; Ho mm el, PS B A , X VI ,
. . .

145 ff ; D erenb o u rg, in J our

. . as i ati qu e, 1894 ; an d Web er ,
M i tteilu ngan vo rd erasi at .

Gesellschaf t, 190 1, Gei t I , 42 .

4
1 Kgs . fi .

5
Cf KB . .
,I I , 54 , 55 ; an d Glase r, Di e A bessin i er i n Arabi a a nd Af rik a, p 29 . .

5
0p . ci t .
, p 438 . .

7
Z w eme r, o p . ci t .
, p 68. .
20 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C OR IG IN S

i n fo rm atio n c o n c e rni ng thi s re gi o n fo rei gn c i vili z atio n s w ere slo wly ,

l e avi ng so m e i m p re ss u po n its p e o ple .

Fo r the h e athe ni s m o f No rth A rab ia w e h ave three so u rc e s o f in

fo rm ati o n : th e o p ho ro u s p ro p e r n am e s trad i ti o n an d the C o ran , ,
.

T he se so u rc e s w e re ex plo re d by We llhau se n and h is resu lts p u b li shed

in h is m as te rly tre ati se R es/c arab isc he Il c idcn tu ms ( 2n d e d B erli n
,
.

an d L e ipzi g w ho d id his w o rk so tho ro u ghly that no re al

,

ad van c e b e y o n d h im has si n ce b ee n m ade F ro m all these so u rc e s .

th e n am es o f m o re than 10 0 A rab ian d e i tie s h ave b e e n re c o ve re d l .

An an aly si s o f a l arge n u m b er o f the se n am e s re veal s the fac t that

th e y are si m ply e p ith e ts w hi c h c o n c e al th e re al n am e o f the d e i ty .

S u ch are the n ame s b egin ning wi th dim (fem dhat) m eani ng o f ,

.
,
‘ ’

T he p h rase is the
’
o f b el o ngi ng to s u c h an d su ch a shri n e o r p lace
‘
.

e q u i val e n t o f b a al l o rd o wn er po ssesso r o f su ch an d su c h a
' ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
, , ,

shr i ne o r s u c h an d su ch a pl ace As Rh o do k an aki s an d N i el se n .

h ave ri ghtly sai d w e do n o t k no w ho w to vo cal ize m an y o f the se

,

n am e s as th e i n s c rip ti o n s gi ve them to u s o nly in a co n so nan tal

,

s pe l lin g In the j u dgmen t o f th e w ri ter ho we ve r th i s m ake s li ttl e

.
, ,

difi e ren ee fo r as F el l has sho wn the y are si mply e pi the ts an d the y

, ,
2
,

do u b tl ess o f ten co n ceal the n am e o f a d ei ty w h i c h w e sho u l d reco g

n iz e if refe rre d to by hi s real n am e
,
S o m e o f these e pi thets will .

b e de al t w i th a li ttle l ate r .

T he vi e w o f th e o rigi n o f the go d s o f Arabi a here se t fo rth is

o ppo se d by th e rad i cally di fi e ren t vi e w o f D r D itlef Ni el sen s e t .

fo rth in his tre atm en t o f the su bj e c t in that po rtio n o f his H and b uc k

der altarabi sclz en Altertu ms ku nd e B an d I Ko pen h age n 19 27 w h i c h , , , ,

tre ats o f the re ligio n Ni el sen taken hi s starti ng po i nt fro m w hat

.
-

he ri gh tly c o n c eive s to b e the i n c o n testabl e fac t th at S h am s w as

am o n g th e Arab s a su n — g o d d ess an d a m o th e r g o dd e ss Wi th h
,
e r -
.

he asso ci ates S in th e m o o n go d who m h e b eli e ves to b e the chi e f

,
-

dei ty all o ver Arabi a an d w ho whe re w o rsh ipp e d is c o n ce ive d as a

, , ,

fath er In Ath tar w ho am o n g the Ar ab s w as i den ti fie d wi th th e

.
,

p la n e t V e n u s an d w as r e ga rd e d as m as c u li n e h e fi n d s a th ird c ele s ,

ti al de i ty who m h e b eli eve s th e Arab s tho u gh t to b e th e so n o f S in

an d S h am s Fro m the se thre e dei ties h e d erive s by m e an s o f epi
.

1
Cf . D . Nielse n , Hand buc h der al tarabis c he Altertu ms k u nd e, B d I , Ko p enhage n ,
19 27 , p 188
—
. .

3 Z
DM G, V o l 5 4 , 1900 , pp 23 1 25 9. . .
 S OUTH S E M ITI C R E L I GIOU S ORI GI NS 203

th e ts m an y o f th e o th e r im po r t an t deities o f th e lan d , as Wad d , w ho m

‘

he regard s as th e m o o n go d -
u n de r a n o th e r n am e , Al
-
Uz z a an d Al
Lat , w ho are taken to b e d iff e ren t n am e s f o r th e su n - go d de ss .

I n the j u d gm en t th e pre sen t

writer this theo ry is radi cally de
of

fe c tive I t su ppo se s that m en de ifie d far o ff ce lestial bo di es be fo re

.
-

they de i fie d th e spi ri t s o f n earby spri n gs an d trees o n th e e arth .

An imals are strongly attrac te d by th e m o vem en ts o f th ings ab o u t

th em b u t do n o t gaz e at the su n an d m o o n in c o n te m platio n o r so
, ,

far as w e kn o w po ssess theo rie s abo u t them

,
I f hu m an pro gress .

has been fro m th e p syc ho lo gi c al stan dpo in t o f an ani m al to the hi ghe r

le vel o f the pre sen t hu m an ave rage w e sho u l d e xpec t th e earli est ,

m en to h ave regarde d them selves as c apable o f en tering in to rela

tio n s wi th the spi ri ts o f trees sprin gs an d ro c k s b efo re they cam e
, ,

to regard th e far o ff c e le sti al bo di e s as h avin g any im po rtan t in flu

-

en c e o ver th e m T h e se writers are the refo re w e b e lieve c o rre c t

.
, , , ,

w ho regard c h tho n i c go ds as e arlie r in o rigin th an celesti al go d s .

F o r thi s reaso n the theo ry o f Ni elsen m u st w e belie ve b e rej e c te d , ,

.

Athtar w as n o t a perso ni fi cati o n o f th e plan e t Ven u s w ho afte rward

b ecam e a go d o f fertility b u t the spiri t o f a spring w ho w as after
, ,

ward iden tifie d with the plan et Sh am s w as no t the perso nifie d su n .

w ho w as later i den tified wi th an e arth go dde ss b u t an e arth go ddess -

,
-

w h o w as late r i den tified wi th th e sun .

As po in ted o u t in th e last c hapter th e re ligio n o f E gyp t b egan ,

with c htho ni c ani m al deities w ho were later given hu m an fo rm s ,

.

S o m e o f these were at d ifferen t tim e s identified with the su n .

B reasted has sho wn ho w in Egypt thr o u gh the i dentifi c atio n o f

1
,

O siri s an earth go d wi th th e sun the co n ceptio n o f th e dwelling

,
-
, ,

pl ac e o f the de parted w as gradu ally transferre d fro m the u n derwo rld

to a c e lesti al heaven Thi s develo pm en t in Egypt o c c u red b etween
.

the far— o ff ages o f b eginn ings wh i ch w e have b een t r yi n g to re co n

stru c t an d th e p erio d at whi ch o u r A rabi an so u rc es b e gan to b e

wri tten A stu dy o f the pro gress o f tho u gh t in B abylo n i a will reve al
.

a sim i lar deve lo pmen t du rin g this sam e perio d E ven if the m en tal .

an d c u ltu ral d evelo pm e n t o f th e A rab s did n o t kee p p ace wi th th at

o f th e i r n e igh bo rs w ho we re so fo rtu n ate as to live in f ertile rive r

valley s it evi den tly d id n o t fai l to p ro gre ss alo n g th e sam e p ath way
,

fro m e arth to sk y Th i s w as all the easi e r sin ce th e hi ghway o f co m

.

1
The D v l pm
e e o en t o f R eli gi on and Th ght i
ou n An cien t E gypt, Ne w Y
o rk . 19 12 .
204 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

me rc e b e twe en these ri ve r ll y s lay acro ss the ve ry de se rt w aste s va e

in w hi ch th e A rab s li ved A nal o gy the re fo re o f e ve ry so rt l e ad s .

, ,

u s to fo l lo w a m e tho d t he O ppo si te o f Ni e l se n s
’
.

I n do i ng t hi s w e sh all no t atte m p t to ac c o u n t fo r the n am e s o f all

th e s co re s o f A rabi an go ds the p ro n u n c i ati o n o f m an y o f w hi c h are ,

u nk n o w n b u t sh all c o n te n t o u rs e l ve s wi th the ex am i nati o n o f so m e

,

o f the m o re i m po r tan t an d c o mm o n d ei ti es o f e ac h sec ti o n o f th e

l an d wi th a vi ew o f d isco ve ri ng po ssibl e co nne c tio ns wi th the re

,

m o te pas t We b egin wi th M a i n fro m w hi ch o u r o l dest w ri tte n

.
‘

so u rc e s c o m e .

Ho weve r m any d i vi ne nam e s m ay appe ar in the M inaean insc rip

tio n s th ere is o ne tri ad w hi ch appe ars agai n an d agai n alway s i n t he
, ,

sam e o rde r I t is Ath ta r Wadd an d Nak rak h

.
l
Thi s tri ad is so , ,
.

an ci e n t th at it ap pe ars u n c h anged in all M in ze an tex ts T he

2
.

M i n aean s su rged no rt hward and l eft thei r i ndelible i mpre ss in No rth

A rabia T hi s is refle c ted in the Tham u di c i n sc rip tio n s in whi c h
.

the n am es o f thi s Mi n man t ri ad c o n stan tly o c c u r 8

Ni elsen w ho .
,

iden tifies Wadd wi th S in th e m o o n go d asserts t hat in thi s tri ad ,

-
,
‘
Wadd is the chi e f de i ty T he n am e Wad d m ean s lo ve o r l o ve r
4 ’ ‘ ’
.
, ,
‘
an d as S in is so m e ti m es c all ed a b o r fathe r
’
Ni e l sen app ears t o , ,

regard th e n am e as h avi n g b ee n b e sto w e d as a t o ken o f a f athe r s

’

lo ve Wh ate ver vi ew th e M in aean s m ay h ave hel d o f Wadd at the

.

ti m e th ei r in scri ptio n s w ere wri tte n — eve n if t h en t h e y did regard

5—
‘ ’
Wadd as th e ir fath er an d t hem selves as t he so n s o f Wad d th e
fac t th at Ath tar alway s ho l ds t h e c hie f pl ac e in t he tri ad b ei ng ,

m en tio n e d fir st po i n ts b ac k t o a t im e when At ht ar w as the c hi e f

,

di vin i ty an d W ad d w as c l early sec o n d ar y to him

, M o reo ve r the .

Ath tar w ho w as thu s wo rsh ipp e d w as n o t t h e star Ven u s b u t the ,

d
go o f d ate a m h
p l irrigatio n an d o f th e arvest F e ll as s o wn
-
h h 6
.

P
th at l DJ Dfl D gathere r o f th e h arve st DD DDD th e w ate re r
’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
, , , ,

x
S ee , e .
g .
, Hal 255 , . an d B u t 22 .
(e .
g in H o mm e l
.
’
s Ck resto mathi e) an d G1 1150 in
.

Rh o d o k anakis , S tudien z ur L exi k o graphie a nd Grammatik dos Altstidarabi schen , Wie n ,

II , 19 17 , p 5 4 . .

Cf Nie lsen ,
. o p . c it .
, p . 188 .

3
Nielse n , i bid .

Op . c it .
, p 42 . .

5
Nielse n , op c it p . . . 2 17 . The inf e re n ce is b ase d on th e p h rase alw ad Wadd , in
Eu t 5 7
—
. .

Z D M G, 54, 19 00 , pp 233 23 8 . .
 ‘

S OUTH S EM ITI C REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 205

ep ithe ts wh i ch o cc u r in vario us in scriptio n s were really epithe ts ,

o f Ath tar Th ese epithets asc rib e to Athtar fu n c tio n s whi ch ;

.

u po n o the r gro u n d s w e w e re le d in C h pter V to as c rib e to him

a ,

—
H e w as the water go d in the e arlie st religio n th e go d w ho f ru c tifi e d
-

—
the so il th e go d w ho m ade the date c ro p an d o the r c ro p s po ssibl e -

the go d o n who se ac tivi ty the life o f th e co mm u n ity depen de d .

Natu rally h e sto o d at the head Of th e p an theo n His iden tifi c atio n .

wi th the pl an e t Ven u s m u st h ave c o me mu ch later an d w as pro b ably ,

du e to B abylo n i an in flu en ce I n that lan d h is fem ale c o u n terpart .

,

Ash dar ( I shtar) w as i den tified wi th th at plan et b efo re 2000 B C .

Fro m a m u ch earlier ti me influ en ces f ro m th at l an d were su rgi ng

acro s s Ar abia to E gyp t We believe t h at kin shi p Of n am e led to th e .

iden tific atio n Of th e Arabi c de ity wi th the pl an et sac re d to hi s k in

dre d go dde ss Of the m o re fe rti le lan d There is n o th ing in the plane t .

Venu s o r in m yths co nn e c ted with her to lead any peo ple to regard
a go d that o rigin at e d in a d eifi c atio n Of h er as the watere r o r the
‘ ’ ‘

gatherer Of i ndee d to plac e her at th e h ead Of its pan

h arvest , ’
or

theo n On th e o th er h an d th ere i s e ve ry reaso n w hy the in habitan ts

.

Of a d esert o asi s sho uld apply su ch epi thets to th e go d Of th e i r

‘

s pring an d to pl ace hi m first in the ir list of deities . T he first go d

Of the
Min aean pan theo n O l de st p an theo n th erefo re — the re ve al e d
,

—
in A rabi an li terary rem ain s co nn e c ts d i re c tly an d co nc lu sive ly
with the early prehi sto ri c deity who se exi sten c e w e po stul ated abo ve .

As to Wadd the se c o n d m em ber Of the tri ad Ho mm e l Win c kler

, , , ,

an d Ni elsen h ave co n j e c tu re d th at th e n ame wh i ch m ean s lo ve o r

‘ ’
,
‘
lo ver o r lo ving o n e w as an epi th et Of th e m o o n go d S h ahar o r
’ ‘
,
’

S in 1
E ven if thi s were so in later tim e it c an hardly have b een
.
,

primi tive The wo rshi p Of tlie m o o n go d like that Of th e sun an d

.
-
,

Venu s came in co mparative ly late T he Vie w that I expresse d

,
.

thi rty ye ars ago th at Wadd w as an o ff sho o t Of Athtar the epithe t

2
, ,

be co m ing so persOnifi ed that it c am e to b e regarded as a di stin c t

deity is still po ssible
,
Wadd might al so b e an epi th et Of the so n
.

Of th e tree —go d dess Athi rat I t is qu i te p o ssible that in the pe rio d

,
.

fro m wh i ch the in sc riptio n s co m e h e h ad b een id en tifie d wi th th e

m o o n b u t th i s co uld h ardly b e hi s e arliest fo rm
,
.

1
Cf H o mmel, Anf s atz e
.
'

a nd Ab handlu ngen , I I , M imc h en , 19 00 , p 155fi

’

. . Win ek
ler, "Arab isch S emi tisc h Orie n talisc h " in M i ttei l d
- -
vord orasi at Ges ell 19 01, H ef t
—
. . .
,

4 5 , p 83 ( 23 3 ) if , an d Nielsen ,
. o p. c it.
, pp 42 , 19 6,
. an d 224
’
j
hSornitic Ori gins , p 13 1 . .
 206 S E M ITIC AN D HAM ITIC ORIG I NS

T he n am e and c harac te r o f the thi rd me m b e r o f t he tri ad are bo th

O b sc u re . T he n am e is l
c e ar ly a n ip/ml fo rm atio n f ro m the ro o t

KRH, b u t , so far as appe ars , n o s u ch ve r al ro o b t is k no w n e i the r I n

S em i ti c o r Egy pti an Ni el se n w ho ta k e s Wadd fo r a mo o n go d .
, ,

co n j e c tu re s that Nak rak h w as the M inze an n am e fo r th e s u n go d -

“
d e s s b u t Ho mm e l re gard s N ak rak h as a w ar go d
2
,
I t is b e tte r to -
.

c o n fe s s o u r i gno ran c e si n c e e vi d e n c e is al to ge the r l ac ki ng It

,
.

’
s ho u l d b e O b se r ve d ho w e ve r th at e ve n if N ie lse n s c o nce ptio n O f
, , ,

Wad d and N ak rak h sho ul d tu rn o u t to b e ri ght it wo u ld o nly co n ,

fi rm the c o n c lu si o n s w e have re ac he d that the c htho ni c de i ti e s we re

far Ol d e r than the c el e sti al go d s fo r Ath tar in thi s tri ad alway s pre ,

c ed es W add an d Nak rak h .

An o the r po ssibili ty ho we ve r dese rves se ri o us c o nsi de rati o n I n , ,

.

an i n scrip ti o n p u bli shed by H o mm e l

‘
Athirat the A rabi an e qu i , ,

vale n t O f th e No r th S emi ti c go dde ss A she rah appe ars as the co n ,

so rt O f t e h M in a
as n go d W a dd I n a r u h
p e vi o s c apte r
5
w e have .

sho wn thi s go dd e s s to h ave b een O l d e r th an Ath tar hi m se lf T he .

s u r i val O f h e r n am e in thi s i n s c rip ti o n m ak es it p ro b abl e tha t

v
N ak rak h w as o ri gi nally an e pi th e t O f he rs an d that in Nak rakh w e ,

have a su rvi val O f that age o ld go ddess w ho app eare d in E gyp t as -

I si s .

T he chi e f de i ty O f the S ab man s bo re the n am e ” DVN o f whi ch

“
P ,

w e kn o w n ei th er th e vo cali zatio n o r the m e ani ng Ni el sen vo cal .

iz e s it thr ee di ff e ren t w ay s in the sam e bo o k wi tho u t b e trayin g an y

co n sc io u sn e ss O f i n co n si s te n c y
7
Vo calized as Alm aq hu it co ul d .
-
,

b e a c au sati ve o f the ste m L M Q m e ani ng H e slaps him o r H e

‘ ’ ‘
,

lo o k s at hi m o r H e blo ts hi m o u t
’ ’
m e anin gs q u i te u n su i te d to
‘ w

the ch arac ter o f a go d Vo caliz e d Al m aqqahu it co u ld m ean T h e .

-
,
‘

o n e w h o m akes to re co v e r o r gi ve s b ac k h e al th f ro m M Q H
’ ‘ ’
,

vo caliz ed Il m aq q ah u it c o u l d m e an T h e health— giving go d

-
‘
, ,

1
Cf H o mmel , S fi darabi sche
. Ch res to mathie , M un c hen , 1893 , p 2 1 . .

p 224
2
Op . c it .
, . .

Chres to matlzie, p 134 . .

Auf s cttz e a nd Ab handlu ngen, I I , 20 6 fi

’ '

5
Ch ap te r V , see p 13 4 . .

Th e na me i s m o re Of t e n vo caliz e d as Al mak ah ; so Rh o d o k anaki s , in his S tud ien .

Th e C pus , h o w e ve r, mak es i t Ilmakkah

or .

7
Cf Nielse n , o p c it , e g , pp 12, 7 7 , and 120
. . . . . . . The in co ns is ten c y ru ns thro u gh
hi s b o o k .
 SO UTH S EM ITIC REL I G IOU S ORIGI NS 07

fro m th e s a
me ro o t . T he
i ly nu first Of the se etymo lo gie s is c erta n

satisf ac to ry ; th e sec o n d o r thi rd i s po ssible b u t n o t certain Th i s , .

deity who se n am e in the e arlie r do c u m en ts o ccu rs alo ng wi th tho se

,

o f Ath tar an d S h am s
1
is m e n tio n e d m o re O ften in the i n s c ri ptio n s
,

hithe rto reco ve re d than an y o the r de i ty H is tem ple s were l arge r .

than tho se Of an y o th er
go d H is n am e o c cu rs m o re th an a tho u san d
.

tim e s ov r a perio d Of a tho u san d years , an d fin al ly h e s eem s to h ave

e
di splace d e ve n Ath tar , w ho ce ases to b e m e n t io n e d with h im .
2

Niel sen w ho ho ld s that the mo o n go d w as the ch ief

,
-
go d o f A rabia ,

natu rally re gard s him as th at d e i ty u n de r an o th er n am e

-
T h e Oc .

c u rren ce O f hi s n am e alo n g wi th th at o f th e su n go dd ess S h am s len d s -

plau sibility to t is Vi ew That he is a yo u ge dei ty than Athtar

h n r .
3

is w e b elieve m ade eviden t by the an tiqu ity whi ch w e have e s

, ,

tab lish e d fo r Ath tar an d th e re l ati vely late r p e ri o d at whic h th e w o r

I t sho u ld b e n o te d ho w
'

ship Of c e lesti al b o d i es w as i n tro d u ced .

,

eve r th at e ven if Al m aq q ahu w ere a m o o n —

, g o d
-
a s i t i s ce r ta i n th at ,

Sham s w as a su n go dd e ss thi s do es no t n ec e ssarily explain the u lti

-

m ate o rigin Of th e de i ties o f th e S ab aean tri ad I t is rare in deed in .

th e h i sto ry Of religio n th at n ew go d s are ado p te d at o n c e by an y

e
p p o l e A.S a ru l e th e n ew d e i ty is b elieve d to b e th e Old go d u n de r

an o ther n am e ; h e is c alle d by b o th n am e s fo r a ti m e u n til at l ast the

n ew n am e di splac es th e Old An example O f thi s is affo rd e d b y the .

hi sto ry o f A tum R e th e de i ty Of the E gyp ti an n o m e O f On (H elio p

-
,

o li s) rec o u n te d in th e l ast ch apter A vegetatio n go d w as i den tified .

-

with the su n —go d fo r a time w as c alled b y the vegetatio n —n am e o r

,

the sun n ame in difi eren tly o r by b o th u n til at l ast th e su n n am e

‘ -
, ,

p r e v a il e d I f th e
. e n t i re h i sto ry o f th e t h re e m o st po p u lar d e i tie s

Of S ab a lay b efo re u s w e b e lie ve that w e sho uld ha ,

v e the re c o rd o f
a si m i a r r —
l t an sfo rm atio n th e c h an ge Of water o r vegetatio n deities -

into deitie s Of the tw o great o rb s Of the sk y an d that it wo u ld appear ,

th at th e tri ad Of S ab a o rigin ate d in b egin ni n gs an alo go u s to tho se

o f th e tri ad o f M a i n I n dee d analo gy w i th the tri ad o f M a i n
.
,

take s u s a step fu rther an d l ead s i rresi stibly to the c o n j e ctu re that

0

1
Cf CI S ,
. P ars IV , To m I , . no . 74 .

2
Nielsen , o p . cit .
, p 182
. .

3
M o rdtmann j
c o n e c tu re d th at Ath tar, Al m aq q ahu , an d S hams co nstitu te d a triad
-
“

amo n g th e S ab aean s, similar to Ath tar , Wad d, an d Nak rakh amo n g the Min mans S ee .

Nielsen , o p . ci t .
, 199 .
 20 8 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

b ack O f the go dd ess S ham s o f the S ab rean triad the re sto o d the ,

p rimi ti ve S e mi ti c go dde ss Athirat O f w hi ch bo th th e No rth S em i tic ,

go d de ss A she rah an d the E gy p ti an I si s w e re l ate r d e velo pm e n ts .

T he hi sto ry O f Q ata b an w hi ch lay n e are r to the so u thern co as t o f ,

A rabi a than d id S ab a w as sy n ch ro no u s wi th the e arlie r po rtio n o f ,

S ab zr an hi sto ry 1
A m o ng the Q atab an ian s th e go d Amm hel d a
.
‘

po si ti o n anal o go u s to that he ld amo ng the M in zean s by Wad d and ,

am o n g the S ab azans by Al m aq q ah u T he M in ze an s are sai d to b e -

.

c hi ld re n o f W ad d ; t he S ab zea n s O f Al m aqq ah u ; the Qatab an ian s o f -

,
‘
Am E ach shri ne had its Amm T he re w as an Am m o f Y asi r
.
‘
.
‘

an d an Am m o f S haqi r T he n am e Am m is d e ri ve d f ro m the ro o t
‘
2 ‘
.

‘
a mm w h i ch m e an s b e co mm o n to all
,
b eco me a p ate rnal u ncl e ‘
,
’ ‘
,
’

fathe r s b ro the r
’ ’
an d as a no u n
,
p aternal u n cl e an d father in
,
‘
, ,
‘
-

I n He b re w the no u n also m ean s fathe r s b ro the r

’ ’ ’ ‘
law . p ate rnal ‘
,

an d the n a gre at m u l ti tu de
’
an d pe o pl e
‘ ’
I n b o th lan
’ ‘
u n c le , , .

’
gu age s a p re po siti o n m e ani ng wi th is d eri ved fro m it
‘
J u st w hy .

it w as gi ve n as a n am e to th e Q atab anian go d w e do no t kn o w I t .

w as ho we ve r a S o u th Ar abi an go d cen tu ri e s b e fo re o u r Q atab anian

, ,

i n sc rip tio n s were wri tten fo r it w as c arri ed by the Amo ri te s to ,

B abylo ni a an d Pale stin e to ward the end o f th e th ird m ill enni u m b e

“
fo re C hri st Al tho u gh Amm w as the p atro n go d Of the Q ata
‘
.

b ani an s like th e Min aean go d Wadd he he ld se co nd pl ac e in thei r

, ,

pan theo n Ath tar w as m en tio n e d b efo re h im

. Thu s in a n o te .

wo rth y agri cul tu ral i n sc riptio n p u bli she d by Rh o do k an ak is the ,

de i ti e s w ho se aid is ack n o wle dge d are Ath tar S harq an Amm O f

‘

,
‘
D un Nu sur ( the e agles) the go d F akhr OI Al F akh r o r po ssibly th e
, , ,
-
,

(me anin g th e mo o n gOd P) an d S h am s o r the su n

’
glo ri o u s go d
-
, ,

go ddess
4
If Nu su r whi c h is he re plu ru l as Rh o do k an akis pe r
.
,

“
c e ive d m e an s th e e agles w e h ave a po ssible trace O f to te m i sm
, ,
.

“
Ni el sen c o n ten d s that Amm is a m o o n go d H e give s n o reaso n ‘
-
.

fo r his vi e w th at is co n vin c in g I n the p an theo n j u st q u o te d it .

1
Kataban is che T exte z u r B ode nwi rtsc lzaf t, II , S itz u ngs b er ic lzte d A k ad d . . . Wiss . in
Wi en , 19 8 Bd 2 .
p 28 f
. .

1
Cf Niels en , Neu e Katab an is c ke I nschriflo n ( M V AG, 19 06 , H e f t, 4) p 27 4, line S f
. . .

3
S ee ab o ve , Ch II I , p 7 2 . . .

Ath ta r is me n tio ne d fir s t in o th e r insc rip tio ns ; cf . Nielsen , op . c it .

, pp 249 , 263 ,
.

27 4 , an d 28 1 .

“O
p . c it .
, p 29 . .

“O c it 224
p . .
, .
 S OUTH S EM ITIC REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 20 9

wo u l d seem th at Al
Fakhr w h o is m en tio n ed j u st befo re th e su n
-
,

d d s an d o w a s r o b a b ly h e r co n so rt mi gh t we ll b e th e m o o n
g o es s , p ,

d A m m w l d j t re w as m o re likely th e spiri t o f
‘

g o . o n e o u ,
co n e c u ,

th e m ale date palm o r an e pith e t o ri gin ally o f Ath tar h i m se lf

,
In .

an y c ase the n am e o f Athtar at th e h e ad o f th e pan th eo n att est s t hat

the Q atab an ian p an th eo n like the M in man w as o rigin ally a c h tho n i c , ,

an d agri cu ltu ral pan th eo n an d th at it is an o u tgo w t h o f th e re ligio n ,

that o rigi n ated in p ri mi ti ve S emitic ti me s .

I n c ertain o ther Qatab an ian in sc ri ptio n s b u t tw o de iti e s are in

vo k ed Amm an d Ath irat 1
I t wo u ld app e ar th e re fo re th at the
‘
.
, , ,

real c o n so rt o f Amm as o f Wadd amo ng th e M in wan s w as th e

‘

, ,

o ld t ree — g o dd es s f r o m w h o m ,
A s h e rah an d I si s h ad bo th spru n g .

S o me tim e s o t e r de it e s are m en tio ned Amo ng t ese a e An bai

h i h r 2
.

(p m h h l
’
b y i b i o go u s to th e
‘
o ss i l ea n n g p p ro e t s p er ap s e n g s a n a ,

M o h amm edan We is) an d Hu km t e wi se o in st u c te d o ne

l h r r 3
,
‘ ’ ‘
.
’

Thi s last n am e 15 clearly an epith e t M o re impo rtan t th an th ese .

is th e fac t th at th e Q atab anian s po sse sse d a tri ad wh i ch c o n si ste d

o f At tah Am and S am s h 4
T h e o c c u rren ce o f S ham s as the
‘
r , ,
.

co n so rt o f Am in place o f Ath irat co n firm s o u r co n j e ctu re that

‘

, ,

S ham s w as a deity th at c ame in to th e pan theo n later than th e

c h th o n i c go dde ss an d re su lte d in a gradu al i den tifi c atio n o f the tree

g o d d e ss w i th t h e s u n T h e o cc u rren ce o f thi s e qui vale n ce m ake s

.

it pro b able th at o rigin ally th e triads o f M a i n S ab a an d Qatab an , ,

were iden ti cal an d th at the y w ere d ifferen tiated fro m o n e ano ther
,

by th e u se o f differen t e pi the ts .

I t is n o t th e pu rpo se o f the pre sen t wo rk to give a co m ple te pic

tu re o f an c ien t Arabian re ligio u s lif e e ve n if o u r co m man d o f th e ,

so u rce s w ere su c h as to m ake thi s po ssible Ou r purpo se is rath er .

'

to e stab lish the h isto ri c al c o n n e c tio n b etwe en prim i ti ve S em i ti c .

religi o n an d th e pan th eo n o f later A rabian re li io n Thi s has fo r

g .
,

So u th Arabi a b een ac co m plished in the preceding pages We c an

,
.

n o t h o we ver tu rn fro m thi s p ar t o f th e penin su la wi tho u t callin g

, ,

1
Cf . Rh o do k an aki s, K atab am sc lie
’

T exte, I (S itz u ngsberz chte

’

der Ak ad amze der

'

Wissenschaf ten in Wi en . Phi l hist Klasse, B an d , 194

.
-
.
pp 5 8 . an d
2
Nielsen , N eu e katab am s clze I nscl mflen , p 27 4 ( OI
’

. .

3
I bid , .As Ira/ai m me an s phy sic ian in no rth ern Arab ic , it is po ssib le that
‘ ’

H u k m w as o riginally th e same h e alin g go d as Al maq q ahu , th o u gh k n dw n amo ng the -

Q atab an ian s b y ano th er epith e t .

4
1 m , p 263
.
( G1.
210 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC ORIG I NS

atte n t o n i to the i m po rtance o f an i ns c rip tio n pu bl is he d so m e ye ars

ago by the De re n b o u rgs .
l
It re ad s as fo llo w s
1 Y asb ak h o f Riy am ,
. so n o f M au q is an d B au s ,
an d his wi fe
Karib at o f M .

2 . o f the tribe S irw ak h , a ro y al vassal ,

have c o n se c rated to the i r
l ad y Umm Athtar fo r
'
-
,

3 . fo u r so n s fo u r i m age s o f p u re go l d b e ca use Umm Ath tar

,
’
-

b lesse d
4 . th em wi th the bo y s and thre e dau gh te rs an d they li ve d—all
the s e c hi l
5 . d re n —and they tw o the m se lve s h ave ac q u i re d gain thro u gh
ld re n M ay Umm
the se c hi .
'

6 . Ath tar c o n ti nu e to bless h is se rvan ts Y asb ak h an d Karib at ,

wi th well fo rm e d c hi ldre n an d to f avo r them

-
,

7 . th em se l ve s an d to favo r the i r c hi l d re n
,
M ay Umm Athtar .
'
-

b e graci o u s
8 . and gran t c o m pl e te safe ty to t he so n s o f Y as b ak h : Kh ari f ,

M agda al '

,
Ra
9 . b alat ,
an d Am
‘
atiq , desce n d an ts of M au q is ,
an d to thei r
ha rve sts go o d f ru i ts in an d

10 th e lan d Nakhl a Kh ari f , and in the p astu res o f thei r cam e s l

2
. .

To Umm Ath tar

’
-
.

T he rem ar
kable featu re o f th i s i nsc rip tio n is that it re veals that
e ven in S o u th Arabi a Ath tar w as n o t alw ay s a m asc ul in e d ei ty .

’
Umm Athtar i e -
.
—
M o th e r Athtar is a go ddess the go ddess o f
.
‘
-
’
, ,

ch il d birth o r the gi ve r o f chi l dren

,
T he au tho rs o f thi s i n sc riptio n .

co n si de red th e m se l ves i n d e b te d to h er fo r t he i r se ve n c hil d ren an d ,

i m plo re d he r bl e ssing o n their palm tree o rchards an d cam e l pas -

Umm Ath tar w as thu s the go dde ss o f vege tatio n as we l l

’
tu res .
-

as o f h um an fe c u n di ty S he fulfil s ex ac tly the fun c ti o n s b e li e ve d .

to b e pe rfo rm e d by the I sh tars an d Ash tarts o f th e No rth e rn

S emi tes I t thu s appears that Ath tar w as n o t always m asc ulin e
.
,

e ven in Arabi a an d th at th e f e m i ni n e c h arac te r in w h i c h thi s d e i ty

,

appe ars am o n g th e No r th S emi ti c p eo pl e s h ad its ro o ts in S o u th

Arabia i tself Ho w thi s c am e abo u t w e can no w o nly co nj e c tu re

.
,
.

Thirty years ago the write r b elie ved it to b e d ue to a c hange in

‘
J ou r nal As i atiqu e, 8 se r , T o m I I , 25 6 266 . .
— .

I . e .
, P
‘
alm t re e ir rigat io n c an al s
-
’
-
.
 S O UTH S EM ITIC REL I G IOU S ORI GI NS 211

Arabia fro m a m atr

ili iline ar to
type o f so c ie ty That a p atr n e ar .
1

e x plan atio n do e s n o t n o w see m sati s f ac to ry in vi e w o f u n certain ty

as to the o ri gin o f t he S em i ti c m atrili n e ar sib I t is po ssible that .

f ro m the b eginn in g there were tho u gh t to b e bo th m ale an d fem ale

sprin gs o r spi ri ts o f sp rings tho u gh in vi ew o f the m ascu lin e c harac,

te r o f water th i s at first seem s do u b tfu l

,
I t is to b e re calle d ho w .
,

e ve r th at in the B abylo ni an E pi c the w ho le pro c ess o f c reati ve

,

ac tivi ty w as b egu n by th e em b o so m in g o f male an d fe m ale typ es o f

water 2
M asc u lin e and f emin ine Athtars m ay ac co rdin gly h ave
.
, ,

e xi ste d in A rabi a fro m th e b eginn i n g An o ther po ssibility is that .

the n ame Athtar has h ere b een applie d to th e pri mitive tree — go ddess ,

At hirat Wh ile thi s is po ssible in vie w o f the B abylo ni an paralle l

.
, ,

it is m o re p ro b able th at fro m th e beginn in g there we re femin ine

Athtars as we ll as m ascu lin e an d that in thi s in scrip tio n o n e o f th em
has su rvive d .

I n th e past it h as been cu sto m ary to assu m e th at the an ce sto rs

o f the No rthe rn S em ites m u st b e fo re th ei r m i gratio n fro m A rabi a , ,

have live d fo r so m e ti m e apart fro m the an cesto rs o f the S o u thern

S emi te s an d th e No rth S emi tic c rad le lan d h as been so u ght in the
,
-

Nejd o r so me o the r part o f No rth Arabia T h e reaso n s addu c ed .

h ave b een the ab sen c e o f b ro ken o r in n er plu rals fro m No rth

‘ ’ ‘ ’

S em iti c an d the femi n in e c harac ter o f thei r I shtar deitie s I t n o w

,
-
.

tu rn s o u t th at n e ith er o f the se argu men ts is c o nvin c ing No rth .

S emi ti c emplo ys fem in i n e colle c tive s wh i ch are e qui valen t to

‘
b ro ken plu ral s an d the i r femi n ine I shtars h ave a parall el in So u th
’
,

Arab ia The co n c lu sio n seem s warran ted the refo re th at th e

.
, ,

No rth ern S emi tes like the So u thern are th e o ff spring o f S o u th

,

Arabi a .

F ro m E l—Ul a a n d its vi c in ity in No rth Arabia b etwe en M aan

‘

an d M ed i n a ab o u t fo u r hu n dred f ragm en tary i n sc rip tio n s h ave b e e n

re co vered 3
F ew o f these were fo u n d in th eir o rigin al po si tio n s b u t
.
,

h ad been u sed as bu il din g mate ri al s in ho u se an d garden walls .

1
S emi ti c Ori gi ns , p 125 fi . .

S e e any o f the man y translatio n s Arche ology and

’
of the epic , e th e write r
2
.
g . s

the B i ble, 6 th p 28 7
ed .
, . .

3
Cf .
J . H M o rd tmann , B eitrage
. z ur M i nd i schen E pigraphik , Wei mar ,
189 7 ; D . H .

Arab i a, Wien , 1889 ; au ssen e t S avign ac , MisJ

_

M uller, E pigrapkisclze Den k miziler aus

si o n sci enti fi qu e en Am bi e, P ari s , 19 14 , an d Nielsen , op c i t , pp 4 2—

44 . . . .
212 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

P rac tic al ly all o f the m

w ri tten in a are f ragm e n tary . T he y are

m o d ifie d fo rm o f the S o u th A rab ian sc ript b u t in the dial e c t o f No r th ,

A rab ia T hey re ve al the exi s te n c e he re o f a ki ngdo m o f Lik hyan

. .

O pinio n s d i ffe r as to the date o f the se do c u m e n ts S o m e wo u ld .

place th e m in the fif th o r s ix th p re C hr i sti an c e n tu ry ; o the rs regard -

th e m as po s t C h ri s ti an All ho we ve r agree tha t the y w e re w ri tte n

-
.
, ,

be fo re the time o f M o hamm e d F ragm e n tary as t he se d o c u me n ts .

a re the y i n fo rm u s th at the L ik h y an ian s w o rshi p e d a go d I] o r

, p
I lah an d a go d de ss I lat o r I lah at ; also the go d s Wadd S am i and
, ,
'

N asr an d the go d de s s M an at Of th e se d ei tie s Wadd S am a an d

,
.
,
'

N as r are d i vi ne n am e s fami liar to the s tu d e n t o f the S o u th A rabi an

i nsc ri ptio ns Wi th Wadd an d N asr w e have alre ady m e t tho u gh
.
,

the Q atab an ian N asr w as plu ral b u t S am a T he He are r o c c u rs

‘ ‘ ’
, , ,

al so as a d i vin e e pith e t se ve ral ti m e s in S o u th A rab ian d o c u m e n ts

‘
.

These d i vin e n am es to ge the r wi th the u se o f th e S o u th A rabi an ,

s crip t in t he Likh y an ian tex t s gi ve e vid e n c e o f a migr ati o n o f a ,

S o u th A rabi an co lo ny fro m the regi o n o f M a i n to th i s o asis T he ‘

.

n am es II an d Ilat (o r Ilah an d Il ah at ) w h i c h w ere e m pl o ye d by th e ,

Likh y an ian s app e ar in S o u th Ar abi an d o c u m e n ts al so

,
2
Il ah .
,

m e an i n g T he go d an d Ilah at T he go dd e ss w e re e mplo ye d in
‘ ’ ‘ ’
,

bo th th e S o u th an d th e No rth as e pi the ts o f the c hief go d and th e

c hi e f go d d ess T he te rm s d o n o t i m ply m o n o the i sm wh en fo u n d in
.

r M o h amm e d an d o c u m e n ts n o r d o th e y in fo rm u s w ha t d e i ty
p e -
,

w as th u s exalte d T he chi e f go d of th e Likh yanian s w as D hu.

G ab at o r D hu —Gib t Po ssesso r o f m agi c o r po ssibly Own e r o f

, ,
‘ ’
,
‘

I t w as an e pi the t w hi ch co n ce ale d hi s o ri gin al n am e

’
th e i do l . .

On e wo u ld c o n j e c tu re that th at n am e w as Ath tar b u t th at cann o t ,

b e pro ve n .

T he Th am u di c grafii ti, as th e sc rat c hi n gs o n C e n tral th e ro c ks of

an d No r th ern A rabi a are called , are po st C hri sti an b u t p re M o h am

-
,
-

m e dan . Th ey were c le arly m ade b y a heathe n peo ple in a s cri pt

th at is an o ff sho o t o f th at of S o u th A abi a
r
3
The y c o n tain pe rso n al
.

1
S e e Nie lse n , o p . c it
.
, p 248 ,
. n . 5 , fo r re fe ren c es to th e in di vidu al insc ri p tio ns w hi c h
c o n tain i t .

2
Cf Nielse n ,
. o p. c it pp 19 0 , 19 2, 217 , 2 18 , 219 , 220 , 222, 223 , 228 , 248 , 249
.
, . .

3
Cf .
J . Halevy , N o u vel es s ai s u r les i nscriptio ns pro to - o ro b es , aris , 19 03 ; E nn o P
in M i ttei lu ngen def
”
L i ttmann , “
Z u r E n tz ifi e run g de r th amu de ni sch e n I nsc hrif te n
Ges ellschaf t, 19 04 , 1; M “ ”
vorderas iatis c he Lid sb ars k i , Altn o rdarab isc h in E phemeris
—
.

semztis c heE pi graphi k , II , 1908 , pp 23— H ess , JJ D ef E ntz ifi eru n g

'

def 4 8 , 345 3 62; an d

’

—
. . .

def I
tha mud isc hen ns c hr ifi en , aris , 19 11; also th e re mark s of Nielse n , o p P . c it .
, pp 44 46. .
 S O UTH S EM ITIC R E L I GIOU S ORI GI NS 213

an d d ivin e l
n am e s . T h e divin e n am es m o st o f te n m en tio n e d are
I lah I lahat Nahi an d Ru dh a Of the tw o fo rm e r eno u gh h as
, , ,
.

alre ady b ee n sai d R u dh a which m ean s Grac e o r Favo r o r .

,
‘ ’ ‘
,
’

‘
Th e grac io u s o n e an d is fo u n d m o e t
r h an fi ty time s is c learly an
,
f ’ 1
,

epith e t fo r so m e d e ity th o u gh at pre sen t w e c an o n ly gu ess wh i c h ,

o ne . I t is to the m in d o f the presen t w rite r in trin sic ally p ro b able

, ,

th at R u dh a i s an o th e r n am e fo r an Ath tar o r an Ath ir at b u t th at ,

c ann o t b e pro ve d f ro m o u r pre se n t s c an ty so u rces Nahi whi c h .

, ,

h i
’
m
’ ‘
p e rh a p s e an s T,
h e p r u d e n t o n e o r T
‘
e i n t e ll g e n t o ne w as e ve n ,

m o re po pu lar sin ce th e n am e o c c u rs b etween fif ty an d a hu n dre d

ti m e s T h e n am e i s an e pith e t that h as su perse de d th e o rigin al
.

n am e o f an o ld e r d e ity .

I n the S af ait e in sc riptio n s wh i c h h ave b ee n fo u n d in t h e S af a

2

M o u n tain s so u the ast o f D am ascu s so m e o f whi ch b ear su ch d ates , ,

as 124 an d 206 A D th e divin e n am e s Il ah Ilahat an d Ru dh a

,
. .
, ,

are also th e m o s t co m m o n These in s c rip tio n s ac co rd ingly u n ite .

the i r te stim o n y to th at o f th e Th am u di c do cu m en t s as to the pepu

larity o f the se d e iti es in pre I slam ic No rth A rabi a T he n am e o f -
.

Ru dha was kno wn to a nu m b er o f I slami c writers w ho te stify that 3

,

th e n am e was applie d b o th to an i do l an d a templ e T he N ahi o f .

th e in scrip tio n s (po ssibly to b e re ad Nu h i) is perh ap s i den ti c al wi th

h
t e de t i y N u h m 4
co n cern i n g who m so m e i n fo rm ati o n c an b e gle an ed
,

fro m I slami c w ri te rs Not m u ch kn o wle dge is thu s re veale d beyo nd .

th e fac t th at sacrifi c e s we re o ff e re d to him .

Evi de ce o t e exi ste ce o o t e p M o h amm e dan go ds in

n f h n f h r r e —
d iff e re n t part s of A rab ia h as b e en glean e d by Wellh au sen Th ere .

w as Dh u l Kh alasa a wh i te sto n e su rm o u n te d by a kin d o f c ro wn

’
e

wh i ch sto o d in Tab al a se ve n da y s so u th o f M ec c a 5
S o m e kin d o f
, _
-

tem pl e ac co mpan ie d th e i do l an d an o rac le w as c o nn e c te d wi th it ,

.

T he n am e w as c le arly an appe llati ve an d d esc rib ed the d eity as th e

p o s se s so r o f so m e f r agr a n t a b u n d an tly gr o w i n g v e g e t at io n
6
W ell ,
.

hau sen re co gn i z e d that th e n am e is an appellative whi c h co n c eals

h r l m
t e ea n a e o f t e deity h 7
I t is ho weve r an appellative whi c h .
, ,

1
Cf Nielsen ,
. o p . c it .
, 215 , n .

Cf Nielsen , p 46 f f o r pu b lic atio n o f in sc riptio n s , ibid

2
. o p . ci t .
, . . . 11 . 1 .

3
See Wellhau sen ,
R este arabi sc he H ei ten tu ms , p 5 8 f . .

4
Cf . Wellhau sen ,
o p . ci t .
, p . 57 f .

5
Wellhau sen ibid p , .
, . 45 f .

6
Wellh ausen o p ci t , . .
, p 47. .

7
1b id .
214 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

d e scrib e s the c harac te r o f a ve ge tat o n i go d

- — a fac t w h ich l ead s o ne
to thi nk th at the or i gi nal d e i ty o f the s o p t w as c o nnec te d ei the r

wi th the Ath tar o f the Ath irat g ro u p o f d i vi ni ti e s .

A n o the r d ei ty w as D hu l S hara the D u sare s o f G ree k wri te rs

‘ -
‘
-
,
.

T he m eani ng o f the wo rd S hara is u n ce rtai n Three pl aces are .

kno w n to have bo rne the n ame One o f the se w as ne ar the E u .

h r ate s a n o th w a i t h d i t ric t o f the Taiyi trib e w h il e th e

p e r
, s n e s ,

th i rd w as a mo u n tai n in the n e ighb o rho o d o f A rafa T he go d is

2
.

k no wn to have bee n wo rshi pped at P e tra by the Nab ath aea ns fi ’

the re w as a spl en did te m p le to him an d a s to ne pi ll ar (A rab

nos b H e b rew M o sseb o h) o n w hi c h the f at o f s ac rifi ces w as sm e are d
,
.

E piphan iu s s tates that wi th him an u nm arri ed go d dess w as w o r

‘

shi ppe d that the go d de s s w as regard e d as his m o the r an d that co m

, ,

p ari so n o f them w as m ade wi th Je su s an d th e Vi rgi n M ary T he .

vi ew tak en in S emi tic Ori gi ns that in D hu l S hara an d h is m o the r

5
,
-
’
-

w e h ave a su rvi val o f the p ri m i ti ve S emi ti c vegetatio n go d de ss an d -

he r so n still seem s to b e f ul ly j u stifie d

,
T he p ai r w ere a No rth .

A rabi an I sh tar an d Tamm u z o r I si s and O sir i s ,

.

An o th e r pre I slami c dei ty w as Al Fal s w ho w as i de n tified wi th a

- ° -
,

re d p ro j ec tio n in the m i d st o f M o u n t Aga T he B an u B au lan we re .

his p ri ests I f sto len c am els esc ape d f ro m thei r cap to rs an d straye d
.

to h is terri to ry th e ro bb e rs ab an do n e d th em ,
T he san c tu ary o f .

Al F al s is sai d to h ave b een destro yed by Ali

-
.

An o the r go d o f thi s perio d w as Al Galsad w ho se n am e like that

7 -
, ,

o f Al F al s is co n ce al e d u n d e r an app e ll ati ve
-
,
He is sai d to have .

b een wo rshippe d b y the Ki n da and in Had ram au t His sac red en .

c lo su re w as e x te n si ve an d o n it p astu re d h is herd s I f the herd s .

o f o the rs w an dered i n to it th e y b e c am e fo rfe i t f ro m th e i r o w n ers ,

.

H e w as c le arly a pasto ral dei ty kin dr ed to Ath tar ,

.

Of M an af it is o nly kn o wn th at h e w as the p atro n go d o f o n e o f

the sib s o f the Q ur ai sh 8 T he m e an i n g o f his n am e is e n ig m ati c . .

Wellh au sen , ib id .
, p 48 3 . .

2
I bid .
, p 51. .

3
CI S , Pt H , . no . 19 8 .

F anari o n , LI . Cf the ma te rial

. an d c o mm en ts in H ebraic a, X , 6 1, an d W
. R .

S mi th , R eligio n f the S emites

o ,
2n d cd .
, p 56
. n .

5
P . 233 f .

Wellh au sen , o p .
p 51 fi
c it .
, . .

7
We llhausen ,
i bid , p 5 3 ff. . .

I“Wellh
au se n ,
o p c it , p 5 6 f
. . . .
 S OUTH S EM ITIC REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 215

Of Al M u harriq it is
-
kn o wn th at hi s n am e w as an appe llative an d ‘

th at eve ry sib o f th e t rib e o f R ab i sac fice d a so n to h im ; o f S a d

i 1 ‘
r ,

who se n am e m ean s Lu c k o Lu c ky o e o Lu c k give r th at h e

r n r 2 ‘ ’ ‘
,
’ ‘
-
,
’

w as a tall b lo c k o f sto n e in an ex te i
n s ve w aste an d t h at his n am e ,

w as also give n to th e p lan e t Ju i ter

p
3
H i s n am e is an e pi the t lik e .

that o f Wadd b u t wh ich o f th e o lder n am e s it su perse d e d w e

,

c an n o t n o w di vi e
n As n S o u t A bi S
i h ra
a h a m s w as a go d d e ss an d
4
.
, ,

w as se rve d by a n um b er o f th e trib es o f No rthern an d C e n tral

.

Arabia, in c l u d in g the Q u rai sh Arno n g the B an u Tamim there .

w as an i do l o f S ham s an d the B anu Udd serve d h er in a temple , .

S u air o r Al S a i r, T h e fireb ran d w as a de ity o f who m th ere w as

‘
-
‘ ‘
,
’

an i do l am o n g th e An aza No t m u ch co n c ern ing hi m h as survive d

‘ “

. .

An o th e r dei ty th e na m e o f wh i c h w as co n c e aled by an e pithet w as

, ,

Al Uqaisir at who se san c tu ary an d ho ly sto n e s th e Arab s u se d to

-
,

sh ave th eir h ead s o ff eri n g th e hai r an d li c e wi th m eal in sac rifi ce

‘

5
.
,

To th ese de i ties o f pre I slam i c d ays the re sho u ld b e ad ded tho se -

,

wh i ch M o hamm ed in S u ra 7 1 c l ai m e d th at th e co n tem po ra

rie s o f No ah wo rs h i ppe d They were Wadd Su wa Y aghu th

“ ‘
.
, , ,

Ya u q an d Nasr S everal o f th ese appear to have b een go d s o f

'

,
'
. -

th e S o u th Arab ian s Wadd w as as w e h ave seen the patro n de ity .

, ,

o f th e M in man s S u wa is said to have b een wo rshipped in R u hat ‘

,
.

in t h e t e rrito ry o f Y an b u n e ar M ed in a Y aghu t h is said to

‘
6
.

h aveb een wo rsh ipp ed u n d e r th e fo rm o f a lio n at Jo rash a to wn o f ,

n o rthe rn Ye m en at th e h e a d o f Wad y B i sha At M e cc a the re

7
.
,

appears to h ave b een a sh ri n e to h im an d so m e o f the Qu raish b o re

-

th eo pho ro u s n am es in wh i ch Y aghu th w as th e di vin e e lem en t 8

.

Thi s is no t stran ge since shrin es o f the go d s o f the vario u s trib es ,

wh i c h fre qu en ted the M e c can fairs appe ar to h ave b een m ain tain ed
T h e n am e Y aghu th is an epi the t m ean in g Helper
’
in th at c i ty 9 ‘
.
, ,

an d c o n c e als h is re al n am e T he asso c i atio n o f th e lio n wi th h im

“

1
I bid .
, p . 57 . Cf . a lso W . R . S m ith , o p . c it .
, p . 3 64 , n . 1 .

2
C f Nielse n ,
.
l
o p . ci t .
, pp 19 2, 19 6, 23 3 , 23 4
. .

3
We llh au sen , o p . ci t .
, p . 59 f .

4
I bid .
, p 60 f . .

5
I bid .
, p 62 . .

6
I b id .
, p . 18 .

7
W . R . S mith , Ki ns hi p an d M arri age i n E arly Arab ia, 2n d
Wellh au sen op ci t p 19 ff , . .
, . .

8
W R S m ith loc ci t
.
_
.
, . .

9
Wellhau sen o p cit p , . .
,
“

. 22 .
216 S E M ITIC AN D HAM ITI C O RIG I NS

is ev i de n ce that th e
i the t c o n c e al s the nam e o f a ve ry e arly dei ty
ep ,

pe rhaps a go d o f H am i ti c o ri gi n Ya u q w as the n am e o f an i do l ‘
.

o f the H am d an an d K h ul an in A rh ab
‘
H is i do l is sai d to have .

be e n in the fo rm o f a ho rs e 2
A ppare n tly the re fo re the ho rse w as .
, ,

sa cr e d to him b u t as the ho rse w as n o t k no w n to p rim itive S e mi te s

, ,

o r H am ite s W R S m ith is d o u b tle s s ri gh t in i n te rp re tin g its

,
. .
p re s
e n ce h e re to Pe rs i an i n fl ue n c e t ran sm i tte d by w ay o f the i s lan d o f ,

B ahrain T he wo rs hi p ap pe ars to h ave b elo nge d to S o u th A rabi a

.
,

sin c e H al evy fo u nd t he hi ll in f ro n t o f the to w n o f G h aym an

ca l le d Ge b e l Y a u q
8
I f the c u lt c am e in thr o u gh t he Pe rs ian G ul f
'
.

o n e wo u l d e xpe c t it to re ac h C e n tral A rabi a via the so u the rn po rtio n

o f th e pe ni n s ul a N asr th e E agle o r Vultu re w e have al re ad y

.
,
‘ ’ ‘
,
’

me t in th e Qatab an ian i ns c ri ptio n s T he No rth Arabi an tradi tio n .

kn ew N asr as a go d o f the Him yari te s w hi ch w as said t o have the fi g

u re o f an e agle o r vul tu re
‘
Wellhau sen rec all i ng t hat in S ab aean .
,
“ ”
i n sc rip tio n s the eastern and w este rn N asr is m e ntio ne d t hink s o f ,
“
d i b e i en A e
e d dl r 5 — c o n st e ll at io n s w hi c h are n e ar the M ilky Way
’’
~

th u s m ak in g N asr a ce lesti al de i ty If d u ring th e pe ri o d w hen the .

,

A rab s c o nn ec ted th e i r d ei ties w i th c el est ial b o d ie s su c h an id en t ifi

cati o n w as m ade (w hi ch se em s to the w ri te r i m pro b abl e) it c e r ,

tainly w as n o t the pri m i ti ve fo rm o f th e go d I t is m o re pro b abl e .

that in th ese N as rs w e h ave a spo radi c su rvi val o f th at to te mi sm

whi ch ch ar ac te riz e d the Hami tes an d wh i ch w e have trac e d in a ,
“ ”
m aj o ri ty o f th e n o m es o f E gy p t T he e aste rn an d w e stern E agl e .

recal ls th e n am es o f th e se ven th an d e i gh th n o m es o f Lo w e r E gyp t ,

whi ch bo re th e sam e n ame b e in g di stin gui shed fro m e ac h o th e r ,

I t will b e re called that thr ee

’
by the ad j ec ti ves east an d we st ‘ ’ ‘
.

o th er p airs o f E gyp ti an n o m es bo re i den ti ca l n am e s b e i n g d i stin ,

guished by the adj e c tives fir st an d l ast (o r We ac ,

‘ ‘ ’

co rdin gly se e in N asr o r th e N asur o n e o f the o ld est Arabi an go ds

, ,

a go d who se wo rshi p su rvi ve d n e arly d o w n to the ti m e o f th e

p ro phe t .

1
We llh ausen ibid , .

1
W R S mi th o p
. .
, . c it .
, p 242 f
. .

1
Halevy , Voyage au Nej ran , p 3 1 . .

W R S mi th , o p c it , p 245 f
. . . . . .

Op . c it .
, p 23. .

Th e fi rs t p air w e re th e thirte e n th an d f o u rtee n th n o mes

Uppe r E gyp t ; the seco n d, of

fi
the t w en tie th an d tw e n ty rs t ; the thi rd , the eigh tee n th an d ni ne tee n th n o mes o f
Lo w er E gyp t F o r d e tails , see ab o ve , Ch V I , pp 17 8f , 18 1f and 19 2f
. . . .
 S OUTH S EM ITIC REL I GIOU S O R I GI NS 217

I t is tim e th at w e tu rn e d to the go d s o f M e c c a . T w o de i tie s

ap ear in pre I slam i c ti m e s to h ave b e en wo r shi ppe d at th e K aab a
p
-
,

Al Uzz a
-
Hu b al Th ese the M ec c an s invo ked at the b attle o f
an d .

Oho d 1
. Th e se deities were repre sen ted b y tw o sto n e s in the Kaab a ,
'

a wh i te sto n e an d a bl ac k sto n e There is m u c h e vid en c e th at Al .

Uzza w as a mo ther go ddess an d Hu b al w as h e r so n T he go dde ss

-
.

w as appare n tly i d en tifie d wi th the wh ite sto n e wh i c h is still in the ,

K aab a, an d h er so n with the b lac k sto n e 2

T he Kaab a w as th e .

s ri n e o f t e se d eitie s
h h ; t e Ze m zem w as a we ll sac e d to th em an d
h r 3
,

h h h h h
t h e G ab g ab t e p lace w e re t e ir sac rifi ces we e s ain r l 4
I n the .

Z emzem go lden gaz elle s were o n ce fo u n d an d the fin der pl aced them ,

in t he Kaab a 5
T h e go ddess is sai d to h ave had an o th er shri n e at a
.

p o i n t c all e d N a k h l a o r P a lm 6
T h e s t ar V
,
e n u s w
‘
a s s ac re d to h er .
’
,

a d t e Q
n h u rai s h h e d a fe ast to h er every ye a
l r
7
C hri sti an wri ters .

testif y t at e e asts we e ac co mpan i e d by le w d p c ti ce s

h h r f r r a
8
D o ves .

( g
pi eo n s ) w e re s ac re d t o h e r an d a re s till p ro te c t e d in th e K aa b a a
,
s

Alla s bi d s
h
’
r
9
There c an b e n o do u b t th at Al Uzz a an d Hu bal
.
-

were su rvivo rs o f that p ri mi tive S emi ti c c u l t with whi c h the n ames

"
o f Ath tar an d Ath irat ( I sh tar an d A sh e rah ) are so i n d i sso lu bly

asso c i ate d Hu bal is here th e c o u n terp art o f D hu l Sh ara th e go d

.
-
’
-
,

o f the N ab ath man s an d Al Uz z a o f h is m o th er Al Uzz a T h e

‘
- -
.
, ,
’
po werf u l o n e is c learly an e pi the t whi ch h as superse ded an e arlier
,

n am e . I n the S o u th Arabi c in sc riptio n s w e can see th e e pithe t

in p ro cess o f e vo lu tio n On e de vo te e co n se crate s an o fferi n g to
.

P1]? l fl l fi ND his L ady Uz yz ‘

1°
while ano the r c o n se c rates hi s to ’
‘

, ,

Uz iz lat) T he mi ghty go dde ss 11 ‘ ’

.

Thi s last phrase su pplies the co nnec tio n be tween Al U zza an d -

“ ”
Al Lat an o the r o f the d au gh ters o f Allah as the th re e go dde sse s
-
, ,

1
W . R S mi th , K ins hip, p 44
. . n .

2
W . R S mi th , op c it , p 3 04
. . . . .

3
Cf I b n H isham, I , p 9 4, also H ebrai ca,
. . X ,
60 fi .

4
Yaq u t , I I I , 664 ; c f H ebrai c a, X , 62 f . .

ref e re n c e s ab o ve , 11.
5
S ee 3 .

5
Wellhau sen , H eidentu m, p 3 8 . .

7
Ibid .
, p 39
. .

8
Se e th e q u o tatio n s f ro m E ph raem th e S yrian , E piphanius, J e ro me , an d I saac
of An tio c h in H ebrai c a, X , 5 8 if "
.

9
w R S m ith , Ki ns hip, p 304 ,
. . . an d E R u tter, The H oly Ci ti es
. o f Arabi a ,
Lo ndo n .

19 25 , I I , 7 0 .

1°
CI S , Pt IV T o m I I ,. . . no . 5 58 .

11
I bid .
, no . 557 .
2 18 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

wo rshippe d at M e c ca we re calle d As Al Uz z a w as wo rs hi p ped ,

1
.
-

at M e c c a Al Lat w ,
a w o rs hi p pe d at T aif
s - 1
All an c ien t re fe ren c es .

to the t w o go dde sses sho w that the y bo re the sam e c h arac te r .

H e ro do tu s called th e A rabi an go dd e ss A il t w hi ch is c l early a

l a a
,

Grze c ise d fo rm o f Al Lat I ndee d all sch o l ars are agree d that the
-
.

tw o w e re o f th e sam e c h arac te r Al l that th e wri te r sai d o f th em .

“ ”‘ “
in h is S e m i ti c I sh tar C ul t an d in S emiti c Or igi ns s till s tan d s .

I n th e S o u th A rabi an n am e Uz iz lat w e see the t w o e pi the ts c o m

b in ed in o ne d i vi ne n am e T he ge n eral featu re s o f the c u l t o f Al L at
.
-
,

as d esc rib ed by a n c i e n t w ri t e rs is i d e n t i cal wi th t hat o f t h e c ul t o f ,

Al U zz a
-
T he tw o ar e b u t vari an t n am es o f a go dde ss o f the pri m i
.

ti ve S e m i ti c ty pe Wh e the r M an at the th ird o f the d au gh te rs o f

.
6
,

All ah w as an o ffsho o t o f th e sam e c ul t w e can no t no w say I t is

, ,
.

n o t c e rtai n w h at he r n am e si gni fie s .

F ro m thi s su rvey o f the dei ties o f Arabi a it b e co m es e vi den t w e ,

b e li e ve th at p ro b ab ly all its hea th e n de i ti e s an d ce rtai nly the m o st

, ,

o
p p u l ar an d in fl ue n t i al o f th em w e r e s ur vi v al s o f th e p rimi ti ve S emi ,

tic dei ti e s o i f er ti li ty I n the co u rse o f ti m e so m e o f the m we re

.

i de n tifie d wi th the M o o n S un and Ven u s an d po ssibly wi th o ne o r , , ,

tw o o ther h e ave nly b o di e s b u t su ch i de n tifi cati o n w as d em o n stra ,

b ly l ate an d in n o w ay aff ec te d the co nnec ti o n o f the dei ti e s so i den

tifi e d wi th sp rings o r the palm tree an d its cul tu re o r wi th th e i r
, ,

co nn e c ti o n wi th th e fu n c ti o n s o f ani m al f e rt ili ty .

T he c o nn ec tio n o f tw o o f t he se d ei ti e s wi th animal fo rm s the li o n ,

a d th e e ag e o
n l r r
—
vul tu e c re ature s that we re to tem s in E gyp t
rai se s again th e q u es ti o n o f a po ssible S emi ti c to te mi sm T he d o ves .

o f Al Uzz a har dly rai se t he qu e sti o n sin ce th e go dd ess w as n o t repre

-
,

se n te d in th e fo rm o f th e bi rd I t wo u l d seem th at t h e e vi de n c e .

again st S e mi ti c to te mi sm c i te d in the prec e di n g c hap te r is de c i siv e

agai n st th e e xi ste n c e in e arly tim e s o f a ge n e ral to temism am o n g

1
S um 5 3 : 19 ti .

1‘
Y
aq u t , II I , 664 ( q u o ted i n H eb raica , X 62 aif w as th e san c tu ary o f th e , T
Th aq if Th e no s b o r p illar o f th e go d de ss w as seen th e re b y o u gh ty : se e h is A rab ia
.
’ ‘
D
Des erta , II 5 11, 5 15 , 5 17
. .

3 B o o k III , 8 .

1
P u b lish e d in H eb raic a , IX , 13 1—16 5 , an d X , 1—7 4 .

5
P . 233 fl . an d 23 5 fi .

5
I ha ve no fu rth e r k no w le dge of h er th an I ha d fo rty years ago . F o r tha t see ,

Heb raic a , X , 63 .
 S OUTH S EM ITI C REL I GIOU S ORI GI N S 219

th e S em i tes . vu ltu re go d s an d th e lio n go d (Y aghu th) are

T he - -

to b e ac c o u n te d fo r e i the r as spo rad i c su rvivals o f a to tem i sm whi ch

th e an c esto rs o f th e S e mites b ro u gh t wi th th em wh en the y b ro ke
away fro m th e ir H am i tic ki n sfo lk o r as th e re su lt o f later w aves o f
,

H am iti c i mm igran ts in to Arabia Su ch in fluxe s o f Hamite s have .

i n vade d th e lan d again an d again an d mi gh t h ave b ro u gh t th ese ,

in stan ces o f an i m al de i ti es wi th th em in to the co u n try T h e sim ple .

t o le ratio n o r appro pri atio n o f li vin g thi n gs su ch as th e she lteri ng o f ,

d o ves by Al U zza an d th e app ro p ri atin g o f c am e ls by Al—F als o r o f

-
,

herd s by Al— Galsad m ight h ave ari sen in ways qu i te u n co n n e c te d

,

wi th to tem i sm I n any even t there is no eviden ce that the se deitie s

.
,

were e ver re presen ted the o n e in the fo rm o f a do ve an d the o ther

, ,

in th e fo rm o f a ca mel S u ch i dentifi catio n o f th e dei ty wi th the

.

an i m al wo u l d seem to b e e ssen ti al as e vi d en c e o f e arly to temism .

What is kn o wn o f the religio u s festival s o f e arly Arabia h as al

re ad y b e e n set fo rth in C hapte r V in treat ing o f th e p ri mi tive S e m
I

i ti c festivals an d n eed no t b e re p eated here I t w as m ade c lear th at .

the fe stivals o f the Arab s o f to day are survivals o f tho se whi ch we re

cele b rate d by th e i r an c esto rs in the e arlie st ti m es I n the co u rse .

o f the cen t u ri e s d i fferen t i n flu en c e s h ave c o me in the m o st tran s ,

fo rm in g o f the se be in g the min i stry o f the p ro phe t M o hamm ed b ut ,

th ese n ew i n flu en ces h ave se rve d to m o d ify an d to give c reden ce to

n ew in te rp retatio n s o n ly ; th e y have n o t b een a ble to su pp ress th e

i n stitu tio n s whi ch h ave their roo ts in the eco no mi c life o f the
c o u n tr an d wh i ch are h allo wed by asso c i atio n s that we re ho ary
y ,

with age when the P ro phet live d No t o n ly the feasts b u t th e .

,

gre at f ast o f R am adhan is su c h a su rvi val W R S m ith w as w e . . .

,

b elie ve righ t in his c l aim th at in the first i n stan c e fastin g w as

,
2

sim ply a pre p aratio n fo r the eat ing o f ho ly fle sh I n heathen Arabi a .

,

th e refo re th e fast wh i c h late r w as e x ten ded to co ver a

,

an d whi ch still is i mm ed i ate ly fo llo wed by the f east o f

like th e f astin g in the He b re w D ay o f A to n em e n t an ad ap tati o n ,

o f a f ast o f p rimi ti ve S em i ti c ti m es .

I ndee d sc an ty as o u r so u rc e s are a re c o n stru c tio n o f the pre

, ,

I slam i c re ligio n o f Arabi a e ven in the dim o u tlin e wh i ch is all

,

th at is po ssible fo r u s re ve als th e fac t th at mu c h as M o h amm e d

, ,
n

1
S ee p 15 16
. .

3 R eli io n o the S emi tes 2u d c d

g f , .
, p 43 4
. .
 220 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITIC ORIG I NS

m ay h ave b e e n i nfl ue nc e d by J e wi s h an d C h ris ti an id eas the su b ,

s tru c tu re o f h is re ligi o u s e d ifi c e lay d e e p in t ha t he ath e ni s m the lo n g ,

his to ry o f w h ic h h as be e n sk e tc he d in t he p re c e ding page s Allah .

,

w ho m the Pro phe t pro c lai me d w as no t a ne w go d ; he w as Al I lah ,

-
,

T he I lah that had lo ng be e n k no w n bo th in N o rth an d So u th

‘ ’

A rab ia 1 who se n am e w as an e pi th e t w h ic h had b e e n applie d he re

,

a nd t he re to th e su pre m e d e ity o f lo c al pan theo n s an d h ad gr ad ually ,

s u pe rse d e d l o c al n am e s Vi he n the t ran s itio n o c c u rre d the lo c al

’
.

g o d s m a y h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t o f a s A t h t ar Wad d Al maqq ah u , ,
-
,

Amm o r so m e o th e r d e i ty b u t u nd e r w hate ve r n am e he w as w o r
‘

, ,

shi ppe d a t th e ti m e the e pi the t Il ah t riu m phe d o ve r his e a rli e r n am e

,
.

H is b e gi n n ings re ac he d far b ac k i n to pre hi s to ry an d had its ro o ts

in that c o m plex o f ide as su gge s te d by the nam e s Ath tar ( I s h tar ,

Ash tart) an d Athirat (A she rah ) W hat M o h am m ed did fo r th is .

Il ah is an alo go u s to w hat Am o s an d his co n te m po rarie s d id fo r

Yahw eh He e le vated him to b e th e go d o f the w ho le wo rld Wh at
. .

e ve r co n ce p ti o n s he m ay h ave bo rro w ed f ro m the Old Tes tam e n t

( an d it is by n o m e an s de ni ed that he m ade su ch b o rno w ing) he

z
,

so e ngraf te d th e se o n thi s n ati ve A rabi an s te m tha t the y to o par

to o k o f th e Arab ian ge ni u s .

F urther w h e n the P ro phe t ch o se M e c ca in stead o f Je ru sal e m as

,

th e ho ly c ity o f I slam an d l ate r fo l lo we d th e cho ice by the m akin g

,

o f th e pilgri m age the pe rfo rm in g o f th e c e re m o ni es an d t he c ap

, ,

tu re o f th e s ac re d pl ac es o f th e Q uraish an d e n j o i ne d the se c e re ,

m o n i e s u po n hi s fo llo w ers b e ad o pte d as parts o f his re ligi o n c u s

3
,

to m s an d ri te s th at had th e ir o ri gin in th e w o rshi p o f Al U z za an d -

H u b al T he K aab a an d its sac re d sto n e s we re o rigin all y the shr i ne

.

an d sym bo l s o f tho se go ds the sacr e d d o ves o f th e Kaab a we re th e ,

bi rd s o f Ai Uz za an d th e sac rifi ces o f shee p we re o rigin ally sac rifice s

-
,

to th e se d e iti es sin ce th e P ro ph e t s e ar ly m essage o f th e o n e n e ss o f

’
,

Allah an d th e ne ce ssit y o f su bmi ss io n w as a go spe l that had in it

n o plac e fo r s ac rifi c e I n dee d n o o n e can read an ac co un t o f the
.

c ere m o n ie s o f th e H ag s u ch fo r e x am pl e as tha t o f R u tte r wi tho u t

'
‘
, , , ,

1
Nie lsen has alrea dy pe rc e ive d this : see his H andb uc h der al tarab is c he n Altertu ms
ku nde, p 219 . .

1 ’
Se e the w ri te r s M o ha mm e dan an d Ch i ti Cr s an o nce p t io ns o f Go d in J am es L .

B arto n
’
s The Ch i ti
r s an Appro ac h to I s la m, B o sto n , 19 18 , Ch IX . .

1
Cf S ir
. William M uir s M c ho met ’
and I sla m, Lo n d o n , 189 5 , Chs . XXX—M V .

Cf E R u tte r, The Ho ly
. . Citi es o f Arabia, Ne w Y o rk , 19 28 , I , Chs IX X IX
.
-
.
 S O UTH S EM ITIC REL I GIOU S ORIG I NS 221

b e in g vin ce d if he has any kn o wle d ge o f th e u n re aso ned tabo o s

co n ,

an d ce re m o ni es o f e arly re ligio n th at the ritu al o f th e H ag is a ,

ri tu al o f Al U zz a an d H u b al p u ri fi e d an d ve n e ere d wi th a co at in g
-
,

o f I sl am i sm .

Acro ss th e S traits o f B ab el M an de b an d the R e d S ea there lie s

a co un try th at ha s fo r lo ng b een inh ab ite d b y th e Ku shite b ran ch
o f th e H ami tes I n to th i s co un try i mm i gran ts fro m S o u th Arab ia
.

made the ir w ay p e rhap s as e arly as 1000 B C 1

Th e se i mmi gran ts .

were a tri be call ed H ab ishat whi ch had li ve d in Arabia o n the e ast ,

c o ast o f t h e R e d S ea an d whi ch mi gr ate d ac ro ss th e sea in to ,

Af rica 2
I n ti m e th e n am e ha s b een co rru pte d in to Aby ssin i a
. T he .

S emi ti c e migran ts fro m S o u th Arabia mi n gled w ith Hami te s N u ,

bian s an d Negro e s an d fo rm e d the Abyssin i an s o f hi sto ry T o

, ,
.

th i s day Ham itic tribes th e C hamir an d B e d au e o c cu py a part o f , ,

th e ir lan d b e ing we dge d in b e tween se c tio n s o f the S emi ti c spe ak

,
-

ing Aby ssini an s wh ile o n th e so u th the Abyss ini an s are fla nk ed

,

by th e Hami ti c Afar s o r D ank ils F o r cen tu rie s the y em plo ye d the

‘
.

S o u th Arabian scrip t in wri ti n g b u t after lo n g co n tac t wi th E gy p t ,

un d er th e P to l emi es an d th e R o m an s th e y d e velo ped an alphabe t o f

3

the ir o w n c alled Ge e z ,
E pigraphi c an d arch ite c tu ral m o n um en ts
‘
.

o f th e se pe o pl e h ave b ee n fo un d at Ye h a an d Ak su m in Aby ssin i a .

I t is fro m th ese that o u r in fo rm atio n co n c erni n g th e re li gio n o f he a

then Aby ssini a is dr awn At a d ate whi ch can n o t b e ac cu rate ly .

de t ermin e d b u t whi c h m ay h ave b ee abo u t 3

n 0 0 —3 5 0 A D th e kings . .
, ,

o f Ak sum b egan to wri te in sc riptio n s an d c laim to hav e b e en mas ,

te rs o f th e k in gd o m o f S ab a an d R aidan in S o u th Arabia .

T he o l dest o f th e se ttlem en ts appe ars to h ave b een that at Yeha ,

t h e an cien t n am e o f whi ch w as Aw a He re we re fo un d th e rem ain s

4
.

o f a te m pl e in co nn ec tio n wi th whi c h we re seve ral pill ars whi c h w ere

e vi de n tly i de n ti ca l in u se an d sign ifi c an ce to th e Ar abi an n o sb an d

t h e He b re w masseb ah 5
At Yeh a th e in s c riptio n s we re n o t o nl y in .

1
Cf . D
H M iill er, E pigraphisc he Den k maler au s Abb es in ien , Wien , 1894 , p 2
. . . .

Th e o do re B e n t, The S ac red Ci ty of the E thi opi ans , Lo n do n , 1893 , p 232, plac e s i t 800 to .

7 00 B C .

2
S o R o ssin i an d Littmann ; cf . E . Littmann , D eutsc he A ksu m E xpedi tio n , B e rlin ,
-

19 15 , I , 41 .

2
Cf . D . H M iill e r,
. o p . ci t.
p 3 , an d L ittma nn ,
, . o p. c it .
, p 42
. .

4
Cf B e n t, op
. . c it .
, ch . V I II , M ulle r, op c it , p 5 7 . . . an d Littm ann , op c i t , p 20 f . . . .

5
Cf B e n t, op
. . c it .
, pp 13 8 , 13 9 ,
. an d Littma nn , o p
. c it .
, I , 21, an d II , 2, an d 7 9 fl .
 220 S EM ITIC AND HAM ITIC OR IG I NS

m ay have b e e n i n fl ue nce d by J ew ish and C h ri s ti an i d eas the su b ,

s tr u c t u re o i h is re l igio u s e difi c e lay d e e p in that he athe ni sm th e lo n g ,

his to ry o f w hi c h h as b ee n sk e tc he d in t he p re ce ding page s A llah .

,

w ho m th e P ro phe t p ro c laim e d w as no t a ne w go d ; he w as Ai Il ah ,
-
,

T he I lah that had lo ng b e e n k no w n b o th in No rth an d S o u th

‘ ’

A rab i a w ho se n am e w as an e pi the t w hic h had b ee n applie d he re

1
,

an d the re to th e s u pre m e d e i ty o f lo c al pan the o n s and h ad gr ad u ally ,

su pe rs e d e d l o c al n am e s Wh e n the transi tio n o cc u rred the lo cal

.

g o d s m a y h a v e b e e n t h o u gh t o f as A t h t ar W ad d A l m a a
qq u h , ,
-
,

Amm o r so m e o the r d ei ty b u t u n d e r w hate ve r n am e he w as w o r

‘

, ,

shi ppe d at th e ti m e the e pi the t I lah t ri u m phe d o ve r h is e arli e r n am e

,
.

H is begi nn i ngs re ac h e d far b ac k i n to pre hi sto ry and had its ro o ts

in th at c o mplex o f i de as s u gge ste d by the na m e s Athtar ( I sh tar .

Ash tart) an d Athirat (A she rah ) What M o hammed d id fo r thi s .

I l ah is an alo go u s to w h at A m o s an d his co n tem po rari e s did fo r

Yah weh He el e vated him to b e the go d o f the w ho le w o rl d What
. .

e ve r co n ce p ti o n s he m ay h ave b o rro w e d f ro m th e Old Te stam e n t

(an d it is by n o m e ans denie d that he m ade su c h bo rro wi n g) he

2
,

so e n g raf te d th ese o n th i s n ati ve A r abi an s tem th at the y to o p ar

to o k o f the Arabi an ge n i u s .

F u rther w he n the P ro p he t c ho se M e cc a i n ste ad o f Je ru sal em as

,

the ho ly c i ty o f I slam an d l ate r fo llo we d the c ho i ce by the m aki n g

,

o f the pilgri m age the p e rfo rmin g o f the c e re m o n i es an d t h e cap

, ,

tu re o f th e s ac re d place s o f th e Q u rai sh an d e n j o i n e d th ese ce re ,

m o ni es u po n hi s fo llo wers he ado pted as p arts o f h is re li gio n c u s

3
,

to m s an d ri tes th at h ad th ei r o ri gi n in th e wo rshi p o f Al U zz a an d -

H u b al T he Kaab a an d its sac re d s to nes we re o ri gin ally the shri ne

.

an d sym bo ls o f th o se go d s th e s ac re d do ves o f the K aab a we re the

,

bi rd s o f Al U zza an d the sac rifi ce s o f she ep w ere o rigin ally sac rifice s
-
,

to th e se d e i ties sin c e th e P ro ph e t s e arly m e ssage o f the o n en ess o f

’
,

Allah an d the n e ce ssit y o f su bmi ssio n w as a go spe l that h ad in it

n o place f o r s ac rifi ce I n deed n o o n e can re ad an ac co u n t o f th e
.

ce rem o n i es o f th e B ag su c h fo r e x am ple as t hat o f R u tte r

, ,
4
witho u t , ,

1
Nie lse n has alrea dy pe rc e ive d th is : se e his H and buc h der altarab isc hen Altertu ms
k u nd e, p 219 . .

2 ’
S ee th e w ri te r s
“
M o hamm e dan an d Ch i ti Crs an o n c e p tio n s o f Go d in J ame s L .

B arto n
’
s The Ch i ti
Appro ac h to I slam , B o s to n , 19 18 , Ch IX
r s an . .

1
f
C S.ir W i lli am M ui r
’
s M aho met a nd I slam ,
L o n d o n , 18 9 5 , Chs XXX —
XXX V . .

. . C
Cf E R u tte r, The Ho ly iti es of Arabia , N e w o rk , 19 28 , I , Chs IX XIX Y .
-
.
 S OUTH S EM ITIC R E L I GIOU S ORIGI NS 221

be in g i nced if h e has any kn o wled ge o f the u n reaso ne d tabo o s

co nv ,

an d ce re m o n i es o f e arly religio n th at th e ri tu al o f th e B ag is a ,

ri tu al o f Al— Uzz a an d Hu b al pu rified an d veneered wi th a co atin g ,

o f I sl am i sm .

A c ro ss th e S traits o f B ab — e l—M an d e b an d th e R ed S e a there li es

a c o u n try th at has f o r lo ng b e en i n h ab ite d by th e Ku shi te b ran c h

o f th e H am i te s I n to th i s co u n try 1mrm grants fro m S o u th Arabi a

.

m ad e th e i r w ay p e rhap s as e arly as 1000 B C 1

These immigran ts .

were a trib e called H ab ish at wh ich h ad live d in Arabi a o n the e ast ,

co ast o f th e R ed S e a an d wh ic h m i grate d ac ro ss th e se a i n to ,

Afri ca 2
I n ti m e th e n am e has b een co rru pte d in to Aby ssin i a
. T he .

Semi tic em igran ts fro m So u th Arabia min gled wi th Hami tes N u ,

bian s an d Negro e s an d fo rme d the Aby ssin ian s o f h i sto ry T o

, ,
.

thi s d ay Ham i ti c trib es th e C h am ir an d Be dau e o c c upy a part o f , ,

th eir l an d b e in g wedge d in b e tween se c tio n s o f th e S e m i ti c sp e ak

,
-

in g Aby ssini an s wh i le o n th e so u th th e Aby ssin i an s are flan ke d

,

by th e Ham iti c Afars o r D ank ils F o r c en tu rie s the y emplo ye d the

‘
.

So u th Arabi an sc ript in wri ti ng b u t afte r lo n g co n tac t wi th Egypt ,

u n d e r th e P to l em i e s an d th e R o m an s th e y deve lo p e d an alp h ab et o f
3

the ir o w n c alle d Ge e z E pigraphi c an d arch i te c tu ral m o nu m en ts

'
.
,

o f the se peo ple h ave b e en fo u n d at Yeh a an d Ak su m in Aby ssin i a

“

I t i s fro m th ese th at o u r i n fo rm ati o n co n cern ing th e re li gi o n o f h ea

th en Aby ssin i a is drawn At a d ate whi ch c ann o t b e acc u rate ly .

de t e rm in e d b u t whi c m ay ave b
h h,
ee n ab u
o t 3 0 0 —3 50 A D the ki n gs . .
,

o f Ak sum b egan to w rite i n s c ri pti o n s an d clai m to h ave b ee n m as

‘

te rs o f th e kin gdo m o f S ab a an d R aid an in S o u th Arabia .

T h e o ldest o f th e se ttlem en ts appe ars to h ave b een th at at Yeh a ,

th e an c ien t n am e o f wh i ch w as Aw a He re we re fo u n d th e rem ain s

4
.

o f a te mple in co nn ec tio n w i th whi c h we re se ve ral pi llars whi c h we re

evi de n tly i den ti c al in u se an d sign ifi c an ce to th e A rabi an n asb an d

t h e He b re w masseb ah 5
At Yeh a th e i n scriptio n s we re n o t o nl y in
.

1
Cf . D . H . M iil ler, E pigraphi sche Den/emitter ans Ab b es in i en , Wien
1894 , p 2 ,
. .

Th eo do re B en t, The S ac red City f the E thi opi ans

o ,
L o n do n , 1893 , p 23 2, places it 800 to
.

7 00 B C .

2
S o R o ssin i an d Littmann ; cf . E . L ittm ann , D eu tsc he Aksu m E xpedi ti o n , B e rlin ,
-

19 15 , I , 4 1 .

3
Cf . D . H M filler,
.
p 3 , an d Littmann , o p c it , p 4 2
o p . ci t.
,
. . . . .

4
Cf B e n t, op c it , c h
. . . . V
I I I , M iiller , op c it , p 5 7 EL, an d Littm ann , op c it , p 20 f . . . . . . .

5
Cf B e n t, o p c it , pp 138 , 13 9 , an d Littm ann , o p c it , I , 21, an d I I , 2, an d 7 9 ff
. . . . . . .
222 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

th e scr i pt of S o u th A bi a ra ,
1
b ut a nu mb e r o f them we re d ed i c ated
to t he go d Al m aq q ahu , t he p at ro n go d o f th e S ab azan s , t he go d ,
- 2

w ho ,
fo r a th o u san d y e ars , w as the mo s t po p u lar de i ty in that p art o f
A rabi a . T he mo st
in te resti n g aspe c t o f t h e i n fo rmatio n yi el d ed by
the re m ai n s f ro m Y e h a is f ro m th e po i n t o f vi e w o f thi s i n ve s tiga ,

tio n the e s tabli shm e n t o f the c o n ne c tio n o f th i s c u l tu re wi th the

,

c i ty o f S ab a w hi c h t h i s d i vi ne n am e atte sts
,
.

At Ak su m th e re w ere al so fo u n d the remai n s o f an an ci e n t te m pl e

and a l arge r n um b e r o f m o n o li thi c pil lars T he se pill ars di ff e red in
’
.

h ei gh t fro m mo st o f the masseb ahs fo u nd in o ther p arts o f the S e m

‘

i ti c wo rl d exce p t th o se at P e tra S o me o f them are o f a l e n gth

,
.

and sle nd e m e ss w hi ch re mi n d s o n e o f the E gyp ti an o b eli sk tho ugh the ,

s u m mi ts ha ve n o t like tho se o f the o be li sk s b ee n c u t i n to a py ra

, ,

m i dal fo rm I n an o ther re spec t the pil lars o f Ak su m di ffe r f ro m all

.

k no wn masseb ahs M any o f t e m h ave at thei r b ase s he art hs

h .
5
,

m aki ng th em al tars as well as pillars Pe rh ap s ho we ver the un io n .

, ,

o f al tar he arth an d pill ar w as m o re co mm o n in th e S emi ti c w o rld

-

th an h as b e en su ppo sed fo r M esh a o f M o ab w hen h e e xpe lle d the , ,

Gadi tes fro m A taro th bo asts th at he b ro ught b ac k an ariel o r , ,

al tar he arth an d d ragged it b e fo re C hem o sh

- “ .
,

At Ak su m in the fo u rth c entu ry AD the re flo u ri shed a kin gdo m .

,

so m e o f th e kin gs o f w hi ch have l ef t u s in s crip tio n s in th e Ge e z

‘

s crip t T w o o f these fro m Ez an a so n o f E la Ami d a di sc lo se to u s

.
7
,
-
,

the d e ve lo p m e n t o f a nati ve Aby ss ini an p an theo n Ez ana li ve d .

ab o u t 3 50 A D —
Abo u t 3 80 4 00 AD the co un try w as C h ri stianize d
. .

by mi ssw n ari e s f o m E gy pt o r N u bi a
r 8
T he glim p se o f h e athe ni sm .

1
S ee B e n t, p , pp 23o2— 238 an d
. c it H M ulle r, op cit , p 5 9 ff
. . D . . . . . .

2
Th e e vid enc e is thi s : an ins c rip ti o n f ro m eha d esc rib e s a go d w ho se n ame is b ro k e n Y
Aw a ( Ben t, in th e S ab aean ins c rip tio ns Al—
maq
’
lo rd of an d
‘
a w ay as o p . c it .
, p .

q ab u is f re q u en tly so c alle d : c f CI S , Pt I V , n o s 7 4, 8 0 , 99 , 126, 14 7 , and 155 . . . .

5
Cf B e n t, o p c it , pp 182—
. 18 5 , an d Lit tmann , o p c it , I I , pp 3 —
. . 43
. . . . .

Cf f o r o the r S e mitic ma sseb ahs th e w ri te r s Archaeolo gy and the B i ble, 6 th c d , F igs

’
. . .

204 , 211, 212, an d fo r e tra , F ig 219 P

Cf w i th these Littman n , Ab b 40 , p 21 . . . . . .

S e e B e n t, p 18 5 , an d Lit tmann , o p c it , I I , pp 2 an d 14
5
o p . ci t .
, . . . . .

M o ab ite S to n e , c f S m e a d an d S o c iu s I nsc hrif t M esa eo n M o ab , F re ib u rg ,

5 ’
.

1886 ; M Lidz b arski , Nordsemitische E pigraphik

.
,
T afe l I; G A . . C o o k e, North S emitic
I ns criptio ns , Oxf o rd, 19 03 , p . 1 fl . We im ar ,
18 9 8 ; an d the w rite r s
’
Arc haeology and

the B i ble, 6 th ed , p 45 9 . . .

7
P lish e d b y
ub D . H M ii ller,
. o p . c it .
, pp 39 ff . . an d 44 5 .

5
Cf Li ttmann , c it I, 5 1 fl
'

. o p . .
,
.
 S OUTH S EM ITIC REL I G IOU S ORIG I NS
wh i ch Ezan agives u s is th erefo re th e V leW o f a cu lt that w as abo u t , ,

to p ass away .

I n the fi rst o f the i n sc rip tio n s referre d to Ezan a re co u n ts his vi e to

ri es o ve r A d an After reco u n ting the bo o ty whi c h he to o k he tells
.
,

ho w he e re c te d a thro n e an d placed it in the pro te c tio n o f the th re e

go d s A st ar B arras an d M e dr
, ,
1
E vi dently the se three de itie s
,
.

co n st i tu ted a tri ad as Ath t ar W add an d N ak rak h d id am o n g th e

, , ,

Min aean s an d Athtar Al m aq q ahu an d S am s am

,
h o ng the S ab aean s
,
- 2
, .

As in th e tw o A rabi an tri ad s the th i rd m em b er w as a go dd ess so w e ,

sho u l d ex pec t M e dr to b e a go ddess he re I n th e o the r i n sc ri pti o n .

,

af ter reco un ti ng a lo n ger v i c to rio u s stru ggl e wi th th e No b a h e gi ve s ,

th an k s to B arras wi tho u t who m h e Co u l d n o t h ave su b du e d his en e

mi es an d e rec ts a t hro n e an d plac e s it u n de r the p ro tec tio n o f M e dr
,

w h o su ppo rts it .

A star is c l early the Athtar o f So u th Arabi a tran splanted by the

“

imm igran ts b u t wi th his n am e d iale c ti cally a b it tran sfo rme d T h e

,
.

se c o n d i n scrip tio n sho w s th at as in S o u th Arabi a h e w as n o t th e , ,

p a tro n g o d o f t h e l an d th at p l ac e b e i n g h e l d by B a rras a n
,
d M e d r .

I n spi te o f thi s th e age lo ng ho no r p aid to thi s go d o f ferti li ty by the

,
-

S emi tes c o mp elled these Af ri c an descendan ts o f the o ld Semi ti c

st o c k to pl ace hi m at the h e ad o f thei r pan th eo n M e dr is th e .

E th io pi c wo rd fo ea t
r r h l
an d as M ul e lo n g ago po i n ted o u t
r
‘
,
3 ’
is , ,

an e arth go ddess Thi s fac t leads o n e to e xpec t th at B arras w as

'

-
.

al so a n ative A fri c an go d M uller co mpares the E th io pi c ro o t .

b aras b e b ri gh t an d co n j e c tu re s th at B arras w as a thu n de r go d 4

‘ ’
.
, ,

As the Arabi c b arasa h as am o ng o the r m ean ings wate r land b efo re , ,

‘

c u ltivatin g it seem s qu ite po ssible th at B arras w as a we athe r go d

’
-
.
,

I n Aby ssin i a wh ere th ere is e very y ear a rain y se aso n it wo u ld b e

, ,

n atu ral fo r th e we ath er go d to ho l d an i m po rtan t pl ac e -

.

I t th u s app ears th at B arras an d M e d r are Afri c an d e ities o f fe r

tility wh ic h in the lap se o f ti m e th e Aby ssin ian s h ad c o m bi n e d
, ,

with o r allo wed to su p ersede the dei tie s o f the triad whi ch their
,

S emiti c an c esto rs h ad b ro u gh t to th e co u n try to geth er wi th Athtar .

S u ch a deve lo pmen t is j u st wh at w e sho u l d e xpe c t Neve rthe less .

1
Cf M iille r,
.
p , pp 3 9 41 o . cit . .
— .

2
.
Alre ady p erceive d b y R ii ppell an d M uller ; cf . M iiller, op . ci t .
, p 51
. .

3
M ulle r, i b id .

4
M iiller, o p . ci t .
, p 44. .
2 24 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

th e fac t t h at A s tar w as s ti ll ve n e ra te d as the head o f th e Aby ss ini an

pan the o n u n ti l A b y ssi ni an heathe ni s m w as co n q u e re d by C h ri s ti
a n ity , is m o s t si gn ifi c an t .

In o ne s e n se , l t w as ne ve r co n q ue re d I t co n
ho we ve r, the o ld c u .

t rib u te d to the Aby ss ini an C h u rch a n u m b e r o f c u s to m s th at di fle r

e n ti ate th e ri tu al o f th a t C hu rc h f ro m th at o f o th e r pa rts o f C h ri s t

e nd o m All the C hu rch fe s ti vals a re c e l e b rate d w ith m usi c an d

.

l h h
d an c ing ik e e at e n o gi e s r
‘
O n e n te ri ng the c hu rc h the thre sho ld .

h
a n d do o po sts are ki s se d s o wi g t e y are
r n h h l
e d to b e sa cre d ,
2
T he .

g r e at f e s ti val o f th e y e ar is th e f e as t o f th e C ro ss w hic h o c c u rs in ,

S e ptem b e r the mo n th o f the o ld S emi ti c d ate harve s t fe s ti val an d

,
-
,

w hi ch w e have alre ady i d e n tifie d wi th it 3

An i mpo rtan t p ar t o f .

th e c e l e b rati o n o f thi s fe s tival is the b u i ld in g o f fir e s o n high pla ce s

an d th e s lau gh te r o f o x e n b e fo re su n ri se
— trai ts n o t o nly he ath e n
in thei r o rigin b u t w hi ch co nn ec t th em se lve s in fo rm wi th the m o rn
,

in g sac rifi ce o f t he c am el t o Al Uzz a by t h e A rab s o f S in ai whi c h -

,

th e so n o f N ilu s wi tn e sse d 1
T h e au tu mn fe sti val o f the p ri mi ti ve .

Ath tar is s carce ly d isgu ise d by its C hri sti an n am e Si milarly at .

th e fe as t o f Epi ph any in J an u ary th ere is a c e re m o n y o f b le ssi ng

the w aters acco m pan i e d by so ngs wh i ch w hi l e gi ve n a bibli cal co l o r
, ,

in g are m o re appro pri ate in m an y re spe c ts to an i nvo cati o n o f

,

w ater su ch as he athe n might addre ss to a w ate r go d

,
5
T h e ch u r ch -
.

at Ak sum is pro b ably th e o ld tem ple ; an d to thi s d ay th e o ld

S emi ti c righ t o f asylum is en j o ye d by th e wr o n gdo er as it w as in 3

,

I srae l at th e altars o f Yahw eh 7

.

Wh ateve r vi o l e n t ch an ges m ay o c cur in th eo lo gy th ere i s n ever ,

an ab ru p t an d c o m pl e te b re ak in th e reli gi o u s lif e o f a peo pl e an d ,

j u st as the o ld S emi tic c u l t o f Arabi a furni sh ed m u c h to M o ham

m ed ani sm so tran spl an ted to Afri ca an d so m e wh at m o di fi e d th ere
, , ,

it al so furni she d m u ch to th e Aby ssin i an C h u rch .

B efo re tur nin g fro m th e So u th S emi tic terri to ry no ti c e sho uld b e

1
Cf B en t , S ac red
. City f th
o E thio pia ns , pp 5 3 , 83 , 84,
e . an d 165 ; also W Wins tanley
. .

A V isit to Abyssi n ia, Lo n do n , 188 1, II , 127 .

2
Wins tanley, op c it , p 127 . . . .

1
Ab o ve , p 154 f . .

W . R S mi th , R eligio n
.
f the S emites
o ,
2n d cd .
, pp . 166 , 28 1, e tc .

5
Li ttmann , D e utsche A ks u m-E xped itio n , I , 14 .

c it p 163
3
B e n t, op . .
,
. .

7
Cf E x
. .
-
14 an d 1 Kgs l . an d 2 .
 '

S OUTH S EM ITI C REL IG IOU S ORI GI NS 225

t ak en of a po ssible re lig o u s
i de velo pm en t of gre at im po rtan ce . It
“
h as y b een argue d wi th great ac u m en
recen tl of that the S ealan d
the c u n e ifo rm i n s criptio n s lay in l arge part in A rab ia to the so u th
f
we st o so t u h e rn B ab l
yo m a a n d w es t o f th e P e sian Gu lf
r 1
The .

d yn asti c table ts c all the se co n d dyn asty o f B abylo n the Dyn asty o f
the S e alan d I ts fir st tw o kings bo re the n am e s I ln ma—
. i ln m -
,

V e rily Ilu is go d an d I tti — ili —

‘ ‘
n i bi
’
With I lu is m y n ame 1 I t
, , .
’

app e ars fro m th ese n am es th at I lu w as a d istin c t go d am o n g the se

Arabian s o f the S eal an d as E 1 w as a little later am o n g th e Amo ri te s

an d P h oen i c i an s
2
Am o n g the pro per n ame s o f the time o f the fir st
.

d yn asty o f B abylo n th e re are a n u m b er wh ic h are si mi lar as e g , ,

. .
,

—
I lu dami q I lu is grac io u s an d I lu n asi r
,
‘
I lu is p ro te c to r
,
’ 3
It -
,
‘
.
’

h as lo n g b een re co gni z ed th at th ere w as an Am o ri te e l em en t in th e

B abylo n ian po pu latio n o f th i s perio d an d it seem s pro b able th at ,

El (Il u ) bec am e a di stin c t de i ty amo n g the Amo rite s b efo re they

mi grate d fro m A rabia an d w as c arrie d then c e by them in to B aby
,

lo n i a an d Sy ri a .

1
Cf R . . P D . o u gh erty , The S ealand of Anci en t Arabia Ne w H aven, ,
19 3 2, Ch I X .

an d p . 17 4 f .

2
S ee b e lo w , Ch I X , pp 288fi . . an d 3 o7 ff .

3
C f B E.
, V I 1
,
43 .
 V III

BA B Y LO N IA N RE L I GI O US O R I G I N S

N SPITE o f the su rpri si ng li gh t s he d by re c e n t d i sc o ve ri es o n the

be gi nn i ngs o f B abyl o ni an c i vili z atio n to the m ain featu re s o f
,

w c atte n tio n has al re ady b ee ca ed the p ro bl em o f d ise n tan

h i h n ll 1
,

gl in g th e s trand s w hi c h b le n d e d in p re hi sto ri c ti me to p ro d uc e the re

ligio n o f the hi sto ri c pe ri o d is the m o st diffi c u lt w hi ch w e have to fac e
in th e w ho le fi el d o f o u r i n vesti gati o n T ha t el em en ts co n trib u te d
.

b y thre e race s e n te re d i n to the res u ltan t reli gi o n m u s t w e be li e ve , ,

b e gran te d Th at in the e arly p erio d a ve ry l arge n u m b e r o f spi ri ts

.

were held in ve ne ratio n is attes ted by do c u m e n tary e vi d en c e Wh e n .

,

ho we ve r w e attem p t to asce rtai n w hi c h o f the mo re than 33 00 d e i

,

ties w ho se n am e s are k no wn we re co n trib u te d by e ac h o f the di ff e r

e n t races the p ro bl e m is b affli n g o n acco u n t o f its m agni tu de its c o m
, ,

plexi ty an d the d ifli c u lty o f fin di n g d e c i si ve c l u es

,
.

I n atte mp ti ng to f ath o m th e m yste ri e s o f thi s b ewi lde ri ng m aze

o ne c l u e w hi c h h as al re ad y e m e rge d in o u r di s c u ssi o n m ay b e safely
, ,

fo l lo w e d I t is that th e go d dess I sh tar (o ri gi n al ly Ashd ar) is o f

.

S emi ti c o ri gin T he c e n ter in B abylo n ia at w hi ch w e can trace he r

.

wo rship b ack to the gre atest an ti qu i ty is E re ch a to wn the n ame o f ,

w hi ch as has b een po in ted o u t in C hap ter I I I is o f S em i tic o ri gin

, ,
.

I n the Gil gam esh Epi c a po em w hi ch e m bo di es tradi tio n s an d m e m

,

o ries whi c h th ei r au tho rs b eli e ve d to d ate f ro m b efo re th e d e l u ge ,

I sh tar figu re s as the im po rtan t d ei ty o f the place Whi le th e e pi c .

do e s n o t e n te r in to a de taile d des crip tio n o f the co n cep ti o n s e n te r

tain e d c o n c e rning th e go dde ss it is c lear fro m th e b egin n i n g o f its
,

six th table t o r c an to th at she w as tho u gh t o f as a go ddess w h o

, ,

en te re d ea sily an d l igh tly in to s exu al alli an c es in a wo rd a go d dess

-

w ho re fle c te d in h er c o n d u c t the m an n e rs an d c u sto m s o f a c ru de
an d pri m i ti ve so c i ety I n the epi c sto ry a pl ace o f co n si de rable im
.

po rtan ce is assign e d to a pro sti tu te w ho es c harac ter an d co n d u c t

co rre spo n d c lo se ly wi th th o se o f th e qedasho th o r s ac re d p ro sti tu te s

w h o acco rdi ng to th e Old Te stam en t w e re co n n e c te d wi th the c ul t

, ,

1
S ee ab o ve , Ch I II
. .
 BAB YL ON IAN R EL IGIOU S ORI GI N S 227

of Ash to re th S c ho lars h ave acco rdin gly lo n g in ferre d (an d righ tly)
.

th at th e e pi c pre serve s a m em o ry o f th e e xi sten c e o f th e wo rsh ip o f

I sh tar at E rech to gether wi th su c h fem ale appen d age s to h er cu l t
, ,

in prehi sto ri c ti m e s .

I n the fir st table t Of the e pi c an o th e r go ddess Aru ru app e ars ,

“

, ,

w ho c reate s E n ki du a prim i tive m an f ro m d u st o f the gro u n d in

, ,

m u c h th e sam e w ay th at Yahweh is sai d to h ave m ade m an in th e

se co n d ch apte r o f Ge n esi s Aru ru is ac co rdin gly an e arth go ddess .
-
.

an d a m o th e r go d d ess D eim el regard s Aru ru as o rigin ally ya ah

-
.
-

a n am e fo rm atio n an alo go u s to that o f Yahwe h a mo st

1
rn rn- - -
,

pro b able e ty m olo gy I t wo u ld m ean th en T he o n e w h o c au se s

‘
-
.
, ,

(n o bl e) bi rth Th is wo u ld c learly b e an epi th et o f I shtar I t has

2 ’
. .

alread y b ee n rem ark e d ho w d e i tie s m u l tiply (o r splif u p) by the u se

o f epith e ts ; th e se go d d e sse s affo rd a preh i sto ric e x am le o f it at

p
E rech L ate r A ru ru as an epithe t o f th e S em iti c go ddess w as
.
, , ,

app li e d so m e times to go dde sse s o rigi n ally S um e rian o r A si ati c as ,

S emi te s m in gl e d w ith th e po pu latio n o f c i ties o rigin ally peo pled

by thos e races Thi s h appen ed at Sippar an d A d ab
.
3
_
_
.

Altho u gh Ere c h w as fo u n d ed o r at an early d ate o c c u pie d by , ,

S em ites Su merian s we re min gled with th em befo re the d aw n o f

,

h i sto ry an d su c h p ro gress in tho u gh t h ad been m ade that c elesti al

,

d e i tie s we re alre ad y mi n gle d w ith ch tho n i c Th u s in th ejepic the .

M “M N /s

S u meri an go d Anu appe g g an d is po rtrayed as the f ath er o f Ishtar -

.

An o ther c lu e th e evi d en ce fo r wh i c h h as n o t ye t b een presented

, ,

b u t wh i ch is w e believe fairly well m ade o u t is th at Nin k h u rsag a

, , , ,

go d d ess o f fertili ty w as b ro u ght in to B abylo ni a by th e S u m erian s .

When c e th e Su m
,

e ri an s c am e i s a pro b lem th at is n o t y e t so lved , .

.

Th e re are re aso n s ho wever fo r b elievin g that they en tered B aby

, ,

lo n i a f ro m th e so u th h aving app ro ac h e d it by w ay o f th e P e rsian

,

Gu lf T he reaso n s have b een given already i n C h apter I I p 3 6

. .

I t is n o t po ssible f ro m the data wh i ch w e h ave at pre sen t to

, ,

state d e fin itely wh e re the h o m elan d o f th e S u m e ri an s w as th o u gh ,

the w ri ter h as su gge ste d th at it w as po ssibly O m an in th e so u th ,

e ast c o rn er o f A rab ia .

Cf Pan theo n B abylo ni cn m,

'

1
.
no . 105 .

2
F ro m t lfi a ro o t w hic h h as th e me anin g in dic ate d b o th in H eb re w an d Arab ic
‘ ‘
.

3
S e e th e ref ere n ce s give n in th e ar tic le
“
Aru ru ”
in E b eling un d M e issne r ’
s Reallexi
k o n der Assyri olo gie, I , 160 .
228 S E M ITIC AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

T he d ei ty c o n trib u ted by the S u m e ri ans the go dde ss N ink hu rsag , ,

w as a m o th e r go dd e ss -
o f fe rtili ty H e r n am e w hi c h m e an s L ad y
.
,
‘

o f t he m o u n tain , s he o riginate d mo u n taino u s

’
i n di cate s th at in a

c o u n tr y s uc h as B abylo ni a is no t . Wo o ll ey fo u nd o ne o f he r mo st
i
an c e n t te m pl es wo rshi ppe d in
at E l Ob e id -
.
l
S he w as a so l
h i to ric ti m e at N ippu r w here she w as the co n so rt O f E nlil tho u gh
s
, ,

in l ate r ti m e s she w as m e rge d i n to th e go dde ss Ni nlil At L agash .

an d o the r S u m e ri an c e n te rs she w as ado re d wi tho u t b ei n g as so ci ate d

wi th a co nso rt Ac co rdi ng to the i nsc rip tio n s o f E an natum o ne

.
,

o f the e arly ru l e rs o f L agash the espe ci al f u n c ti o n o f Ni nkh u r sag ,

w hi c h di ffe re n ti ated he r f ro m o the r go ddesse s w as that she nu rse d ,

c hi ld re n T hi s mo narc h o ften de sc rib es hi m sel f as o n

. e w ho had
”2
b een no u ri she d wi th the milk O f li fe by N inkh u rsag and on o ne
“
,

o c casio n w he n c o n fro n te d by an e spe ci al c ri si s he w e n t to p ray to

, ,

“
he r he state s that she li fte d h im to her shi ni ng k nee s an d gave him
,

su ck f ro m h e r b re as t
”3
J u st as the go dde ss I shtar can o fte n b e
.

d i sti ngu i she d fro m o the r go ddesses by he r qed asho th so N inkh u rsag ,

m ay b e d i sc e rn e d as th e m o the r go ddess wi th a nu rsin g c hild -

.

Figu rin e s o f a n u de go dde ss are ab u ndan t f ro m all p arts o f B aby

lo ni a These mi gh t in m any c ases b e ei ther I shtar o r Nink hu rsag
.
,

b u t when the n u de go ddess carri e s a c hi ld as is th e c as e in a n u m b e r ,

o t e figu ri n es f ro m N ippu r
f h w e are warran te d by the statem en ts
1 ‘

o f E an n atu m in i d en ti fyin g h e r wi th N in kh u r sag We di stingu ish .

,

a c c o rdin gly at the d awn o f B abylo n i an hi sto ry tw o go ddesses O

,
f
fe rtili ty Ashd ar ( I sh tar) an d Ni n kh u rsag w ho we re wo rshipp ed in
, ,

d iff e ren t ce n te rs the o n e S emi ti c the o ther S u m e ri an

,
Ash dar ,
.

w as wo rshippe d at E re ch ; Ni n kh u rsag at E l Ob e i d -
.

Ob sc u re as are the pro bl em s co nn e c te d wi th the C e ntral A si ati c

race it see m s to the wri te r to l e rably c le ar th at th e y co n trib u te d to
,

B abylo n i an religio n the go ds E nlil an d E n ki AS po in te d o u t in .

1
S e e H R Hall . . an d C . L . Wo o lley , Al Ub aid , -
‘
Phi l d lphi
a e a an d Lo n do n , 19 27 .

The te mple , th e e xcavatio n o f w hi c h is d esc rib e d in th is vo lu me , an d w hic h d ate d f ro m

th e time o f th e fi rs t dyn as ty Of Ur, is a te m ple o f Nin kh u rsag .

2 ’
S ee th e w ri te r s RI S A , p 4 1 ff . .

3
I bid .
, p . 25 .

Cf L Le grain , Terra o ttas f ro m N i ppu r ,

. .
-
C
hilade lphi a , 19 30 , n o s 3 7 4 7 In P .
-
.

figu rin e s o f th e late r t ime the go d d ess w as n o t alw ay s n u de hese fi gu rine s are the . T
early B ab y lo nian c o nce p t io n o f the m ado n n a a n d c hild Cf also Ward s S eal ylind ers
’
. . C
f Wes tern As i a
o ,
Ch ap te r XX I V .
 B AB YL ON IAN REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 9

C h apter I I I there is evi den c e that the predo mi nating e l em en t in

,

the c i vi liz atio n o f J em de t Nasr w as C e n tral A siati c an d the tw o ,

r h
deiti e s who se n am e s appea in t o se tex ts a e E n lil r 1
Lo rd o f the ,
‘

air ,
an d E n ki
’ 2
Lo rd o f the earth,
‘
B o th E nlil and E nki we re in .
’

l ater tim e wo rshippe d in all parts o f B abylo n ia altho u gh in the ,

hi sto ri c p erio d th e c ent er o f the wo rship o f the fo rm e r w as at Nippu r ,

an d th at o f the l atter at E ri du I t h as so m etim e s bee n su ppo sed .

th at in prehi sto ri c tim e th e c i ty o f Nippu r h ad co n qu e red an d co n

tro ll ed all Oi B aby lo n i a an d h ad in co n se qu en ce i mpo sed o n the
who le co u n try the wo rship o f E nlil I n th e l ight o f o u r pre sen t .

kno wledge that seem s u nn e cessary T he Lo rd o f t he air2 (o r o f .

‘
e
‘

the spi ri ts’ ) w as wo rshipped by all th e B aby lo n i an mem b ers o f thi s

C entral A si ati c race as th ei r prin c ipal dei ty an d w as carri ed by ,

them to e ac h of th e i r se ttl em ents An e spec i ally i mpo rtant temple .

“
o f hi s gave to the c i ty o f Nippu r its o ri gi n al n am e an d there in th e , ,

h i sto ri c pe rio d w as his pri n c ip al shrin e

,
Next to him in impo r . .

t an ce w as th e Lor d o f the earth who se shr in e In the h i sto ri c p erio d

‘
,

w as at E ri du En lil b e c am e th e F athe r o f the go ds an d E a the

.
‘
,
’

go d o f wisdo m
.
w
I t thu s appea r s th at fo u r o f the p ri n c ip al de i ti e s
.

o f the B abylo n i an pan th eo n c an b e trac e d to th e th re e rac e s th at

f ‘

co m p o se d i ts po pu l atio n Th i s c lu e m ay b e taken as a starting

.

po i n t in an en de avo r to di sco ve r the o ri gin o f the vario u s p an theo ns

o f th e co u n try I t m u st n o t b e assu m ed th at th e A siati c race had
.

n o o th e r dei ti es than the tw o m en tio n e d b u t E nlil an d E n ki are all ,

that these e arly tab le ts h appen to reve al .

Po stu lati ng then th is early o rigin fo r En lil w e n ext in qu ire what

, , ,

c o n ce p tio n s o f him w e re en te rtai n e d in su b se qu e n t c en tu r i es .

One o f the f re qu en t ti tle s o f E n lil w as LU GAL 7KUR KUR RA u su ally - -

,
“
tran slate d king o f co u n tries b u t which migh t e qu ally well b e ,
'

ren d ere d kin g Of th e mo u n tain s ”

As th e sign KUR is em plo yed .

in stead o f K 1 it is c lear that it w as ap plie d whi le tho se w ho w o r

,

shipp e d E nli l still li ve d I n the m o u n tai n s an d b efo re the y se ttled I n

the allu vi u m f B abylo ni a T hat h e w as o rigi n ally a de i ty o f a

q .

peo pl e living in the mo u n tain s is fu rther sho wn by the fac t that

“
E n tem e n a say s in a vo tive i n s c riptio n th e pu re w ate r o f E nli l ,

1
Cf Oxf ord Edi ti o ns
. of C
u n ei o rm
f T exts , V II, no . 33 , re v . 13 ; no . 65 , and n o . 128
re v . i i, 1 .

2
I bi d . no . 12, re v .
, iv .
23 0 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

in a great s to ne lib ati o n bo wl -

he b ro u gh t d o wn fro m t he mo u n tai n
fo r T h at a part o f h is ri tu al o n gre at o c c as o n s sho u
i ld be
t he po u ri ng wate r b ro u gh t fro m the m o u ntai n s is a featu re
o ut o f
w h ic h attests the m o u n tai n o ri gi n o f E nli l T he se fe atu re s fi t pe r .

fe c tly the theo ry that E nl il w as a d ei ty o f that A si ati c race w hi ch

fo u nd its w ay i n to B abyl o ni a via the ri dge o f m o u n tai ns to the
E as t o f the Ti gri s 2
.

Urz age an e arly ki ng o f Ki sh c all e d E nl il ki ng o f co u n tri e s and

, ,

“
re fe rs to Ni nlil as l ady o f heave n and e arth re fuge o f thei r li ttle ,
”s
o n e s spo u se o f E nlil
,
F ro m thi s w e l earn that at the d aw n o f .

his to ry E nli l had as a spo u se a go d de ss w ho w as e i the r an e arth

d i vi ni ty o r a fe m ale re flex o f hi m se lf T hat Ni nlil w as regarded .

as a go dd e s s o f fe rti lity an d o f family li fe is i nd i c ated by an e arly

vo tive O ff e ri ng w hi ch a m an p re sen te d to h er fo r h is o w n li fe and fo r

th e li ve s o f hi s wi fe an d ch i ld ‘
That at Ni pp u r bo th E nli l and .

N inli l we re regarded as d ei ti es o f fe rtili ty is fu rthe r i n di c ate d by an

e arly m y th in w h ic h the co u r tshi p by E nlil o f N inlil is d esc rib ed ; the i r

m ari tal uni o n whi ch c au sed the w ate rs o f the E u phrate s an d Ti gri s
,

to o verflo w an d fe rtili z e th e l an d s is th en sai d to fo llo w E nlil ,

.

an d Ni nlil are in th i s tex t b o th re p re sen te d as d ei ti e s o f fe rtili ty

5
.

“ ” 3—
E nl il is c all ed by E n t em en a the F ather o f the go d s an ap ella

tio n w hi ch co m bi n e s the i d ea o f a go d o f fe r ti li ty wi th a re c o gn i tio n

o f hi s p ri o ri ty am o n g the go d s o f th e l an d Uru k agin a desc rib es .

“ ”7 —
him as the Fath e r th e lo u d thu n d erer a p hr ase w h i ch co m bin e s
,
-

i d e as o f fertili ty wi th a co n ce p tio n o f his c harac ter as go d o f the air

an d o f sto rm s F m in th e b egi nn i n g th i s air w eath er sto rm go d w as
.
- -

re gard e d as th e s u p rem e d ei ty o f th e c o u n try pro b ab ly b ec au se ,

he w as th e d ei ty o f the rac e th at w as fi rst in t h e l an d On e o f h is .

“
c o mm o n ti tl es as alre ad y n o te d w as f o r c en tu ri es
,
ki n g o f co u n ,
”8 “
tri e s .On e ru l er O f E re c h c all e d h im lo rd Of h eave n an d

1 RI S A, p 5 3
—
. .

2
Cf E A S pe is er, M esopo tamian Or igi ns ,
. . . P hil ad elph ia , 1930 , pp . 164 17 0 .

3
RI S A, p 5 . .

p 9 , no 5
‘
I bid .
, . . .

5
G A B arto n , M is cellan eo us B abylo n ian I ns cripti o ns ,
. . no . 4 , p 3 5 ff
. .

5
RI S A, pp 5 7 an d 6 1 . .

p 77
7
I bid .
, . .

Cf ibid , pp 4 ( n o 3 an d 97, passi m

3
. . . . an d .

2
Lu galki gu b ni du du , RI S A, p 96 . .
 B AB YL O N IAN REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 31
’

Thi s su prem acy w as re co gn iz ed at Lagash in the perio d o f S um eri an

'

s u pre m
l

ac y th e re fo r Ni n gi rsu th e h e ad o f the pan the o n o f L agash

, , ,
“ ”1
w as regu larly called th e warrio r (o r h e ro ) o f E nlil
“
an d o n ce the ,

so n o f E n li l
”2
I t w as also re c o gn ize d at Ur wh ere o n e o f the kings
.
,
“ ”3
o f L arsa c alle d N an a ar th e s o n o f E n lil D u e to th i s prio ri ty
“

an d so vere ign ty o f E n lil ru le rs o f th e c o u n try who se h o m e s w e re , “

in o the r c i ti es re co gn iz e d th at th e y d erive d t h eir au tho ri ty fro m

'

h im .
Lu galz aggisi de rive s b o th hi s patesi at an d kin gship f ro m
“
E nlil 4
.Thu s S argo n c alle d him self th e gre at patesi (ten an t ,
”5
farm e r) o f E n lil E n lil is ac kn o wle dge d by Ri m u sh as th e giver
.

o f h i s ki ngship
6
N aram — S in b ro u gh t c ap tive kin gs an d pre sen te d
.

th e m to En lil
’
app aren tly in re c ogn itio n o f E nlil s so v ere ign ty
7
, .

Th ro u gh th e earlie r histo ric al reco rd s E nlil is alway s rep resen ted as

th e h ead o f the p anth e o n By the tim e o f Gu dea ho weve r that .
, ,

syn c reti sm an d re fle c tio n u po n th e u n i verse wh i c h b ro u gh t i n to

b ein g the fi rst t riad h ad b egu n at le ast o u tside o f Nippu r for

th at ru le r so m e ti m e s pu ts An u th e S u m
, ,

e ri an go d o f the sk y b e fo re , ,

E n lil 8
.B y th e ti m e o f R im —Sin th e tri ad Anu E n lil an d E n ki , , ,

—
go o t e s y go d o f t e air an d go d Of the e arth h ad b een fu lly
d f h k h , ,

fo rm ed 9 F o r th e gre ate r po rti o n O f the fi rst m illenn iu m o f B aby

'

.
.
\

lo n ian h isto ry ho we ver E nlil h e ld hi s pl ace at the head o f the p an

, ,

th e o n S o m etim es o u tside o f Nippu r the n ative Su m eri an go d

.
, ,

d ess Nin k h u rsag di splace d his A siatic co n so rt Ni m

, lil
, Th u s at ,
.

L agash E n temen a asso c i ates Nin khu rsag wi th Enlil as tho u gh ,

th e y we re
I n t h e hi sto ric perio d th e c h i e f tem ple to E n lil w as E k u r at ,

Nippu r b ut shrin e s were de di c ate d to hi m in o the r ci tie s pro b ably

, ,

I n th e te m pl es o f lo c al d e it i e s F e stival s we re ce leb rate d to him .

,

at th e time o f wh i c h the te rraces o f h is te m l e E k u r w e re th ro n ed

p g , ,

1
Cf RI S A, p 5 7
. an d passi m .

2
I bid , p . .

3
I bid .
, p 3 15
. .

4
I bid i, pp : 9 7 an d 99 .

5 I bid , p 100 an d S in ce patesi me an s te n an t farm e r th e ’

sam e applie s
‘
. .
-
to
Lu galz aggisi .

3
I bid .
, p . 120 .

7
I bid p 13 9.
, . .

3
Cf R I S A, pp 18 7 an d 25 3
. . .

9 I bi d 23 6 an d 23 8
, pp . . .

1°
I bid , p p . . 59 fl , and 65 .
23 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC ORI G I NS

wi th peo pl e .
‘
H is
p re macy at the head o f the p antheo n w as m ai n su

tained u n til so m e c e n tu ries afte r the ri se o f B abyl o n to the b ege m

o n y o f th e co u n t ry u n de r H amm u rabi w he n h is pl ace w as u su rp ed ,

by the go d M ard uk to w ho m many o f the attrib u tes o f E nlil we re ,

g r ad u ally t ra n sfer re d 2
.

T he o the r go d w ho m w e h ave b ee n le d to b eli e ve w as co ntrib u ted

‘
to B abylo ni an religi o n by the A si ati c rac e w as E nki Lo rd o f the ,
’
l and . T he el em en t K 1 in h is nam e d e no tes ho w eve r the i rri gated , ,

l an d o f B abylo ni a no t t e mo u t i l n d o f t e wo l d
h n a n a h r ’
The sign ,
.

KI w as in th e e arly w ri ti n g an o u tli ne o f tw o s tream s c o nne c te d by

h
irri gat in g c an al s w hi c h c ro ssed t e interv en in g terri to ry ‘
I t signi .

ned th e watered co u n try I ts si gnifi c an t featu re w as the wate r

‘ ’
. .

I t wo u l d acco rdi ngly b e m o re co rrec t to say as D ei m e l do es tha t ‘

, ,

E nki w as lo rd o f the wate r rather than o f the l an d I n B abylo ni a .

o n e do e s no t h ave to d ig do w n ve ry far i n to the all u vi u m to fin d

water E n ki w as ac co rdin gly ki ng o f the aby ss

.
5
Well s canal s ‘
.
’
, ,

an d reservo i rs b el o nge d to h im
7
As w ater w as regarded as a masc u .

li ne el emen t as alre ady po i nte d o u t it w as n atu ral that the lo rd

8
, ,

o f w ate r sho ul d b e a go d As he w as the go d o f w ate r and i rri gati ng .

can al s w e re essen ti al to the u se o f w ater f o r ren d ering the l an d fe rtil e ,

b e natu rally b e came th e go d w o tau g t t e stru c ture o f can al s

h h h ’
,

etc A n atu ral ex ten tio n o f thi s tho u ght made him the
.

“
go d o f i n telli gen ce an d wi sdo m H e gave E ann atum his in telli .

gen ce as he di d m any o thers ; he taugh t Gu dea the pl an fo r t e

‘2

b uildin g E ninnu ; he helpe d S in iddin am de epen the Tigri s “

13
In -
.

time it w as b e li eved th at all th at i n si gh t whi ch p asse d in B abyl o ni a ,

Egyp t an d I srael u nde r the n ame o f wi sdo m w as gi ve n by E nki

,
‘ ’
.

I b id p 23 5
1
, .
. .

2
Cf M . . J as tro w , R el igio n o f B ab ylo n ia and Assyria, B o sto n , 189 8 , pp 54 . an d 140 .

1
Thi s las t was o rigin ally th e p ic tu re o f a mo u ntain ; see OB W, n o 3 22 . .

1
Cf OB W,
. no . 4 19 .

5
P B ab ylo n ic u m, p
antheo n . 111, u n de r n o . 8 62 .

5
Cf RI S A, p 29 , c o l xix
. . . .

7
Cf RI S A, pp 49 , 5 1, 7 7 , an d 28 8 ,
. . w h e re it is said su c h s tr u c tu re s w e re b u ilt fo r him .

5
S ee ab o ve , Ch V, p 140 . . .

1 RI S A, p 5 3 . .

15
I bid , p 228 . . .

11
I bid .
, pp 33 . an d 37 .

12
Cf .
, e .
g .
, ibid .
, pp . 65 , 7 1, 3 21, an d 38 1 .

13
I bid .
, p . 223 .

I bid p 3 17
11
. .
,
.
 B AB YL O N IA N REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 23 3

As the go d o f the l an d a c em e te ry at L agash w as c alle d the en c lo

‘

As the go d Of w ate r h e po sse sse d the b an k

’1
su re Of E n ki . of the
c an a l Gu edin at Lagash As th e go d o i wi sdo m it w as h e w ho .
2 -

gave o a l s
r c e
3
an d w as m a ste r o f d ivin a ti o n
4
a n d his wo rd w as tru e 5
, .

H e b e c am e th e go d o f the A si ati c se ttlem en t o f NUN“ afterw ard ,

c all ed E ri du AS alre ady p o in te d o u t Nu N w as F ish to w n

k i
As
’
‘
-
.
, .

the go d o f water it w as n atu ral th at E n ki as wo rs hipp e d h e re c ame

, , ,

to b e co n ceive d in the fo rm o f a fi sh 6
AS th i s to wn w as i n vaded
“

by S umeri an s b efo re 3000 B C w ho cam e apparently fro m the . .

, , ,

so u th an d w ho b ro u gh t w i th them a c ivilizatio n e ven hi gh er than

,

th at o f th eir p re de c e sso rs o f th e A si ati c race E n ki w as l ater co n ,

fu se d wi th the c o m in g o f th e S u m e ri an s in the legen d o f O an nes a 7

,

go d w ho c ame u p the Pe rsi an Gu lf fro m the so u th an d tau ght m en

agri c u ltu re an d the arts I n thi s l ege n d w e have an ex ten sio n o f.

th e earli er co n cep tio n o f E n ki as go d o f wi sdo m .

Like E n lil Enki w as wo rshipp ed in all parts o f B abylo n ia As

,
.

o n e o f th e go d s o f th e first in habi tan t s o f the c o u n try w ho had ,

built its dikes m ade canal s an d resc u ed it fro m a swampy mo rass

, , ,

E nki w ho w as b eli eved to h ave tau gh t men ho w to d o all th i s w as

, ,

re ve ren ce d ever ywh ere While in the h i sto ri c p erio d hi s p rin cipal
.

se at w as at E ri du eve ry c i ty o f th e co u n try had a sh ri n e to him

,
.

I t app ears that like E nlil he had a female co unterp art tho ugh
, , ,

she is men tio ne d b u t o n c e o r twi c e in the early tex ts so far p u bli she d .

As men did no t live wi tho u t wives it w as b e lieve d that the go d s ,

did no t Thi s co n so rt w as in the time o f E ann atum c alle d Ni nki

.
a
.

In the ti me o f S hu lgi she w as c alled D am gal nun n a and still ‘

“

- - -
,

later D amkin a
,
1°
.

The S em i ti c Akk adian s called E nki E a pro b ably o ri gi nally Y a

“ =
, ,

whi c h w as a divi n e name amo ng the He b rews The ib ex w as .

1
I bi d .
, pp 8 1. an d 83 .

I b id p 55
2
.
, . .

3
I b id .
, p 23 9
. .

5
I b id .
, p 23
. .

p 18 7
5
I bid .
, . .

5
Cf Collecti o n da
. Cl erc q, P ari s , I , 1888 , p l xxx n, no 3 43
. . .

7
Cf . C o ry s
’
Anci en t F ragments , Lo n d o n , 18 7 6 p 5 7 f . . .

5
RIS A, p 3 1, . col . iii .

9
I b id , p 27 9
. . .

1°
S ee the ref ere n c e s in De imel ’
s P an theo n B abylo ni cu m, p . 100 if .

11
Cf . CT ,
XX IV , 3 , 29 ; 14 , 17 ; 5 2, 10 8 , e tc .
234 S E M ITI C AND HA M ITIC OR IG I NS

s ac re d to h im . I t is app are n tly to E nki that G u dea re fe rs w he n he

“
s pe a k s o f the ho ly ib e x o f the
Un lik e E n lil E nki appe ars to have b e e n a d ei ty d e ve lo pe d in
,

B abylo ni a by the canal and dik e b ui ld e rs w ho fi rs t w re s ted the

sw am py so il f ro m th e m ars h e s an d m ad e it h abi ta b le T hi s fac t .

c o n ne c te d him b o th wi th w ate r an d i rriga tio n an d the sk ill to d o ,

it gave him hi s re pu ta tio n fo r i nte lli ge n ce l e arni ng an d wi sdo m , ,

.

I n the m y tho lo gi c li te ratu re c u nn ing p lan s are alway s attrib u te d to

h im . On the o the r han d he is u s ually b e ne fi c ie n t P ray e rs are .

n e ve r ad d re s se d to h im to c as t an ave ngi n g n e t o ve r e ne mi e s o r to ,

te ar o u t thei r th ro n e s o r d e s tro y the i r seed .

By the tim e o f R im S in th e c o sm i c tri ad o f go d s co n si sti ng o f -

,

An u E nli l and E n ki had b e e n fo rm e d

, ,
2
As E n ki w as the go d o f ,
.

w ater he n at u rally held t he thi rd pl ac e gi vi ng p rec e denc e to th e

, ,

S k y go d an d the go d o f the ai r
-
I n later m y th s he w as so m e ti mes .

repre s e n te d as th e s po u se o f th e m o the r go dd ess N in tu d ( a b y — n am e -

o f Ni nk h u rs ag) w ho by h is m ari tal u n io n wi th he r ca u se d the

, , ,

i rri gating wate rs to flo w an d c lo the the w o rl d wi th h erb age 8

In .

th i s m y th h e pe rfo rm e d the p art assi gn e d in an o the r m y th ( already

q uo ted ) to E nli l .

N ink h u rsag the S um eri an m o the r— g o dd e

,
ss w as as n o te d a b o v e , , ,

like E nlil a dei ty that o rigin ated in a mo u n tai no u s co u n try o u tsid e

,

O f B aby lo n i a We c an first trace h er presen c e in the co u n try at E l

.

Ob ei d n ear Ur w here Aann apad d a the se co n d ki n g o f the fir s t

, , ,

d yn asty o f Ur b u il t a tem ple to h e r at th e ve ry d awn O f hi sto ry

,
1
.

As t h e S u m e ri an s p u she d th e i r w ay i n to th e co u n try the y c arri e d

he r w o rship wi th th em They e stab lishe d them selves at Ke sh a .
,

pl ace w hi c h flo u ri sh e d b e fo re th e d awn o f wri tten h i sto ry w here ,

Ninkh u rsag s wo rshi p w as e stab li sh ed ’ 5

A S um e ri an li tu rgy fo u n d .

“
o n an i n s crib e d tab le t at N ippu r an d wri tten in a p re S argo n ic -

sc ri p t whi c h m en ti o n s Kesh 7 an d Kh allab an d whi c h m ay h ave

, ,

1 RI S A, p 23 1: c f e im e l, . . D o p
. c it
.
,
no . 860 , ii, 2 .

2
I bid , p p 3 27 an d 3 29
. . .

3
Cf Lan gdo n , in V o l
. . V of M ytho logy of all R ac es , p . 19 6 . Cf . also the w rite r in
The A meric an J o u r nal o f Theology, XX I , 5 8 1 .

1
RI S A, p 3 . .

5
I bid , p 27 5 . . .

5
Cf G A B arto n , M i sc ellan eo u s B ab ylo n ian I nsc riptio n s, Ne w H ave n , 19 18 ,
. . . no . 1 .

7
Co l i , 2 . .
 B ABYL O N IAN REL I G IOU S ORI G I NS 5

been igin allyor c o mpo se d in Kesh ,

is d evo te d es pe cially to Nin
k hu rsag who m ,
it id en tifies wi th Sir ,
‘
th e great ear th - serp e n t , an d

the m i stre ss o f d em o n en c h an tm e n t
'

re gard s li tu rgy o n T he
2
as -
.

the tex t w as o rigin ally c o m p o se d in th e ti m e o f a plagu e wh i ch in ,

an tiq u i ty w as alw ay s b e li e ve d to b e the wo rk o f d em o n s an d Ni n i ,

k h u rsag is i n vo ke d to stem the si c kness S he is in thi s tex t regard ed .

as th e spo u se o f E n lil 3 S he is also addre sse d as mo th e r S he . .

w as SO we ll establi sh ed at A d ab in the tim e o f M e sili m kin g o f Ki sh , ,

th at in p rese n ting a vo tive vase to th e tem pl e th ere h e in scrib ed

, ,

hi m self as h e r so n 4
On ac c o u n t o f the ab u n d an ce o f in s c rib e d .

m ate rial fro m L agash it h app en s that w e c an trac e h e r wo rship ,

m o re fu lly in th at c i ty than in m an y o th ers E ann atu m c alle d her .

‘
h is m o th er an d asser t s m an y tim e s that sh e n o u ri sh ed h im with
5
,

the milk o f life On c e when h e praye d to h er h e say s sh e ap

5 ’
.
, ,

pe are d to hi m in a d re am to o k him o n h er kn ee s an d Offe re d him , ,

h e r b reast 7
E n tem en a regarde d he r rath er th an Ninlil as the
.
, ,

c o n so rt o f E n lil
8
H e bu il t a san c tu ary to her an d in fo rm s u s
9
.
,

th at sh e w as asso c i ate d wi th E n lil an d E n ki as o n e o f th e th ree

d ei tie s w h o pro tec te d T h e place o f h er o rac le wa s
c all e d T h e ho ly fo re st
‘ ” 1
Later L u galz aggisi w as like E an n atu m
"
.
, , ,
‘
nb u rish e d by h er lif e givi n g mi lk
2
M anishtu su in vo kes Nin -
.

k h u rsag to hi n d er ch i ld be ari n g in the l an d o f an yo n e w ho m ay -

d estro y hi s in sc ip tio n o r in terru pt th e arran gem en ts he h ad m ad e

fo r sac rific e in the tem ple o f S h am ash ‘3
AS M anish tu su w as an .

Akk ad ian perh ap s he co n fu se d Nin khu rsag wi th I sh tar That

, .
,

ho wever is h ard ly pro b able sin ce his i n sc riptio n is wri tten in Akk a
,

d i an an d h e c o u l d e asily h av e wri tt e n I sht ar h ad h e so d e si re d ,

.

1
Co l . xi . Cf . also c o ls . i an d ix .

2
Cf . co l . v .

3
Cf . co l . xi .

1
RI S A, p 5 . .

5
I bid , p 29 . . .

pp 3 7 , 3 9 , 43 , 4 5 , 5 3 ,
5
I bid .
, . an d

p 25
7
I bi d .
, . .

an d 65
3
I bid ; pp 6 1 . . .

9
RI S A, p 5 9 . .

1°
I bid .
, p . 63 .

11
I bid .
, p 65 . .

12
I bid , p 99 . .

13
I b id .
, p 13 5 . .
236 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C O R I G I NS

Ur B au -
c all e d N ink h u rs ag
‘
mo the r o f t e go d s
h " G u dea sp eak s .

“
o f he r as the l ad y w ho c au se s gro w th i n the c i ty , the mo ther
”
o f its ch i ld re n i nsc ri ptio n he add re sse s he r as Nin
. I n the sa me
‘ ‘ ‘
tud L ad y o f bi rt hs o r C hil d b e ari n g l ady an d m o t h e r o f t h e
’ ’
- -
,

I t fo llo w s that in the l ate r tex ts the go d de ss Nin tu d is

’

go d s
2
.

i de n ti cal wi th Ni nk hu rsag b e i ng the sam e d ei ty o nly d e signated by , ,

a di ff e re n t e pi the t B o th E n te m e na and G u de a al so asso ci ate he r

.

w ith E nli l app are n tly as his c o n so rt

,
1
Urn amm u the fo u nde r o f .
,

th e th i rd d yn as ty o f Ur spe ak s o f her as the l ad y o f K e sh As

1 ‘ ’
.
,

K e sh w as a ci ty o f so u the rn B abylo ni a in p re his to ri c ti m e w hi ch ,

sa nk i n to o bli vi o n at th e d aw n O f h is to ry it seem s p ro b abl e that the ,

i nvad i ng S u m e ri an s had e stabli shed the wo rshi p o f N in kh u rsag

the re as e arly as at E l Ob e i d I n o n e passage G u dea sp e ak s o f a -
.

sm i th w ho w as p rie s t o f th e d i vi n e l ady w ho b ro u gh t fo rth th e

‘

l and ( NrN T UD KALA MA OE ) I n the l igh t o f the passage alre ady

d ’
M 5- - - -
.

q u o te d thi s is c le arly a re fe re n c e to Ni nkh u rsag A l ate r m y th

,
.

re p rese n ts h e r as the w i fe o f E n ki wi th w ho m by e n te ri ng into , ,

m ari tal u n io n he c au sed the i rri gati n g w ate rs to flo w o ve r the

,

l an d 5
.

S u ch w as th e ch arac ter o f thi s S u meri an mo ther go d dess I n so -

.

m any resp e c ts she rese m bl e d the S em i ti c I sh tar th at i ne vi tably

as the tw o races mi n gle d in B abylo n i a th e i r attrib u te s m u st h ave ,

b ee n co nf u se d an d the tw o bl ende d in to o ne .

Taki ng the S u m e ri an c o n cep tio n as a w ho le it rep re sen ted the ,

S um e ri an e ar th — go d d es s N inkh u rsa g s o m e ti m e s as t h e wi f e o f th e ,

S u m e ri an we athe r go d E nlil so m e tim es as the wi fe o f the A si ati c

-
, ,

w ater go d E nk i T he un io n o f th ese tw o m ade life in B abylo n ia

-
.

po ssible T he A siati c co n so rt o f E nki Ni nki appears o nly in the

.
, ,

ti m e o f E ann atu m Af te r that th e S u m eri an mo ther go dde ss dis

.
-

plac e d her A si ati c pre c u rso r so c lo sely h ad the tw o c u l tu res f u se d ,

.

1
I b id .
, p . 17 5 .

2
I b id .
, p . 18 1 .

1
I bid .
, pp 6 1, 6 5 ,
. an d 249 .

I b id p 27 5
1
,
. . .

I b id col x vi , 29
5
.
, p 221, . . .

Cf th e wri te r s trans la tio n in Arc he o logy and the B i ble, 6 th

5
.
’
cd 19 3 3 , pp 3 46
.
,
. fl .

and his artic le in th e A mer ic an ou rn al of heo logy, XXI J T 5 74 597 -

L angd o n
.

in his Le po ém su mer ien d u parad is , d a delu ge cl de la c hu te de l ho mme , aris , 19 19 , an d

’
P
hi s S emitic M ytholo gy, B o sto n , 19 3 1, h as give n a f ar les s p ro b ab le an d sa tis fac to ry
tre atm en t of th e text , th o u gh in so m e esse n tial f ea tu res h is in te rp re ta tio n of 19 3 1 is
m o re near ly c o rrec t tha n w as th at of 19 19 .
 B ABYL ON IAN REL I GI OU S ORI GI NS 23 7

Tu rning n o w to th e p re h i sto ri c co n tribu tio n o f the S em ite sto the

re ligio n o f th e c ou n try th e o n e S e m i ti c d ei ty w ho se p re sen ce the
-
.

e arly m ate ri al re ve als i s Ash d ar later c alle d I sh tar a n am e c l e arly , ,

e q u iva l en t to th e A rabi an Ath tar w h o se pre se n c e in its n ative l an d ,

w e h ave alre ady trace d At Ki sh the wo rsh ip o f this d e ity in pre .

h
histo ric ti m e s is vo u c e d o by tf r h e n a m e O f A s h d ar —
m u t i 1
a pre ,

h i sto ri c ki ng m en tio n e d in an e arly k in g— list ; Ju st at th e d awn O f

h i sto ry an o th e r kin g E n bi Ash d ar w as o verthro wn b y E n sh agk u s ,
-
,

2
h ann a E viden c e fo r the wo rsh ip o f thi s go d de ss at E re ch in pre
.

hi sto ric tim e has alre ad y b een addu ce d } an d it is also vo u ch e d fo r .

.

at Kh allab an o th e r p reh i sto ri c c ity o f so u th ern B abyl o n ia w h e re

4
, ,

it su rvive d u n til th e ti m e o f the dyn asty Of L arsa 5

.

M o st o f o u r so urce s fo r the pe rio d o f S u m erian su prem ac y are writ

ten in S u m eri an I n these texts the n am e o f thi s go ddess is wri tte n
.

by an i d eo gram whi ch the Ak kadian co lu mn s o f the syllab arie s

d e fin e as I sh tar b u t wh i ch the S u me ri an co lu m n s d e fin e vario u sly
,

—
as N I I N } E N NI N
7
NI I NI } I N NA NA 9
I N NA AN NA
-
1°
I N NI NA
,
11 - - - -
,
- - -

,
- -
,

— Q T O a stu den t o f S u m eri an it

'

an d NA NA
13 14
I N NI N NA
-
I H NI N NI
-
,
-
.

se em s c le ar th at th ese fo rm s all go b ac k to t w o S u m e rian e p ith e ts

o f th i s d e i ty : N I N a n d E N NI N L o rd —
lady All o f them -
‘
.
’
, ,

e x cept th e fi rst are c o rru ptio n s O f th e se co n d As the first is rare .

,

bein g kn o wn to th e wri te r th ro u gh o n e syllab ary o n ly it fo llo w s ,

’
th at the S u m e rian s c alle d th i s S e m iti c go d de ss th e Lo rd lady
‘
-
. .

On e n atu rally ask s w hy this sho u ld have b een 15

.
.

T he an sw e r i s to b e fo u n d in the fac t n o te d in th e p rece di n g c h ap

1 RI S A, p 3 5 3 . .

2
I bid , p 7 . . .

ab o ve , p 22611
3
See . .

w riter s Mi sc ellaneo u s B abylon ian I nscripti ons , p 11,

’
1
‘
S ee the . xiii 6 .

5
R I S A, p 323 . .

5
CT
, X II,
11, 25 b
CT
_

7
, X I I , 11, 26b .

5
I I R , 3 9 , 63 a .

3
CT XI 50 8
, , , c .

1°
CT X I 49 6 , , , c .

11
OBI , 14 8, i , 6
'

no . .

12
L . W . K in g, B abyloni an M agi c, 1, 3 1 .

13 I bid V ar
,
. .

14
I I R , 5 0 , 67 ah .

15
Thi s o rigin o f th e na me w as n o t c lear to me w h en I p u b lish e d R I S A .

w o rk I f o llo w e d o ne o f th e late r sp ellin gs o f the n ame , I n in n i .

 23 8 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

te r, ‘
A rabi a i tsel f Athtar w as b o th a go d and a go ddess
th at i n .

We sho u ld ex pe c t the re fo re that b o th t he m asc uli ne an d fem i n ine

, ,

fo rm s o f the d e i ty w o u ld b e ca rri e d to o the r co u n tri e s There is .

e vi d e n ce th at t hi s w as d o ne an d th at so m e ti m e s an attem p t w as

m ade to re p rese n t bo th the m as c u li n e an d fe mi ni ne fo rm in the sam e

m h in P u ni c i n s c ri pti o s T i h f h
’
i g T t o t e face o f B aal is 2 ‘
a e u s . n an
‘
m e n ti o n e d and a Si d o ni an i ns c ri p tio n spe ak s O f Ash tart o f t he
,

n am e o f B aal
’
3
I n deed as the w ri te r po i n te d o u t m o re than thi rty
.
,

y ea s ago the e arlie s t ki ng o f Ki sh ( Lu galtars i) to m e n tio n the

r
1
,

go dde ss in an i n sc ri p ti o n o f his o w n re c o gn ize s that she h as tw o ,

ge n de rs by cal li ng he r at o n ce Ki n g o f co u n tri e s an d L ady AS

5 ‘ ’ ‘ ’
.

tim e w e n t o n ho w e ve r the fe m i ni ne fo rm o n ly s u rvi ve d w hi l e the

, , ,

m as c ulin e e le m e n t w as grad u ally sep arate d an d i n divi d u aliz e d un de r

the n am e D u m u zi Pe rhaps it is thi s e arly b i se xu al c harac te r o f
.
-

Ashdar that led to th e givi ng o f a n am e to he r sac red wo m en w hi c h ,

has b ee n a p u zzle to scho l ars I n the co de o f H amm u rabi o n e o f .

the fo u r c l asses Of de vo te d wo m en were calle d z i nn i l ti z i k ri } wo m e n

‘

m e n o f te n tran sl ate d vo we d wo m en
’
, Le xi cal e vi den ce fo r the ‘
.
’

u se o f the ro o t in the se n se Of vo w e d h as ho w e ve r b ee n l ac ki n
‘ ’
g , ,
.

I t wo u l d seem po ssible that in the d e sign atio n w e are to see a su r

vival o f a n am e o ri gi n ally gi ven to c o nn ec t them wi th th e c h arac te r

o f a b i S e x u al d e ity
-
.

Th at I sh tar (E n nin ) w as lik e E nlil a d ei ty o f e xt ra B aby lo ni an

-

, ,
-

“ ”
o ri gin is attes te d by the fac t th at sh e is c all ed
, kin g o f c o u n tri e s
“ ”
an d lady o f co un tri es ( KUR KUR RA } no t KI K I ) Thi s is - - -
.
.

e vi den c e th at h e r wo rshi r i in at d in a m n ta in o s co u n try

— a
p o g e o u u

c o n di ti o n whi ch Arab ia th e l an d to w hi c h w e h ave al read y trace d ,

h er o ri gin — ab u n d an tly f ulfi l s I t w as thi s co n ceptio n o f h er .

so ve re ign ty o ve r m o u n tai n o u s l an d s w hi c h le d E ann atu m to say

th at E n ni n co nf e rre d u po n h im th e n am e O f the mi gh ty o n e e xal ted

‘

1
P . 2 10 f .

pas s i m
2
CI S , I , 19 5 an d .

3
CI S , I , 3 15 .

1
J AOS , XX I , p . 185 ff . J as tro w e n d eavo re d to disp ro ve th e p o in t in his
arti c le
“
Th e B ear d e d Ve n u s,
”
R evu e archeo lo gique 4 se r . XVII 27 1 29 8 , b u t
-

u ns u c ces sf u lly .

5
RI S A, p 5 . .

5
. C
Cf th e o de , 3 0 5 2, 3 121 1 5 5 15
, 3 25 2, 33 1 1 5 5 11
.

Ur E nlil, k ing o f Nippu r,

7 ’
RI S A, pp 5 , 18 9 , calls he r lady of th e plain
‘
. an d 25 9 .
-

( ed i n) , i bid , p 7 . . .
 B AB YL O N IAN REL I GIOU S O R I GI NS 23 9

o ve r lan d (KUR )
the S o m etim es h e al so says that sh e n am e d
’
.
1

him tho u g wi t o u t
,
h h m a i
k gs n u c h c lai m s to so ve re ign ty 2
.

I sh tar (En n in ) w as regarded as a go ddess o f fertility an d plen ty .

—
Ur B au s ays th at S he fi lle d hi s m o u th 3
Gu de a attribu te s to h e r
4 ‘
,
’

h
t e se n d i n g o f r ain a n d W a ra d —S in c alls h e r p rieste ss o f do u ble
,

ab u n d an c e
}
E n an n atu m ado rne d fo r h e r th e I B GAL o r gran ary 6 -

— a f ac t wh i c h wo u ld co nn e c t h e r wi th th e sto rin o f th e f ru i ts o f
g
th e e ar th an d as w e sh all see b elo w po i n ts to th e o ri gin o f Nin u rta
, ,
-

as an epi th e t o f I sh tar .

At a l ate r tim e he r Wo rsh ip flo u rish e d at E re ch whe re she w as ,

called th e d au gh te r o f An n ; at Kh allab wh ere S he w as c alle d the

7
,

c hi ld o f S in ; an d at U mm a wh ere th e go d S a a w as c alle d h e r so n
h
3 9
r ,
.

At E rech the n am e o f h e r temple w as B ann a a n am e wh i c h w as also

1°
,

gi ve n to h e r shrin e at L agash } at Ur h er tem pl e w as n am e d E s b u r ; h

1 12

while at B abylo n , it w as u rank i D 13

Warad S in bu ilt a tem ple to .
-

he r in the I slan d o f Dilm u n 14

S argo n o f Agade regarde d hi m self .

as h e r o ve rsee r o r o ffi c i al an d in the ti m e o f hi s su c ce sso rs h e r

‘ 15 ’
,

wo rship w as c arrie d alo ng wi th tha t o f Ninkhu rsag to di stan t , ,

El am 16
. T w o kin gs O f th e d yn asty o f I sin I shm i D ago n an d B u r 17
,
-

c laim to h ave b een th e spo u se o f I sh tar P ro b ably Lib it ‘ ’

S in .

I shtar m ean s to m ake th e sam e c l aim when he says th at h e le d ,

‘

c aptive h e r h e art T h e go d D u mu z i w as regard e d as he r spo u se

19 ’ 2°
. .

1
I bid .
, p . 25 .

2
I b id .
, p 33. an d 4 1,
3
I bid .
, p . 173 .

p 2 19
1
I bid .
, . .

5
RI S A , p 3 21 . . .

p 359
5
I bid .
, . .

7
I bid .
, p 29 3 . .

3
I bid .
, pp 3 21, 3 23 , an d 3 8 1
. .

pp 3 83 an d 29 5
9
I bid .
, . .

1°
I b id .
,
27 9 .

11
I b id .
, p . 189 .

12
I bid , p 363
. . Ano the r of her temples w as E gina b i b k u (I bid .
, p . b u t its
lo c at io n is u n certain .

13
I bid .
, p . 27 7 .

p 381 . .

15
I bid .
, p 10 1 . .

15
I bid .
, p . 16 1 .

17
I bid .
, p 3 05
. .

15
I bid , p 309 . .

p 30 7
19
I b id .
, . .

p 3 87
2°
I bid .
, . .
240 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

T hese re fe re n c e s to he r in the hi s to rical i ns c rip tio n s re veal the

po p u lari ty w hi c h the S e m i ti c go d de s s e nj o y e d d u ri ng the fi rst m il
le nn ium o f B abylo ni an hi s to ry an d the w id e ex te n t o f he r wo rshi p ,

th ro u gho u t the l an d d u ri ng that t im e The y al so s ho w that in the .

mi n d o f the w ri te rs o f the se i n s c ri p tio n s I sh tar ( E nni n ) al tho u gh , ,

a go d d e s s o f fe rti li ty m ai n taine d a d i s ti n c ti ve c h arac te r in the

,

mi nds o f he r de vo tee s q u i te di s ti nc t f ro m that o f he r S ume ri an ,

ri val Ni nk h u rsag
, .

A d ei ty c lo sely co nne c te d wi th I shtar an d gene rally wo rshipp e d

in B abyl o ni a w as D u m u z i Thi rty ye ars ago the w ri te r b el ie ved .

D um u zi to have b ee n w ho lly o f S emi ti c o ri gi n ; he no w thi nk s that

‘

in his cul t as p rac ti se d in B abylo ni a S e m i ti c an d S um e ri an s trai ns ,

were fu sed Po ssibly the re we re al so elem en ts in it de rived fro m

.

th e Asi ati c race .

I n the my th s an d l ege n d s c he ri shed abo u t 2100 B C D u m uz i a .

,

she p he rd w as re garde d as o n e o f th e an te delu vian kin s an d is s aid

, g
to h ave rei gne d at the m y th ic al c i ty o f B ad u ru d u n agar 3 6000 y e ars 2 .

In tw o do c u m en ts in an e arly trad i tio n it is state d that D u m u zi

, ,

a fi she rm an af ter the flo o d rei gn e d at E re c h 100 ye ars 3

, Evi de n c e .

has already b ee n add u c ed w hi c h po in ts to E rec h as a S e m i ti c fo u n

d ati o n ; the my th w hi c h re gard s D u m u zi as a ki n g o f E re c h wo ul d
1
,

the refo re b e o f S e m i ti c o ri gi n
, T he o the r wo ul d co m e fro m o n e .

o f th e o ther rac es —
p ro b ab ly fro m the S u m eri an s Ni nkh u rsag .

w as , as w e h ave se en , a m o the r go dde ss ,

-
an d a m o th er go dde ss im
-

pli e s a di vi ne c hil d . D u m u zi m e an s in S u m eri an S o n o f li fe o r

‘ ’

’
I n a l an d in w hi ch S u m eri an w as th e l angu age o f
‘
Livi ng so n .

re li gi o u s d evo ti o n th e n am e o f th e d e i ty wo u l d b e tran smi tte d in

,

th at to ngu e an d in ti m e th e tw o c hi l d d ei ti es o f I sh tar ( E m n in )
,
-

an d N ink h u rs ag wo u ld b e c o nf u se d an d fu se d to ge th er P ro b ably .

that is wh at h ap pen e d in th e c ase o f D u m u zi .

T h e c u l t o f D u m u zi is trac e ab le at S u rippak } at L agash at L arsa , ,

an d at o the r cen ters An un kn o wn ru le r w ho du g a c an al fo r him

.

c all e d him n o bl e h u s b an d m an 3 Ur N in a place d his im age in a

‘ ’
-
.

1
Cf his S emitic Origi ns , Ne w
. Y o rk , 19 02, pp 8 5 ff. .

2
RI S A, p 34 7 . .

an d
3
I b id .
, p 3 41
. 349 .

1
Cf . ab o ve , Ch I I I , p 65 . . .

5
Cf th e
.
p ro pe r names in to w hic h D u muz i e n te rs as a co m po n en t p art ; D m e l,
ei

Wirtschajtstexte aus F ara, Le ipz ig, 19 24 , p 33 4 . .

5
RI S A, p 13 . .
 BAB Y L ON IAN REL I GIOU S ORI GI N S 24 1

tem ple at Girsir E an n atu m , w h o

D u m u z i o f th e Aby ss c alls h im
‘ ‘ ’
.

(pro bably refe rring to the fisherm an Tam m u z ) called h im self the
‘
,

belo ved o f D u m u zi Ur B au w ho b u ilt fo r h im a temple in Girsu

2 ’
-
.
, ,

c alle d D u m u z i lady o f Kin u nn i r

3
So me s cho lars th in k that so
‘
.
’

m an y d ei ties who se n am e s b e gin wi th n i n (Nin girsu Nin u rta e tc ) ,

-
,
.

h ad by th e tim e Of Ur B au b ec o m e m asc uli n e that h e emplo ye d the -

, _

wo rd nin lady as e qu ivalen t to en lo rd ‘ 4

As D u m u zi is else
’ ‘ ’ “

.
, ,

wh ere a go d perhaps th i s is the explan atio n o f Ur B au s u se o f the

,
-
’

wo rd S ihid din am Of Larsa claim ed that his co n stru c tio n o f a c an al

.

m ade glad th e h e arts Of S h am ash an d D u mu zi }

To him the tw o
appe ar to h ave b een the d ei tie s o f fe rti li ty His su cc e sso r R im — S in .
, ,

c alle d D u m u zi lo rd o f Off sp ri n g th e b ri d egro o m b elo ve d o f En ni n 6

‘ ’
-
t
.
,

T he wo rship o f D u m u zi c o n ti n ued as lo n g as the B abylo n ian

c ivi liz atio n e n du re d Nu m ero u s hymn s were wri tten to hi m an d .

p rayers were o ffe re d to him

7
I n the Ad apa m yth D u mu z i an d .
.

Gi shz i da gu ard th e gates o f the h e avenly palac e o f An u 8

I n the .

Gi lgam esh e pi c h e is the spo u se o f I sh tar who m sh e abu sed 9

In .

th e syllab arie s the th eo lo gi an s made a di stin c tio n : D u mu zi o f the

Aby ss is classed with the so n s o f Ea while D u mu z i belo ngs to the
1°
,

fam i ly o f S in 11
Thi s go d w ho w as thu s akin to d eitie s o f Arabia
.
,

an d Sy ri a o n h is S em i ti c sid e w as th ro u gh o u t B ab ylo n ian histo ry ,

.

o n e o f th e m o s t po pu l ar an d i n flu en tial in th at co un try .

Of o th er go d s w h o were wo rsh ippe d in d iffe re n t p arts o f B aby

lo n ia th e m o o n go d vario u sly c alle d En zu Naun ar a nd S in m ay
,
-
, , , ,

c o n ve n ien tly b e stu di e d n e x t I t is ge n e rally re c o gn i z e d th at S in .

is his S e m iti c n am e an d Nielse n b elieve s him to h ave b een the le ad; ,

ing d ei ty o f A rabi a I t is tru e th at in th at lan d h e too k prece den c e

’

I b id p 17
1
, .
. .

2
I b id .
, pp 33 . an d 37 ; cf . also Ur Bau , i bid
-
.
, p . 17 3 .

3
I bid .
, p 17 5
. .

1
Cf . D mel,
ei P antheo n B abylo n i cu m , p . 10 5 f .

5
R I S A, p 3 15 . .

5
I bi d , p 3 8 7 . . .

7
Cf . Zimm e rn , S u merisch—
b abylo ni sc he T mm a u z - L i eder , L eipz ig , an d B abylo nisc he
H ymn en und Geb ete i n Au s w ahl, ( Der alte Ori ent) V II , , 3 and XI I I ,
1.

8
Cf . KB , V I , pp 9 6—9 9 . .

5
T ab le t VI of th e epic . F o r translatio n s see J e n se n in KB , VI , p 169 . an d RC .

Th
’

o m p so n , The E pic of Gi lgamish, L o n do n , 19 28 , p 3 3 . .

1°
CT ,
XX V I , 16 3 0— 3 5 ; 28 , 8 2—8 5 .

11
Cf . Zimm Zu r H erstellu n g d e r gro sse n b ab ylo n isc he n Go tte rliste An (ilu )
e rn ,
'

Annm B eri c hte nb er die V erhan dlu ngen der k s ac hs Gesellsc haf t der Wi ssenschaf ten
”
in
‘ ‘

. .

zu Lei pz i g, L XVI I I H ef t 4 .
 242 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

of th e i ty and in B abyl o ni an my tho lo gy he w as regarde d as

s u n -d e ,

the fathe r o f S ham as h the s u n go d We do no t kno w at j u st w hat

,
-
.

ti m e the S e m i tes b e gan to wo rshi p c e le s ti al d ei ties b u t it w as in , ,

all p ro b abi li ty no t b e fo re the y se t tle d i n the B abyl o ni an allu vi u m

, ,

fo r the n am e S in is a c o rru p tio n o f the o ld no n S e mi ti c B abylo ni an -

n am e Z u e h T hi s name w o u ld see m to i ndi c ate that the mo o n go d

-
.
-

w as wo rshippe d in B abylo ni a b e fo re h e w as in A rabi a .

T he nam e m o st wi de ly e m p lo ye d by the S u m e ri an s fo r thi s go d

’
w as E N Z U lo rd o f wi s d o m o r l o rd o f i nc re as e E an natu m calle d
‘ ’ ‘
-

"
.
, ,

him the y o un ger c hil d o f E nli l and Lu galz aggisi spo k e o f the su n
‘
,

d h i m H h i hly d d T h u s G u dea
2
g o as s e s s e nge r e w a s g re gar e
"
. .

say s he m ad e h is law ex c e l i h an d se ve ral ru le rs regard

‘ 1
n e ave n ,

him as an ave n ger o f w ro ng an d w i c k edn ess 1

T he fac t that he w as .

regarde d as a go d o f wi sdo m su ggests tha t h is n am e w as in the ,

e arli e st ti me s an e pi th e t o f E n ki,
an d that l ate r w he n it w as , ,

appli e d to the m oo n go d e x c l u si ve ly it t ran sfe rre d to tha t d e i ty

-
,

so m e o f th e f u n c tio n s o f E nk i I f the re aso n s add u c ed abo ve fo r .

regardin g E n ki as a d e i ty o f C e n tral A si ati c o ri gin are vali d the ,

n am e E n z u w o u l d al so b e o f n o n S um eri an o ri gin an d it wo uld -

,

fo llo w th at he w as wo rshipp ed b efo re the S ume ri an s e n tered the

c o u n try an d th at the S u m eri an s bo rro w ed his n am e as th e y di d
,

th o se o f E nli l an d E n ki T h e o l de st spe llin g o f the n am e Zu e m in

.
,
-
,

th e o pini o n o f th e w ri te r i n d icates that the n am e o riginated wi th ,

th e C en tral A si ati c race }

T he m o o n go d as wo rshippe d at Ur w as called N ann ar a wo rd

-
,

m e anin g in S um e ri an he w ho S hin e s an d in Akk adi an a l am p ‘ 5 ’ ‘ ’

.

1
RI S A, p 28 . .

I bid , p 99 . .

2
1bid , p 249
. .

1
E ann a tu m ( RI S A, An u b anini -
( ib id .
,
Puz u r S hu shi nak ( ibid
-
.
,

I d adu S h u shi n ak
-
( ib id .
, Las irab of Gu ti ( ibid .
,

5
I n th e p rese n t s tate o f o u r k n o w le dge it is n o t p o ssib le to d raw a c lear lin e b e
t w ee n the c o n trib u ti o ns o f th e C
en t ral As iatic rac e an d th e p re B ab y lo nian S u m e rians -

to the late r S u me rian

’
spee c h an d sy llab ary . I t is, h o w e ve r, th e w rite r s b elief tha t
th e w o rds w hi ch in the e arlie st insc rip ti o ns are spelle d in re ve rse o rd e r to th e late r
an d u su al spe lli ng are o f C e n tral Asiatic o rigin . Zu -
en f alls in this c lass .

5
D e im e l ( P antheo n B ab .
, p . d ec lares th e mean in g of th e n am e u nk no wn an d

s u gges ts the po ssib ili ty th at Nau n ar may b e f o r Nar -

n ar, e vid en tly d eri vin g hi s s u gge s

tio n f ro m the spe lling fo llo w e d twice in I V R , 9 a, lin es 6 an d 18 , w h e re w e fi nd t he

sp ellin g Na
i‘ o an- nar Th at thi s is , h o w e ve r, a syllab ic Sp e lli ng o f a late s c rib e , is s ho w n
SE S"
.

b y th e varia n ts w an - na n t (V R , 5 2, 23 a an d I R , 7 0 , iii , an d
d ‘
na - ~
ra
 B AB YL ON IAN REL I G IOU S OR I GI N S 243

Whether S um eri an s b ro u gh t the go d with them o r whe ther h e

th e ,

w as th e p re S u m erian spi ri t o f the place who se wo rship the y ado p ted

-
,

it is impo ssible n o w to tell Histo ri c ally his n am e first appears in .

h
t e in ri
sc p t io n s o f G u de a w oh c alls th e m ar sh l an d N an n ar s ; it
1
,
-
’

be co m e s fre qu en t in the in sc riptio n s o f th e third d yn asty o f Ur an d , ,

o n ac co u n t o f th e i mpo rtan ce an d p ro xim ity o f Ur f re qu en t in th e ,

in sc riptio n s o f kin gs o f I sin an d L ar sa . By th e tim e o f the thi rd

2

dyn asty o f Ur his c o n so rt w ho h ad p ro b ably b e en the go dd e ss Nin ,

k hu rsag w as u su ally c alled by the epi the t Ningal the great l ady 3
‘ ’
, ,

N au n ar w as regarde d by Utu k h egal an d Gimi lilishu as king o f the -

‘

An u nn aki 4
A n u m b er o f th e e pi th e ts applied to him are de ri ved
.
’

fro m the phy sic al aspe c t s o f the m o o n Thu s Nu r Ad ad c alls him .

-

th e c ro wn o f h e aven an d e arth
‘
Warad S in th e beau tifu l lo rd ‘
'

-
,

w ho shi n e s in h e aven an d also the lo rd w ho se h ead is exalted in

5 ’ ‘
,

g re at s pl e n d o r g lo rio u s in b r illia n ce w h o
,
se e y e rad i ates b ri gh tn e ss ,

an d ligh ten s all the lan d s I t se em s p ro b able th at e ach o f th e

7 ’
.

th ree races o f B abylo n ia h ad wo rsh ippe d th e mo o n go d b efo re they -

m in gl e d in t hat l an d .

T h e su n go d c alle d in S u m eri an Utu o r B abb ar and in Akk ad ian

-
, ,

S ham ash w as wid ely wo rsh ipp e d in B abylo n ia frOm b efo re the dawn
,

o f hi sto ry I t is pro b ab le th at ho m age w as pai d to thi s d ei ty in de

,

p en d en tly hy all three races tho u gh as ye t w e h ave e vi den ce co n

‘

( V o rderasi atische S chriftden k maler, I , 7 0 , v, T he three e ndings -

n ar , -
n a- ru , an d
-
n a- ra ( th e sp ellin g n a an- n a — in K 2 115 , CT , XXV ,
28 , b ein g c learly a sc ri b al e rro r )
in di c ate th at, if th e w o rd is S u merian th e ro o t en d e d in r . I t w as, th erefo re , pro b ab ly
AR , b e b righ t, shi ne ( OB W, Na- an ar o r Na an— n a—
’ ‘ ’
th e w o rd ar w o u ld th e n
‘ - -

m e an h e shi n es, o r h e shin es o n it, w hic h w o uld give th e name a perf ec tly go o d
’
‘ ~ ‘ ’
,

S u m e rian e tym o lo gy On th e o th er h an d , if th e go d w as b ro u gh t to Ur b y S emites,

. .
,

migh t b e d erive d f ro m th e ro o t n amdrn , to shin e an d mean lamp as Hi nk e

’
th e name
‘ ‘ ’

h o lds ; Cf A New B o u nd ary S to n e of Nebnc had rez z ar I f ro m Nippur , Philaii elphia, 19 0 7

.

Hink e q u o tes tw o texts , I I I R , 4 1 in wh ic h S in is called th e lamp that dw ells

‘
p 29 0
. .

in th e lo f ty he ave n s, an d I R 7 0 in w h ic h h e is c alle d th e lamp o f heave n an d e arth

’ ‘ ’
.

1
RI S A, p 227 . .

2
RI S A, pp 3 05 ( Gimililishu ) , 3 11 ( Gu ngu n u ) , 3 13 ( Nu r Ad ad) , 3 15 an d 3 17 ( S in
.
-

idd inam ) , 3 19 , 3 25 , 3 7 7 , 383 , 385 ( Warad S in ) , an d 3 89 ( R im S in ) - -

.

3
Cf th e in sc rip tio n s an d later ki n gs in R I S A, pp 27 5 , 289 , 305 , 3 11, 3 13 , 36 1, 365 ,
. .

3 7 1, 3 7 3 , 3 7 5 , 3 7 7 , an d 3 79 .

1
RI S A, p 305 . and 361 .

5
RI S A, p 3 7 3 . .

p 377
5
I bid .
, . .

7
I b id .
, p 3 89
. .
244 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

n ec ting S u m e rians a nd Ak k ad ians

h im o nl y
E ann atu m wi th the .
l

c alls Utu h is k in g a nd d e sc ri b e s h im as ki ng o f a b u nd an t b ri lli a n c e

‘ ’
, ,

a nd n u m b e rs h im am o ng t he go d s w h o a re to w re ak ve nge a n c e o n

the m e n o f Um ma if the y b re ak c o ve n a n t
2 “
Lu galz agg is i S argo n ,
‘
.
, ,

R im u s h , b
S ha rga lis ha rri ,
“
Id ad u S hu s h in ak
- 7
and o the rs
8
a lso c o un t

h im am o ng the go d s ights o f w ho ave ng e r u thle ss di s re spe c t o f the r

.

o th e rs As the gi ve r o f the ligh t o f d ay b e fo re w ho m e vi l sli nk s

.
,

aw ay he b e cam e t he go d o f ju s tice an d H amm u rabi re pre s e n te d

, ,

”
the s u n go d as gi vi ng h im h is c o d e o f l aw s
-
I n the l ate r h is to ri c .

p e ri o d S h a m as h w as t h e go d o f Si p p ar th e s u c c e s so r o f t he c i ty o f ,

Ad gae and o f L arsa bo th c i ti es w hi ch app are n tly had l arge S emi ti c

, ,

o
p p u l ati o n s— L ars a in t he e arlie s t pe ri o d o f its hi sto ry S ip par i n ,

its l ate r pe rio d s As the su n go d dess w as o n e o f the p ro m i ne n t

.
-

d ei ti e s o f A rabi a it is pro b ab le tha t the p re do mi nan ce o f th e w o r

,

s hi p o i thi s d ei ty in the se c iti e s is d u e to S e mi ti c i n fl u e n c e As in .

the cas e o f the m oo n the S emi te s had d e ifie d this ce l esti al o rb be fo re ,

the d aw n o f hi s to ry I n B abylo ni a ho we ve r th e go dd e ss had b e .

, ,

co m e a go d be fo re o u r do c um e n ts w e re w ri tte n .

T he e arlie st d atabl e refe ren ce to the su n go d o f L arsa is in the -

i nscri p tio n o f Lu galz aggisi w ho calls L arsa the c i ty b elo ved by ,

Utu D u rin g the p eri o d o f the k ings o f Larsa S ham ash ,

w as o f c o u rse ho n o re d by them as th e c hi e f d ei ty o f th ei r c i ty N u r .

A dad regard ed hi m se lf as the co n q u e ring p ri n c e o f S ham ash m ‘

.
,

—
while S in id d inam c alls S ham ash kin g o f he aven and e arth 12 ‘
.
’

At Agad e ( Sippar) S ham ash w as a go d who se co n so rt w as Aa ,

l ate r d efin ed as M alk atu M an ish tu su re b u ilt th ei r temple and .

Unless the fac t th at th e my thical p rehi s to ric k ing , M esk ingas ir, is
1
c alle d a so n o f

S hamash ( RI S A, p 3 4 1) may b e tak e n as a su rvival o f a my th o f the

. C e n t ral As iatic
rac e .

2 RI S A, p 29 , . an d 31 .

3
I bid , p 10 1 . . .

‘
I bid .
, p . 10 7 .

5
I b id .
, p . 127 .

p 14 5
. .

pp 15 7 , 15 9
7
I b id .
,
. .

3
Cf I b id
. .
, p . 13 7 .

9
Cf Délégal io n
. en P erse, IV , p l 3 . .

RI S A, p 9 9 . .

11
I bid , p 3 73 . . .

p 3 75
12 I b id .
,
. .
 BABYL O N IAN REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 245

do u ble d the d ai ly o ff e rin gs . T he n am e of th e c o n so rt , Aa, is a

‘
I n m an y o f t h e
’
S u m e ri an wri ti ng m e an i n g waters . ear ly se al s the
su n -

go d is pi c tu re d wi th tw o stre am s o f water flo w i ng fro m his

h an d s , 1
as tho u gh h e we re th e gi ver o f w ater As th e rive rs o f .

B abylo nia b egin to give thei r ferti lizin g o ve rflo w in the spri ng time -

as th e po wer o f the sun i n c re ases b e cau se it m e lts th e ac cu m u l ated ,

sn o w s o n th e m o u n tain s o f Arm en ia it w as n atu ral fo r the go d d ess ,

o f wate rs to b e asso c i ate d wi th S h am ash an d in ti m e to b e co me his

c o n so rt As S h am ash w as regarde d as a kin g it w as n atu ral that

.
2
,

sh e sho u ld b e in tim e c alle d M alk atu c o u n se llo r or

"queen ‘ ’ ’
, , , .

Altho u gh the o rigin s o f the go d defy clo se an alysis tho se o f the _ ,

go d dess appe ar to b e d i sti n c tly B abylo n ian

3
.

An o th er deity that w as a perso n ific atio n o f the sk y an d therefo re ,

o f a gen eral c h arac te r w as An u T h e n am e is S u meri an b u t his

,
.
,

e arlie st lo c al h abi tatio n app e ars to h ave b een in the S em iti c to wn

o f E re c h Where he w as regard ed as the fath e r o f the go dd e ss I sh tar
‘
.
,

D e ime l is o f the o pin io n that th e earliest S emi ti c n ame fo r him w as

whi c h w as in wri ting i ndi cated b y the pi c tu re o f a star whi ch
'

z la
5
, ,
‘
w as al so the S u m e ri an i deo graph fo r an h e aven an d th at thi s o rtho
’
, ,

g pra h i c i d en ti ty le d to th e ad o p ti on by t h e S e m i t e s o f th e S u m eri an

n am e fo r th e go d , an d th e fu sio n o f th e tw o S u ch a p ro cess cer .

tainly seem s pro b able An u appe ars first in the li st o f dei ti es .

.

wo rshi pped at S u rippak I n the h i sto ric al texts he is first mentio ned .

by Lu galz aggisi kin g o f E re ch w ho calls hi m se lf priest o f , ,

‘

an d w ho regard s th e h e rd s as th e pro perty o f th at go d S everal

7
.

l ater ru lers c l aim to b e prie sts o f Anu an d S argo n says th at Ki sh

3
,

w as; like th e b u ll o f An u e xal ted o ve r th e d e ad 9

Like the su n go d ,
.
-

an d m o o n go d An u se em s to h ave b een gen e rally wo rsh ipp e d afte r

-

1
Cf
_
. Ward , S eal Cyli nders f Wes tern Asi a
o , p 99. .

Cf RI S A, pp 29 , 3 1, an d 3 7 5
2
. . .

3
T h e ref ere n c e to S h amash as th e great lio n ( RI S A, p
‘ ’
. is do u b tle ss a me re
simile I t is n o t to b e regarde d as a su rvival o f to te mism
. .

Cf th e Gilgamesh E pic , ab le t V I
. T .

5
Pantheo n B abylo n i cu n
z, p 50 f . .

6
R I S A, p 9 7 . .

7
I b id , p 9 9 . . .

8
S argo n , RI S A, 10 1; M an ish tu su , ibid , p . 13 1; Naram S an , ibi d , p 13 9; Ur Ningir
.
-
. .
-

su , i b id
p 26 5 ; Gim il—
.S in c alls
, . him se lf c o u n sello r o r vic ege ren t o f An n , i b id , p 29 5 ; . .

w hile D am iq ilish u c alls h im self th e sh ep h erd f avo re d

‘ -
of An u , ibid
’
.
, p 39 1
. .

9
I bid , p 119 . .
246 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

the ti m e o f L u galz aggisi M e n tio n is m ad e o f h im by vario u s ki ngs .

A gade an d Ki sh , by l ate r ru le rs o f L agash , by m em b e rs o f the

1 2
o f
thi rd dy n as ty o f Ur,
Larsa At L agash 1
by ki n gs o f I s in an d .
‘

B au an d Gat u m d u g w e re re gard e d a s h i h
s d au g te rs “ w hi le Ningish ,

zid a shared h is s ec re ts ‘I
At L ars a Ninsian n a w as sai d to b e h is .

fi rst born ch il d
- ’
At vari o u s p e rio d s h e w as re garde d as o ne o f the
.

d e i ti e s w h o ave nge d w ro ngs an d e s tabl ished j u s ti ce an d in the 8

,

i d f th ki n s o f L arsa h e w as pl ac e d at th eh e ad o f the a
p e r o o e g p n

theo n ’
I n d u e ti me he w as gi ve n a co n so rt A n tu m w ho w as in
.
, ,

d i ffe ren t p lac es i d e n tifie d as ti m e passe d wi th di ff e ren t go ddesse sl

,
o

an d so te n ded to ab so rb in to h e rsel f the p e rso n ali ti e s o f Ni na ,

N ink hu rs ag I sh tar an d o the r go ddesses T he p ai r An u and An tum

, ,
.

fi gu red in B abylo ni an and A ssy ri an re ligio n to the l ate s t ti me s .

On e o th e r d ei ty o f t he e arly B abyl o ni an pe ri o d w ho w as wi dely

wo rshi pped w as A dad the S em i ti c w e athe r go d Amo ng the e arly
, ,
-
.

S u m eri ans the fu n c tio n s o f the weathe r go d w e re p erfo rm e d by -

,
h
E nlil w ho is f re q u en tly call e d t e lo u d t u n de re r h 11
M anish tu su ‘
.
’
,

o f th e S emi tic d y n asty o f Ki s h is the first to m en tio n A d ad an d the 12

, ,

go d is wo rshipp e d by An u b ani n i o f Lulu b u an d a rul e r o f S e i chau

13 “ -
.
,

I deo graphi c ally h is n am e w as w ri tten b y the sign I M whi ch o ri gin ally

p i c t u r e d a s ail a n d w a s t h e sym b o l fo r wi n d A m o n g th e A r u rt i t h e .

i d b l d p ly f i i y an d the i m z m b ec am e
'

16
s gn w a s o u e a p a re n t o r n te n s t ,
-

1
RI S A, p p 10 1, 111, 119 , 13 1, and 13 9
. .

z
Ur— B au , RI S A, pp 17 5 , 17 7 , 17 9 ; Gu d ea , i bid . .
, pp . 18 7 , 189 , 19 1, 193 , 19 7 , 199 ,
20 1, 20 7 , 215 , 229 , 23 1, 23 5 , 25 3 , an d 25 5 ; Ur Ningi rsu , ibid
-
.
, p 265
. .

Ur Nammu , RI S A, p 27 3 ; B u r S in , i bid , p 293 ; Gimil S in , i bid p 29 5

3 -
.
-
. .
-
. . .

Dami q ilish u , RI S A, p 3 9 1; S in iddinam , ibid , p 3 17 ; Warad S in , ibid , p 3 21;

-
.
-
. .
-
. .

Rim S in , ib id , pp 3 27 , 3 29 , 389
-
. . .

5
RI S A, pp 17 5 , 17 7 , 17 9 , 189 , 19 1, 193 , 19 7 , 19 9 , 20 1, 20 7 , 293
. .

‘
I b id , p 255 . . .

7
I b id .
, p 3 21
. .

3 I n the re ign o f S argo n ( RI S A, p . S in iddin am ,

-
( ib id .
, p 3 17 )
. an d Rim S in ,
-

( ib id .
, pp 327 . an d

RI S A, p p 3 17 , 3 27 , 3 29
—
. .

1°
Cf e g , ,. I , i , 27 b
. . CT XX V an d 18 , 4 10 c .

11
Cf RI S A, pp 5 1, 67
. . .

12
I b id , p 13 5 . . .

I bid pp 15 1
1°
. .
.
,

“ I b id .
, p 168
. .

15
CT ,
XXV , 40 , 43 . Arura w as a c ity of the lan d of T u mmi ; cf . R eallexik o n f u r
Assyrio logie , I , 160a .
 BABYLO N IAN REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 24 7

in ti m e M e rm er fi l
I m mer (a fo rm
Thi s ga e r sev i to th e vari an ts
t h at a h m f N I m m e r kin g o f L arsa) d I ni
2
pp e ars in t e n a e o u t an -
,

mi r 3
. B y the tim e o f Gu d ea h is wo rsh ip appe ars to h ave b e en
am o n g th e S u m er i an s o f L agash wh e re h e h ad t ak en o v er f ro m ,

Enlil the fu n c tio n o f thu n dering 4

By the Kassite perio d S in .
,

S ham ash an d A d ad h ad b een fo rm ed in to a triad

,
5
I n th e l an d o f .

Arapk h a h is feast w as c ele b rate d wi th th at o f S am ash h 6

He w as a .

we ath er go d pu re and sim ple Adad is the B abylo ni an fo rm o f th e

-
.

West S em ti c n am e Had ad I n B abylo n ia an d A ssyri a h is wo rship

i
.

c o n ti n u e d as lo n g as th e c iv liz atio n en du red

i I n A ssy ria the go d .

fro m ramdn n to thun de r

‘ ’
w as f re qu en tly kn o wn as R amm an 7
, ,
.

Tu rn ing no w to the dei tie s o f spec ial c i ties it is mo st in stru c tive ,

-

to b egin wi th tho se o f th e c ity o f L agash the insc riptio n al m ate rial

,

f ro m whi ch is m o st abu n d an t an d fu rn i shes u s wi th m o st i n fo rm a

tio n At th e he ad o f th e p an theo n o f L agash sto o d the go d Nin girsu
.
,

who se n am e me an s L ady o f Girsu a n am e whi c h reve al s th e f ac t

‘ ’
,

tliat fu rth e r b ac k in pre hi sto ri c ti m e wh en C i rsu the do mi n an t , ,

bo ro u gh o r se c tio n o f L agash w as first settled its d eity w as a go d

i

, ,

d ess F ro m what w e h ave p revio u sly learne d o f the Su m e ri an s an d

.
-

—
the ir e arth god de ss w e c o n j e ctu re th at wh en the y firs t se ttled at
8
, ,

Girsu the y b ro u gh t th e wo rsh ip o f Nink h u rsag t e e a t go d de ss

h r h —
, , ,

wi th th em ; th at in tim e they applied to h er th e epithe t L ady o f -

,
‘

Girsu an d th at still later th e c o nstan t u se o f thi s epi thet differen

’
,

tiated in th ei r m l n d s th e p a tro n ess o f Girsu fro m Ninkh u rsag so ,

th at the tw o we re regarde d as separate d ei ti es S till late r in the .

Warli ke exigen ci es o f the life o f the c ity Ningirsu c am e to b e regarde d -

,

as a go d an d as a m as c u lin e d e i ty w as th e reaf te r wo rshi pp e d as

”

lo ng as L agash flo u rish ed
1 CT . XXV ,
20 , 8b .

2
Cf R I S A, p 3 7 3 an d S AK , p 20 9
. . . .

3
CT , XXV , 20 , 7 b .

4
I C yli
n n d er A, xxvi , 21, Gu d ea, in sp eak ing o f th e c reaki ng o f th e hi n ges of th e

gre at d o o rs of th e temple h e h ad b u ilt , say s th ey

“
c reak ed lik e the go d I M ( o r Adad) :
w h o is j u dge in h e aven .
”
Cf RI S A, p 233
. . .

5
S o m e time s S harru ( th e ki n g , i e , M ardu k )
. . replac e d S in as in K B , II I , 15 1; an d

so meti m es I sh tar replac e d Ad ad ; cf . V R , 33 .

6
RI S A, p 33 9 . .

7
S e e the p ro p e r n am e s
il
R a—
m an iddia - -
apla an d
il
m an—
R a— ih -
u i, J o h ns , Assyrian
D eeds and D ocu ments , n o s . 269 an d 29 8 .

3
S ee ab o ve pp . 228 an d 234 .
248 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

T he l d e s t k no w n do c u me n t w hic h re fe rs to Ni ngirsu is t he pre

o

h is to ri c d o c u m e n t d i s co ve re d by S arac e l w hi c h re c o rd s the b u ild in g ,

o f a p ri m iti e
v sa n c tu ary a t G irsu
2
I n thi s d o c u m e n t Ni ngirsu is .

h
sa i d to b e t e p i e s t o r e n c h an te r o f Gi s u
r r
1
b u t no i n dica ti o n is ,

g i ve n a s to w h e th e r t h e tran s fo rm a ti o n f ro m a go d d e ss to a go d h ad

ye t tak e n p lac e T he sam e is t ru e o f the i nsc ri p ti o n o f ki ng E nk

.

hegal the d o cum e n t w hi c h n e x t m e n ti o n s Ni ngi rs u b u t by the ti m e

‘
, ,

o f E an n atu m Ni ngi rs u h ad c l e arly b e c o m e a m as c u li ne d e i ty

,
He .

is an thro po mo rp hi ca lly c o n c e i ve d an d is b eli e ve d to b e o f gi ganti c

“
si z e . H e is th e c hi e f d e i ty o f the c i ty w ho d e lim i ts its bo u nd ari e s ,

“
an d w atch e s o ve r t h e m H e is e spec ial ly fo nd o f the fe rti le fi el d o f
.

"
G nedi n o n w hi ch the ci ty re li es fo r m u c h o f its fo o d su pply He is -
.

the k ing o f the c i ty ; the vari o u s ru le rs are h is vi c e ro y s w ho d o no t

“ “
thin k o f m aki ng w ar w itho u t h is au tho rizatio n Wh il e ve ry wi se .

”9
in b attle i t is c o n s tan tly re me m b e red th at the go d E nl i l ( the go d
,

o f th e A s iatic rac e w ho fi rs t o cc u pi e d the lan d ) is th e p ri m ary

“
d ei ty o f the te rri to ry fo r N in gi rsu is regu l arly c alle d the he ro
,
” 1°
(o r w arri o r) o f E nlil N ingirsu rule s L agash and fights its b attles
.
,

b u t af te r all he is r ul ing an d fi gh ti n g fo r the go d o f thi s e arli e r race

w ho is re co gn i z e d as th e ri gh tfu l d i vi n e ru l er o f all th e l an d As .

go d o f the lan d he c au ses his n e t to desce n d o n its e n em ie s th e

11
,

m e n o f Um m a ; he gi ve s Uruk agin a h is ki ngshi p ; he o pen s the w ay

12

fo r G u d e a f ro m th e P e rsi an Gu l f to the M edi te rran e an 13 F ro m pre .

hi sto ri c tim e to G u de a rul ers b u il t an d re b u ilt hi s tem ple

,
“
I n thi s .

te m pl e he reign e d as kin g I n the pro sp ero u s ti m e o f Gu de a vari

.

o u s su bo rd in ate d e i ti es w e re al so w o rshi ppe d the re They were .

1
Dé e rtes e n
co u v Ch lde a e, pl . 1b “ .

S ee th e w rite r X LII 3 3 8—
’
J AOS ,
1
s t ranslatio n in ,
342 .

3
I bid p 340
.
, . .

RI S A, p 13 fi . .

5
I b id .
, p 25. .

pp 5 7 , 5 9 ,
5
I bid .
, . an d 65 .

7
I b id .
, p 33. .

1
I b id .
, p 25. .

°
I bid .
, p 23 3
. .

1°
I b id .
, pp 4 1, 5 1, 53 , 5 5 , 5 7 , 6 7 , 7 3 , 17 3 , 25 7 ,
. e tc .

11
I b id .
, p 29. .

111
I bid .
, p 89. .

11
I bid p 183
—
,
. . .

1‘
J AOS , X LI I , 338—342 an d RI S A, 17 , 19 , 21, 23 , 63 an d 20 5 237 .
 B ABYL O N IAN REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 249

believed to h ave tak en Nin girsu th ei r stat o n s i at th e c o m m an d o f

1

an d p erfo rm e d th e i r f u n c ti o n s u n d e r h is d ire c tio n As a ki ng .

ac c o mpli sh e s h is wo rk th ro u gh su b o rd i n ates so N in gir su ru le d ,

thro u gh the se vari o u s d eiti es .

No twi th stan d in g Ningirsu s tran sfo rm atio n i n to a go d h e still ’

,
‘

w as b e l ie ve d to e xe rc i se th e fu n c tio n s o f fe rtility At th e gre at .

spri n g fe stival h is m ari tal u n io n wi th h is co nso r t B au w as b e li e ve d

to c au se th e f ertilizi n g wate rs to ri se an d I rri gate th e lan d to b rin g

2

fo rth its fru i t .

T he stan d ard o f L agash w as su rmo u n te d b y the figu re o f a b lac k

“ ”4
bird 3
This b ird w as c alled the divin e blac k b ri gh t sto rm bird
.
,
-

an d is in the in sc riptio n s fre qu en tly i den tifie d with N in girsu

, ,
.

M ytho lo gi c ally th erefo re Nin girsu w as co n ne c ted wi th the sto rm

, ,

c lo u d Lik e all deitie s Nin gu rsu w as al so in terested in th e est abli sh

.
,

m en t o f j u sti c e 5
H e w as ho weve r th e lo cal go d o f L agash an d wi th
.
, , ,

the de cli n e an d fall o f th e c i ty his wo rshi p dec lin e d an d cease d .

T h e co n so rt o f Nin girsu w as the go o de ss B au who se n am e m e an s

‘

B au w as a go ddess o f fe rti lity who se

‘
T he pro du ce r o f ve ge tatio n
’
,
.

m arri age wi th Ningirsu w as re en ac te d at the be gi nn in g o f e ac h year 6

.

T he first m o n th o f the ye ar Was c alle d the M o n th o f th e feast o f

‘

an d th e m ate ri al s fo r th e f east w e re d e si gn ate d n i g— sal as—

’
B au 7
,
sa -
,

the b ri de p ri ce o r do wry o f B au At th e n ew year s festi val n ex t

‘ 8 ’ ‘ ’ ’
.

af te r th e c o m ple tio n o f th e tem ple o f E n inn u by Gu d e a the m ari tal

u n i o n o f Nin girsu an d B au is f ran k ly d esc rib e d I n co n se qu en ce

9
.

o f it th e f ertilizi n g w aters o f th e Tigris an d th e E u ph rate s ro se in

,

ab u n dan ce an d go o d c ro p s w e re assu re d B a u T h e p ro du c er o f
‘
-
.
,

vege tatio n is c le arly an epi the t T h e o ri gin al n am e o f the go dde ss

,
’
.

m u st have b ee n so m e th in g e l se T w o o r th re e p o ssibi li tie s m u st .

b e re co gni z ed I f B au w erea n ative S u m e ri an de i ty she o ri gin ate d

.
,

1
R I S A, p 243 ff . .

2
I bid , p 25 1 . . .

3
Dé co u vertes en Cb aldeo, pl 3. .

Cf .
, e .
g RI S A, p 19 7
.
, . .

5
I b id .
, p 25 3
. .

“I bi
d pp 193 , 23 9
‘

.
, .

7
S e e th e ref eren c es c o llec te d b y th e w rite r in JOAS ,
XXXI ,
25 1 if , an d XXXII I ,

1fi .
,
an d 29 7 ff .

“
8
Cf RI S A, pp 19 3 an d 19 7
. I n th e last men tio n e d p assage i t is
. . c alle d the jo y
”
o f th e hearts o f Ningirsu an d B au .

9
RI S A, p . 25 1 .
25 0 S EM ITI C AND HA M ITI C ORIG I NS

f ro m the S u me ri an e ar th go d d e ss Ni nk h u rsag
bi fu rcatio n o f the -
, ,

an d re pre se n ts th e s u rvi vi ng fe m i ni ne f u n c ti o n s o f that go dd e ss

af te r an o the r p art o r e l e m e n t o f he r h ad u nd e r the e pithe t Ni ngi rs u , ,

b e c o m e a go d Ano the r po ss ib ility is that B au is an e pi th e t o f

.

Nin a the go dd e ss o f that A si atic rac e w ho se se ttle m e n t adj o i ne d

,

C i rs u an d w ho o cc upi e d th e s ite be fo re the c o mi ng o f the S u

i
m e r an s ‘
S til l ano the r po ss ib il ity is that B au is an epi the t o f the
.

S em i ti c go dd e ss Ashd ar ( E n ni n ) T his l ast po s sibi li ty is su gge ste d .

by the fac t that B au l ike Ashd ar is said to b e a d au gh te r o f Anu ,

2
, .

Of the se th ree po ssibi li tie s the firs t is the m o s t p ro b abl e T he ,

.

re l ati o n shi p wi th An u p ro b ably c am e i n to the m y tho lo gy f ro m th e

infl u en c e o f the n ei ghbo ri ng q u arte r o f Lagash E ri m w he re E nn in , ,

w as the p ri n cip al go d de ss
°
.

T he w o r shi p o f B an ca n b e trace d f ro m the ti m e o f Ur Nin a to -

“
Whil e she had s hr i ne s o f he r o w n she al so
th e fall o f L agas h
‘
.
,

o c c u pi e d th e te m ple o f N in girsu as hi s wi fe S e ve n o ther dei tie s

3
‘
.

were regar d ed as thei r c hi ldre n ’

On e o f he r shrine s w as calle d .

S he w as regarded as a m o the r
’ ’
the p lace o f h e art s e ase By
‘ 8 9
. .

the ti m e o f the th ird d yn as ty o f Ur she w as al so wo rshippe d u n de r

th e nam e o f t a
10
o r T he gre at o n e G ul a gradually cam e to b e
,
‘
.
’

re gar de d as a s e parate go d de ss an d as su ch w as w o rshippe d in o the r ,

p ar ts o f B abylo ni a l o ng a te th e fall o f L agash

f r
11
Gul a in di fi ere nt .
,

p l a ce s app e
,
a r s a lso t o h av e a b so rb e d th e q u ali ti es o f o the r e arth
” u w as al so w o rshi p pe d as a go dd e ss
g o d d e s se s b e si d e s B au B a .

in o th e r c o n tigu o u s p art s o f B abyl o ni a : in D rehem d u ring th e ,

“
th ird d yn asty o f Ur 13
in Nipp u r in th e K assi te pe ri o d an d in o the r
, ,

1
S ee III , p 63 , an d b e lo w p 25 6 f
ab o ve , ch . . . .

RI S A, pp 19 3 , 19 9 , 20 1, an d 203 . .

Cf b e lo w p 260
. . .

1
Cf RI S A, p p 23 , 7 1,
. 17 3 , 17 9 , 183 , 18 9 , 19 1, 23 1, 239 , 265 ,
. an d 283 .

5
Cf RI S A, pp 7 3 , 7 7 , 17 5 ,
. . an d 233 .

I bid , p p 239 , an d 25 1
. . .

p 247
7
I bid .
,
. .

1nd p 233
8 .
.
,

I b id .
, p . 283 .

1°
Cf HL C, II , 8 , 5 6,
. v, 5; cf . I V R , 32, 3 9 an d var . Ano ther Gu la w as a t the same

tim e w o rshi ppe d at D rehem ; cf . Ge n o uillac , Tab lettes de Drehem, P aris , 19 11, 468 2, 5 ;
T
548 2 , ii , 5 ; Langdo n , ablets f ro m the Archives of Drehem , 47 , IV , i ; 5 1 : 14 .

11
Cf e g , S trass mai e r, Alpheb etische Verz eic hn iss , no s 6 7 46 an d 89 20
. . . . .

111
Cf th e refe re n ces c o llec te d b y
. e ime l, antheon B ab ylo n ie u m, p 8 8 a D P . .

13
Cf Geno uillac ,
. o p . c it .
, 54 9 8 , iv , 17 .

1‘
Cf . Cl y P a , erson al Names f ro m Cu n ei orm f I ns criptions o f the C
ass ite Per io d , p 63 . .
 BAB YL ON IAN REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 51

p lac e s in n eo B abylo ni an time s Eb eling fo llo win g the su gge s

-
.
1
,
2

tio n o f an o ld Assyrian syl labary co n ten d s th at B au w as iden tic al

3
,

with a go ddess B ab a w h o w as worshi pped at F ara e arlier th an B au ,

w as wo rsh ipped at L agash an d e ve n th at B au w as

4
ro n o u n ce d
p ,

B ab a That the tw o go dde sses were develo pe d o u t o f th e sam e

.

S u m erian o r A siati c earth go d de s s the pre sen t writer do e s no t -

,

do u b t b u t th at th e ir n am e s were pro n o u n ce d th e sam e is high ly

,

qu e stio n able 5
Sim ilarity o f fu n ctio n do e s n o t p ro ve iden tity o f
.

n am e an d th e e q u ivalen ce s o f th e syllab aries u su ally c o n vey to u s

,

th e the o lo gi c al e qu ivalen ce s o f theo lo gi an s n o t i de n tit y e ith e r o f ,

n am e o f hi sto i c al o rigin Th e go d d e ss B ab a w as also w o r

6
r o r .

shi pped i n Assyr ia at a m u c late pe io

h r r d 7
.

Ano ther go dde ss th at w as p ro b ably a fo rm o f Nink h u rsag w as ,

Gatum dug S h e w ho b rin gs go o d to th e h o u se As B au w as the

‘ ’
- -
.
,

pro du cer o f fo o d so Gatu m du g appear s to have b een the pro te c tre ss ,

o f th e dwellin g an d th e p ro v i d e r fo r its n ee d s Whi le o u r c hi ef .

knowledge o f h er wo rshi p c o m e s fro m Lagash it was al so kn o wn at ,

S u rippak 8
At L agash vario u s rul ers fro m Ur Nin a to Gu dea
.
9 10
,
-
,

bui lt her tem ple an d Lu galz aggisi de stro yed it 11

S h e w as calle d
,
.

‘
m o the r o f L agash ”2
an d h o ly m o th e r o f L agash Gu dea calls ‘
.

1 T allq u ist, Neu b abylo nisches N amen buc h, p 23 2 . .

2
R eallexi k o n der As syrio lo gie , I , 43 2 ff .

3
K AVI , p 46, 14 , ab . .

4
Cf Deim el, S chultexte
. ans F ara, 127 60 , xi , an d p .

5
J en se n b elie ve s th at in thi s divi n e n am e the u w as pro n o u n ce d b a ; Cf T h u re au .

Dan gin , L es ho mophon es s u meri enn e, p 40 T hu re au Dan gin regards it d o u b tfu l

’

. .
-
as

( i b id ) Th e presen t w riter regard s

. i t as m o re th an d o u b tfu l .

5
T rue , th e sy llab ary in q u e s ti o n (KA I , p 46) se em s in part to d iff er f ro m o th ers , V .

sinc e line s 6— 9 seem to give vario u s w ay s o f exp re ssin g the n ame o f th e go d Zam ama,
b u t h ere it is t h e fo rm s so m e o f th em
'

e vi d en t th at so m e o f are ab b re viat e d angl th at

' '

are b ad sp ellings o f th e nam e wi th th e S em i tic de te rmin ative iln . D o ub tle ss B a—

ba
‘
th e b ege tress,
’
w as an o th e r n ame f o r th e m o th e r go d d e ss, -
j u st as later Z ar— n i—
b a— tu
w as an o th er n ame f o r h e r w h ic h m e an t e ssen tially th e same th in g . I t do es no t f o llo w ,
h o w e ver, th at B a—
’
th e fo o d p ro d u c e r w as p ro n o u n c e d B a b a, an d w as distin c t
‘
u ,
- -
no t a

nam e .

7
Cf KA I , No . J . 17 8 , 15 an d 19 ; also 27 9 , 4 .

8
D mel, S chultexte
ei aus F am , no . 127 60 , ix .

9 RI S A, pp 17 , 19 , . an d 21 .

1°
I bid .
, pp . 25 7 , 25 9 , an d 263 . T he o th e r ru lers w ho reb u ilt it w e re E ann atu m
(i bid 47) .
, and E n teme n a ( ibid .
, 51 an d It e xiste d s till in the tim e of th e th ird
dynasty of Ur ; ,
ef . HL C, I , 9 , 16, v .

11
I b id .
, p . 89 .

12
Ibid , p . 51 .

13
I bid .
, p 225
. .
25 2 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

hi m s e lf the c hi ld b ro ugh t fo rth by Gat u m d u g

‘ "a n d c l ai m s to ,
have
b e e n b o rn in he r te m pl e He r te m ple is so m e t ime s s aid to h ave
‘

b e e n in Girs u , a
an d so m e t i me s in Uru az agga As Ur u az agga w as .
‘

th e sa c re d p art o f Ci rsu bo th s tate m e n ts we re tru e O u tsi de o f

,
.

S urippak an d L agash n o t rac e o f th is go d de s s has as ye t b e e n fo u nd .

He r w o rshi p w o u l d seem to have b e e n co nfi ne d to so u the rn B aby

lo n ia .He r f u n c tio n s o f m o the rho o d ap pe ar to have be e n i de n ti c al
wi th tho se o f N ink hu rsag I t see m s s afe there fo re to as sum e that .
, ,

she w as a p h ase o f that go dde s s .

S e ve ral o the r d ei ti es o f Lagash w e re c lo sely asso ci ate d wi th Nin

g i rsu a n d B a n b e in g s ai d to b e c hi ld re n o f N
,
in gir s u o r o f th e m b o th .

One o f the se w as Gal ali m w ho se n am e m e an t D o o r ram 5 G u d ea

‘ ’
- -
.
,

s ay s o f thi s go d that in b u i ld in g th e tem pl e E n in n u Galalim di

‘
, ,

° —
h a p hrase that a ttrib u te s to h im so m et hi ng o f the
’
re c te d is w ay
f u n c ti o n s o f a Lamas su o r gu ard i an d ei ty We su spe c t the re ,
.
,

fo re th at Gal al im o rigi n ate d in the pe rso nifi catio n o f a s phi nx wi th

,
-

th e h e ad o f a ram w hi c h gu arde d a do o r at the tem pl e o f E n in n u ,

as the b ul l an d li o n d e i ti e s l ate r gu arde d tho se o f the A ssy ri an s .

I n the time o f G u de a th e c hi e f f u n c tio n o f Gal alim app e ars to h ave -

b ee n th at o f a c u p b e are r o r b u tl er to the go d N ingi rsu - 7

Ne ver .

th e less o ther f un c ti o n s w e re attrib u te d to him Uruk agin a sp eak s .

o f h im as th e e n c h an te r t e mig ty o e o
h h h d h
’
f 8 ‘
n ea ev n a n ea t
r , ,

an d as the gre at hi gh p ri est o f h e ave n an d e ar th 9 w hi le G u d ea

‘ ’
, ,

in tw o p assage s te ll s u s th at it w as Gal alim th at in veste d him wi th

,
-

th e s cepte r Al o n g wi th D u n shagga he is sai d to b e th e c hil d

10 ‘
.

b elo ved by Nin girsu Il

We h ave no trac e o f the wo rshi p o f Gal alim
.
’
-

l ate t an t e reign o f S hu lgi o f the l ast d yn asty o f Ur tho u gh a

r h h 12
, ,

1
I b id .
, p . 19 1 .

2
I bid .
, p 223
. .

°
I b id .
, p 25 9
. .

I bid .
, p 263
. .

5
Cf OB W, . no s . 87 and 3 74 .

5
RI S A, p 223 . .

I b id , p 243 ( c o l
. . . v, 21 vi, w he re i t is s aid Gal alim po u rs
-

b rin gs f o o d to Ningirsu u n til that go d is satisfi e d .

3
RI S A, pp 7 3 , 7 5 an d 7 7 . .

1
)
I b id .
, pp . 87 .

1°
I bid .
, pp 183 . an d 19 1 .

11
I bid .
, pp 243 . an d 25 9 .

12
R I S A, p 269 . .
 BAB YLONIAN REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 53

late syllabary e qu ate s him with Anu T hi s is cle arly a specul atio n .
1

o f th e the o lo gi an s o r m y th o lo ge r s .

An o th er deity asso c iated w i th Gal alim as a c o mpan io n 2 an d al so

,
-

sai d to b e a ch il d o f N in girsu
3
w as D u n sh agga so m etime s wr itten , ,

D u nshaggan a 4
I n th e e arli er in sc riptio n s D u n sh agga is a m as c u
.

line deity an d is c all ed king while in l ater in scriptio n s the dei ty

5 ‘
,
’

has b e c o m e femi n in e an d is c alled Thi s de velo pm en t

rever ses th e pro ce ss by whi ch Nin gir su b e cam e m as cu lin e Ho w .

are w e to ac co u n t f o r it ? Pro bably it c am e ab o u t thro u gh hi s

asso ci ati o n wi th Ga l—
alim As Gal— alim w as a go d an d th e tw o we re .

asso ciate d to ge th er as gu ard i an de i ti es it cam e to b e tho u gh t that ,

Du n sh agga ( T h e favo rable du n anim al ) w as hi s fem in i n e sp o u se

‘ ’
-

as B au w as the spo u se o f Nin girsu F ro m the fo rm an d p ro bable .

o i gin o
r f t e sign u n o e is tem pte d to t hink it pi c tur ed a swi n e
h d n 7
,

an d th at in the n am e o f th e go d it pi c tu red a b o ar as ali m p i c ture d a

ram Wh at is actu ally sai d in the in scriptio n s ab o u t thi s anim al

.

leave s u s it is gen erally tho u ght in so m e do u b t as to its real n atu re 8

, , .

I n th e j u dgm en t o f the pre sen t wri ter the du n ani m al w as c l e arly -

a swin e .

1
CT , XXI V ,
19 , 15 a .

2
R I SA , pp 7 3 , 8 7 , . an d 18 9 .

3
I bid , p 20 1 . .

I bid .
, pp 189 an d 20 1
. .

5
I bid .
, p 81. T h e deity w as masc u lin e , then ,
. as late as th e t im e of Uruk agin a .

6
I b id .
, p 19 1
. .

7
Cf OB W,
. no . an d D ei me l,
phi c, R o me , 19 29 , n o 63
3 27 K eils chrift P alaeo gra . .

3
T
h e re is mu ch c o nf u sio n o f th o u gh t as to the n atu re o f th e du n anim al L an gd o n -
.

s tates q ui te p o siti vely that the du n animal w as th e has b u b alis an d th at i t b e c ame ex -

tin c t in B ab ylo ni a ab o u t 2600 B C ( see S ir o hn M arsh all s M oh enj o dar o and the
’
. J -

C
I n dus i vili z atio n , Lo n do n , 19 3 1 II , N o au th o ri ty is give n f o r th e s tatem e n t .

I f i t is b ec au se w e so me tim es fi n d th e expressio n gu d du n , o x du n (Nik

‘ ’
it m us t - -
.

‘
—
b e said th at w e also fi nd an su du n , ass du n ( R T C,
’
an d t du n , man du n ( Nik
il ‘ -
’ - -
.

Th e f ac t is th at du n in these exp re ssio ns h as a fi gurative mani ng

e . I n th e ease

mean s b ro k en o r so m e ti m e s large (c f
’
of th e ass , it to th e y o k e ,
‘
th e o x an d Gu d Cy l
‘
. . .

A, 20 in RI S A, p 211 an d Cyl B , ix , 19 an d x v, 12—14 in RI S A, 245 an d

vii , . .

S imilarly i a-du n ( R T C, 62 an d 63 ) is n o t b u tte r, b u t lard as ia sah is in th e Hi ttite law s -

—
.

Th e name Nin du n - -
ama m a ( Hu ssey , S u meri an T bl t a e s i n the H arvard S emitic M us eu m ,

me ans A lady is my mo th er ; it h as ’
n o b le n o thi ng to d o wi th
‘
I , 19 12, no . 23 , i,
th e du n—
anim al . In all these u ses th e sign is e mplo y ed fi guratively as it is in th e nam e

of th e king S h u lgi . . F o r i ts vario u s fi gurati ve or ideo graphic u se s cf . OB W, II , no . 3 27 .

Wh en thi s is rec ogniz e d the diffi c u lties f o rth b y ric e in his artic le o n th e du n
se t P
ani mal (J AOS , XXX —
II I , 402 404) dis app ear Th e an im al w as a swin e as th e p ic tu re
.

of i t c learly indi cate s . Th e term du n f o r sw ine b ec am e o b so lete ab o u t 2600 B C . and

w as rep lace d b y so b . When this is rec o gniz e d th e w ho le matter b ec o mes c lear .

254 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

T he wo rshi p o f D u nsh agga w as flo u ri s hi ng in the rei gn o f Ur N in a -

,

w ho b u ilt a te m p e fo him in C irs u ; it the n d i sappe ars u n til the

l 1
r

re ig n o f Uru k agi n a
1
D u ring the re igns o f E an n atu m and E n te m en a
.

he is n o t m e n ti o n e d b u t the se m o n arch s say re pe ate d ly th at th e i r

,

de i ty ( m e ani ng ap pare n tly the i r g u ardi an d e i ty) is D u n

, ,

T he re ad i ng o f the se co n d e le m e n t o f the n am e is n o t c e rtai n as ,

th e si g n has an u n u s u al fo rm b u t it is pro b abl e fo r t he re aso n s

‘
, ,

m e n tio ne d that thi s d ei ty is i d e n ti cal wi th D u n shagga and w as

, ,

p e rh ap s p ro n o u n c e d D u n s hag ga G u d e a w h e n h e
‘
te ll s h o w t hi s -
.
’
,

de i ty to o k he r stan d by the sid e o f Gal alim in the reb uil t tem pl e o f -

E n in n u say s that he r han d gras p e d the se ve n he ade d b o o m e rang

5
,
-

“
th at she to o k th e to ngu e shape d spe ar the w e apo n Bl ac k wr ath
‘
- -
, ,

the s to rm c l u b th e w e apo n D estru c ti ve w rath he r d e stru c ti ve

‘ ’
- -
, ,

b attle w e apo ns to pu t to fligh t like w ate r all the c o u n tri e s inhabi ted
,
”
by e nemie s o f E nl il P u tti ng all the se f ac ts to ge ther w e co n clu de
.
,

th at D u n shagga w as the spi ri t o f a se rp e n t shap e d d u n an im al - -

heade d bo o m e rang w hi c h b ecau se o f its se rvi ce s in b attl e cam e to

, ,

b e re garded as a gu ardi an d e ity o r spi ri t an d so w as as so c i ate d wi th

—
Gal alim an d c o n se q u e n tly tran sfo rme d fro m a go d to a go d de ss
,
6
.

Thi s appe ars to b e the hi sto ry o f th e d ei ty in L agash I t w as al so .

wo rshi pp ed in S u pp i k as w as D un b u t w e h ave no
7
r a ,

m ean s o f k n o w ni n g its hi sto ry there P e rh ap s thi s d eity is the sam e .

as D un p a e ( T h e d u n sc ep ter w hi c h go e s a d e i ty w o r ship pe d
‘
- - -

at S u rippak an d wi d ely in later ti m e s a go d th at w as id en tified

9 10
,

wit h M ardu k by l ater B abylo ni an th eo lo gi an s Thi s is m ade p ro b

11
.

abl e by t h e gen eral d i sapp earan ce o f D u n shagga after th e tim e o f

G u de a .
12

1 RI S A, pp 15 , 17 . .

2
I b id , pp 7 3 , 7 7
. . .

pp 27 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 4 1, 43 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 5 1, 5 3 , 5 5 , 6 1, 65 , 6 7
I bid
°
,
. . .

Cf OBW, n o 3 28 o n p 168 and

. . e im e l , Lis te der arc haischen K eils c hrif tz eic he n
. D
aus F ara, Le ipz ig , 19 22, no . 442 .

5
RI S A, p 243 . .

Thi s d e velo p me n t was n o t c lea r to me w h en t ranslating th e te x ts p u b lish e d in

RI S A . I th e n su ppo sed tha t a go dd es s h ad b e e n c han ged in to a go d .

7 D ei me l, S c hultexte aus F ara, no . 127 60 , xiii .

3 I b id .
,
no . 127 60 , vii .

2
I b id .
,
no . 12644 , iv an d n o . 12625 , v an d re v . i ii .

1°
Fo r re fe re n c es c f . D ei me l P antheo n B abylo n ic u m, no . 781 .

11
I b id .

12
The na m e o ccu rs o n c e in a te x t , f ro m th e Lib rary of Ash u rb ani p al, p u b lishe d
b y M ac millan ; cf . B A, V , p 680 , .
 B AB YL ONI AN REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 55

T he shr in e of D u n shagga w as c a ed ll the pl ace

‘
of wailin g .
’
Why
thi s n am e w as given , c an o n ly be co n e c tu re dj .

Ningishz ida w s a wo rshippe d e n thu siast c a i lly in Lagash in the

tim e of Gu dea an d the thi rd dyn asty o f Ur, b u t app ears n o t to have
1

b een pro min en t there in e ar er li ti m e .

2
Thi s deity w as kn o wn at
S u rippak lier than Gu de a an d his c u lt seem s to have spread
e ar ,
3

fro m there to Lagash an d D rehe m 4

T he nam e Nin — g i sh —
z id d a .
-

m e an s L ad y o f th e tree o f life an d w as do ub tless o ri gin ally an epi

‘ ’
,

th et o f o ne o f th e e arly e arth go ddesses d efin e d as the spi ri t o f th e -

p alm t ree By th e ti m e o f. S h u l gi t h e go dd e ss h ad b eco m e a go d

’
an d w as c alle d kin g 5 P ro b ably thi s h ad o cc u rre d as e arly as th e
‘
.

tim e o f Gude a fo r Gude a sp eak s o f hi m as a su n dei ty an d as

,
° -

‘
sh are r o f th e sec re t s o f An u
7
On ce he se em s to b e th e spo u se o f .
’

B au 8 P e rh ap s h e w as there regarde d as an o th er fo rm o f Nin

.

I n an o th er passage h e is said to b e th e so n o f Nin az u

‘
girsu The
9 -
,
.

l ady physic ian perhap s a title o f the go dde ss B au Gu de a b uilt a

-
,
’
.

temple f o r Nin gishz id a in Girsu 1° an d bro u gh t him an d B au in to th eir ,

lL —
temple in Uru az agga p ro b a bly th e sam e te m ple G u d e a r ep r e .

sen ts him se lf as so n of N in gish z id a 12

say s th at N in gi shz id a e x alte d ,

hi m as le ade r o f all m en an d th at w he n he w as m aki n g b ri c k fo r

13
, ,

the b ui ldi n g o f E n in n u th e go d Nin gi shz i da he l d h is h an d

.
14
,
In .

l ater m ytho lo gy Ningi sh z ida play s a c o n spic uo u s p art tho u gh it 15

,

1
Ou r k no w ledgehis p o pu larity du ri ng thi s dynasty c o m e s f ro m p ro per n ames
of .

In HL C at le ast sixteen p erso n s b e arin g th e n ame Ur dNin gishz ida are liste d ( cf HL C , -
.

III , p an d in th e H arvard c o llec tio n , ten p e rso ns ; ( cf M I H u ssey , S u meri an

. . . .

T ablets i n the H arvard S emi ti c M useu m, I I , am b ridge , 19 15 , p 43 C . .

2
The w ri ter h as f o u n d the n ame of thi s d e ity in no d o c u m e n t f ro m L agash e arlie r

th an Gu dea .

3
Cf . D mel, S chu ltexte
ei aus F ara, no . 127 60 , iv .

4 Cf Gen o u illac ,
. T bl tt
a e es de Drbhem, no . 5498 , i , 10 and v, 291 .

5
RI S A, p 28 5 . .

T h e p assage re ad s : Th e su n w hic h ro se f ro m the f ru itf u l earth is thy go d Nin gish

”
z id a, w h o , lik e the su n , rises f o r th ee o u t o f th e e arth ( S ee RI S A, p . .

7
RI S A, p 255 . .

8
I bid , p 19 5
. . .

9
I bid .
, p 201
. .

pp 201, 203 , 25 7
1°
I bid .
, . .

11
I b id .
, p 19 5
. .

12
I bid .
, p 255
. .

13
I bid .
, p 183
. .

14
RI S A, p 223 . .

15
S ee the su mmary in De im el s
’
P antheo n B ab ylo ni c u m , no . 248 1, (6
25 6 S EM ITI C AND HA M ITI C ORIG I NS

is no lway s
t a j c le ar
w hat that part is He is so m e ti m e s ide n ti
u st .
1

fi e d wi th T amm u z w ho w as him self a go d o f the tre e o f li fe so that

2
, , ,

if the n am e w as fir s t applie d to a no n S e mi ti c d e i ty as seem s p ro b -

,

ab le an e le m e n t o f S e m iti c o rigi n w as late r f u se d wi th the e arli er

,

c o n c e pti o n s o f the d e i ty .

S u c h see m s to have be e n the o rigi n o f the pri ncip al dei tie s o f the
bo ro ugh o f Ci rsu Spa c e fo rb id s u s to e n te r u po n a d i sc u ssio n o f the
.

m any l e sse r dei tie s S o me o f the m w hi c h w e re wo rshi ppe d al so

.
,

in o the r l o cali tie s wil l b e dis c u s se d a l ittl e l ate r, We tu rn ne x t to .

the b o ro ugh o f Ni na w h ic h w as sho w n in C h apte r I I I to h ave b e e n,

fo u n de d by th e A s iatic El am i te rac e and n o t by S u m e ri an s

3 -
I ts , .

o d d e ss t h e fi s h g o d d e s s N in a b o re the sam e n am e as t he c i ty T h is
g
-
.
, ,

s tate m e nt ho w e ve r n ee d s so m e j u stifi c ati o n

, ,
.

B ec au se the C hic ago syl lab ary d e fin e s three ki nd s o f fi sh d e sig

n ate d by the si gn o f th is go d d e ss fo ll o w e d by the w o rd fo r fi sh

( KHA ) by the three w o rd s NA AN S HE NI NA A and S I RA RA it is

‘ - - - - - -
, , ,

so m e ti m e s as s u m e d ( app are n tly b ecau se Nan she is pl ac e d fir st)

th at thi s w as the n am e o f the go d de ss S o far fro m th i s b e in g the .

c ase it c an I th i nk b e sho w n that NA AN S HE is in all p ro b abili ty

, , ,
- -

a s crib al e rro r A no ther syllab ary de fine s the sign by w hi c h o u r

.
°

’
i h h h rib e o f
‘
g o d d ess s w r i tte n a s N A MA S H S H E a sc o o l o f fi s T e s c - -
,
.

th e C hi c ago syll ab ary w e b e li e ve in wri ti ng thi s acc i de n tally , , ,

ad de d an e x tra w e dge m ak ing AN in ste ad o f MA S H Ni n a w as a

,
.

fi sh go dde ss ; Si rara w as a kin d o f fi sh an d a s c ho o l o f fi she s co uld

- °
,

b e de si gn ate d by th e sam e S ign b u t the A si ati c n am e o f the go ddess ,

w as Ni n a .

Ho m m el h as en deavo red to S ho w that th is go dde ss w as call ed in

7

S u m eri an E shk h ana o r I shk h ara Whil e th ere is n o i n d u bi table .

1
The in fe re nce s of D ei me l, e .
g .
, do no t alw ay s see m to b e b o rne o u t b y th e o rigin al

te x ts .

C f Z imm e rn
’
2
. s Tammu z , 7 08 , 2 1 .

S ee ab o ve p 76
3
. .

Cf . D e im e l, S u mer i sc hes Lex ik o n , no . 200 11, p 421 T he c u ne ifo rm au tho ri ty

. .

is th e C hi cago sy llab ary , pu b lish e d AJ S L , XXX I I I , pp 169 —19 9 Th e lin es in q u e s

. .

tio n are 15 8—160 on p . 19 4 .

5
P u b li sh ed in CT ,
XXXI X ,
46 . Cf lin e 25 . .

AJ S L , XXX II I ,
194 , 160 .

7
Cf his , Di e S c hwu rgo tti n E s h—
.
ban n a u nd i hre Kreis -
P aris , 19 12 . A b rief statemen t
of his argu m en t is give n in D e imel s
’
P antheo n B ab ylo n icu m, p 223 . .
 BAB YLON IAN RELI GIOU S ORI GI NS 25 7

pro o f o f thi s th ere w as a go dde s s I sh k hara w ho w as perhap s

, ,
1
, ,

Nin a u n d er a Su m erian nam e Th at E shk h ara w as n o t her o riginal .

n am e is pro ve d by the f ac t th at th e sam e i deo gram w as em plo e d

y
fo r writin g the c ity o f Ni n e veh wh ere th e o rigi n al n am e su rvi ve d , .

—
T h e o lde st fo rm o f the S u m eri an E § ha r a 2
Ho u se fo r a fi sh w as -
,
‘ ’
,

de rive d fro m th e i deo graph by whi c h th e A siati c peo ple expresse d

th e n am e o f th e ir go dde ss 3 Thi s w as in tim e co rru pted to I shk .

hara 4
T h e sam e th ing happen e d at Sippar where the sam e
.
,

go dde ss w as wo rshippe d I n thi s last m en tio n e d c i ty h e r wo r shi p .

-

su rvive d as co n trac ts an d r
p p
,o e r n am e s atte st u n ti l th e e ri
p o d of ,

th e fir st dynasty o f B aby lo n an d e ven to K assite tim e 5 ,

.

T h e w o rship o f N in a at L agash is atte ste d by all the do c u m en ts

fro m Ur Nin a to th e thi rd d yn asty o f Ur As sh e w as Ur Nin a s
6 7 ’
- -
.

p atro n go d de ss he w as p arti c ularly de vo te d to h er wo r shi p b u ildin g

, ,

her tem ple an d sto reho u se an d a ho u se fo r h er hiero do u lo i

8 9 1°
S he .

w as a go dde ss o f f e rtility po sse sse d bo u n d ary c an als 11

an d as I shk , , ,

hara w as rem em b ere d u n til l ate st tim e s as th e qu een o f b o u n dary

,
‘

h
d i tc e s 12
Grain w as tho u ght to b e h er po ssessio n
.
13
an d o n e o f h er ,

1
Cf B ez o ld
. Catalo gu e, K I 1300 , 3 d ; CT , XXI V, 18 , 7 b ;
’
s XXV, 8 , rev 10
'

CT . .

CT . I V , 4 8 a, 5 ; CT VI I I , 4 3 b , 19
.
. CT
I I , 4 , 22 ; M eissn er, Altb abylo ni sc he Pri vatrec ht
.

3 7 ; 20 ; 103 , 20 ; 104 , 21; an d 9 6, 5 an d 13 ; B E , XV, 188 , v, 3 0 ; UM E S , I I , 2, 13

Chi T
_

an d 40 ; an d I I f ro m Ni ppu r
’
r, 60 , 14a . Cf . also era s L exi c al exts ,
124 , vii , 15 .

2
Cf CT . I V , 48 a, 5 .

3
Th at th e S u merian s so t reated th e sign is p ro ve d b y the n am e th at th e later
sc rib e s gave t o it , Sa- es Se- su ku a i di— a c o mb in at io n o f S u m erian an d Akk adi an ,
‘
- - - - -

me anin g Kno w th at ‘
w h at is in th e h o u se is a fi sh .
’
T h e po ssib ility of th is o rigin o f

th e sign is admi tted by D eim el ; o p . ci t.

p . 223 f .

I f it see m s u nlik e ly t o any o n e th at th e S u me rian mi n d sh o u ld h ave th o ugh t in

th is w ay , a m o dern I raq ian p arallel m ay b e add u c e d . Vic to r Co . Vic tro la n eedle s
,
,

w hic h h ave b e en w i d ely ad verti se d b y th e p ic tu re o f a d o g list enin g to a vic tro la,

“ ”
u n d ern eath w hi c h is n o w th e f amiliar legen d Hi s m aste r are ac tu ally so ld
’
s vo ic e ,

in I raq to day un der th e n am e Ab u -

el- k e lb n ee dle s ! (i . e . M aster o f —
th e d o g n eedles )
- -
.

H o m mel s ’
n am e o f
4
Of c o u rse c o nt en tio n t hat I shk h ara w as d erive d f ro m th e th e
c en tral Asiatic go dde ss E shkh anna, w ho se n ame app ears in Cili i c a, may als o b e tru e .

5
T h e ref eren c es to the se h ave alre ady b een given in n 9 .

6
R I S A, pp 15 , 17 , 2 1 . .

7
I bid , p p 27 9 an d 283
. . .

8
I bid .
,
15 , 17 , 19 , an d 21 .

11
I bid 17 Th e p h rase is th e re tran slat e d th e great ’
‘
.
, p . . en c lo su re .

1°
RI S A, p 19 . .

11
I bid , pp 61, 63 , 65
. . .

12
II R , 60 , l4 a .

13
RI S A,pp 5 9 . an d 61 .
25 8 S E M ITIC AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

te m ple s w as c alle d
‘
T he ho u se o f the d ate -
we ll (o r A
s pe cial ca n a l le d to he r c i ty in w hic h she w as parti c u larly
i n te re s ted .
8
T hat a fi s h go dd e s s
-
s ho u ld b e i n te re s te d in c an al s ,

w as , o f c o u rse , m o st n atu ral . Ni n a w as , also ,

the go dd e s s o f o ra

c le s .
‘
T he te m ple in w h ic h s he w as b e lie ve d to gi ve he r o rac e sl
m o s t fre q u e n tly w as n am e d Si rara or E sirara ; °
he n c e o ne o f he r
favo ri te ti tle s i l ad y o f Sirara w as Cl o sely co n
o rac le -
pr e s te s s , .
°

n e c te d wi th t hi s c harac te ri s ti c o f he r w as the b eli e f that s he w as e s

p e c ially wi se an d c o u ld gi v e u n d e rs ta n di ng to h e r f ai th f u l d e vo te e s ,

o r illu m i n ate the i r h e arts R u lers o f Lagash re gul arly c lai m e d to

7
.

have d e ri ve d the i r wi sdo m f ro m he r an d G u de a tak e s hi s d re am to ,

he r fir st o f all fo r an in terpre tatio n 8 D o u b tl e s s it w as in p art he r

, ,
.

wi sdo m th at le d he r d e vo tee s to c all her the c hil d o f E rid u i e ‘

,
. .
,

tho u gh it m ay have b ee n in p art b e cau se she w as a w ate r

d e i ty as E nki w as a l an d dei ty As the c e n tu ri e s p assed an d the .

in dep e nd en t se ttl emen ts w hi c h c o m po se d L agash w e re fu se d i nto

o n e c i ty it w as fo rgo tte n that S h e w as an y less a S u m e ri an go dd e ss
,

th an Ni n k hur sag B au an d Gatu m d u g tho u gh th e peculi ar fu n c , , ,

tio n s gi ven to he r by her o ri gin am o n g the A si ati c p eo ple s c l u ng to

h er u n til the c i ty di sapp e are d fro m h i sto ry .

T he tex ts fro m L agash c o nne c t w i th Ni n a a go dde ss Ninm ar ,

c allin g h e r the fi rs t b o rn c hi ld o f N in a ° N in m ar w as wo rshi ppe d

1 - -
.

as e arly as the rei gn o f Ur Ni n a 11 w ho b uil t her te m pl e an d he r -

, ,

wo rship can b e trace d do wn to th e reign o f S hu l gi w ho re b uil t it

12
,
.

In all th e re fe re n ce s to he r in th e t able ts f ro m L agash h er n am e is

AS ki is the d e te rm in ati ve fo r lan d o r plaoe
’ ‘ ’
wri tten N in M ar k i -
.
‘
,

it fo l lo w s th at M ar w as th e n am e o f a plac e In the tim e o f S argo n .

o f A gade a c o n si d e rab le te rri to ry to th e so u th o f L agash w as call e d

p 67
1
I bid .
, . .

I bid p 73
2
. .
, .

pp 7 7 , 7 9
3
I bid .
, . an d 85 .

I bid .
, p 20 7 . .

I‘
I bid .
, p 20 8 . .

p p 23 , 4 1, 4 5 , 5 7 ,
6
I bid .
, .

7
I bid .
, p 20 5 . .

p 20 7
°
I bid .
, . .

9
I b id .
, pp 189 an d 265
. .

1°
I b id .
, pp 17 an d 21
. .

11 I bid .
, p 27 7 . .

12
I b id .
, p 27 7
. .
 BA B YL ONIAN REL I GIOU S OR I GINS 25 9

E Nin —
M ar Nin m ar,
’
-
or
‘
Tem ple
S argo n say s o f hi m self
of fo r ,

T h e temple o f Nin m ar he su bj u gate d it s w all h e d e stro ye d an d

“
, ,

all its co u Nin M ar

”1
n try f ro m L agash u n to th e se a h e su bj u gate d .
-

Lad y o f M ar is simply an epithet T he o riginal n am e o f the go dde ss

‘ ’
.
,

m
w as so e thin g e se l T e kin shi p of N
h i e te d b y Gu d e a an d Ur
2
n a ass r .

Nin gi s su gge st th at Nin —

r u
3
,
m ar m ay b e Nin a u n der an o th e r n am e .

T he go dde ss Nin m ar w as ho we ve r kn o w n to th e prie sts o f S u rippak , ,

at an e arlie r tim e an d the re l atio n sh i p asserted b y th e ru le r s o f

4
,

Lagash m ay o nl y signif y th at in th eir tim e M ar w as a su bu rb o f

Lagash whi ch adj o in e d the b o ro u gh o f Nin a o n the so u th .

NM ar w as lik e Nina a so u rce o f o racle s as she is calle d the

, , ,
‘

co u n se llo r S h e w as regarde d as a grac io u s de ity w ho c o uld pro

5 ’ °
.

lo n g life an d w as ac c o rdingly o n e of th e go d de sse s o f fertility

7
H er .

te m ple f o rm e d o n e o f the stro n gly fo rti fie d po si tio n s o f th e pre S ar -

go n i c tim e fo r h e re Lu enn a o n e o f he r pri e sts o verthre w the E la

, , ,

mi tes 5
Altho u gh S argo n de stro yed its walls the fam e o f the regio n
9
,

rem ain ed I n th e tim e o f H amm u rabi o n e o f the gate s o f E re c h w as

.

n am ed T h e gate o f Nin m ar (o r o f th e l an d o f Nin m ar) an d c o n

‘ 1° ’
,

trac ts were wri tte n an d atte ste d in th i s gate I t h as so m e tim e s .

b een inferre d th at there w as a tem pl e o f Nin m ar at E re ch an d that 11

sh e w as o n e o f the o ath dei tie s b u t the text m ay m e an n o m o re

‘ ’
,

h an that the e astern (o r so u th e astern ) gate o f E re c h w as n am e d fo r

t
th e regio n to ward whi c h it lo o ke d T he n am e o f Nin m ar lin gere d .

”
am o n g the p ri e sts to l ater time s an d in the syllab arie s she is f an c i ,

fu l ly e qu ate d wi th o th er de i tie s T w o p assage s in l ate h yn m s pu b .

lish ed by R ei sn e r i n d i c ate th at h er wo r shi p c o n tin u e d to th e S eleu

13

cid pe rio d b u t the so u rce s re ve al n o thin g fu rth e r ab o u t it

,
.

1 RI SA , p 10 3 f . .

2
I bid , p 189 . . .

3 I b id .
, p 265. .

4
D mel, S chu ltexte
ei au s F ara, no . 126 26, iv .

5
RI S A, p 17 . .

p p 17 3 , 17 5 , 26 5 , 269
5
I bid .
, . .

7
I bid .
, p 361 . .

5
Ihid , p 69. .

p 10 5
9
I bi d .
, . .

1° M eissn er, Altb abylo ni sche ri vatrec ht, n o 43 , line s 6 an d 26 P . .

11
S A B M e rc er , The Oath i n B ab ylo ni an and Assyri an Li teratu re ,
. . . P aris , 19 12, p 11 . .

12
Cf ,.XX I V CT4 8 ,
11—17 , an d XXV , 27 , K 2117 ,
.

15
G A R e isn er, S u meri sch b abylo ni sche Hymn en , B erlin , 189 6,
. .
-
no . 49, 9 and 5 42,
re v. 1 an d 2 .
260 S E M ITIC AND HAM ITIC O RI G I NS

T u rni ng no w to li rim , the re m ain ing bo ro u gh o f Lagash ,

we find
t h at its go d d e ss w as o rig na i l ly E n ni n I s h tar -
,
an d that it m u s t h ave
ac c o rding ly b e e n a S e mi ti c se t tle m e n t Fo r this go d de s s E n an n a
.

tu m I b u ilt a s to re ho u se in E ri m ,
1
and Ur B a u so m e c e n tu ri e s l ate r
-

b u i lt he r te m p le the re .
2

T he ch i e f d e ity o f E ri m w as Lu gal -
E ri m . H is n am e m e a ns Ki ng
‘

o f E ri m ’
an d is c le a rly an e pithe t . I f the se t tle m e n t w as S emi ti c
an d its go dde ss I sh tar , it fo llo w s that Lu gal E ri m w as b u t ano the r -

n am e fo r T am m u z E n ann atu m b u ilt a tem ple in E ri m fo r thi s

.

d id E n tem e n a , w ho c alle d hi m sel f the b ri llian t so n o f Lu gal

‘
go d ,
5 ‘
as

E ri m f L u galan d a o ffe re d
T he w i fe s ac rifi ce s to L u gal E ri m
’5 °
. o -
,

and L u galz aggis i d e stro y e d h is te m pl e

7
.

I n th e ti m e o f E n an n atu m I a go d de s s c alle d Am age sh tinan na

wo rshi ppe d at E ri m H e r n am e M o the r o f the he ave nly 8 ‘
w as .
,

T he dei ty w as a m o th er go dde ss w ho se
’
v in e is c le arly an e pi th e t
,
.
-
,

sph e re o f fe rtili ty i n c l u d ed m o re th an the vi n e fo r E n nan atu m ,

sac ifi c e d to h e r p e rfe c t c o w s an d p e rfe c t c alve s S h e is m e n

‘ 8 ’
r .

ti o n e d alo ng w i th Lu gal E ri m an d w as appare n tly his co n so rt -

, ,
.

By the ti m e o f Ur B au h er n am e ha d b een S ho rte n e d to Ge sh tin an n a

-
,

an d h er te m ple h ad b e en t ran sfe r red to Ci r su °

H e c all s h e r .

’
pri n ce ss o f the d ark co lo re d d ri nk App aren tly the go dde ss w as
‘
.

E nn i n I sh tar fi gu ring u n der ano the r n am e Thi s i nferen c e is co n

-
.

fir med by the fac t that a l ate hymn states that D u m uzi w as b ro the r ‘

o f Am am u ti n ann a
1°
whi ch is an o th er spel ling fo r Am age sh tin ann a
,
11
.

T u rni ng fro m L agash to its n o rth ern n eigh b o r U mm a it h as , ,

al re ad y b een n o te d th at U mm a is a S emi ti c n am e f o r th e C en tral

A siati c Gish kh u 12
I ts d eitie s b o re S emi tic n am e s an d the m ytho
.

lo gi c al statem en ts co n c ernin g th em im ply a co n n e c tio n rac i al o r ,

1
RI S A, p 49 . .

2
I bid , p 17 5 . . .

1
RI S A, p 49 . .

4
I b id , pp 5 1
. . and 67 .

5
I bid .
, p 55. .

p 71
5
I b id .
,
. .

7
I bid .
, p 91. .

5
I bid .
, p 49. .

9
I bid .
, p . 17 5 .

1°
R e is n e r, S u meri sch B ab ylo n isc he H ymne n , -
no . 3 7 , 20 .

Cf . Z imm e rn , Tammu z , 7 0 7 , n 2, an d B S GVV, 19 11, 117 .

12
Cf . ab o ve , Ch III , p 6 1
. . .
 B AB YL ONI AN REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 1

po litic al orE re ch The d eitie s o f U mm a we re S h ara

bo th , w i th .

an d hi s c o n so rt Nisab a ( so m etim e s gi ve n as Nid ab a ) S hara bo re

1
.

th e sam e relatio n to U mm a th at Nin gir su b o re to L agash Um m a .

2
n r i
w as his b elo ve d ci ty ; h e defin e d its b o u da e s : he w as its kin g
5 4
.

’
H e w as t e so n b e lo ve d o f E i
h d vi cegeren t o f An u
5 ‘ 5
nn n an

statem en t s wh i c h co nn e c t him wi th E re ch His n am e c o m e s f ro m .

’
a ro o t w hi ch in Arab ic m e an s ri se P erh ap s h e is an
7 ‘ ’ ‘
app ear ,
.

o ff sho o t o f th e S emi ti c S h am ash .

T he n am e o f hi s c o n so rt Nisab a w as written by a pi c tu re o f c u t
h ead s o f grain 5
S h e w as c le arly a grain go d de ss ; perh ap s o rigin
'

ally a go d de ss o f fe rtili ty w h o b y so m e epi th e t th at h ad co n n e c te d ,

h er parti c ularly wi th grain had in th e tho u gh t o f h er w o rshi ppers , , ,

iden tified he r wi th grain I n th e min d s o f so m e o f the en emies o f .

Um m a sh e w as regarded as m o re re spo n sible fo r th e ac tio n s o f th e

in h abitan ts o f th at to wn th an w as h er hu sb an d S hara T he c itize n
“

o f L agash w ho w ro te th e l am en t o ver L u galz aggisi s d e stru c t io n o f

’
,

th at ci ty as h e vi e we d th e ru in an d dese cratio n o f the sac re d place s o f

,

h is c ity wro te : M ay Nisab a h is go dde ss b e ar o n h er he ad h i s

“
, , ,
”9 “
m o rtal sin ! Lu galz aggi si c alle d h im self th e ex alte d m an o f
” 1° “ ” 11
Nisab a an d the so n b o rn e by Ni sab a S o m e c en tur ie s later
when Um a h ad b een in co rp o rate d withi n the territo ries o f L agash
,
.

Gu de a tell s u s th at in a v i sio n h e saw Nisab a with th e go dde ss Nin a ,

an d w h e n h e as k e d Nin at he n am e o f thi s go dd e ss h e re c e i ve d th e
, ,
“
fo llo win g reply : T h e m ai d who se statu re go in g fo rth f ro m e arth ,

h e ave n re c eive d who se han d b o re a ho ly s tylu s w ho bo re th e

, ,
” 12
tablet o f th e f avo rable star w h o rai se d a cry is m y S i ster Ni sab a , ,
.

I n thi s perio d Nisab a w as tho u gh t to u n de rstan d the m e anin g o f

n u m b ers an d Gu d e a c laim s to h ave b e en given u n de rstan di n g by
13
,

1
CT , XI , 49 , 15 .

2
RI S A, p 99 . .

5
I bid , pp 5 7
. . an d 61 .

I bi d .
, p 27 5 . .

5
I bid .
, p 283 . an d 29 5 .

6
I b id .
, p 29 5
. .

7
thara ( thau r u
n
) .

5
OB W, no . 3 24 . T he sign p ic tu red e ars o f grain se ve re d f ro m t he s talk .

9
RI S A, p 9 1 . .

1°
I bid , p 9 7
. . .

11
I bid .
, p 99 . .

12
I bid .
, p 209 . .

15
I b id .
, p 225
. .
26 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIGI NS
he r D e i m el i n fe rs fro m the fac t th at s he is calle d m ai d ( )
1 ‘ ’
. R I -E L

in the pas sage q u o te d ab o ve G u d e a that she w as a vi rgin f ro m

‘
,

go dd e ss
2
T h e te rm w.as ho w e ver f re q u e n tly app li e d t o I sh ta r a
, , ,

w ho w a s n o t a vi rgi n in o u r m o d e rn u n d e rs tan di n g o f th e w o rd .

‘
T h e t erm m e an s se rvant gi rl an d w as n o t an e pi the t o f c hasti ty
'
-
.

I t is p ro b abl e that in the ti m e o f G u de a she w as w o rshi ppe d at

L agash as an u n m arri e d go d d e s s .

O n c e the wo rship o f the grai n spi ri t had b e co m e p o pul ar it -

,

s p re ad an d w as p e rpe tu ate d G e a c o e c te d Ni saba wi t a sta

u d n n h r “ .
,

sho wi n g that she h ad in h is ti m e b e gu n to have ce l es ti al as so c i ati o n s ;

he also regarde d he r as c o n tro llin g wr i ti n g an d fate 3

H e r wo rshi p .
0

w as in w ay s th e d e tails o f w h ic h n o w e scap e u s pe rpe tu ate d to t he

, ,

l ate s t ti m e s I n the m y th o f E a an d Atark hasis she is spo k en o f as

.

the go dde ss by w ho se b re ast the fi e l d s d u ring the ni gh t are w hi te n e d ‘

.

I n the syll ab ari e s she is m e n tio n e d se veral ti m e s an d tw o o r three ,

N isab as appe ar to b e d i sti ngu i she d 5

D ei m el thi nk s th at so m e
5
.

o f the se m ay have h ad d i ffere n t o ri gin s b u t i t i s po ssibl e tha t t he ,

d ifle re n tiatio n aro se fro m the ap pli ca tio n o f di flere n t e pi the ts to

the sam e go d de ss 7 He r n am e app e ars o n b o u n dary sto n e s o f th e
.

tim e o f th e K assi te an d P ash e d y n astie s an d N ab o po las sar m en

5
,

n h r h h h
tio s e wi th N ab u as tho u g s e w e re t e co n so rt o f that go d 9
.

I n i n c an tatio n tex ts o f the S hu rpu se ri e s her n am e w as em plo ye d 10 -

,

an d it appe ars in S u m e rian h ym n s c o pi e d in the S e l eu c i d an d Par

thi an peri o d s 11
While it thu s app ears that th e wo r sh ip o f the grain
.

1
I bid , p 223 . .

2
P B ab ylo n i c u m, p 226
anthe o n . .

5
D
eli tz sc h , S u mer i sc he s Gloss ar , p 118 . .

5'
RI S A, p 209 . .

KB , V I , p 27 9 . .

5
CT XV 49 iii 47 d 5 7 ; f D h
, , , ,
an c . o rm e , Ch i o x de texte s reli gie u x , P 190 7 , p 13 7
aris , . .

5
Cf CT XX I V 9 3 1
. d 3 2; l
, , ,
an a so 23 , 15—20 b . S he seems in t his perio d to have
b e e n th e c o n so rt o f a go d Kh an i (cf . CT ,
XX I V ,
9 , 30 Khani w as an o b sc u re

d e ity o f w ho m little is k n o wn ; c f . D ei m e l, P anthe o n , n o . 139 2 .

7
0p . c it .
, p 227
. .

5
Cf H in k e , New B ou nd ary S to ne
. o f Neb uc had rez z ar If ro m Ni ppu r, Phil ad elphia,

190 7 , p 227 . .

5
Cf OB I , . no . 8 2, u, 14 , 15 , an d L an gd o n , Neu b ab ylo n isc hen K o ni gi n s chriflen ,
Le ipz ig , 19 12, p 6 2, li n e 16 . .

1°
See Z
imm ern , B ei trage der Ken tn iss der b ab ylon i sche n Reli gi o n , Le ipz ig , 190 1,
'

p 4 2, 19
. .

11
R e isn e r, S u meri sch b ab ylo n i sc he H ymne n , n o 9 , . re v . 24 an d n o 4 8 , 40 ; f o r trans
.

lati o n s , L an gd o n , S u me ria n and B ab ylo n i an s al ms , P P aris , 19 09 , p 84 , 24 an d p 156, 40

. . .
 B AB YL O N IAN REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 263

spirit f o u n d a place in an c e n t i B abylo ni a fro m p rehi sto ri c tim e o u

ward there is n o e viden c e that it held the
,
large place w hi c h F raze r
b elieved that it held in E u ro pe .

Tu rn in g n o w to no rthern B abylo n ia w e fin d at the c ity o f Ki sh a ,

g o d Z a m am a ( w h o se n a m e h a s in re c e n t y e ar s b e en e rro n eo u sly read

1 —
Zab ab a ) a n am e whi ch as D eim el po in te d o u t is n ei ther S u m 2
, ,

m e rian n o r S emi ti c I t n o w appear s th at he w as a go d o f the peo ple

.

fro m c en tral A sia w h o were at Ki sh b e fo re the c o mi n g o f eith er th e l

S emi te s o r th e S u m erian s Do cum en ts fro m B o gh az Ko i h ave .

re veale d th e f ac t th at h e w as th e go d o f at l east tw o c i tie s in th e

regio n d o min ate d by th e gr eat Hitti te e m pire d u r in g th e fo u r teen th

ce n tu r y B C
3
The se c ities were B llaya an d Arz iya
.
4
T he su b .

stratu m o f th e po pu latio n o f thi s regi o n w as like th at o f M e so po ,

t ami a an d Elam o f th e sam e gen eral A siati c sto c k an d the pre se r 5

, ,

vati o n o f the divin e n am e in th at regio n take n to ge th er wi th the ,

impo ssibility o f explain in g the n ame eith er fro m S u m erian o r S emi

tic i n d i c ate s th at Zam am a w as a go d o f th ese A siati c fo lk
,
At Ki sh .

Za m am a w a s re v e re n ce d by U tu g o n e of th e e arlie st kings kn o wn
5
,

to u s an d by Ash d u n ie rim a m o n arch w ho ru le d p erh ap s a th o u san d

, ,

Ash du n ie rim speak s o f Z am am a as m y lo rd m y

‘
years later 7
.
,

g ra c io u s ally a n d a s so c i at e s hi,m
’
wi t h th eg o dd e ss I sh ta r as th o u gh
the tw o fo rm e d a di vin e pair Warad—Sin o f Larsa w ho built a .
,

shr in e fo r Z am am a i n Ur c alls hi m h e ro e xalted so n o f E nl il the

‘
, , ,
’
di vine lio n w ho di re cts a wat c hf ul eye the h e lp er o f my weap o ns ,

1 Thi s re ad in g pro p o sed b y lay ( JAOS ,

w as fi
I I , 19 17 , pp 328 ,
rst C XXXV .

an d alth o u gh c ritic iz ed b y Lu c k enb ill in AJ S L , ,

5 7 11 , w as d efe nd ed b y lay XXXV C
in hi s E mpi re of the Amori tes , New H aven , 19 19 , 18 5 f T h e p resent w riter f o llo w ed .

Cl y i
a n w riting hi s RI S A, an d , altho u gh th e readin g is ad o pt e d b y F riedric h in his
S taats vertrage des
'

B atti —
R ei c hes in hethitischer S pr o che, Leipz ig, 19 3 0 ( see , e g , pp 112, . . .

reexa min atio n o f th e su b e c t j di sc lo ses n o ade q u ate b asis f o r th e reading either in

B ab ylo ni an or H itt ite . T ru e , Thu reau -

Dan gin ad o pt s t h e readin g , L e syllab ai re

ac c adi en , P ari s, 19 26, p o n t h e b asis o f a p u b lic ati o n o f Zim o lo n g w hi c h i s n o t ac

.

c essib le to m e , b u t in hi s L es ho mo pho n es su meri en s , aris , 19 29 , h e app ears t o h ave P

ab an d o n e d the re adin g , (cf .
p 3
. It seem s saf e r , ac c o rdingly , to re vert to t h e o ld er

readi n g Zamama .

2
Pantheo n B abylo n i cu m, no . 13 10 .

5
Cf . e .
g .
, Keilschrif ttexte au s B o ghaz ko i , V ,
L e ipz ig, 19 21, no 3 l 52 .

4
Cf F riedric h ,
. o . c it
pp 112, 113
p .
, . .

5
S ee S p eiser, M esopo tami an Ori gi n s , Phil ade lphia, 193 0 .

5
RI S A, p 3 . .

p 33 7
7
I bid .
, . .
264 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
‘
an d also l o rd S imilarly Ham m u rabi w ho
o f f avo rab le o mens .
’1
,

re b u i lt th e te m p le E m e te u rs ag an d zi gg u rat o f Z am am a an d I sh tar
2
,

s pe ak s o f Zam am a in the p ro lo g u e o f his c o de o f l aw s as the fo u n de r

‘

“
o f Ki sh I n the e pi lo gue he say s th at Z am am a an d I sh tar e n
.

tru s te d him wi th w e apo ns ‘

A m o ng the c u rse s i nvo k e d up o n an y .

o n e w ho s ho ul d d e fac e h is c o d e o f l aw s t h e sam e kin g w ro te

“
M ay , ,

Zam am a the great w ar ri o r the fi rstbo rn so n o f Ek ur w ho m arc he s

, , ,
”5
at my ri gh t h an d s h atte r h is w e ap o n s in the d ay o f b attle ,
.

Zam am a w as at thi s pe rio d the re fo re re garde d as a go d o f b attle

, ,
.

S e ve ral c e n tu ri e s l ater the l ast k ing b u t o ne o f the Kassi te dy nasty

bo re the n am e Zam am a shu m iddin °
C e n tu ri e s later s till Ne - -
.
,

b u ch adre z z ar I I re b ui lt the tem ple E m e te u rsag an d re n ew ed in it

the w o rshi p o f Zam am a 7
He to o c o u ple s the go d wi th I shtar an d .
, ,

re gar d s h im as an i n vi n cib le go d o f w ar
5
Hi s n ame app ears al so .

in i n c an tati o n tex ts o f the l ate A ssyri an p e i o d

r
°
T h e s p e c ul atio n s .

o f th eo lo gi an s as re pre se n te d in the syl lab ari es i de n tifie d h im wi th

o th e r go d s On e sch o o l w h i c h w as de vo te d to Nin u rta e q u ate d

.
-

him wi th th at go d alo n g wi th thi rty thre e o the r go ds 10

w hi le an -
,

o th e r s ch o o l w hi c h w as d e vo te d to M ard u k ex plain ed him as it d id ,

th e o the r p ri n ci p al go d s as a p h ase o f the go d M ard u k 11

,
.

I n t he chro n i c le s o f the kin gs o f th e S argo n i de d yn asty o f Ki sh

an d A gad e his n am e do es n o t o cc u r b u t in ste ad w e h ave a go d Am a
12
,

( po ssibly to b e re ad Aga) What the rel atio n o f Am a is to Zam am a .

is n o t c le ar tho u gh th e fun c tio n s o f the tw o are S imi lar

,
S argo n .

regard e d h im as a go d o f b attl e ; M an ish tu su c l aim e d to de ri ve

15

1
I bid .
, p 38 1
. .

2
Ci M eiss n er, Altb ab ylon isc he
. Pi r vatr echt, Leipz ig, 1893 , no . 4 6, 3 5 cf . also

Po eb el, B E , VI , 2, p 6 7 . .

5
Cf c o l 1, 5 5 f
. . .

Co l x1, 23 f . .

5
Co l . xliii , 8 1 ff .

5
S ee L . W
King , H isto ry of B abylo n , Lo n do n , 19 15 , p 244 f
. . .

7
Cf L an gd o n , Neu b ab ylo ni sc hen K onigs i nschrif ten , Le ipz ig, 19 12, pp 104, 17 6
'

. . .

5
I bid .
, pp 184 . an d 18 7 .

5
Cf . e .
g .
,
Zimm e rn , B eitrage z u r Kentni ss der B abylo n i sc he n Religio n , Le ipz ig, 19 01,
pp 22, 23
. .

1°
Cf . CT ,
XXV ,
12, 25 .

11
Cf . CT ,
XXI V ,
5 0, no . 4 7 40 6 .

12
Cf RI S A, pp 110 , 124 , 126, 13 0, 13 6, 13 8
. . .

15
I bid , pp 111 an d 125
. . .
 BAB YL ONI AN REL IG IOU S ORIGI NS 265

fro m hi m hi s au tho r i ty to go ve m , 1
as d id N aram -
S in .
2
Like hi s
p re d e c e s so r R im u sh , 3
M anishtu su
with S ham ash asso c iate s him ,

—
the su n go d 4
I n vie w o f the f ac t that th e n am e s o f b o th de itie s
.

appe ar o n the ste le o f M ani shtu su it wo u ld se em do u b tfu l if th e y

5

are to b e i d en tified I t is po ssibl e ho we ver th at Am a w as o rigin ally

.
, ,

an e pi the t o f Z am am a w hi c h by th e tim e o f M an ish tu su w as b e , ,

g in n in g t o b e t h o u gh t o f a s a s e p ar at e d e i ty .

Tu rn ing again to deitie s o f a n o n lo c al c h arac te r w e fi n d it in stru c -

,

tive to stu dy an o th er th at w as o rigi n ally a c h tho n i c swi n e de i ty -

,

— r —
Nin sh akh o Nin s u b u r whose S e ti c
h 5
m i n a m e w s
a Il i ab at
r
7
T he
,
.

se c o n d ele m e n t in h e r n am e w as c le arly an i d e o graph whi c h pic

tu re d the h e ad o f a ho g o r a vari e ty o f swi ne an d th e n am e m ean t

5
, .

T he wo r shi p o f thi s d eity m u st b e ve ry o ld b u t

’
lady o f swin e
‘
,
.

w e c an n o t trac e th e c u lt in the li te ratu re u n til the re ign s o f Lu ga

land a an d Uruk agin a At thi s perio d at l east o n e wo m an b o re the .

—
n am e Nin Su bu r a —
m am u Nin shu bu r is m y m o th er - 9
Uruk agin a
,
‘
.
’

appeal e d to h er to o fi er p rayers to Ni n gi r su f o r the pro l o n gati o n o f

hi s life sho wi n g th at sh e w as alre ady re gard ed as an i n te rc e sso r

1°
,
.

wi th o th er go d s fo r m en Gu dea bu ilt a te mple f o r he r and c alled .

—

h er the gre at m esse n ge r Of An u B y hi s tim e he r c htho n i c c h ar

‘ 11 ’
.

a c te r w as b e i n g m e rge d i n to a ce le stial o n e Ri m S in m ade m u c h

“

-
. .

o f th e w o r shi p o f thi s d e ity B y his tim e Nin shu b u r w as a m asc u .

line deity H e c alle d hi m k in g lo rd an d e xalted p rin c e an d stil l

.
12 15 14
, , ,

regard ed him as an i n te rce sso r f o r m e n w ith o th e r go d s an d as a

15
,

1
I bid .
, p . 13 1 .

p 13 9
2
I b id .
, . .

p 127
3
I bid . . .

p 13 7
4
I bi d .
, . .

5
Cf Delegati o n
. en P erse, II, P a ris 19 00
, ,
F ac e A, viii , 20 ; ix , 5 an d F ac e C ,
xiii ,

5
Cf T h u re au
.
-
D an gin , Lettres et c o ntr ac tes
’
de l epo qu e de la premi ere dyn asti e
lo n ienn e, p 6 5 f . .

5
Cf OB W, 52
'

. no . .

9
Cf Nik . . no Z, vii , 13 ; T A, S no . 15 , viii , 11; an d T S A, 17 , vn , 12 .

1°
R I S A, p 7 5 . .

11
I bid , p 261 . . .

12
I bi d pp 327 . an d 3 29 .

15
I bid , p 3 25
. . .

14
I b id .

15
I bid , p 3 85
. . .
266 S E M ITIC AN D HAM ITI C O RI G I NS

go d
‘
w ho m ak e s o rac e s l "
j u st ; al so i me sse nge r o r mi ni ste r a c h ef

of the g re at go d s 2 . T his c harac te r o f Ni n s h u b u r w as m ain tai n e d

in t he l ate r tradi ti o ns . T he syl lab ari e s o f the A s sy ri an pe ri o d s ti ll

c all he r the me s se nge r o f An u an d A n tu
5
AS a me s se n ge r thi s .

d e i ty fi gu re s in litu rgi e s an d hym n s .

‘

T he d e i ty o f the S u m e ri an c i ty o f K u tb a ( b ib li c al Cu tha) be c ame

ve ry p ro mi ne n t in the late r re li gio n Whil e the o ri gin o f thi s d ei ty .

an d his c o n so rt is f ai rly c l e a r it wi ll b e i m p o s sib le to sk e tch the ,

begi nn ings and the hi s to ry o f t he c u lt u nti l the si te o f K u tb a h as

b ee n ex c avated T he n am e o f the d ei ty w hi c h fi rs t appears in th e
.

li st o f d ei ti e s i nvo k e d by rul e rs o f S u sa is u s u ally w ri tten Né u n u gal - -

,

T he li o n o f the g re at dwe llin g — the gre at dwe lli ng b ei ng the e arth

‘ ’ ’
‘
.

Hi s c o n so rt w as E re S h k i gal L ad y o f the gre at e arth an d in

‘ ’
- -
, ,

l ate r my t ho l o gy the y b e c ame d ei tie s o f the u nde rw o rl d A m y th .

c o n ce rn i ng the m w as fo u n d at E l A m arn a in E gy p t I t m ay b e
5 -
.
,

as D ei m e l s u gges ts that N é u n u gal w as p ro n o u n c ed Ne ri gal fo r ,

- - - -
,

the H e b re w s k n e w the go d o f K u tb a as N e rgal an d in G ree k the ,

n am e o f the fo u rth ki n g o f the Neo B abylo n i an d yn asty w as s pe l le d -

v t yMo apo s sho win g that it w as at that ti m e so p ro no u n c e d in

' 5
,

B abyl o n H e w as also c alled M es lam ta e H e w ho c o m es fo rth

.
7 - - -
,
‘

f ro m M e s lam E m eS lam b ein g the n am e o f hi s te mple in Ku tb a

’ 5
- - -
.
,

M es lam me an s p ri n c e o f the pl o u gh o r o f f rui tage 9— an app ro

-
,
‘ ’ ‘ ’

p ri ate e p i t h e t o f an e arth go d I f a s w e h a v e s u p p o se d K u t b a w as -
.
, ,

a S u m e ri an se ttl em e n t
1°
b o th Neun u gal an d E re shk i gal w ere de ,

velo ped f ro m the sam e m o the r go dd es s w hi c h t he S um e ri an s ge n -

,

e rally c al le d N in k h u rs ag an d h e r c hi l d ,
.

As n o te d alre ady Puz u r S h u shi n ak o f S u sa in c lu ded Ne rgal in ,

-

hi s li st o f ave n gi ng dei tie s an d Ari se n ki n g o f Urk ish an d N aw ar

11
, , ,

I bid p 3 25
1
. .
,

2
I bid .

5
CT ,
XXI V ,
40 , 5 1 fl
'

Cf . e .
g .
,
L angd o n , B ab ylon ian Li tu rgies , P aris , re v .

J K B , VI , p p 7 4—
’
5
Cf . e n se n s t ranslatio n in 79 . .

5
Cf th e . C an o n o f Pt o le my .

7
RI S A, p 27 7 . .

5
I b id .

5
Cf OB W, . no . 3 88 .

1°
S ee Ch I I I , p 6 7
ab o ve , . . .

11
RI S A, p 15 7 . .
 B ABY L ONIAN REL IGIOU S ORIG INS 26 7

bui l t a te mple to hi m
kin g S hu lgi o f 1
(pro b ably E m e slam) as , did
Ur 2
. Warad S in an d -
hi m as a terrible R im —S in b o th regarde d
w a io
rr r t o e n e m i e s b u t n h
o e w o p ro te c te d hi s o w n de vo tee s 3
T he ,
.

wo rshi p o f Ne rgal spre ad wi dely o ver B abylo n ia an d he to o k m any

fo rm s H e w as wo rshi ppe d in Nipp u r E re c h B abylo n an d o th e r
.
, , ,

place s 4
H e w as as already n o te d go d o f vege tatio n w ar an d th e
.
, , , ,

u n derwo rl d As a go d o f vege tati o n an d li fe h e b e c am e al so go d

.
,

o f fl o c k s an d h e rd s ; as go d o f the u n de rwo rld h e b e c am e lo rd o f

5
,

dem o n s an d b ec au se si c kn e ss w as b eli e ve d to b e c au se d b y de m o n s
5
, ,

o f pe stilen ce an d sic kn es s 7
Ne rgal w as iden tified with the star .

ZAL B A A N U
T - 5
whi c h Jen sen o n ce iden tifie d with M e cu y Ku gler
- -
r ,
r 9
,

late i den tifie d him with S atu rn b u t he fin ally de c i de d o n M ars

r
1° 11
,
.

Nergal an d S in we re also i den tifie d w ith the star MAS — TAB B A— BA -

GAL GAL LA - 12
whi ch is the great tw i n s C asto r an d P o llu x
-
,
15
H is .

festival w as c eleb rate d f ro m th e 14th to the 28 th o f th e m o n th Ki s

limu 14
at the tim e o f th e win te r so l sti ce) h en ce it h as so m e ,

time s b een i n fe rre d th at Ne rgal w as i de n tified wi th th e win te r su n 15

.

I t w as fo rm e rly tho u ght that he w as also a p e rso n ifi c atio n o f the

su mm er su n an d th e n o o n d ay su n b u t that se e m s to l ac k c o n fi rm a
tio n 17
H is wo r shi p w as po pul ar b o th in A ssy ri a an d B abylo n i a as
.

lo n g as the c i vi lizatio n e n du re d H e w as a m e m ber o f the pan the o n .

o f A shu rb an ipal an d w as a go d o f o rac le s to N e bu c h ad re zz ar I I

15 19
.
,

I b id p 17 1
1
'

. . .
,
2
I bid .
, pp 27 7 . and 27 9 .

pp 3 25 , 327 , an d 3 8 7
3
I bid .
, . .

Cf . J astro w , R eligi o n B abylo ni ens u nd Assyrien s , I I , B erli n , 19 12, p . 10 86, an d

B arto n , RI S A, p 335 . .

5
Cf . J
astro w , o p c i t , I , 3 17 . . .

5
Ib id .
, pp 3 6 1, 4 6 7 , 469 , 4 7 2,
. an d 480 .

7
I . e., he w as e q u at e d w ith th e go d Gir -
ra ; c f . Knu dtz o n , E l Amarn a,
-
no . 35, 8 .

Cf L Kin g , B abylo ni an M agi c,

. . W . no . 46 , 9 , an d K osmolo gi e der B ab ylo ni er,
S trassb u rg, 1890 , 4 8 1 .

5
I bid , p 119 . . .

1°
S tern ku nde u nd S ternd ienst i n B ab el, I , M u n ster, 190 7 , 220 f .

I bid pp 280 and

11
.
, . 282 .

12
VR 4 6, 5 an d CT ,
XXXIII ,
1, 5 .

15
Ku gler, o p . ci t .
, pp 23 9 . an d 27 4 .

15
I V R , 32, 13b an d 33 , 33b .

15
D eim el, P an theo n B ab ylo ni cu m, no . 2332 .

15
J astro w , o p ci t . . I , 65 f .
,
an d pass i m .

17
Cf . D ei m el, lo c . c i t.
15
Cf . VR ,
1, 17 an d passi m in the R assam yli n d er C .

15
Cf th e . ref ere nces in L angd o n , Neu b abylo n i sc hen K on i gsi nsc hrif ten , p 30 5 . .
268 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

T he re are t hre e d e i tie s w ho

we re w o rs hi ppe d at L agash and in
so u the rn B abyl o n i a and e ach o f w ho m p laye d so me p art in t he my ,

tho lo g y o f l ate r ti me s t hat w e re in the j ud g me n t o f the p re sen t , ,

w ri te r vege tati o n o r ag ri c ul tu ral d ei ti e s T he se w e re Ninshar

,
.
,

Nin s u n and Nin I B ( no w u s u ally re ad Nin u rta)

,
- -
.

Ninshar m e an s L ady o f t he gard e n S he is a ve ry an ci e n t d e i ty

‘
.
’
,

b ei ng fo u nd al re ady in t he tex ts f ro m F ara ‘

I f the n ame is s ign ifi .

c an t o f h e r o ri gi n she w as at t he fi rst t he g u ardi an spi ri t o f the, , ,

p al m o rc ha rd I n th e ro y al i n sc ri p ti o n s
. f ro m L a gas h s h e is k n o wn
L —
as t e b e are r o f the d agge r o f Ning rsu i a n e pi the t w hi c h i m pli es
’
h
‘

a w arlik e c harac te r As an i m po rtan t f u n c ti o n in the rai si ng o f .

d ate s w as to p ro te c t the g ro wi n g c ro p f ro m the d e pre d atio n s o f

ro bb e rs t he t ran si ti o n in tho u gh t f ro m he r agri c u l tu ral f u n c tio n s
,

to h e r w arlike d u ti e s w as e asy Al tho u gh the n ame o f t hi s go dd e ss .

do e s no t o c c u r o f te n in the hi s to ri c al li te ratu re an d in b u t fe w
5

p ro pe r n am e s he r m e m o ry su rvi ved in l ate r my tho lo gy I n thi s she

‘
,
.

w as n o t c l as se d wi th the f amily o f N in girsu as o n e w o u l d e xpe c t , ,

b u t at ti me s w i th t hat o f An u an d An tu m an d at ti m e s wi th the
5

family o f E a 5
S he is o n c e i de n tified wi th a star
.
7
I n a l ate hy mn .
,

in w hi c h she is regard e d as a d e i ty o f N ippu r he r warlik e f u n c ti o n ,

I t wo ul d
’
l
su vi ve s an d she is c al e d b eare r o f the d agge r o f Ek u t
5 ‘
r .

appear the re fo re that as a gu ardi an d e i ty o f p al m o rc hard s sh e

, , ,

mu st h ave b ee n m o re wi d ely w o rshi pped than the ex tan t re fe re n c e s

in o u r lite ratu re w o u ld at fi rst le ad u s to su ppo se .

Ni n su n w as apparen tly as he r n am e i mplie s o ri gin ally the spi ri t , ,

o f th e i rri gati n g m achi n e h — t an in s tr um e n t o f th e gre ate s t i m po r

t an ce to the dwe ll e rs o f B abylo n i a On pro p e r i rri gatio n d u rin g t he .

1
D e im el, S chu ltexte au s F ar a, no . 126 7 44 .

2
R I S A, pp 7 5 , 7 7 , 8 6 . .

5
B esid e th e thr ee o c u rren c e s in in sc ript io ns o f Uru k agin a j us t c ite d , th e re is k n o w n
to me b u t ment io n b y the ki n gs b ef o re H amm u rab i— t h at is b y S hu lgi, w ho
o n e o the r

re b u il t h er te m ple ; see R I S A p 3 6 7 . .

Cf Nik o ls k y,
. o c u me nts , n o D
13 , 3 ; Allo tte d e la F u y e, , 9
1, 1, an d Le grain , . DP
R o is d Ur, p 159 S h e ap pears sim il arly in t w o o r th re e n am es in the Kassite pe rio d ;
’
. .

cf . Cl y a ,
B E , XI V , I n d ex .

5
Cf . CT ,
XXI V ,
10 . 16 —
20 .

5
I b id .
,
29 , 10 2—104 an d
7
CT ,
XXXI I I ,
1 23 if
. .

5
R eis n e r, H ymne n , p 13 7 43 f . . .

5
S ee OB W, no 3 8 1 . .
 B ABYL O NI AN RELI GIOU S ORIGI NS 269

in te rvals b e tween the o verflo w o f the rive rs the life o f the po pu l atio n
d epe n d e d No wo n de r th at she is c alle d b y Gu dea the ri gh teo u s
.
‘

m o ther o f all see d S in gashid o f E ec h c alle d hi m self h e r so n

1 ’ 2
r . .

At L agash he r te m ple sto o d in Uru az agga 3

B e tween the ti me o f .

Gu de a an d th e ti m e o f S hu lgi she like a n u m b er o f B ab y lo n i an ,

de i tie s h ad u n de rgo n e a tran sfo rm atio n f ro m a go d de s s to a go d

, ,

f o r S hu lgi c alle d thi s de i ty the gre at di vi n e kin g my kin g Lib it

4 ‘ ’
.
,

I sh tar o i I sin ega ded hi m self as e i t

r r h r f a hf u l hi h
g p i t r es
5
Altho u gh .

at pre se n t w e c an trac e the w o r ship o f t hi s go d d e ss in b u t th ree

c itie s h e r c u lt mu st h ave b e en o ld an d i mpo rtan t f o r sh e is s ai d in

, ,

the Gilgam e sh epi c to h ave b ee n th e m o th e ro f Gilgam esh AS an

5
.

elem en t in p e r so nal n am e s thi s go d d e ss appe ars in th e pe ri o d o f th e

kin gs o f Ur bo th at L agash an d at D rehem 7

I t appe ars fro m the .

p au c ity o f r e f e r e n ce s to h e r in th e l at e r m y t h o l o g y th at sh e did n o t
kin dl e the im agin atio n o f the l ate r gen eratio n s o f B abylo n i an s as
did Nin sh ar B u t o n e su c h ref eren c e is kn o wn to m e an d that i s
.
,

in a l ate hy m n 5
.

T h e c ase o f Nin — I B (Nin u rta o r Nin — u rash ) is n o t so simpl e He-

.

figu re s l argely in th e later m ytho lo gy b ein g regarde d at tim es as a ,

so n o f E nlil at t i m e s as a so n o f E a an d at o th ers as a so n o f A shu r

, ,
.

S cho l ar s have e qu ated him with Ningirsu Nin gishz id a Nin shak h , ,

(Nin shu bu r) D u npae Lu galb an da Zamam a M ardu k an d A shu r

, , , , ,
.

H e is th e c o n so rt o f B au an d Gu la H e h as b ee n i den tified wi th the .

su n wi th S atu rn an d wi th Ve n u s
,
T h e d e i ty fi r st e m erge s in th e
,
.

te xts an d li te ratu re kn o wn to m e in th e pe rio d o f th e thi rd d yn asty

o f Ur Tw o o r th ree p e o ple o f do u b tful pro ven an c e are c alled Ur
.

d
Nin — u rta S u d Nin u rta ,
9
etc I n th e li sts o f o ffe ri n gs fro m D re
- -
,
.

h em thi s d e i ty app e ar s as a go dde ss an d as a c o n so rt o f Nu sku 1°

In .

1
RI S A, p 255 . .

2
I bi d , p 33 3 . . .

p 25 9
5
I bid .
, . .

4
RI S A, p 3 67 . .

5
I bi d .
, pp 3 0 7
. an d 3 73 .

5
KB , VI , an d 438 .

7
Cf H u b er, Di e Pers o n enn amen i n den Keilschrif turk u nden
. aus der Z ei t der K o ni ga
won
-
Ur Nam 17 8 , BE , I I I , 5 8 12 ; d e Gen o uiilac , Tab lettes de Drehem, 5 4 8 2 an d
u nd .

5 501, an d L angd o n , Tablets f ro m Drehem, 49 .

gd o n , S u meri an and B ab ylo ni an Ps alms , 15 4 1

5 L an
. .

5
Cf H u b er, o p ci t , p 17 8
. . . . .

Cf Legrain , L e temps des ro i s d Ur, n o s 25 5 , 25 6 , 25 9 , 29 3 , 29 5 an d 296 ; also

1° ’
. .
27 0 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
hi s to ri c al i ns c rip ti o ns o f the pe ri o d b e fo re H am m u rabi thi s dei ty
is m e n ti o ne d o nly by ki ngs o f the d y n as ty o f I si n I sh m i D agan 1
,
-

a n d D am iq ilis h u S he w as the g ua rd i an s pi ri t o f the fi rs t an d the

2 -
.
,

s ec o n d c l ai m e d to b e he r favo ri te .

T he o pi n io n that I e xp re sse d so me y e ars ago that I E o ri gi n ally

5

re p re s e n te d a g ran ary and t ha t N in 1B w as o ri gi nally t he spi ri t o f -

the g ran ary s ti ll se e m s to b e the m o s t p ro b ab le o ri gi n o f thi s d ei ty

, .

A e ly as t e F ara table ts the e as at S u rippak a go d I H

s a r h r w ‘
In .

th e ti m e o f H amm u rabi t hi s d ei ty w as go d o f D ilb at an d H am ,

m u rab i fill e d he r g ran ari e s 5 I R th u s se e m s to have b ee n t he tu te .

lary d e i ty o f D ilb at w hi le i t s e e m s p ro b ab le f ro m the w ay in w hi c h

,

D ami q ilish u e q u ate s N in u rta wi th N in in sian a the tu tel ary go d

- - -
,

d ess o f I si n that N in u rta w as the o ri ginal go dd e ss o f t hat c i ty and

,
-
,

that N in ins ian a w as at I si n a l o c al e pi the t o f he r

- 5
I f su ch w as he r .

o ri gi n sh e w as at fi rs t c alle d by t he n am e o f th e g ran ary i tsel f ( a c u s

to m w hi c h su rvi ved at D ilb at) an d th en T he l ad y o f the gran ary — a

‘ ’
,

n o m e n c l atu re fo ll o w ed in m o s t pl ace s T he tw o su rvi ve d in l ate r .

m y tho l o gy sid e by si d e I t o nly re m ai n s to add that lik e so m an y .

,

o the r S u m e ri an d ei ti e s the go dd es s w as in tim e tran sfo rm e d in to a ,

go d I t se em s u nnecessary to re c api tu l ate he re the vari ed pha se s

.

thr o u gh w hi c h N in u rta passe d T he m ate ri al s have b een c o ll e c te d

-
.

by Jastro w an d D eim e l and the argum ents in favo r o f the vie w s

7 5

e xp re sse d h e re w e re p re se n te d by m e se ve ral y e ars ago in an ar ti c le

e n ti tl ed T he P ro b le m o f the O ri gin an d E arly Hi sto ry o f the D e i ty

Nin ib (Nin u rta Nin
- -
,

T he d ei ty asso ci ate d wi th Nin u rta as he r c o n so rt in the t able ts -

f ro m D re hem is t he fi re go d N u sk u H is n am e is u su ally w ri tte n -

.

Lan gd o n , Tab lets f rom the Arc hives f Drehe m

o ,
no . 17 , an d d e Ge no u illac , T b l tt
a e es dc
Drehe m, no s . 5 50 1 an d 5 5 13 .

1
RI S A, p 3 0 5 . .

2
I bid , p 3 9 1
. . .

5
J AOS , XL VI ,
23 1—236 .

D eim el, Wi rlschaf tslexle au s F ara, no . 6, rs . IV , 8 .

5
S ee hi s Laws , III , 16—
24 .

Cf RI S A, p 3 9 1
5
. F o r o t h er o c c u rre nc e s o f t h e n am e o f Nin in sian a , see RI S A,
. .
-

pp 3 09 , 3 13 , 321, 3 23 , 385 , 3 8 7 an d 389

. .

7
S ee t h e n um e ro u s re fe re n c e s in ast ro w , R eligi o n B ab ylo ni ens i l ud Assyr iens , H , J
p 10 88 3
. .

5
S ee D ei m e l, P anthe o n B ab ylo n ic u m, no . 149 5 f o r I b , an d n o . 25 83 f o r Nin ib -
.

9
JAOS XLVI ,
23 1 23 6
-
.
 B AB YL O NI AN REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 27 1

id eo gram PA—K U , ld m e an T he shi n ing we apo n whi c h ‘

by the co u

so m e tim e s it i s w ri tte n SE S KAK— b ro the r o f the stic k 2

T he go d ,
‘
.
’

is e vide n tly th e spiri t o f fi re I t is po s sibl e fir st to trace hi s wo rshi p .

in th e tim e o f th e third dyn asty o f Ur wh en h e se em s to have b een ,

p o p u l ar a t D re h e m w h e re h e w a s w o r shi ppe d wi th hi s co n so rt
, ,

Nin —u rta Thi s p ai r we re ho no re d alo n g wi th E nl il an d Ninlil Utu

.
,

( Sham ash ) an d I shtar I n l ate r c en tu rie s thi s go d w as widely ho n

3
.

o re d H e w as c e le b rate d in h ymn o lo gy an d as w as to b e e x
.
4
, ,

pe c te d o f ten i n vo ke d in th e i n can tatio n s to d e stro y the en e m ie s o f

,

o n e w h o co n sid e re d hi m self b ewi tc h e d

5
H e b ec am e a m em b er o f .

the A ssy rian pan th eo n .

A di sc u ssio n o i th e o rigins o f B abylo n ian de itie s sho u ld n o t co n

elu d e w ith o u t a w o rd co n ce rn in g th e p o pu lar d e itie s o f B abylo n

an d B o r sippa At B abylo n th e tu telary go d o f th e c ity an d the

.

he ad o f the pan th eo n w as M ard u k Thi s go d w as m ad e b y th e .

hegem o n y whi c h Hamm u rab i gain e d fo r B aby lo n th e first d eity o f

th e lan d a po sitio n whi c h h e m ain tain e d th ro u gh th e su b se qu e n t
,

ye ars o f B abylo n ian hi sto ry Jastro w po in ted o u t ye ar s ago ho w .

,

in o rd e r to glo rify him th e attrib u te s an d f u n c tio n s o f o th e r go d s ,

were attrib ted to hi m 6

Thu s in o rde r to j u sti fy hi s po si tio n as h e ad
.
,

o f th e pan th eo n p rac tic al ly all th e f u n c tio n s o f E nl il w e re at trib u t e d

,
‘
to hi m an d E n lil s e pi the t B el b e cam e hi s regu l ar ti tle
’
In a , ,
.

n o te wo rth y te x t thi rte en o th er go d s are s aid t o b e b u t p h ase s o f

Thu s Lu gal—a—k i a—
'

M a du k
r
7
. ta is sai d to b e th e M ard u k o f th e -

deep ; Nin u rta the M ardu k o f mi ght ; Ne rgal the M ardu k o f figh t ;
, ,

Z am am a th e M ardu k o f b attl e ; E n lil the M ard u k of l o rd shi p ;

, ,

N abu the M ard u k o f c u lt—

,
cerem o n i al ; S in th e M ard u k o f n o c tu rn al ,

il lu m in atio n ; S h asm ah th e Mardu k o f fid e lity ; A dad, the M ard u k o f ,

rai n ; I sh tar t h e M ardu k o f arti san s ; M alik th e M ard u k o f stre n gth ;

, ,

an d S hu k am u n u th e M ard u k o f the sto rage jar —

,
”
I n th e seven th .

1
Cf OB W
. no . an d n o .

2
B r unn o w , Class ifi ed Li s t o f C u nei o r f m I deo graphs , no . 64 5 0 ; cf . OB W no . 29 0 1.

an d n o .

5
S ee L angd o n , T bl t a e s f ro m Archi ves of Drehem,
the . no . 17 , an d d e Ge n o u illac ,
T bl tt
a e es de Drehem, no s . 5 501 an d 5 5 13 .

4
I V 2 R 26 , no . 2 an d J am e s A . C raig, Assyri an an d B abylo n i an R eligio u s T exts,

I , Leipz i g, 189 5 , 3 5 an d 36 .

5
S ee th e M aqlu an d S u rpu tex ts , passi m .

5
J t w R ligi
as ro ,
e on of the B ab ylo n i an s an d Assyri an s , B o st o n , 18 9 8 .

7 CT XXI V 5 0
, , .
27 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

t ab le t o f th e c re at o n e p c i i thi s te n d e n c y re ac he s its cu l mi n ati o n .

F ifty n am e s a re t he re as s ign e d to M a rd u k ,
m an y o f w hi c h are the
n am es o f o the r d e iti e s
A m o ng the m is the n ame Asharu the go d o f .
‘
,

t he w o o d e n po s t o ne o f t he m o s t p rim itive o f S e m i ti c d e i tie s w ho

, , ,

in the ti m e o f G u de a w as in Lagas h a go d o f ve ge tati o n and w as ap ,

pare n tly e q u ate d wi th Ni n gi rs u

2
All the se aspe c ts o f the c u lt o f .

M ard uk have b e e n amply c o m m e n te d u po n by o the rs an d are fai rly

w e ll k no w n 5
W hat p arti c u larly i n te re sts u s in thi s s tu dy is M ar
.

I n thi s q u e st w e have alm o s t n o thi ng to gui d e u s

’
d u k s o ri gi n .
,

si n c e the re a re b u t o n e o r tw o o cc u rre n c e s o f the n am e b e fo re the

ti m e o f H a mm u ra bi h
an d t o e
s a re o f so m e w h a d
t o u b tf u l h
c a ac te r
r
‘
,
.

We k no w no thi ng o f the go d beyo n d the fac t that he w as the tu te

lary d ei ty o f B abylo n an d t he li ttl e that his n am e m ay re ve al to u s .

Hi s n am e is w ri tten wi th the s gn UD o U U the i d eo gram fo r t he

i r T 5
, ,

su n go d and the si gn AMA R an i d eo g ram fo r c hi ld

‘ ’‘
yo u ng
-
, ,

P ho n e ti c spellin gs o f it are M a ru d u k M ar d u k and M ar d u k u 7 - -

,
- - -
.

I t is c l e ar fro m the se spellin gs that th e syl lable m ar is an ab b re

’

viatio n o f am ar an d th at d u k is the p ro n u n c i ati o n o f the s un si gn

‘ ’ ‘ ’
-

UTU Am o n g the S u m e ri an syll abi c val u e s o f the si gn UTU is the

.

‘
D u k is a u n iq u e re adi ng o f the S ign
’
val u e d ag b u t n o t d uk
5 ’ ‘ ‘
.
, ,

an d its e n d i ng k is c h arac te ri s ti c o f ce rtai n o f the n am e s w hi c h w e

, ,

h ave pre vi o u sly t rac ed to the C e n tral A si ati c e l em e n t in B abylo n i an

c i viliz ati o n su ch fo r ex am p le as S u rippak
,
an d S hu shin ak , We , ,
.

are acco rdi n gly le d to p o stu l ate the theo ry th at if w e co u l d kn o w ,

the w ho l e hi sto ry o f M ard uk w e sho u l d fin d th at h e w as a d e i ty o f ,

thi s race T he b egi n nin gs o f th e se ttlem e n t o n t he si te o f B abyl o n

.

are n o t k n o wn b u t it is q u i te po ssibl e th at the y h ad a gre at an tiqu i ty

,

an d w e re m ad e by th e se C en tral A si ati c se ttl e rs I n the tex ts fro m .

F ara the an c i en t S u rippak the re are six di ff e ren t c hild o r c alf

, ,

d ei ti e s who se n am e s b e gin wi th On e o f the se is A m ar d ag -

1
S ee L . W . Ki ng, The S even T bl t
a e s o f C reat i o n , L o n d o n , 1902 .

2
RI S A, p 23 9 f . .

5
F o r ex ample in J astro w , R eligi o n B ab ylo n i en s a nd Assyri ens , an d D eim el, Pan
the o n B ab ylo n ic u m .

Cf . D eim el, o p cit . .

,
no . 20 7 8 .

5
Cf OB W, . no . 33 7 .

5
I b id .
,
no . 39 2 .

7
S ee D ei m el, loc . c it .

5
Cf OB W 33 7 6, 8
. . .

5
Cf . D e im el, S c hu ltexte au s F ara, p .
 BABY L ONIAN REL I GIOU S ORI GI NS 73

—
b il a n am e th at m igh t m e an
wi d ely exten di n g fi re c hild ‘
Th e - -
.
’1

Thi s aff o rd s so m e b asis ho weve r slen der fo r su ppo sin g th at ho w , , ,

e ve r m uc h o f th e ch arac te r o f M ardu k in th e hi sto ri c pe ri o d may

h ave b een c o n trib u te d by late r d eve lo pm en ts m e t am o rpho se s an d , ,

ab so rpti o n s hi s n am e m ay h ave b e en c o n trib u te d b y th at an c i en t

,

rac e whi c h fi rst e st ab li sh e d i tse lf in th e B abylo n i an allu vi u m .

T he co n so rt o f M ardu k w as Zarpanitu m who se n am e is go o d ,

S he is u su ally pi c tu re d as
’
Akkadi an an d m ean s C re ato r o f seed ‘
.

a n u de go dde ss wi th f u ll b re asts w hi c h S h e is o f ten claspi n g In

2
.
,

th e tho u gh t o f the p eo ple o f t h e B abylo n i an pe ri o d sh e pe rf o rm e d

.

th e fu n c tio n s asc rib ed at L agash to Nin k hu rsag in th e tim e o f

E an n atu m C le arly she ab so rb ed in h e rself all th e fu n c tio n s o f
.

fe rtili ty th at the S u m e ri an s h ad asc rib e d to Nin k hu rsag th e C en tral ,

A si ati c s to Nin a,an d th e Ak k adi an sto I shtar I n a mytho lo gi c al .

s yll ab ary S h e i s e qu ate d wi th twe l ve o ther go d d e sse s o n e o f w hi c h

“

iS Elagu o f E lam
_
3
.

T h e c hi ef d e i ty o f B o r sipp a w as N ab u w ho se n am e is m o st o f ten , ,

when written i deo graphi c ally exp re ssed eithe r by the sign A G , ,

bu ild c re ate o r the sign PA sc rib e

’
Thi rty y ears ago the
'
‘ 4 ‘ ‘
.
, ,

wri ter w as led to co n jec tu re th at N ab u w as a late r fo rm o f D u m u zi

5

ab su D u m u zi o f the aby ss an d th e rec e n t in ve stigati o n so f U n ge r

, ,

ten d to c o n firm th at vi ew
I n the ti m e o f Ham m u rabi the de i ty o f B o rsipp a w as c all ed Tu
7 —
a n am e w hi c h m e an s T he Ex c avato r
’
tu 8
N ab u is late r c alle d ‘
.

Nabu 5a hare o r Nab u o f the e xc avatio n s o r c an als H e w as

‘ 9 ’ ‘ ’
.
,

thu s co n n e c ted wi th the w ate r s o f th e aby ss as D umu zi h ad b een

i n e arlier d ay s Thi s m ade him a go d o f wi sd o m kin dred to E a
.
, ,

an d thu s h e b ec ame th e go d o f s p ee c h N ab u an d th e go d o f le arnin g , ,

.

As the go d of le arn in g the stylu s o f the s c rib e w as an appro pri ate

,

s ym b o l o f hi s n am e ; as a go d o f f ertili ty h e w as e qu ally w e ll d en o te d

Cf OB W
'

an d
1
. nos .

2
Cf . W . H . Ward ,
S eal Cyli f Western
n ders o
5
CT . XX V , 3 5 8 —19 .

4
OB W no . 112 .

5
Ibid .
,
no 249
. .

5
A S k etch of S emi ti c Ori gi ns , p 210ff . .

7
L aw s , iii , 10 .

8
OB W . ho .

5
S ee VR 7 .
27 4 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

by theign fo r c re ate mak e

s H is nam e N ab u is fo u nd as early
‘
, .
’

a s the ti me o f the fi rs t d y n as ty o f B abyl o n

‘
.

H is c o nso rt w as T ash mi t he ari ng re vel ati o n —a n am e c l e arly

‘ ’ ‘ ’
, ,

i ve n h e r a s the c o u n te rp a rt o f the talki ng go d I n c harac te r she

g
-
.

w as a go dde ss o f fe rti li ty and w as d o u b tl e s s in re ali ty b u t ano the r ,

n ame o f o ne o f the o ld e r go dd e sse s o f fe rti li ty

’
.

Anc i en t As sy ri a to o k its n am e f ro m the ci ty A shu r and Ashu r ,

w as al so the n ame o f the c ity s go d T he A ssy ri an e m pi re lik e the

5 ’
.
,

R o ma n e mpi re aro se f ro m the ex te nsio n o f the do mi nio n o f a ci ty

, ,

and in the hi sto ri c pe ri o d at the he ad o f the c i ty w as the c i ty s go d

’

A shu r I ts e arlie st rule rs k n o w n to u s c o nside r them selves his

.

vi ce ro y s w hile the l ate st regard the mse l ve s as his so n s o r serv an ts ;

,

the y w age w ar at hi s bi ddi n g an d c o n q u e r natio n s by his mi gh t Fo r .

the m o s t p art A s sy ri an s w o rshi pp ed the s ame go d s as the B aby

lo ni an s b u t thei r n atio n al go d A shu r b e lo nged to them alo ne I t
,
.

has b ee n sho wn abo ve in C hap te r I I I that the A ssy ri an p eo pl e we re

co m po sed o f tw o s trai n s a C e n tral A si ati c e le m e n t an d a S em i ti c ,

e l em en t While the S e mi ti c el e m en t gave to the l an d its S emi ti c

.

spe e ch t he C e n t ral A si ati c e l em en t c o n t rib u te d its f ac i al e xp re ssio n

,

— an e xp re ssi o n d iff e rin g st riki ngly f ro m that o f the B abylo n i an s .

T he e x c avatio n s o f An d rae at the c i ty o f A sh u r have re ve aled the

fac t t hat c o n te m po rary wi th the fi rst pe rio d o f c i vi liz atio n at La
,

g a sh t h
,
e re w as a S u m e ria n se ttl e m e n t at A sh u r
4
In stu d yi ng th e .

o ri gi n o f the go d A sh u r it is n ec e ssary to b e ar all these fac ts in m in d ,

.

T he n am e o f A shu r has u su ally b ee n take n as the po i n t o f de p art u re

fo r a stu d y o f hi s o ri gin b u t the n am e is vario u sly spe lle d So m e ,
.

t im e s it appe ars as A Su r ; at o the rs as AS Su r ; at o t he rs as A Sir

5 5 - 7 - -
.
,

1
F o r f u lle r d etails se e Unger
’
s artic le B o rs ippa 59 in E b eling u nd M e issne r s ’

R eallexic o n der Assyr i olo gie .

2
S o Unge r, lo c c it . .

1
Fo r a rec e n t dis c u ss io n of t h e c ity an d i ts d e ity , see E b e lin g u nd M e iss n er s ’

Reallex ic on .

An d rae , D ie arc hai sc he n I sc hlar -

T mp l ie e n As hu r, T af e l 39 ; cf . S id n ey S mith ,
E arly H istory o f Assyri a to 1000 B . C .
, ch . VI .

Th at th e S um e rians o cc u pp ie d o ther p o in t s in Assy ria d u ring thi s pe rio d is sho w n

S u m e rian d o c u m e n ts Nu z i in d ating f ro m
’
b y S tarr s disc o ve ry of at a strat u m ab o u t

25 00 B C . Cf B ulleti n
. of the Amer ic an S c ho ols f Orie n tal Research No 48
o , .
, p 2,. an d

A nn u al, XI II ,
1—12 .

5
L . W . K ing , A n nal s of the Ki ngs of Assyr i a, Lo n d o n , 33 , 3 5, e tc .

5
I b id .
, pp . e tc .

p XI V , pho t o
7
I bid .
,
. .
 B AB YL ONI AN REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 75

In A yi
an ss r an ve rs o n o f th e c reat o n e pic it is s e
i i p lled An Sar ; - 1

"
u m e r an te ts it is A u sar au pt fo rm e rl y de rive d the
2
w hil e in
S i x -
H .

n am e f ro m I shtar
3
taki n g ASSu r as the co rre c t spellin g wh il e the
, ,

f h
presen t w ri te r to o k it as a derivative o t e o o t AS R by whi c h the
r
4
,

p rimi tive S emi ti c tree di vin i ty w as design ated H e is no t ye t co n

-
.

vin ced th at th e re is n o t an elemen t o f tru th in thi s Vi e w b u t it

'

e vi de n tly is n o t the who le tru th I t do e s n o t re ve al th e c o mpl ete .

hi sto ry o f the d eity .

—
I n the c u lt o f a pl ace su c h as the c i ty A shu r a place whic h h ad
a lo n g hi sto ry to w hi c h diff eren t races c o n tribu te d
— co n tribu tio n s

to the c u l t are m ad e by e ac h race whi ch in h abi ts th e spo t We m ay .

b e su re th a t thi s h appe n e d at A shu r T he C en tral A si ati c s the .

,

Su m e rian s an d the S emi te s e ach co n trib u ted so m e thi n g T he k ey

,
.

to the c o n trib u tio n s o f the S u m e ri an s an d C en tral A siatic s is fo u n d

in the S u m e ri an fo rm o f th e go d s n am e A u sar Thi s n am e m ean s ’
,
-
.

I t po in ts to th e f ac t th at th e first se ttlem en t at A shu r

’
‘
Water n et -
.

was a fi shi ng settle men t an d that th e fi shin g w as d o n e by so m e so rt

o f n e t o r t rap fo r the fi she s I n o u r stu d y o f B abylo ni a w e fo u n d .

5—
th at at l e ast o n e place n am e the re a n am e give n by th e C en tral
-

A siati c peo ple had j u st thi s m

— e an i n g ; w e alSo f o u n d th at the

S um e rian s had in a n um b er o f in stan ces tran sl ated these e arly n ame s

, ,

into their o w n lan gu age I t d o e s n o t the refo re seem too m u ch to .

, ,

assu m e th at A shu r w as o rigin ally a C en tral A si ati c fi shing st atio n ,

and th at it s go d w as the d e i ty o f th e to wn Wh en so o n afte r 3 000 .

,

B C the S u m e rian s c am e the y tran slate d the n am e o f the to wn

. .
, ,
“

and o f the go d i n to th e i r o w n lan gu age m akin g it A usar L ate r ,

-
.
,

wh en S emi te s gained c o n tro l the simi l arity o f thi s n am e to the n ame ,

o f th e i r o w n go dd e s s A she ra l d th em to p re se rve it w th s ligh t tran s

e i
fo rm atio n an d to pe rpe tuate it The y n atu rally identified the god .

wi th the i r o ld tre e d eity o f fe rtility an d m ade A shu r the give r o f

-

lif e an d plen ty T he c o m po site in h abi tan t s o f th e c ity A shu r lo n g

.

mad e w ar an d ro bb e ry o n e o f the ir prin c ip al m e an s o f su b si sten ce .

1
Dh o rm e , T exies R eli gi eu x ,
2
Cf I V R , . 32 ff .

5
Cf Z D M G . XXXI V ,
17 8 . H e late r c hanged his o pinio n an d d erive d I sht ar f ro m
Ash u r, in JAOS XXVI II ,
112 .

4
S emi ti c Ori gi ns , p 223 . .

5
S ee ab o ve , Ch I I I , p 7 6 . . .
27 6 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC OR IGI NS

I t thu s hap pe ne d that A s h u r natu rally b e c ame to the m a go d o f w ar

be lie ve d to b e the b e s t d i vi ne figh te r in we s te rn A si a .

On e o the r A s sy ri an d ei ty d e s e rve s a w o rd o f d i scu s si o n— I sh tar

o f N ine ve h fo r sh e to o c a m e i n to b e i n g a s th e re s u lt o f the f u si o n
, , ,

of t w o eth n i l
c cu t s h
I t as al e a y
r d . b ee n p i te
o n d o u t t hat the c i ty
1

o f Ni neve h lik e th e q u arte r o f L agash c al le d N in a w as fo u nd e d by

, ,

that C e n tral A si ati c race w ho s e w o rd fo r fi s h w as NU N an d w ho se ,

fi sh go dde ss w as N ina T he n am e o f Ni ne ve h p e rpe tuated to the

-
.

e n d o f A s sy ri an hi s to ry the fac t th at the c i ty w as o ri gi nally the

tem pl e o f th i s go dd e ss L ate r w he n the do m i n an t e l em e n t o f the

.
,

po p ul atio n o f Ni ne ve h had b ec o m e S e mi te s it w as n atu ral fo r the m ,

to fu s e thi s go ddess wi th thei r o w n an d to c all he r n am e I sh tar .

T he c o nsci o u sn e ss ho w e ve r th at th e I sh tar o f N ineveh p o s sesse d

, ,

ch arac te ri s ti c s d ifl e re n t f ro m tho se o f o the r I s h tars p e rsi ste d to the

e nd o f A ssy ri an hi s to ry A sh u rb anip al the l ast gre at ki ng o f As

.
,

sy ri a w o rshi pp e d a pan th eo n o f tw el ve d ei ti e s b u t in e n u m e rati n g

, ,

them t he I sh tar o f Ni n eve h is alw ay s di sti n gu i she d f ro m the I sh tar

o f A rb e l a
2
T h e I sh tar o f N ine ve h w as a go dde ss o f fe rti li ty ; the
.

I shtar o f A rb ela w as a go dd e ss o f w ar A rb el a w as the Urb illu m .

o f the ki ngs o f the thi rd dy n asty o f Ur an d the Lu lu b u o f an e arli e r ,

tim e . The re appears to have b een a S e mi ti c se ttle m e n t the re as

e arly as th e fi rst h alf o f the thi rd m il le n n i u m B C I t is al to ge the r . .

pro b abl e th at w he n the S emi te s se ttl e d there the y di spl ac e d o r

m in gle d wi th e arli e r o cc up an ts o f a difl e ren t rac i al d e sce n t b u t ,

whe the r th ey fo un d the re a p e rsi ste n t c u l t like th at o f Ni n a at N in ,

ey e h m ay p e rh ap s b e d o u b ted
,
Wh e the r the c u l t o f I sh tar o f
,
.

A rb el a we re w ho lly o f S em i ti c o ri gin o r n o t it is c le ar th at the re ,

we re el emen ts that kept he r c ul t di sti n c t f ro m the c u lt o f I sh tar o f

Nin eveh as lo ng as the A ssy ri an e m pi re c o n ti n u e d .

I t see m s u nn e ce ssary to pu rsu e the di sc u ssio n o f B abylo n i an an d

Assyri an o rigin s f u rthe r I t is m an ifestly i m p o s sible in a wo rk like
.

thi s to di sc u ss all o f th e d ei tie s li ste d by D ei m e l in hi s Pan

theon B ab ylo n ic u m As m an y o f the se a re e pi thets to do so w o uld
.
,

b e as p ro fi tle ss f ro m the po i n t o f vi e w o f o ri gin s as it w o u l d b e

t e di o u s E n o u gh h as b een sai d to S ho w h o w th e re co gni tio n o f th e
.

p re sen c e o f thr ee e thni c s tran d s in the raci al co m po si tio n o f the in

1
S ee ab o ve , p 63
. .

2
Cf th e Ras sam
. Cyli n d e r, pass i m.
 B AB YL ONI AN REL IGIOUS ORI GI NS 27 7

habi tan ts o f th e illu m in e s th e pro ble m s co nn ec te d

c o u n try wi th the
e me rgen ce an d e vo lu tio n o f its p ri n cip al d e i ti e s .

I n thi s stu dikin g f ac t m u st h ave impre ssed th e reader

y o n e str .

I n the S u m e ri an p e rio d o f B abylo n i an hi sto ry th e n u m b e r o f dei ti e s

w ho c h an ge d the ir sex is re m arkably l arge B egin n ing as go ddesse s .

th e y b ec ame go d s On the w ay so m e o f th em v ac ill ate d fo r a ti m e

.

b etween the sexe s as tho u gh th e wo rshi ppe rs we re divi ded in o pin

,

io n as to whe the r the de i ty we re m ale o r fem ale T he n u mb e r o f .

tim es h o weve r th at th e sc ale tu rn e d in th e e n d to the m ascu lin e

, ,

S id e i s l arge Thi rty ye ars ago th e w rite r tho u gh t t h at thi s w as d u e

.

to a law o f so ci al e vo lu tio n ; at pre sen t h e h as n o th eo ry b y whi c h to

ac c o u n t f o r it o the r th at th at m ales we re th e ru lin g sex in B abylo ni a

an d th at wo rshippe rs ac co rdin gly tho u gh t it m o re h o n o rable to a

de ity to ad dre ss it as a m ale .

E very c i ty o f B abylo n i a h ad it s temple s and the se tem ple s h ad ,

a lo n g hi sto ry
_
The y we re n o t o n ly bu il t an d re bu ilt ; the y ac
.

quired l an ds an d b e c ame at tim e s c o m p arable to the gre at E u ro pean

b aro n ie s o f the Middle Ages ; th e y we re e qu ipped wi th exten sive
prie stho o d s ; th e y b e c am e th e c en te rs o f s ch o o l s o f le arn in g ; exte n
sive d aily s ac ifi c e s w e e pro vi d e d ; li tu rgi e s w e re develo pe d an d
1
r r ,

h ymn s o f vario u s types c o m po sed to b e ch an te d in the se rvi ce .

T h e stu dy o f all th e se l ies b e yo n d the s co p e o f o u r p re sen t in ve sti

g at io n A .f e-
w w o rd s m u st h o w e ve r b e s ai d c o n ce r
,
n in g th e re li
,

gio u s fe stivals o f the co u n try fo r al th o u gh co mp arative ly l ittle i s, ,

k n o wn o f the d e tail s o f th eir c eleb ratio n that li ttle is o f im p o rtan ce ,

b e c au se it aff o rd s im po rtan t in fo rm atio n co n ce rn ing c e rtain qu e s

ti o n s o f o rigi n Ou r so u rce s affo rd de fin i te in fo rm atio n as to th e
.

w ay th e Ne w Ye ar f e stival w as ce le b rate d at L agash in th e ti m e

o f Gu d e a c a 2400 B C
,
. an d also h o w it w as o b se rved in B abylo n
. .
,

in the tim e o f Neb u c h adrez z ar I I ab o u t 600 B C ,

.

Gu de a had re bu ilt the temple o f E ninn u an d at the fe stival o f the ,

New Ye ar b ro u gh t the de i tie s Nin girsu an d B au into the san c tu ary .

2 “
He say s : T h e ye ar wen t ro u n d ; the m o n th s w e re c o m pl e te d ; th e
n e w y e ar c am e in the h eaven s ; th e m o n th o f th at te m pi e b egan .

T h e thi rd d ay o f th at m o n th w as b righ t ; Nin girsu c am e f ro m E ridu ,

w ith b ri ght rad i an t ligh t h e sho n e ; o ve r th e l an d d ay ro se ; at E n inn u

1
Cf RI S A, p 13 1 a
. .

“
.

2
S e e Cyl B , iii 4 a in RI S A, p 239 ff
. . . . .
27 8 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
”1
the m o o n - go d w as bo rn T he pass age go e s o n to d e s c rib e the o f
.

fe rings w hi c h G u d e a b ro u gh t Po rphy ry an d l ap is l az u li w e re p re
.

se n te d as a gif t o f ho no r ; he sp ri nk le d t h e g ro u n d wi th o il he b ro u gh t

f ro m the te m pl e a s ac re d se rp e n t w ho w as b e li e ve d to p ro d u c e an
ab u n d an t h arv e st As fo o d fo r the go d s he p ro vi d e d ho n ey b u tte r
.
, ,

w i ne mi lk grai n o li ve o il fi gs d ate s an d g rape s

, , , ,
On that d ay the y
, ,
.

b e gan to harve st the fiel d s T he go d w as c arri e d i n to the te mple ;

.

he w as n o w c al led Asharu the n am e o f the o ld S e m iti c t re e go d

,
-
.

T he go d e n te re d as a ho ly so ng w as su ng and i n c e n se w as b u rn e d .

T he w ho l e c i ty w as m ad e to k n eel ; by d ay an d n igh t p ray e rs we re

o fle re d .At d aw n N in gi rsu an d B au w e re i n d u c te d i n to t he te mpl e .

G u de a as c hi e f p ri es t o ff e re d in s ac rifi ce a fat b u llo c k an d a fat ram ;

f ro m a l eade n b o wl b e po u re d a lib ati o n o f w ine an d a p ro lo nge d ,

fe ast w as held T he im age s o f tw e n ty o ne o the r d ei ti e s the se rv an ts

.
-

, ,

c hild re n an d atte n d an ts o f Ni n gi rsu an d B au w e re t he n b ro u gh t

, ,

i n to the tem pl e E ac h o f the se u n de r the di re c tio n o f Ni ngi rsu , ,

w as b e lie ve d to pe rfo rm so m e u se f u l fu n c tio n At the e n d o f a .

d ay o f feasti n g Ni n gi rsu an d B au w e n t in to an i n ne r san c tu ary ,

thei r b ed c ham b e r an d e ngage d in m ari tal u nio n w hi c h is frankly

,

d e sc rib e d Upo n thi s the ho ly bo wl o f the te rrace o f the gre at

.
“

d we l li n g w as su bm e rged ; the great w ate r c o u rse s that w e re lo w -

b ecam e lik e wate r th at b o wl s w ill no t ho l d ; it sto o d in thei r pl an ta

”
tio n s ; f ro m the Ti gri s an d E u phr ate s it j o y o u sly o ve rflo w e d Su ch .

w as th e ri tu al o f the fi rst da y Gu de a then p ro vi d ed abu nd an t fo o d

.
,

an d a fe stival w as k ep t fo r se ve n d ay s D u ri ng thi s pe rio d the o rdi .

n ary di stin c ti o n s o f so c ie ty we re b lo tte d o u t an d e q u ali ty p revail e d .

“
T he m aid an d he r m istre ss w e re e qu al ; the m aste r an d hi s sl ave
w alk ed si de by sid e ; o n the evil to n gu e the wo rd w as c h an ged ( to
o o d ) t h e ri c h m an did n o t w ro n g th e o rp ha n ; n o m an o p
g ;
p re ss e d t h e w i d o w ; t h e su n g o d b ro u gh t ab o u t t-
h at w h i c h w as
”
j u st ; o n all that w as evil the su n go d st am ped his fo o t -
.

Wate r w as clearly regarded as the spe rm ataz o a o f the go d s T h e .

o d d es s B a u re pre se n te d m o th er e arth ; in th e m ari tal u ni o n th e

g
fe rt ili zi n g w ate rs we re p o u re d o u t an d the e arth fe rt iliz ed so th at ,

1
An in te rc alary m o n th had t o b e in se rte d o cc as io n ally to k eep the c ale n d ar c o rrec t .

Thi s passage s ho w s th e m o n th b egan in t h at y ear t w o d ays t o o early , b u t it w as no t

y et e n o u gh to j ustify an in te rc alary m o n th .
 B ABYL O NI AN REL IGIOUS ORI GI NS 27 9

vege tat o n c o u ld i B abylo ni an my th s S ho w 1 in

gro w . Tw o an c ien t ,
.

add i tion to thi s p as sage f ro m Gu d e a th at thi s w as th e B aby lo n i an ,

c o n c epti o n o f the o rigin an d ye arly ren e w al o f vege table life Th i s .

fac t thro w s ligh t o n the e xi ste n ce an d fu n c tio n s o f the sac red wo m en

m en tio n ed n t e in sc rip tio n s f o
i h r m h m —
t e ti e o f Ur Nin a o nw ard
2
,

fo u r c lasse s o f who m are re c o gn iz ed in the c o de o f Hamm u rabi .

T he r ai so n d etre o f the e xi sten ce o f su ch wo m enw as th at i n te rco u rse

’ ‘

wi th them m igh t by a so rt o f sym path eti c m agic enc o u rage the

m o the r— go dd e ss to b e in lik e m ann e r re cep tive an d so m ak e th e earth
'

f ertile D o u b tle ss in tim e these ideas h ad a re flex in flu en c e and

.

p ro du ced the c u sto m whi c h He ro do tu s wri tin g 2000 years afte r

3
,

Gu dea repo rts in ac c o rd an ce wi th whi ch a wo m an in o rde r to insu re

, , ,

h e r fe rtili ty m u st o n ce in h e r li fe o ffe r he rself fo r p ro sti tu tio n in

‘

th e tem pl e o f the m o th e r go dde ss -

.

N0 su ch d etailed i n fo rm atio n c o n ce rn ing the cele b ratio n o f the .

fe stival o f the New Ye ar as th at given by Gu d ea fo r L agash h as

c o m e d o wn to u s ex c ept f o r B abylo n an d u n f o rtu n ate ly th at fo r ,

B abylo n is n o t c o m plete A litu rgy fo r fo u r d ay s o f the B abylo n ian .

c ele b rati o n h as b e en di sc o ve re d d isc lo sin g ho w th e f east w as k e p t ,

in B abylo n in th e tim e o f Neb u c had re z z ar I I 4

P rob ably the sam e .

ri tu al w as f o llo w e d as lo n g as th e B ab ylo n i an c u lt su rvi ved At .

B abylo n the fe stival b egan o n the first o f Ni san an d laste d thr o u gh

th e e leven th o f th at m o n th Un fo rtu n ately the ritu al fo r the first .

o f Nisan h as n o t b een p re se rve d On Ni san sec o n d tw o ho u rs .

,

b efo re su n rise th e hi gh priest aro se b ath ed pu t o n lin en garm en ts , , ,

an d we n t alo n e i n to th e san c tu ary o f M ard u k w h e re h e re c ite d a

h ym
,

n glo rify i n g M ard u k as th e o n e w h o b ro u gh t d eli ve ran c e to th e

go d s w ho c ast s d o wn th e migh ty b y hi s gl an ce ; as lo rd o f ki ngs

, ,

light o f m en ; as lo rd who se thro n e is B ab ylo n who se c ro wn is B o r ,

sipp a e t c ,
e tc H e th en o pe n e d the do o rs an d all th e prie sts o f
.
,
.
,

di ffe ren t c lasse s an d ran k s to ge ther with the sin ge rs e n te r an d go , ,

1
S ee B arto n , M i scellan eou s B abylo ni an I nscri ptions , 4 , p 3 4 11 , w h ere the no . .

deities are E n lil an d Ninlil ; also Arc haeo lo gy an d the B ible 6 th e d , pp 3 45— 346, w h ere . .

th e d eities are E nk i an d Nin tu ( d ) , wh o in t h at t ex t i s id en ti e d w ith Ninkh u rsag fi .

2
Cf RI S A, p
. . 17 .

5
B k I , 199
. .

4
Cf F T h u reau —
. . D angin , Ri tu els acc ad i en s , pp 12 7 —
.146 ; an d L an gd o n , The B ab y
lo ni an E pi c of Creati o n , Oxf o rd , 19 23 ; an d Z imm ern , Das b abylo ni sc he Neu mjahrsf est,
D er Alte Orie nt , B an d 25 , H eft 3 , L eipz ig , 19 26 .
28 0 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

th ro u gh the l
re g u ar r i tu al in w o rshi p o f M ard u k T hi s c o ncl u ded .

wi th a th ri ce re pe ate d p raye r to M ard uk to p ro te c t B abyl o n and his

-

ho ly san c tu ary f ro m e ne m ie s o f all so rts and ad ve rs ari e s o f all so rts .

T he rem ai ni ng di re c tio ns fo r this d ay are lo s t .

On N isan thi rd as o n the s e c o nd t he high p ri e s t ri se s and re pe ats

, ,

in the san c u tary al o ne a hym n a s he had do ne o n the p re vio u s d ay ;

,

th e n agai n he ad m its the re m ai ni ng p ri e sts w ho p e rfo rm a ri tu al

p ro vi de d fo r the day I ts d e tai ls are u n fo rtu nately l o st T h ree
. .

ho u rs afte r su n ri se a w o o d c arve r a go l d sm i th a sto ne c u tte r and

-
, ,
-
,

a w e ave r are ad mi tte d w ho m ak e tw o s tatu e s o n e f ro m ced ar and

, ,

o n e f ro m tam a ri sk w o o d d e c k the m wi th go l d and p re c i o u s s to ne s

-
, ,

an d c l o the the m an d p re se n t t hem as an e xpi ato ry o fle ring T he .

S iz e o f the se s tatue s w as t he wi d th o f se ve n fi n ge rs On e fi gu re held .

in his l e f t han d a se rpe n t o f c e d ar an d rai se d hi s ri gh t ha n d to N ab u ;

the o the r h el d in hi s l e f t hand a sc o rp io n w hil e b e si mi l arly rai se d ,

hi s righ t to N ab u B o th we re c l o thed in red an d ab o u t thei r hi p s

.

p al m b ran ch e s w e re b o u n d .

On the m o rn i ng o f t he fo u rth o f Ni san the high p ri e s t agai n aro se

an d b athe d thr e e an d a t hi rd h o u rs b e fo re su n ri se an d e n te ri n g the ,

ch ape l o f M ard u k an d Z arpani t he rec i te d a p rayer to e ac h , T he .

p raye r to M ard u k re c al led a n u m b e r o f M ardu k s explo i ts de sc rib ed ’

in the c reati o n e pi c Th at to Z arpan it p ay s ho m age to he r as the

.

kin d M ado nn a w ho m akes the p o o r ri c h w ho c asts to the gro un d the ,

e n e m y w ho d o e s n o t fe ar he r di vi n i ty w h o de li ve rs the cap ti ve w ho, ,

tak e s the h an d o f th e f all en e tc T h e hi gh p ri e st then c o m e s o u t

,
.

in to the gre at co u rt o f the tem ple an d f ac in g the n o rth rec i te s thr ee , ,

times a p raye r fo r the te m ple E sagila T he p raye r w as e n ti tle d .

“
C o n stellatio n o f the R am E sagila P atte rn o f He aven an d E arth
, ,
.

T he praye r w as re c i ted w hil e the stars we re still shi n i n g H e th e n .

bl essed the tem pl e an d o pen ed the d o o rs All the prie sts then cam e .

in an d p e rfo rm ed the m o rn in g ri te s A f te r the e veni ng m e al o n the

.

fo urth d ay the hi gh priest again en te red the san c tu ary o f M ardu k

an d re ci te d t he w ho le o f t he e pi c o f c re ati o n o f w hi c h M ard u k w as ,

th e he ro . D u rin g thi s re c i tal t he c ro wn o f An u an d the thro n e o f

—
E nlil we re c o ve re d apparen tly in sym b o l ism o f the fac t that by
hi s h e ro ic fi gh t wi th Tiam at M ard u k h ad su pe rse ded th ese o lde r
go d s .

On th e m o rn in g of the fif th d ay th e high p rie st aro se f o u r ho u rs

 B ABYL ONI AN REL I GIOU S ORI G I NS 28 1
'

befo re su n ri se b athed an d en te rin g the c h apel o f M ardu k an d

, ,

Z arpan i t rec i ted to e ac h a spec i al h ym n fo r th e d ay After thi s

‘

the o th e r pri e sts w ere adm i tte d as o n pre vi o u s d ay s to p e rfo rm, ,

the regu lar o ffi ce s o f the d ay Tw o ho u rs af te r su n ri se afte r the

.
,

m o rn i n g o ff e rin g s to M ardu k an d Z arpan i t h ad been c o m pleted an ,

in c antatio n prie st w as su m m o n ed to pu rify the temple Thi s .

p r i e st w a s n o t p e rm it te d to e n te r th e s an c tu ary o f M ardu k an d

Zarpan it n o r c o uld th e high prie st pe rfo rm the c e rem o n y o f pu ri

,

fi c atio n . Thi s w as do n e with Tigri s an d E u phr ate s w ate r T he .

do o rs we re to u c h ed With ce d ar o il whi le to rc he s b u rn e d ke ttle , ,

drum s played an d i n cen se ro se

,
T he in c an tati o n prie st th en p u ri
.

fi ed the sa n c tu ary o f N ab u w ho h ad n o t y e t arri ve d

,
As a part o f .

h
t e t ri u al o f t hi s p u ri fi c a ti o n a r a m W as sl a i n by a sw o rd —
b e arer an d
hi s he ad an d bo d y we re c ast in to the rive r whi le th e p rie st s an d ,

swo rd b e are r f ac e d th e w e st
-
B o th the se o ffi c ials then were o bliged
.

to go in to th e c o u n try an d n o t re tu rn as lo n g as N ab u re m ain ed in
the tem ple fo r th e fe sti val At th ree an d a thi rd h o u r s afte r s u n
.

ri se th e hi gh pri e st su mm o n e d artis an s w ho d e c o rate d th e c h ape l

_

o f Nab u wi th a go l d e n c an o py b ro u gh t f ro m th e tre asu ry o f M ard u k ,

an d th e hig h p rie st an d the artisan s to ge the r san g an in c an tatio n

hym n in whi ch the y c alle d u po n M ardu k an d all th e go d s to pu ri fy
,

the temple an d ward o ff eve ry e vil T he arti san s the n le f t th e ch ap el . .

Late r th e high p rie st m ad e an o fferin g to M ardu k o f ro a st m e at ,

b re ad salt ho n e y an d win e an d re c ited a p rayer in whi ch he

, , , ,

in fo rmed the go d that he w as m aking prep aratio n f o r the p ro c essio n

o f M ardu k to the f e stal ho u se o u tsid e the c i ty T he sac rifi c ial .

tab le w as the n c arri e d fro m th e c h apel o f M ardu k to th at o f N ab u ,

to awai t th e co mi n g o f th at go d o n the fo llo win g d ay fro m B o rsip pa

'

to t ake part in the f e stal p ro gre s s o f M ardu k .

T he ki n g n ex t arri ve d o n the scen e an d w as co n du c ted by th e

pr1e sts to E sagila T he atten dan t prie sts th en wi th dre w so th at

.

the kin g sto o d alo n e b efo re the c h ape l o f M ardu k T he hi gh .

prie st th en to o k f ro m the kin g h is sce p te r hi s rin g his to o the d si c kle , , ,

an d his ro y al c ro wn an d c arri ed the m in to th e p re sen c e o f M ard u k

,

an d pl ace d th em o n a se at T h e p rie st then retu rn ed sm o te the

.
,

king o n the c heek pu lled hi s ears an d m ad e hi m kn eel b efo re M ardu k

,

an d re c i te a p raye r in w hi c h h e pro te sts th at h e h as n o t si n n e d

agai n st the go d h as n o t d e stro ye d B abylo n o r E sagila n o r in an y

, , ,
28 2 S E M ITI C AND HA M ITI C ORI G I NS

w ay di sho no re d M ard uk . T he hi gh p ri e s t the n add resse d the ki ng ,

him f the go d favo r an d p ro m is in g him an i n c re ase o f
’
as su r ng i o s

po w e r . He the n re tu rne d to hi m t he in s ig n ia o f hi s ro y al ty —the

s c e pte r, i
r ng , to o the d i kl e
s c ,
an d c ro wn . T he ki ng the n l e f t the
c hape l .

Fo rty m i n u te s afte r su nse t the h igh p rie s t bo u nd a b u nd le o f

fo rty ree d s e ac h th re e c u bi ts l o ng wi th a p alm b ran c h an d pl ac i ng
, , ,

the ree d s in a t re n c h d u g in the te mple c o u rt pl ac e d a w hi te b u ll ,

be fo re the tre nc h and s e t the ree d s o n fi re W hi l e they b u rne d the .

“
kin g and hi gh p rie st to ge the r rec i ted a p raye r b egi nni ng O d i vi ne ,
”
b u ll b rilli an t l igh t that i llumi ne s the d ark ne ss
, , At t hi s po i n t .

the tex t is b ro k e n aw ay an d w hat w as do ne o n the ne x t s ix d ay s o f

,

the fe sti val b ey o n d t he b ri ngi n g o f N ab u f ro m B o rsippa an d the

,

p ro ce ssio n o f M ard uk w e do no t k no w ,
.

On co m p ari n g the ri tu al o f thi s B aby lo ni an fe ast w hi c h c o m es ,

f ro m a d ate so m e 18 00 y ears l ate r th an that re co rde d by G u de a ,

o n e is i m pre sse d wi th i ts g re ate r e l ab o rati o n T he d i ff e re n ce is .

so m ew h at an alo go u s to th at b e tw ee n th e J an d P d o c u m e n ts in the

Old Te stame n t I n t he ri tu al o f B ab ylo n as in th at o f P the re

.
, ,

are e l e m e n ts th at are ve ry o ld lik e the k illin g o f the shee p an d its

,

atte n d a t n r itu a l T h e re a re o th e
. r an c ie n l
t e e m e n
—
ts an ci e n t b u t
n o t so o ld
— su c h as b u rn in g th e ree d s in the pre se n ce o f the w hi te

b u ll O the r e lem en ts are c le arly late r e lab o ratio n s

. .

H ad w e the w ho l e ri tu al w e S ho u ld d o u b tle ss fin d that o n o n e o f

the l ate r d ay s o f th e fe ast the m arriage o f M ard u k an d Z arp an i t w as
'

c e l e b rated as w as the m arri age o f N in girsu an d B au in th e ri tu al o f

L agash P e rh ap s it w as o n thi s d ay an d as a part o f its se rvi c e

.

th at the sac rifi ce o f c h asti ty to Z arp an i t desc rib e d by H e ro do tu s ‘

to o k plac e .

We h ear o f simil ar fe stivals at the b egi nn i n g o f the Ne w Ye ar at

E rec h an d A shu r an d h ad w e ful le r i n fo rm atio n w e sho u ld fi nd
, ,

the m c e le b rate d in e ve ry B ab yl o n ian an d A ssy rian c ity .

1
B k I , 199
. .
 IX

WE S T S E M I T I C RE LI GI O US O RI G I N S
N A previ o u s c h apte r a s ke tc h
b een given o f th e ri se o f the h as
vario u s S e m i ti c n ati o n s I t w as S h o wn th at th e We st S e m i ti c
.

wo rld w as pe o pled by the co min g o f su c c e ssive wave s o f S emi te s

Amo ri tes C an aan i te s an d Aramaean s w ho reac h ed th e l an d s whi ch
,
1

bo rder the eastern M edi terran ean in the o rde r n am ed I n a his .

to ric al stu d y w e sho u ld ac co rdin gly stu d y first th e religio n o f the

Am o rite s .

Fro m the E l Am arn a table ts w e le arn th at b etween 1400 an d

2
'

-
,

13 5 0 B C there exi ste d an Am o rite kin gdo m w hi ch o c c u pie d th e

.

gro u n d later in h abi ted by the trib e o f A she r an d the so u the rn part
o f th e vall e y b e twe e n th e L eb an o n an d An ti L eb an o n m o u n tain s -
.

On e o f th e i r c hi ef tain s b o re the n am e A rad Ashi rta o r Ebe d Ashe ra - -

,

a f ac t Whi c h sho w s th at the y wo rshi ppe d o n e o f the primi tive S emitic

mo the r go dde s se s I f w e as sum e as I thin k w e m ay that the in
-
.
, ,

s criptio n s o f S e rab it e l Kh ad e m w e re w ri tten by Am o ri te s w e k n o w

-
,

th at the y wo rshi ppe d a go dd ess wh o m they c alle d Baalat an d w ho 3

,

w as e qu ate d with the E gyp tian Hatho r B aalat m e an in g T h e

‘
.
,

l ady is c le arly an epi the t I f she co u ld b e e qu ated with the E gyp

,
’
.

tian H atho r sh e w as a go dd e ss o f fe rtility

, Kn o wing what w e do o f .

th e go dd e sse s o f f e rtility o f th e o th e r S em i tic pe o ple s it is safe to ,

assu m e th at S h e w as an Ash tar t o r an A she ra Po ssibly w e m ay .

assu m e o n th e b asi s o f th e E l— Am arn a lette rs th at she w as Ashe ra .

An o ther dei ty that c an b e trac e d to the Am o rite s is th e go d Amm ‘

.

Th at Amm w as a de ity o f the Q atab an ian s in So u th Arabia h as

‘

already b een po in ted o u t Wh en t he Amo ri te s in vade d B abylo n i a

.

the y c arri ed thi s de i ty wi th them an d i n tro du ce d him the re Tho u gh .

w e h ave n o re co rd o f a cu l t o f Am m in thi s co u n try his n am e ap

‘

1
S ee Ch I I I , pp 7 4 an d 8 0f
apt er . .

2
S ee Kn u d tz o n , E l Amarn a af eln , -
T no . 103 If .

5
S ee , e g S ayc e an d C o w ley , I n scri pti o n s f ro m S i n ai , L o nd o n , 19 17 , no s 3 52 and
—
.
,
. .

3 53 . Cf . als o R F . . B u tin in t h e H arvard Th eo lo gi c al R evi ew , X X I , 39 6 7 .

283
28 4 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

pe a rs as a d i vi ne e le m e n t
H am m u rabi Am m iz ad ugga in the n am e o f , ,

and Am m iditan i and in vari o u s B ab yl o ni an n am e s o f l ate r ti me

, .

C o n te m po rary wi th the i nsc ri ptio ns o f S e rab it e l Kh adem w e fi nd -

the n am e o f an A m o ri te re co rd e d in the E gy p ti an tale o f S in u he in ,

w hi c h the go d Am m appe ars as a fo rm ati ve el e m e n t I t is the

‘
.

n ame Amm ian sh i J ausse n and S avi gnac have b ro ught to li gh t

.

f ro m t he o asi s o f E l Ola 3 28 ki lo m e te rs n o rth o f M ed i na a n u m b e r

-
, ,

o f i n sc ri pti o n s in t he S o u th A rab ian al ph ab e t w hi c h re ve al th at

t he re o n c e e xi s te d the re a c o lo n y o f S o u th A rabi an s w h o wo rsh ipp ed

t he go d Amm 1
I t w as pe rh ap s f ro m s u ch a se ttl e m e n t as thi s
‘
.
, ,

in so me N o rth A rabi an o asi s that A mm i an sh i re ac hed the regi o n o f -

Sin ai w he re S in u he c am e in c o n tac t wi th him At all e ve n ts the .

se t tle m e n t at E l Ola fo rm s a ge o grap hi cal li n k b e twee n the Amm

‘
-

wo rshipp e rs o f S o u th A rab ia an d tho se o f P ale sti ne .

I n P alesti n e i tsel f the A mm o n i te s w ho li ve d alo n g the de se rt ,

e dge o f the T ran sjo rd an ia u n til af te r the ti m e o f D avi d an d gave

thei r n am e to the c i ty o f A m m an we re w o rshi pp e rs o f thi s go d

‘

, ,

an d c o n se q u e n tly a b ran c h o f the A m o ri tes Thei r trib al n ame is .

an ad j e c ti ve fo rm e d f ro m the n am e o f t he go d an d w e k no w o f at ,

least o n e Am m o ni te Am miel w ho b o re a n ame co m po u nded w i th

2
,
‘

th at o f thi s d e i ty F ro m the e vi de n c e o f the B abylo n i an so u rc e s

.

w e are j u stifi e d in c o nn e c ti n g the w o rshi p o f Amm in N o rth S e m i ti c

‘

l n s wi th t e Am o i tes
a d h r
2
-
T he A mm o n i te s w e re the n a sm all di vi , ,

sio n o f th i s f ar flun g peo pl e I n d u e tim e Aram ze an s an d He b re w s

-
.

p e n e tr ate d P al estin e min gle d wi th the Am o ri te s an d ab so rb e d them

, ,

b u t e vi de n ce o f thei r in flu en ce is p e rpetu ated in the su rvi val in th e

Old Te stam en t o f a n um b e r o f n am e s co m p o u n ded wi th Amm
‘
.

S u ch are Ammi e l a D ani te ; Eli am the f ath er o f B athsh eb a ;

4
,
5
,

5
,
—
Amm ih u d a Ge shu rite ; Amm i n adab A aro n s f ath e r in law an d 7 ’
- -
,
,

a n um b er o f o the rs T he late G B G ray co ll e c ted a d o z en su c h

. . .

n am e s
5
H e d o u b te d ho we ve r w he the r in m o st c ase s th e Amm in
.
, ,
‘

1
J au ss e n e t S avign ac , M i ssio n arc heolo gi que en Arabi c , p 236 . .

2
2 S am .

5
S ee L B . . P at o n , H i sto ry f
o P alesti ne and S yria, p 28 , . an d A . T Cl y
. a ,
E mpire f
o

the A morites , Ne w Have n , 19 19 p 3 6 ,

. .

Nu .

5
2 S am .

5
2 S am .

7
Ex . Nu . e tc .

5
S tudie s i n H eb rew P ro per Names LOn d o n , 1896, p 5 4
,
. .
 WE S T S EM ITIC REL IG IOU S ORI GI NS 5

them repre sen te d a Sin c e Amm c an m ean also kin sm an

d e i ty .
‘ ‘
,
’

an d sin c e w e h ave in t he Old Testam en t n o trac e o f th e ac tive w o r

shi p o f su ch a go d he d o u b ted wh e the r su c h Old Te stam en t n am e s

,

are re ally theo ph o ro u s

1
I t sho uld ho w e ve r b e re m em b e re d that
.
, ,

e xac tly sim il ar c o n di ti o n s are e n co u n te re d in B abylo ni a We have .

n o e vi d e n ce th at th e A m o ri te s w ho se ttle d th e re b u ilt an y te m ple

to Amm tho u gh it is ce rtain th at the y di d c o n tin u e to ho no r h im

‘

in n ami ng the i r c hildren I n bo th c o u n trie s the n am e s b ec am e

.

trad i tio n al b u t in b o th co u nt ri e s in th e j u dgm en t o f the w rite r th e

, , ,

e xi ste n ce o f th e n am e s po in ts b ac k to a tim e w he n Am m w as ac
‘

tive ly wo rshi pp ed as a d ei ty as h e w as am o n g the Q atab an ian s .

I t i s p rac ti c ally ce rtain that the Amo rite s h ad o the r d e i ti e s ,

th o u gh at p re sen t w e c ann o t d iff eren ti ate them fro m th e go d s o f

o th er S emi te s o f th e regio n I t w as p o in te d o u t in C h ap te r I I I th at
.

th e C an aan i te s th e in h abi tan ts o f the c o astal lo wlan d s th e an ce s

, ,

to rs o f th e Ph o eni c ian s , were p ro b ably sim ply Am o rite s w h o h ad

“ ”
se ttl ed in th e lo wl an d s They w ere th e Nied erlan der o f the
'

Am o ri te s P ro b ably b o th in the highl an d s an d th e lo wl an d s

.
“

Am o ri tes h ad mi ngled wi th an e arlie r po pul atio n pe rhap s o f the ,

tro glo di te type o f c iviliz atio n .

An o the r d eity th at w as p ro b ably b ro u gh t to th e c o u n try by the

Amo ri tes w as the go d Add a the sam e as Adad o f B abylo n i a T he ,
.

n am e o f thi s go d en te rs as an e l emen t in to a n u m b e r o f p ro p e r n am es

I n the E l— Am arn a l etters an d in o n e le tte r the kin g o f Egyp t is s aid

“ ”2 —
to u tter hi s vo i ce in h e aven l ik e A dda a p hrase w hi c h i d en tifie s

thi s de i ty wi th the we ath e r go d Adda w as o f c o u r se e qu ivalen t

-
.
, ,

to the Aramman Had ad an d hi s pre se n c e h e re m ay b e du e to Ara ,

m aean in flu e n c e b u t as the Aram aean s see m to b e j ust e n terin g the

, , _ _
_

c o u n try an d as the A m o r i te s app are n tly c arri e d thi s go d i n to

,

B abylo n ia it is m o re p ro b able th at hi s pre sen ce in P ale stin e d ate s

,

f ro m the i r c o m in g .

Ou r e arli e st kn o wle dge o f the C an aan i te P h oen i c i an co u n try co n -

c e rn s th e ci ty o f Geb al T he F ren c h e x c avatio n s o n it s si te h ave in

.

re cen t ye ars re ve ale d th e f ac t th at an E gyp ti an co lo n y o cc u pie d th i s

si te f ro m an an tiqu i ty at le ast as gre at as th at o f the l ast kin g o f th e

I b id p 5 7 II
1
. . .
,
2
S ee B ez o ld
'

an d B u dge , E l Amarn a
-
T bl t a e s i n the B ri ti sh M u seu m ,
no . 29 , lin es
13 , 14 .
286 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

S e c o nd Dy n as ty to the e nd o f the Six th D y nasty I n sc ri b e d o bj e c ts .

1

o f Kha se k he m u i l as t ki ng o f the S e c o n d Dy n as ty are fo u n d he re

, , ,

as a re tho se o f K h u fu b uil de r o f the g re at py rami d M e nk u re

, , ,

b u ild e r o f the thi rd py rami d b o th o f the Fo u rth Dy nas ty U ni s , ,

o f the F if th Dy n as ty Te ti P e pi I a nd P e pi I I o f the Six th D yn as ty

, , , , .

I n thi s far o ff ti m e the n ame o f t he p lac e w as K u pn a a nam e o f n o n

-
,

S e mi ti c o ri gi n B e fo re the c o m ing o f the E gy pti ans the place had

.

'

be e n fo u nded by a p re lu s to ric po p ul atio n w ho se slab c o ve re d -

g r a v e s co n ta i n ru d e h an d m ad e po t te ry an d w h o s-
e s c rape rs an d

flin t m ad e k ni ve s p e rsi s te d in to the hi sto ri c al p e ri o d

-
P ro b ably .

the y w e re c ave d we ll e rs lik e tho se o f G ez e r fo r the i r san c tu ary

-
, ,

c o n si s te d o f a c ave I n acc o rd an ce wi th a wi d e sp re ad c u s to m o f
.

an ti q u i ty the E gy pti an s w he n the y c am e al so re gard e d the spo t

, ,

as s ac re d an d b u i lt a te m p le o ve r it T he i n sc rip tio n s o f thi s p e rio d .

re ve al th at a go d and a go d d e s s w e re wo rship pe d at K u pn a In .

E gyp ti an the go d w as c alled R e the E gyp ti an n am e fo r the su n ,

g o d a n d th e g o dd e ss w a s c all e d H a th o r M an y c e n tu ri e s la te r .

P hilo o f B yb lo s ( the late r n am e fo r Ge b al) c all ed the o ri gi nal de i ty

,

o f the to w n E l an d c laim e d t h at the c i ty c am e i n to e xi s te n ce w he n

,

El e n ci rc led hi s o w n ab o de by a w all H e also c l aim s that El c ir .

c u m c ise d him sel f and thu s i n sti tu te d th e ri te an d th at h e in au gu ,

ate d th e c u s to m o f hu m an s ac rifi ce T hat E 1 w as a t n ic ian

2
.

de i ty a tho u san d ye ars late r than th e E gyp ti an o c c u p ati o n w e h ave ,

ab u n d an t e vi d e n c e as wi ll p re se n tly appe ar : an ac tu al h u m an
,

sac rifi c e w as fo u n d co nn e c ti n g th e p rehi sto ric cave wi th th e late r

te m pl e I t w o uld see m the re fo re t hat P hil o tho u gh he li ve d in

.
, , ,

the R o m an pe rio d h as ac tu ally p re se rv e d a re co l lec ti o n o f c ertain

,

hi sto ri c al f ac ts E 1 is th e ge n e ral S e mi ti c te rm fo r d ei ty
. In .

an c ie n t S em i ti c h e ath e n i s m it is n o t o rdi n arily e mplo y ed as a p ro pe r

n am e o f an i n di vi d u al d e i ty R e aso n s h ave ho w eve r b e en ad.

, ,

d u c e d alre ad y in C h apte r V I fo r b el ievi n g t h at the A m o ri te s h ad

m ade El an in di vi du al d e ity b e fo re th ei r m i gratio n f ro m A rab ia .

Hi s w o rshi p w as b ro u gh t to Ge b al by th e A m o ri te s an d afte r th ei r ,

se ttl e m en t th e re h e w as i d e n tifi e d wi th the go d w h o m th e E gyp ti an s

,

h ad w o rshi ppe d u n d e r th e n am e o f R e P hi lo s statem e n t t hat he ’

.

c i rc u m c i se d hi m se lf is a reco llec ti o n o f th e t ran sfo rm ati o n o f th e

1 P . M o nt et , B yblos el
’
l E gypte , P aris , 19 28 .

2
I n E u se b iu s E vangelic ae Preparatio ,
’
ed . E H Giflo rd , 19 03 , I , 10 , 3 7
. . fl .
 WES T S EM ITIC REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 87

lo c al go d i n to a S emi ti c d e i ty by thi s fu si ng pro ce ss T he go dde s s

‘

o f Ge b al, w ho w as in the E gyp ti an i n s c rip tio n s c alle d H atho r, w as

in l ate r Ph oen i ci an i n sc riptio n s c alled B aalath Ge bal L ad y o f ,

‘

I t will appear later when w e discu s s the A do n is m yth

’
Ge b al 1
.
, ,

th at she w as in d i stin gu i sh able in l ate r S em i ti c tho u gh t f ro m Ash tart ,

an d th ere I S li ttl e d o u b t t h at f ro m the b e gin n i n g she w as a go dde ss o f

fe rtility who m the S e mi te s re ad ily i den tifie d with th e gre at S em i ti c

go d de s s o f fe rtili ty .

C hro n o lo gi c ally o u r n ex t in fo rm atio n co n c e rn ing the religio n o f

P hoen i cia c o me s fro m a po in t n early o ppo site the eastern en d o f the
i slan d o f Cypru s c alled to d ay R as S ham ra A little w ay fro m the
‘

.
,

he adla d so a e
n n m d at a u r i n c all e d Mi n
,
e t e l—B eid a a p easan t in -

M arc h 19 28 whi le wo rking hi s field ac c i den tally u n co ve re d a to m b

, , .

I n 1929 a F ren c h exp e di tio n led b y F A S c h aeff e r u n co ve red th e re . .

the tem ple o f a hi the rto u n su spec te d to wn as we ll as se veral to m b s .

T h e to wn w as a part o f th e kingdo m o f Ugarit I n 19 30 an d 19 3 1 the .

wo rk w as c o n tin u e d 2
M S ch aeffe r h as de te rmi ne d that the to wn
. .

flo u rishe d th ro u gh tw o perio d s repre sen ted by d iff e ren t levels ,

sep arated b y a p e rio d o f deso l atio n wh en th e to wn app e ars to h ave

b een bu rn e d T he first perio d b egan ab o u t 1900 B C o r e arlie r ;

. .

the se co n d e x te n de d fro m c a 15 00 1200 B C — D u ring the perio d

. .
_

1400—13 00 B C th e te m ple c o n tain e d a flo u ri shi n g sc h o o l o f sc rib e s

.

w ho po sse sse d e x ten si ve syllab ari e s o f Hu rri an an d B abylo n i an

wo rds an d who c o n stru c ted o u t o f c u n eifo rm a P h oen i c i an alph ab e t
,
5
.

I n thi s alph ab e t they in c rib e d o n c lay table ts an e x ten sive m y th o f

th e d e ath an d re s su re c tio n o f the vegetatio n go d an d n u m e r o u s
4 -

o t h e r re ligio u s te x ts S o m e o f the se have b een fo u n d tho u gh m an y

.
,

are in a f ragm en t ary c o n d tio n

i F o rtu n ate ly t h re e t e xt s th o u gh
.
,

so m e wh at b ro ke n are f ai rly in t ac t an d re ve al to us the n am e s o f

, ,

th e m aj o r d e iti e s o f th ei r p an th eo n an d in so m e c ases i n fo rm u s o f , ,

th e f u n c ti o n s attrib u te d to th e m b y t h e i r wo r shi pp er s .

1
Cf CI S , I
. no . 1 .

S yri a, X 28 5 ; X I I , 1; XI II ,
1
.

5
V iro ll eau d
’
s p u b lic atio n o f the t ex t s in S yri a ,
X
304 ; B au er s d ec iph ermen t in his
’

Keilschrif ttaf eln vo n R as S c hamr a, H alle , 193 0 ; D ho rm e s in R evu e

'

E n tz ifi eru n g d er ' ’

B i b li qu e, 193 0 , 5 7 1 an d 193 1, 3 2 ; V iro lleau d s in S yri a, X II , 15

’
.

V i ro ll e au d s pu b lic atio n o f th e t ex ts an d h i s treatm e n t o f th e m in S yri a, X II ,

4 ’

X
“

193 an d 3 5 0 an d I II , 113 fi ; Alb righ t s tre atm e n t in t h e B u lleti n o f th e Americ an

’
.

S c h o o ls of Orien tal R e searc h , April, 193 2, p 15 ; th e w rite r tre atm en t in J AOS , LII
’
. s ,

221—23 1 .
28 8 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

One o f the se m y ths re ates l the d e ath an d re su rre c t o n o f i A le i n ,

the vege tati o n go d ; ano the r gi ves an ac co u n t o f the

-
c i rc u m s tan c e s

c o n nec te d wi th the b u i ld ing o f hi s te mple At the he ad o f the pan .

“ ”1
the o n s to o d the go d El T he l an d is c alle d the l an d o f E l ; E1 .

is d i s tre s se d o ve r the d e ath o f A lei n a nd t ri e s to fi n d a su b s ti tu te ; 2

it is El w ho b re ak s u p the fi e lds fo r n e w see d an d to w ho m appe al

5

is m ade to b ri n g Al ei n b ac k to li fe ‘
.

By the S ide o f El A sh tar and A she rat w e re wo rshipp e d in the R as

,

S ham ra re gio n b u t the y to o se e m to h ave b ee n pu shed so m ew hat

,

i n to the b ac k gro u n d A sh tar the p ri m i ti ve S e mi ti c w ate r d ei ty .

,
-
,

w as h e re a go d as w as the c ase in M o ab an d as w as in m o st c ase s , ,

th e c o rre sp o n di ng d e i ty in S o u th A rabi a H e app ears in the e pi c .

b u t o n ce H e b e c am e ki n g w hi le Al ei n the ve ge tati o n go d w as
.
-

de ad ; the n A sh tar t he wi se b e c am e k in g an d ru l e d in the h ei gh ts ( P

, ) ,

o f th e n o rth B ey o n d thi s re fe re n c e A sh tar do e s n o t appe ar in the

.

po em s I n tw o f ragm e n tary tex ts the n am e appe ars al so in the

.

fe mi ni n e fo rm Ash tart sho wi ng that the y k n e w the d ei ty al so as a

, ,

go dd e ss
5
.

B e side the go d El sat a go dde ss El at As A sherat is in the i mm e .

di ate c o n tex t add re sse d in he r pl ace , it w o ul d seem that Elat is an

e pi th e t A she rat an d that E l s re al c o n so rt w as the o ld tre e go d
of
’
-

dess o f p ri mi ti ve S emi ti c li fe S he is al so c alle d A sh e rat o f the se a

‘ ’
.
,

p ro b ably b e c au se o f a Hu rri an o r Aegze an elem en t in the P h oeni c i an

c i vili z atio n
5
I t wo uld seem th at at R as S ham ra the e arth go ddess
.
-
,

’
1
The po e m o n Alein s d eath in S yria, X I I , 193 col . i, 3 7 .

2
I b id , i , 15
. .

5
I b id , iv, 3 7
. .

I bid ,
i, 4 —12 .

No s 19 , 1 16 S yria X ,
’
5
. .
,
an d 23 , 1 3 , in V iro lle au d
. s p u b li c at io n of t he t e xt s in
304 ff .

I t is p o ssib le th at t hi s epit he t w as give n b ecau se o f th e m ergi ng o f a H u rrian go d

5

d ess w ith As h erat—a go ddess th at h ad , in so m e previo u s h ab itat o f the irs , b ee n ass o

ci ate d w ith th e sea . Att e n tio n w as c alle d in Ch II , . ab o ve , t o th e n an in fl u en c e

in H u rrian p o t te ry , an d thi s e p ith et, o f th e sea, re min ds o ne o f the c o n ce p

‘ ’
e xhib it e d

t io n o f the po st H o m eric Greek p o e ts, th at Aphro di te w as b o rn o f t he f o am o f t he

-

A p art o f th e p o e m o n t h e f o un di ng o f Ale in s te m ple d esc rib es th e b anishm en t

’
sea .

o f Ash erat to t h e rivers wi th th e b u ll o f R l D e ped , w i th w h o m she c o n so rte d an d

‘ ’
-

h ad so n s an d d au ghte rs .
( Cf . S y r ia , XI I I ,
195 ff , co l
. ii , Thi s re min d s o n e

of t he Gree k myt h o f h o w Z eu s mi ngled as a b ull in h e rd t e n d e d b y E u ro pa an d

a ap

p e are d so ta m e t h at she mo u n ted hi s b ac k , w he n h e b o re h er aw ay to re te , w h e re C s he

b ec ame b y him t he mo t he r o f M in o s , Rh ad am an th us , an d S arp ed o n . P ib ly th

o ss e

myth o rigin ate d wi th t h e H u rrian s an d w as b y them imparte d b o th to th e Ph i i oen c an s

an d th e [Eg ze an o r C re t an c u ltu re .
 WE S T S EM ITIC REL I GIOU S ORIGI NS 28 9

th e El who m the E gyp tian s h ad iden tifie d wit h thei r

co n s o rt of
”

H atho r h ad ab so rb ed a go dde ss fro m ac ro ss the sea an d h ad b een

,
‘

i den tifie d by the S emi te s wi th the i r tree go dde ss A she rat an d m erge d -

in he r .

'

In c o n se qu en ce of the th em e of the po em on th e d e ath of Alei n

o th er de ities th an the se f u n d am e n tal o n e s are n o t pro m in en t T he .

wri ter s atten tio n is cen te re d o n Al ein the go d o f vege tatio n w ho h as

’
,

an d w ho se re su rre c tio n is so u gh t T h e n am e Al ein is appare n tly

'

d ie d
'

Ph oen i c i an fo rm o f the He b rew wo rd lo n whi ch in He b rew m ean s ’ '

a ,

1— ’
a te re bi n th an o ak H e is thu s a tree go d a f ac t whi c h po i n ts
‘ ’ ‘
-
.
,

bo th b ac kward an d fo rward Lo o kin g b ac kwa rd w e se e th at h e i s .

b u t the m ascu lin e fo rm o f th at tree d ivi n i ty o u t o f w hi c h A sherat -

w as d eve l o ped ; l o o kin g fo rward w e see th at hi s n am e i d en tifie s

him wi th the tree whi ch w as so pro min en t in the l ater wo rshi p o f

Ado n i s an d E shm u n I n bo th po em s Alein is c o n tinu ally c alle d .

b aal o r lo rd — a w o rd th at is a syn o n ym o f ad o n
‘ ’
lo rd L ater at ’ ‘
.
’
, _ ,

Geb al ado n di splace d b aal an d w as graecized in A do n i s as the n ame

’

o f thi s go d An o th e r epi the t o f Ale in in th e p o em is Z abu l th e

.
,
‘

As th e li fe o f an agri c u ltu ral c o mm u n i ty d e p en d s

’
ho n o re d o n e 2
.

o n the revival o f ve ge tati o n an d se cu rin g go o d c ro p s d o u b tl e s s th e ,

wo rshi p o f Ale in th e m o u rn in g b ec au se o f his de ath an d rejmcmg at

,

his re su rre c ti o n o c c u pied an i m p o rtan t place in the re ligio u s ye ar

,

in an ci en t Ugari t .

‘
T he hero i n e o f the first p o em is th e go dde ss An at w h o pl e ad ,

wi th El to re sto re he r b ro ther an d fights wi th M o th the go d o f , ,

‘
de ath to release Alein
,
5
The n am e A n at is d e ri vab le f ro m a S em .

i tic ro o t whi c h m e an s c o habi tatio n u n io n I t is em pl o ye d in

‘
,
’ ‘
.
’

Ex 21 ; 10 for m ari tal rights An at is regu larly c alled in the po em

‘ ’ ‘
. .

B TLT the P h oen i c ian e qu i valen t o f a He b rew wo rd whi c h me an s

, !

‘
‘
vi rgin I f ho w e ve r
.
’
An at is the go dde ss o f c o h abi tatio n it
, , ,
“

wo u l d b e stran ge fo r her to b e al so c all ed th e vi rgin T he parado x

‘
.
’

I S d u e e n tirely to a late r n arro win g o f th e m e an in g o f b tu lah in

°

d
He b rew an A ssyrian u sage T h e wo rd is d eriv e d fro m a ro o t
'

4
.

1
For an o t h er V ie w , c f . Alb righ t , J ou rn al o f the P e
al sti n e Ori en tal S oci ety, X I I , 19 3 2
p 4 f
. .

2
I c ann o t f o llo w Alb right , J o u rn al o f the Palesti n e Ori en tal S o ci ety, XI I , 7 , w h o tak es
z eb u l to m e an d w ellin g ‘
.
’

S ee c o lu m n s i an d ii of t h e p o em
5
.

4
Cf M u ss Arn o ld t ,
.
- -
D
Assyri sch E n gli sch— eu tsches H an dw orterb u c h, p 20 5
‘

. an d

B ab ylo n i sch—
’
B e z o ld s Assyris ches Gloss ar , p 9 5 . .
29 0 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC ORIG I NS
‘
w hi c h m ean s d ivi de se parate I n t he I shtar c u lt o f B aby , .
’

l o ni a an d t he Ashtart c ult o f P alesti ne and t n ic ia c e rtain ,

wo m e n w ere set ap art fo r t he se rvi c e o f t he go dd ess o f fe rtili t y .

I n H e b re w su c h a wo m an w as c alle d a q d cshah a w o rd w hi c h ‘
,
‘
w as so m e ti m e s e m plo y e d in the se n se o f harl o t
’
1
A n at as ‘
.

BT LT w as th e re fo re no t a vi rgi n b u t a q dc shah a hi e ro d u le a
, , ,
f
, ,

mi ni s te r in the te mpl e o f tho se c e re mo n ie s o f sac re d m agi c w hi c h

w e re tho ugh t to e n co u rage t he go d s to pe rfo rm the d i vi ne u n io ns
o n w hi ch t he b e ge t ti ng o f ani m al li fe an d t he re vi val o f ve ge tab le

li fe d e pe n ded T hi s d i vi ne n ame fo r the m o the r go d de ss is no t

.
-

fo u n d in A rabi a o r in B aby lo ni a I t is a p ec uliar d e ve lo p m e n t o f .

‘
P hoeni c i a I t is cle ar ac co rdi ngly that A nat T he c o hab itre ss w as
.
, , ,
‘
,
’

o ri gi n ally an e pi the t o f t he go d d ess o f fe rtili ty A she rat o r Ash tart ,

.

‘
As in thi s p o e m A sh tar is m asc u lin e it is p ro b abl e that An at w as ,

an o ffsho o t o f A she rat — a d i vi si o n c re ate d as n o t i n f re q u e n tly has ,

happ en e d in the hi sto ry o f rel igio n b y the u se o f an e pi the t That ,

.

‘
thi s is the re al o ri gin o f An at is c o n fi rm e d by the f ac t that in the
se qu e l Al ei n is c all e d S o n o f A she rat
2 ‘ ’
.

Ano th e r dei ty o f imp o rtan ce in the m y th is S he pesh a di vi ne n am e ,

un kn o w n o u tsi d e t hi s g ro u p o f tex ts A stu dy o f the po e m m ake s .

cl e ar the f ac t t h at th e n am e is a c au s ati ve ( shaphel) o f th e ve rb

naphdsh fo r it o cc u rs as a ve rb S he pe sh is ac c o rdi n gly T he o n e

5 ‘
.
,

w ho m ak e s to b re athe o r T h e life c au se r H e r re gu l ar e pi the t in

’ ‘ ’
-
.

h m i h h h i
‘ ’
t e po e s t e lig h t o f t e g o d s
4
I n an o th e r te x t S h e p e s s .

c o ordin ate d wi th yareah th e m o o n it fo llo w s ac co rdi n gly th at

’ ’
‘
, , ,

she w as t h e su n T he ligh t o f the go d s w as a m o st app ro pri ate

‘ ’
.

e pi the t o f he r An o the r tex t c o n fi rm s th e so lar c harac te r o f S he

.

‘
h h h
’
p e s by s p e aki n g o f h e r se tti n g I t i s a n i n te re s tin g f ac t t a t t e .

su n go d w as n o t so f ar as w e kn o w w o rshi ppe d u n de r t h e n am e
-
, ,

S hem e sh by Am o ri te s C an aan ite s o r P h oen i ci an s T he re w as b u t , ,

.

1
Cf Gen . . 22 .

2
Cf . c o l. v . 1 o f th e p o e m .

5 It o c c u rs as a ve rb an d f o rm s an I mp e rf e c t ; cf c o l
. . iv, 36 an d 46 . Mo nt
go m e ry UAOS , L I I I , regard s S hepesh as a c o rru p tio n o f S hemesh, th e S e mi tic
‘
w o rd f o r su n , b u t f o r th is th e re is n o an alo gy , an d in S o u th Arab ia, w h e re S ha ms
’

w as a go d d ess , sh e w as alw ay s k n o w n b y so m e ep ith e t lik e Nak rakh , u n t il af te r

5 00 B . C .

col ii , 24 ; ii , 24
4
S ee . .

5
Cf . no . .
’
5 , 1 11, in V ir o lleaud s p u b licatio n of t h e te xt s in S yria, X .
 WE S T S EM ITIC REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 29 1

o ne S hrin e in P ale stin e wh e re in the Old Testam e n t pe rio d he w as

wo rshipped u n de r th e su n n am e S he me sh and th at w as B eth -
,

Shem esh I n the perio d o f the E l Am arn a lette rs ho wever that

.
-
, ,

to wn w as n o t c alle d B e th S hem e sh b u t B it Nin u rta I t is pro b able

-
,
- -
.
,

the refo re th at thi s i so l ated i n stan c e o f th e wo rshi p o f the su n is a

,

late impo rtati o n at B e th shem e sh S o f ar as the pre sen t w ri te r -

.

kn o w s S hem esh w as n o t a de ity am o ng the Am o rite C an aan ite

,
-

Phoeni c i an co m plex o f peo ple s H o w do e s it h appen th at S hepesh .

w as wo rshi ppe d at R as S ham ra u n d e r the n am e o f th e li fe c au ser ?

‘ ’
-

We h ave al re ady n o ted that at Ku pn a ( Ge b al) in the e arly perio d

the E gyp ti an s c alled th e chi e f go d R e id e n ti fyin g hi m wi th the i r ,

sun go d . T h e E gyp tian su n go d wh e the r c alled A to n o r R e w as

- -
,

regarded as a gi ve r o f life Am eno phi s I V w ho wo rshipped .

,

him u n de r the n am e A to n h as ce le b rate d thi s fu n c tion o f the su n ,

go d in a we ll k n o wn h ymn w hi le o n e o f the sto c k d e sc rip tio n s o f

1 -
,
‘
o the r E gypt i an kin gs w as gi vi n g li fe like R e Th e se fac ts le ad ’
.

o n e to su spec t that th e appli c ati o n to the su n d e i t y o f thi s p e c u li ar -

e pi thet s hepesh is d u e to lo n g co n ti n u e d E gy pt i an in fl u en c e What -

.

e ver the i n flu en ce S hep esh w as a su n go dd ess ,

T he u se o f S hepe sh -
.

as th e su bj ec t o f a f emi n in e ve rb sho w s th at th e su n deit y w as

2 -

a go dd ess as in S o u th A rabi a .

D agan the co rn — go d i,
s m i
e t o e
n n d n
o ce in h
t e oep m 3
an d his n am e
,

o ccu rs o n c e in a li st o f go d s b u t n o thin g f u rt he r is s ai d o f him

4
No ,
.

details o f the c harac te r attribu ted to hi m are k no wn .

M o th o r D eath is p erso n ifie d in the po em s an d is regu l arly c alle d

H e is m ade to desc rib e hi m se lf b yhi s b o astin gs
‘ ’
so n o f the go d s
5 5
.

in te rm s whi c h b efi t his m o re m o de rn d esign atio n kin g o f te rro rs ‘ ’

.
,
‘

I n wh at sense he w as so n o f the go d s o r w hgf li ew as so regard e d , ,

w e do n o t k n o w I n the p o em o n th e b u il di n g o f Alein s te mple the

’
.

g o d Y ad u d a r n m
pp e a s a u b e o ti e s
r f m 7
T he n am e wo u l d appe ar .

Cf B re ast e d , H i story E gypt, p 3 7 1 the B i b le,

’
1
f t h e w rite r Archte o lo gy and
‘

. o . or s

6th ed .
, p 5 0 1 if
. .

2
S e e th e R as S h amra p o e m , co l . vi , 11 22, 23
. .

5
Co l i , 24 . .

in S yri a, X , no 9 , 1 3
4 ’
S ee V iro lleau d s art ic le . . .

5
S ee the p o em , ii, 13 an d 3 1; vi , 7 an d 24 .

5
Co l ii , 13 —25
. .

7
x
S yri a, XI I I ,
19 5 fi .
, c ol . iii , 12, and V II , 46 fl P . o ssib ly Y ad u d w as o riginally an

epith et o f Al ein , b u t, if so , h e had b ec o me q u ite a dist inc t go d .

29 2 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

to b e i mpe rfe c t fo rm o f the ro o t ll l to l o ve

an I t is no t c le ar
‘ ‘

,
‘
.
’

in the po e m w hat f u n c ti o n s thi s go d w as tho u gh t to p e rfo rm He .

appe ars to have b e e n an ally o f M o th t he go d o f d e ath C e n tu rie s

‘
.
,

“
l ate r P hi lo o f Bybl o s said th at E l
,
had an o nly b ego tte n s o n -

I s dud — a n am e cle arly i de n ti c al wi th Y ad u d an d w hi c h sho w s tha t ,

t hi s go d su rvi ve d to the H el le ni s ti c pe ri o d 2
I n ano ther p ass age .

he s ay s th at A starte and Ad o do s k ing o f the go d s rul e d the c o u n t ry 5 , ,

.

T he n am e Ado do s is c l e arly A dd a o r A d ad the w e athe r go d w ho m , ,

w e have alre ad y t race d as an A m o ri te d ei ty T he asso ci ati o n o f .

A d ad wi th Ash tart as he ad s o f the p anthe o n w hi c h P hilo me n tio n s ‘

, ,

b elo ngs to a m u c h late r pe ri o d t han the Ugari t po e m s I t will .

ap pe ar as w e p ro ce e d that it re p re se n ts a c o n cepti o n o f the p an theo n

b ro u gh t ab o u t by the i nfl u e n ce o f the A ramae an s A m u tiliate d .

tabl e t w hi ch seem s to t re at o f the sp ri n g festival o f t he fi rst f ru i ts

m ak es m e n ti o n o f R e she ph the fi re go d 5
H e seem s to have b ee n
,
-
.

m e rely the fi re spi ri t so far as o n e c an j u dge

-
,
5
.

F u rthe r so u th in P h oeni c i a A do ni s w as so m e tim es k no wn u nd e r

the n am e E shm u n I n a li st o f te mple s e ac h o f w hi c h is p rece de d
.
,

by the wo rd b aal the re o cc u rs b aal b elh E shmu ny l o rd o f the te m ple

, ,
‘

o f E shm u n y I t is p ro b able b ecau se o f the fac t that all the o the r

’
.
,

n am es in th e li st seem to b e n am e s o f pl aces that E shm u ny w as al so ,

a pl ace n am e I n vi ew ho w eve r o f the i den ti ty o f E shm u n an d

-
.
, ,

A do ni s an d o f A do ni s and Al e in it is p ro b ab le that in thi s text the ,

‘
lo rd o f E shm u ny w as Al ein I f so w e have a p o ssibl e c l ue to the
’
.

w ay in w hi c h the n am e E shm u n c am e to b e appli e d to th i s go d — a

f ac t th at h as n e ve r been sati sfac to rily expl ain e d D o u b tl e ss a .

n u m b e r o f o the r d e i ti e s in addi ti o n to t ho se h e re m en ti o n ed w e re

wo rshipped in thi s an cie n t c i ty Nam e s o f w hat m ay po ssibly have .

been o the r dei tie s c an b e m ade o u t o n the f ragm en ts o f sc rib al p rae

1
I b id .
,
vu , 46—
56 .

2
In th e po em o n th e d eat h o f Al ein , the name E l—
D ed D e d is p ro b ab ly
' ’
o c c u rs .

no t f ro m th e ro o t 7 17 , b u t is a mi ssp ellin g of E l Dep e d, a hero w ho appe ars in b o th

’
-

p o e ms .

5
Q u o te d in E u se b ius , E vangeli c ae Preparatio , ed . D . H Giflo rd , B k i,
.
'

. ch . 10 , 40C .

I b id ,
3 SC .

5
Cf V iro lleau d , S yr ia,
.
,
no 1, 7 X . .

5
A n um b e r o f o th e r de it ies appea r in th e po ems w hi c h it is n o t easy to exp lain Fo r .

e xam ple , in th e po e m o n th e b u ildi ng o f Ale in s te m p le , th ere is a c o mp o u n d d e ity

’

Kash er w k asas , at the n atu re o f w hic h o n e c an o n ly gu ess

- -
o ss ib ly s uc h spiri ts w e re . P
of H u rrian o rig in .
 WE S T S EM ITI C REL IGIOUS ORIGI NS 3

table ts that have b een rec o ve re d , b u t in the pre se n t state o f o u r

ti c e
kn o wle dge o f the se texts n o thi ng de fin ite c an b e said ab o u t them ’
.

The re is re aso n to b elieve that the c u lts o f R as S ham ra an d o f Ge b al

were at l e ast so f ar as the Alein m yth an d in vo c atio n s we re c o n
,

ce rn ed i d e n ti c al
,
I t h as al re ad y b ee n n o te d th at at G e b al a m o the r
.

g o d d e s s w a s w o r s hi pp e d w h o w a s c all e d B aalath G eb al L ad y (o r ,
‘

Mi stre ss) o f Geb al F ro m do c um en ts di s co ve re d at G eb al o r w rit

.
’

ten by P hi lo o f that c i ty h e r wo r ship c an b e trac e d do wn to the

R o m an pe rio d Thu s I tho b aal ( P) so n o f Ak hiram king o f Ge b al
.
, ,

in the tim e o f R am se s I I (thi rte en th c e n tu ry B C ) d ec l are d in the ,

in sc riptio n o n his f ather s sarc o ph agu s that H atho r wo u ld j u dge ’

an y kin g o r go ve rn o r w ho S ho u l d o pe n it
2
AS thi s m o n arc h w a s .

wri tin g u n de r a stro ng E gy p tian su z erain b e re ve rte d to the an cie n t ,

u sage o f c alli n g B aalat H ath o r b u t th at he refe rred to th e l o c al ,

o d d es o f G e b a l th e re a b o d o u b t F ro m t h e E l—Am arn a
g s c n e n ,
.

lette rs w e le arn that abo u t 1360 B C a kin g n am ed Rib A ddi ruled at .

-

Geb al fi I n so m e lette rs hi s nam e is spelled ri i b ad i di in o the rs ri - -

,

ib ad da an d in still o the rs th e i de o gram fo r A d ad ( Hadad R am

- -
, ,
~

m an ) is em plo yed
,
S o me dei ty the refo re had now b een e qu at ed
.
, ,

with the we ather go d o f B aby lo n ia I t m ay b e th at the Am o ri te

-
.

C an aan ites h ad b ro u gh t thi s go d wi th them tho u gh he app ears in so ,

sligh t a d egre e in o u r e x tan t d o c u m e n ts th at po ssib ly Add a is b u t an

e pi the t fo r B aal S h am aim I n th e n ex t c en tu ry an o the r m o n arch

-
.
,

Y ekhem elek m en tio n s B aal o f Ge b al B aal S ham aim an d th e ho ly

“
, ,
”4
go ds . Thi s kin g su b stitu te s a go d f o r a go dde ss as the po ssesso r
o f Ge b al an d ce n tu rie s e arlie r th an he w as prev io u sly su ppo se d to
, ,

exi st n am e s a b aal o f h e ave n o r the sk y al so H e al so tells u s

5
.
, , ,

1
In P o em I I , i, 16—19 ( S yri a , XII I , 114, th e n ames o f so m e o f th ese ap

p ear , w h ic h p ro b ab ly o f H u rrian o rigin

are
“

2
S yri a, , p
V
13 5 ff ; M o ntet , B yblos cl l E gypte, p 23 6
.
’
. .

5
Cf Kn u d tz o n , Di e E l Amarn a af eln , n o 84 If
.
-
T . .

4
R evu e B i bliqu e, XXXI X p 3 21
. .

I t is p o ssib le t h at B aal S ham aim is b u t an o th er epithe t fo r t h e m asc u line Ash tar

5 -
.

T h e re aso n f o r so t hinki n g is th at At ar, th e Aram aean go d de ss , w as c alled Atar sh amaim -

(Kei li n schrif tli c he B ibli o thek , I I , Ashto re th of P ale stin e app ears t o h ave b ee n
“ ”
c all ed q u ee n of h eaven , (J er . an d in No rth Af ric a, T anith , an e q uiv

alen t go dd e ss , w as c alled
“
th e c e lestial virgin ,
”
( Au gu stin e ,
De Ci it t
v ae Dei , II ,
fi
_

F ro m t h e se ven th c entu ry o n w ard , th e n , t h e f e min in e f o rm of Ashtar w as de ni tely

c o nnec t e d wi th the h e ave n s . We h ave alre ady f o u nd th e m asc u li n e Ash tar in Ph oen icia
in t he f o u rt ee nt h or fif te en th c en tu ry , an d in o ur ext ant so u rc e s his n ame n e ve r o c c u rs
294 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

w h at on a prio ri g ro u nd s w e sho u l d e x pe c t that the Ge b alite pan

,

t heo n c o n taine d o the r d e i ti e s A no the r ki n g o f G e b al w ho w as a

‘
.
,

c o n te m po ra ry o f O so rk o n I o f E gy p t ,
9 24 8 9 5 D C
-
. .
,
E lib aal, c o n se

c rate d to B aalat a vo ti ve o ff e ri ng ac c o m pan ie d by a p ra ye r that the

y e ars o f his re i gn mi gh t b e p ro lo nge d w hile Ab il) aal o f the s ame ,
2
,

p e ri o d m e n
, t io ne d i n a f ra gm e n t a ry in s c r iptio n n o t o n ly B aalat b u t ,
“ ”
app a r n l
e t y t h e l o r d ( aal) o f G e al as w e ll
b b 5
Y ak hu me le k a ki ng .
,

o f G e b al in the P e rsi an p e ri o d d e di c ate d an a ltar to B aalat an d ,

e x to ll e d he r fo r th e favo rs s he had b e s to w e d u po n hi m A c c o rdi ng .

to P hi lo o f Bybl o s ( G e b al ) B aalat w as in re ality Ash tart fo r P hi lo, ,

i d e n tifie s K ro no s wi th E 1 the o riginal go d o f G eb al and say s that he

, ,

m arried his si ste r A starte l ive d wi th he r an d b egat c hild re n ,

He .

al so s ay s that A starte w as the g re ate st o f the go dd e sses w ho , ,

wi th Ad o do s ruled the wo rld Ado do s w as as alread y p o in te d

,
.
,

“
o ut ,
A d da o r Had ad P hi lo add s : T he P ho e n i ci an s s ay tha t
A starte is Ap hro di te At thi s po i n t o u r i nf o rm ati o n is su ppl e
.

4 “
m e n te d by the ac c o u n t o f Lu c ian w ho say s : B u t I also saw in ,

Bybl o s a gre at tem pl e o f Aph ro di te o f B yb lo s ( thi s tem pl e is s till

“
p i c t u re d o n a n a n c i e n t co in
5
) in w hi c h a lso the ri tes o f A do n i s are
,

p e rfo rmed I also m ad e i nq u i ry c o n c e rni ng the ri te s ; fo r they te ll

.

t he dee d whi c h w as d o n e to A do n i s by a b o ar in the i r o w n c o u n try ,

an d in m e m o ry o f hi s su ff e ri n g th e y b e at t hei r b re asts e ve ry y e ar an d ,

w ail an d ce leb rate these ri tes an d i n sti tu te gre at l am e n tatio n ,

thr o u gho u t t he c o u n try B u t w hen the y have b ewail e d an d

.
.

lam e n te d fi rst they p e rf o rm fun e ral ri tes fo r A do ni s as tho u gh h e

,
'

w e re de ad b u t af terward u po n an o the r d ay they say that he li ve s

, ,

an d the y c ast ( d u st) i n to the air an d sh ave th e i r h e ad s as the

E gyp tians do w hen Api s di e s B u t wo m en w ho do no t wi sh to b e .

sh aven pay the fo llo wi n g p e n al ty : o n a c e rt ain d ay the y stan d fo r

again . It see m s p o ssib le , th erefo re , as go d s are s eld o m su dde nly f o rgo tten , that he
m u st have b ee n w o rs hipp e d u n de r so me o th e r e p ith et , and th e in stan c es c ite d o f th e
c o nn ec tio n o f his fe male c o un te rp art wi th the he ave ns le nd s plau sib ili ty t o the vi e w
t hat Ash tar b ec ame B aal S hamaim -
.

1
P ro b ab ly th e d eiti e
s w i th w hi c h t he Ras S hamra texts have mad e as familiar .

2
M o n te t ,
o p . cit .
, p 52. .

5
S yri a, V , p . 14 5 ; M o n tet , o p c it . .
, p 53 . .

4
De S yria Dea, §6 .

5
S ee Pie tschm ann , Ges chichte der Pho eniz ie r, p 200 . an d J o u rn al o f H ellenic S tud ies,
IX , 215 .
 WE S T S EM ITIC REL IGIOUS ORIGI NS 5

pro stitu tio n at the pro pe r tim e ; an d the m arke t is o pe n to stran ge rs

o nl y an d the pay go e s as a sac rifice to Aphro dite
,
.
”

Five m ile s so u th o f Ge b al is a rive r whi c h in the d ay s o f P hilo an d

Lu c i an w as c alled the rive r o f Ado n i s I t flo ws do wn to the sea .

th rou gh a dee p go rge in the m o u n tain Halfway u p an d c lo se to .

the go rge are th e ruin s o f an an c i en t t emple still c alle d Ho u se o f

‘

King Ado n is He re ac co rd in g to Lu c a t e To m b s o f Ado n is

.
’
i n
,
h " ,
‘

were sho wn in an tiqu ity R elief s sho win g Ad o n i s stru gglin g wi th .

the b o ar we re th e re d ispl aye d F arthe r u p dire c tly u nd e r the high

.

c re st o f L e b an o n o n e c o m e s to a gre at am phi th e atre As o n e go es .

o n three su c ce s sive c ave s are re ac he d in e ac h o f wh i c h is a large

, ,

sprin g whi c h po u rs f o rth wi th a ro ar w ate r s t h at mi n gle to f o rm th e

’
b eginn in gs o f the rive r 2
Thi s is the apheq o r c lef t
. I n the b ib li ,
‘
.

c al b o o k o f Jo sh u a it b ec am e a pro pe r n am e Aph e k as it di d in
3
, ,
’
Lu c i an s Aph aca .

App aren tly the scen e o f the R as S ham ra po em o f the de ath o f

‘

Ale in w as laid in thi s sam e lo c ality I t refe rs at the b egin n in g to .

“ ”
El w ho p u rifies the ri ve rs 1n the cleft [apheq ]o f th e tw o abysse s
,

the tw o aby sse s b ein g th e su b te rran e an d eep whi c h c alls to the

‘ ’

su pe rc ele sti al d eep as in PS in whi c h m an y sch o lars h ave see n

‘ ’
.

a po e ti c al de sc riptio n o f th e ro arin g o f th e w at e rs as th ey ru sh f o rth

fro m the c ave rn s in whi c h th e river Jo rd an is b o rn T he co n di ti o n s .

at th e Jo rd an s so u rce an d at th at o f th e ri ve r o f A do n i s w e re sim il ar
’

an d appare n tly c alled f o rth sim il ar po etic d es c riptio n s Thu s the .

p o e m f ro m R a s S h am r a by thi s re f e re n c e re v e a
,
ls th e ki n shi p if n ot , ,

the i de n t ity o f its c u lt with th at o f Ge b al an d p re su m ab ly wi th

, ,

the cu lts o f o the r P h oen i c i an c i ti e s .

B efo re takin g u p the p an theo n s o f the i mpo rtan t c i tie s Ty re an d

Si do n it wil l b e c o n ven ien t to n o te the in fo rm atio n whi c h h as ac c i
,

d en tally c o m e to u s fro m so m e less n o te wo rth y lo c ali tie s Thu s .

fro m Ham o n the H am m o n o f Jo shu a,

a sm all P h oen ic i an to wn ,

w e h ave tw o in sc riptio n s whi c h m en tio n a go d M alak—

4
Ashtart o r ,
‘
M essenger o f Ashtart w ho is c alled the go d o f Ham o n ,
’
He ‘
.
’

1
, D e S yri a Dea, § 9 .

2
F o r a pho to grap h of the river , se e A . T . Olmstead
’
s H istory of P alesti ne and S yria .

F ig 27 . .

5
Ch .

Cf CI S , I , 8 , an d H euz ey, Co mptes R en du s , 19 02, pp 200—

”

4
. 206 . .
 296 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS
‘
is ll e d in
ca R o m an p e ri o d M e rc u ry w ho
a G re ek t ex t o f t he
"
,

in habi ts the village o f H amo n Si n ce M e rc u ry w as the L ati n .

n am e of the G ree k He rme s w ho w as o rigi n al ly in G re e k re

ligio n the spi ri t o f the p h alli c po s t o r herm pl ac e d ab o ve the , ,

grave s o f the d e ad as a sy m b o l o f the re n ew al o f li fe and w as

the n re gard e d as a m e an s o f c o m m u ni c ati o n wi th t he d e ad it see m s
2
,

o b vi o u s that M al ak Ash tart w as b u t an o th e r n am e fo r A d o ni s -

T he .

n am e al so gu aran te e s the p re se n c e o f Ash tar t in the c u lt o f the to w n .

An i nsc rip ti o n f ro m a ne i gh b o ri n g si te re c o rd s the b u il di ng o f a

4

pil l e d hall in the y e ar 222 B C by M l k M l ak As ta t and the h ‘

a r a a a r .
-

se rv an ts o f t he l o rd o f H am o n fo r Ash tart in t he shrin e o f the go d

o f H am o n a statem e n t w hi c h c o n fi rm s all the i n fe re n ce s su gge ste d

,
-

by the i n sc ripti o n j u st q uo te d Thi s l ast insc rip tio n is no t o nly .

d ate d in the tw en ty six th ye ar o f P to l e m y E u e rge te s o f E gyp t b u t -

,

al so in th e thi rty fif th y e ar o f the peo pl e o f Ty re thu s re ve ali ng the

-
,

p ro xi mi ty o f thi s pl ac e to Ty re We thu s h ave mo nu m e n tal e vi .

de n ce o f th e w o rshi p o f Ash tart an d A do ni s in the hi n te rl an d o f

Ty re do wn to the G reek an d R o m an p erio d s .

F ro m Ty re i tse lf n o app ro p ri ate e pi graphi c m ate ri al is k no w n to

me F ro m a bili n gu al i n sc ri pti o n fo u nd in M alta w e l e arn that the
.
5

g o d o f Ty re w a s c a ll e d M e lq ar t a co n t rac ti o n o f tw o P h oen i ci an ,

wo rd s m e aning kin g o f the c i ty T he i n sc rip ti o n e q u ate s him wi th

‘
.
’

He acl e s A fragm en tary in sc rip tio n fro m Tyre c o n tain s the p ro p e r

r .
5

n am e B o d M e lq art S ervan t o f M elq art w hi c h co n firm s thi s ‘ ’

-
, ,

f ac t F o r fu rthe r i n fo rm atio n w e are de p en d en t u po n G ree k w ri t

.

e rs He ro do tu s in the fif th c en tu ry B C m e n ti o n s the templ e o f

. .

7—
t hi s go d at Ty re as the te m pl e o f He rac les a state m e n t re p e ate d by

Di o n an d M en an der as qu o te d by Jo sephu s P hil o o f Byblo s s ay s 5

. .

“
A starte se t the h ead o f a b ul l u p o n he r o w n h ead as a m ark o f

1
Cf Lidz b arski , E pemeri s j u er S emiti sche E pi graphi k , I , 3 5 1
. .

2
S ee the w riter s Reli gio n s of the Wo rld , 3 rd c d , hi c ago , 19 29 , p 24 7
’
. C . .

5
Th e M a su b in sc ript io n Lidz b arski , H and b uc h de r Nordsemiti sche E pi graphi k ,
'
.

Tfa el V .

4
G A . . C o oke t ran slates th is
“
T he e n vo ys o f M lk Ashtart ;
-
cf . h is Nor th S emitic
I n scr ipti o ns , p 4 8 . .

5
CI S , n o 122 . .

5
Cf .
,
e .
g .
, G A . . C o o k e, No rth S emitic I n scr ipti o ns , no . 8 , p 43. .

7
B o o k I I , 44 .

5
Cf E use b iu s,
. o p. c it
.
,
I , 10 , 3 SC .
 WE S T S EM ITI C REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 97

ro yalty ; an d in travelin g a ro u n d th e
wo rld she fo u n d a star th at had
f allen fro m the sk y whi ch she to o k an d c o n sec rate d in the ho ly,
”
islan d o f Ty re Thi s statem en t c o n firm s the impli c atio n su g
.

g e ste d by t h e i n sc rip tio n s f ro m H a m o n th at A st arte w as w o rshi pp ed

at Ty re ; it also allu d e s to the fac t th at she w as i den tified wi th the

star Ven u s an d th at he r agri cu l tu ral sym b o l w as the co w Jo sephu s .

also state s th at E th b aal kin g o f Ty re an d f athe r in law o f Je ze b e l ,

- -

th e wi fe o f Ah ab in ad di tio n to th e te mpl e o f M elq art b u ilt a te m ple

, ,

to Ash tart in whi c h E th b aal w as hi m se l f p ri e st ‘

T he wo rshi p o f .

Ado n i s as M al ak Ashtart in the imme diate n eigh bo rho o d o f Tyre

-

pro ve s wh en o n e co nsi ders the u n i ty o f the P hoen i c i an c ivilizati o n

, ,

th at thi s go d u n d e r so m e o n e o f hi s n am e s m u st al so h ave b ee n
wo rshi pped at Tyre I t is pro b able that M elq art w as El o r Ashtar.

u n d e r an o th e r n am e an d t h at th e vege tati o n go d w h o di e d an d -

aro se again fo rm e d at l e ast a thi rd m e m b e r o f th e p an theo n .

At Sido n Ashtart w as the c hi ef d ei ty T ab n ith tells u s t hat bo th .

he an d hi s fath e r we re h e r p ri e sts an d E shmu n az e r I I say s that

2
,

hi s m o the r w as h e r prie ste ss 2

He re the m o the r go dde ss retain e d .
-

so m u c h o f h e r p ri mi tive i n de p en d e n c e an d h e r c u l t so flo u ri sh e d

an d sp read i t s in flu e n ce o ve r th e I srae li tish highl an d s th at th e

“ 4”
He b rews c alle d h e r the ab o min atio n o f the Sido n i an s E sh
m u n az e r bu ilt he r tem ple an d also a tem pl e fo r E shm u n at the
”5 —
ho ly sp ring the well o f Y idl al in the m o u n tain a phrase whi ch
”

-
,

p ro b ably refer s to the sac red rive r ab o ve Ge b al I n a su b se qu en t .

se c ti o n o f hi s in sc rip ti o n h e c l aim s to h ave b u il t a te m ple fo r th e

“ ”
B aal o f Si do n an d fo r Ashtart o f the n am e o f B aal
,
Thi s l ast is a .

p e c u li ar desc rip ti o n o f a go ddes s As w e have n o te d in a precedi n g .

c h ap te r Ath tar in S o u th A rabi a w as b o th a go d an d a go dd e ss an d

, ,
”
I fo rm e rly tho u ght th at Ashtart o f the n ame o f B aal w as a go dde ss
p arti ally tran sfo rm e d in to a go d I t m ay well b e ho weve r th at
5
.
, ,

E shm u n az e r ado pte d thi s m e tho d o f d i stin gu i shi n g the Ash tart w h o
w as B aal s c o n so rt an d h ad a sh rin e in hi s tem ple f ro m th e Ash tart
’

1 Anti qu iti es , VI I I , 5, 3 Co n tra Api o n , I , 18

an d .

2
S ee e .
g .
, G A . . C o ok e, o p ci t , p 26
. . . .

5
CI S , I , f .

4
Cf 2 Kgs
.

5
CI S , I , 3 16 , 17 . .

5
S emiti c Ori gi ns , 244
29 8 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

w ho w as t he m o the r o f E shm u n -
A do n is ,
w ho had a te m ple o f he r
own .

Si do n w as o ne of the he ad q u arte rs
pi ng o f the P hoeni ci an s hip

t rad e and its go d de ss b e c am e in c o n se q u e nc e the patro ne ss o f m ari

,

n e rs . S he is o f te n p ic tu re d o n Si d o ni an c o i ns s tan di ng o n the p ro w
o f a gal le y wi th o n e h and o u ts t re tc he d ho l d i ng a c ro w n a n d po i n ti n g ,

t he shi p o n its w ay a d e vi c e ad o p te d o n t he c o ins o f o the r P h oeni c i an

,

c i ti es A c c o rd i ng to L u ci an As h tart o f S ido n w as al so i de n tifie d

.
,

wi th the mo o n l .

B o d ash tart a l ate r ki ng o f Si do n b u i lt a te m ple to E shm u n

, ,

w i thi n an c i e n t Si d o n i tsel f w hic h w as e x c avate d so m e y e ars ago ,

b y the I m p e ri al O tto m an M u se u m I t c o n tai n e d n i n e e xe mp la rs .

o f an i n s c ri p ti o n c o mm e m o rati ng the e ve n t A no the r insc ri p ti o n

2
.

fo u n d at Si do n is d e d i c ate d to t e go d S h l m an
h a 3
H ad w e f ulle r .

i n fo rmatio n d o u b tle ss w e sho u ld fin d that the pan theo n s o f Ty re

,

an d Si d o n w e re as ex te n si ve as t h at o f Ugari t Ou r so u rce s .
,

ho we ve r m ake it c l e ar th at t he c u lts in these c i ties w hi c h m o st

,

i m pre ssed the an ci e n t wo rl d w e re the c u lts o f Ashtart an d A do ni s

E shm u n .

F ro m P h oen i ci a sail o rs plie d thei r ships to all p arts o f the M e dite r

ran e an w o rld T he P h oen i c i an s w e re the E n gli shm e n an d Ho l lan de rs
.

o f an tiq u i ty I n tim e the y pl an te d co lo n ie s at po in ts w here t rade

.

w as go o d an d as w as n atu ral sh ri nes to the i r m o st c he ri sh e d d e i ti e s

, , ,

w e re e re c te d in the se c o l o n ie s Fo u r su c h se ttle m en ts c an b e trac e d .

in t he i slan d o f Cyp ru s T he o l dest o f the se w as at P ap ho s o n the .

s o u thw este rn c o ast H o w e arly S e m i ti c wo rshi p w as pl an te d he re

.
,

w e c ann o t tell I n the Ho m e ri c po e m s Aph ro dite is al re ad y sp o ke n

.

o f as Cyp ri an an d he r te m pl e at P ap h o s is re fe rred to I t w as
‘ 6
.
,

t h e n n o d o u b t very o ld Tradi tio n assigne d its fo u n d atio n s to o ne .

C iny ras w ho pl ay s a c o n si derable p art in Cyp ri an m y tho lo gy

6
,
.

T h e p ri e sts o f th e P ap hi an sh ri n e w e re afterw ard su ppo sed to b e his

d es ce n d an ts an d b o re hi s n am e 7
Of the e arly hi sto ry o f thi s w o r .

1
Lu c ian , De S yria Dea, § 4 .

2
Cf L id z b ars ki , E phemeri s , I I , 15 3 ff
. .

3
Cf . e .
g .
, G A
. . C o o k e, o p. c it
.
, p 42. .

I liad , V ,
3 30 .

5
Odyssey, VI II ,
3 62 fi
'

5
I li ad , XI , 19 —23 , an d T ac i tu s , H is t , I I , 2, 3 .

7
T ac it us , H ist , I I , 2, 3 .
 .
WES T S EM ITI C REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 29 9

shi p w e h ave The se Gre ek l egen ds and m y ths c an l data

'

no re a .

h ardly b e histo ric al A nu m b e r o f th e G e rm an A ssy rio lo gi sts b e

.

lieve th at th e le tte rs o f the kin g o f Alashia to th e kin g o f E gypt

1
,

whic h were fo u n d in the E l Am arn a co rre spo n den c e are re ally -

,

le tte rs fro m Cyp ru s ; b u t e ven if the y are th ey m ake n o m en tio n o f ,

re ligio u s matte rs an d so le ave u s as mu c h in th e d ark wi th re fe re n c e

,

to the re ligio u s statu s o f th e i slan d in th e fi f tee n th ce n tu ry B C .

astho u gh w e did n o t po s se s s th e m T he Gree k in sc riptio n s w ritten .

in th e Cyprio te syllab ary te sti fy to the e xi sten c e o f the go d d e ss at

P apho s b u t do little m o re th an th at
,
2
M o n u me n t s h ave b een .

re c o ve re d w hi c h w e re d e dic aj t e d to th e go dde ss at P apho s o n b e h alf

o f vari o us P to lem ie s f ro m 164 8 8 B C — 3
as w ell as o n b eh alf o f th e . .
,

R o m an E m p ero r Tib e riu s 4

These atte st th at the wo rship w as .

flo u ris hi n g du rin g tho se cent u ri es F ro m S trab o an d P au san ias

5 6
.

w e le arn th at th e sh rin e at P apho s w as stil l i mpo rtan t in th eir d ay s ,

while Jo h ann e s Lydu s in the six th c en tu ry AD implies th at the

7
. .

wo rshi p h ad th en c e ased .

T he te m ple o f Ashtart at P apho s h as b een e x c avate d an d it s fo rm

m ay b e stu d ie d in c o n si d e rable de tail 8
I t w as e vi den tly a S e m i ti c .

te m pl e bu ilt o n th e sam e ge n e ral pl an as the te m ple o f S o l o m o n at

,

Jeru salem b u t with co n sid erable variatio n s in d etails I t w as m o re

,
.

th an o n ce in late r tim es d e stro yed by e arth qu ake s an d re buil t by ,

the R o m an s 9
I n the tem ple the re w as n o statu e o f the go ddess
.
,

b u t she w as re p resen ted by an o ld S emi ti c rn ass eb a

10
D o ve s we re .

sac red to h e r an d m an y i m age s o f th em h ave b een fo u n d in he r

11

tem ple S hew as regard e d as a m o the r go dde s s an d w as addre sse d

.
-
,
“ ”
as mo the r T he S e m i ti c fe ast o f the o ld m o ther go dd e ss w as ke p t
.
-

1
Cf KB , V o l V, No s 25—
. . 32 . . .

2
Cf Co lli tz , S ammlu n g der gri echi schen
. Di alekt- I nsc hri f ten Gottingen
, ,
1884 , V o l .

I , p 13 , No 1
. . .

3
Cf o urnal . J f H o S tudi es , o l
ellen i c
V I X , pp
229 —23 1, No . . . 14 ; p 232 fi
. .
,
No 21
.

p 23 3 fi
. .
, No . 24 ; p 240 , No 5 0
. . .

4
J o u rn al o f H elleni c S tudi es , V o l I X , p 227 , No 6
. . . .

5
X I V , 6, 3
5
VIII ,
5, 2 .

7
De M en si bu s , I V , 4 5 .

3
Cf .
f J
H e lleo u rn al o
n i c S t
u di es , V o l IX , pp 19 3 —
215 . . .

. J
o u rn al of H ellen i c S tu di es , V o l IX , p 19 3
Cf . . .

1°
T
ac i tus , H i st , I I , 3 ; S erv , Aen , I , 7 20 Cf H eb rai c a , V o l X , pf 4 6 if
. . . . . . .

11
.
“
An tip hane s , ap Athen , V I , 7 1, p 25 7 ; X I V , 70 , p 65 5 , an d th e Paphi ae
. . . c o lu m
b ae o f M artial ( VI II ,
”
3 00 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

to he r in t he i me w he n a l amb o r s hee p w as sac rifi e d to he r l

s p r ng t i , .

O nly mal e vi c ti m s w e re sac rifie d to he r and ki d s w e re regard e d as ,

the b e s t fo r the p u rpo se s o f di vi nati o n in w hi c h he r p ri e s ts w e re ,

tho u ght to b e e spe ci ally skil f ul 2

No bl o o d w as she d u p o n he r al tar .
,

an d tho u gh the massc b a s to o d in the o pe n air it w as tho ugh t that it

w as n e ve r rai ned u p o n T he d e vo te e s o f the go d de ss w e re i ni ti ate d
.
’

by i m pu re r i te s , ‘
and p are n ts o fte n d e di c ate d the i r c hi l d re n to

the go d de ss . l
s
I n l ate r ti me s the re w as m u c h adm ix tu re o f G reek e le
me n t i n to wo rship b u t ne ve rthele s s the S e mi ti c typ e o f
the l aph ian
’
,

dd h w h l p i l d I f o m Cyp rus as t he
6
g o e s s o n t e o e re va e t w a s r .
,

G reek s them se l ve s belie ved that the w o rship o f Ap h ro di te sp read ,

to the i sland s an d c o astl an d s o f G re ece .

On the so u th si de o f the i sl and n e ar its e aste rn e n d the re w e re in

th e fo u rth c e n tu ry B C tw o P h oen i c i an se ttl e m e n ts w hi c h w e re .

u n i te d in a p e tty ki ngd o m w hi c h w as su bj e c t fi rst to P e rsi a an d the n

to E gy p t I nsc riptio n s f ro m its m o n arc h s are fo u nd d ated at d if

.

fe re n t pe ri o d s f ro m 3 9 6 to 3 23 B C T he pl aces refe rre d to w e re Ki ti .

an d A di l in G ree k Ki ti o n an d I d ali o n
,
H o w e arly the se se ttle m e n ts .

w e re fo un de d w e d o n o t k no w T he o l de st in sc rip tio n in the

,
.

P hoen i c i an sc ri pt ye t fo u n d in Cyp ru s w as i n scrib ed o n a b ro nze

b o wl in ch arac te rs o f the an ti qu i ty o f the Zendjirli i n sc rip tio n s 7
.

I t d e di c ate s the b o wl to B aal o f L e b an o n P ro b ably the re fo re .

, ,

in the ei gh th c e n tu ry there w as in Cy pru s a co lo n y th at h ad so

re c e n tly c o m e f ro m P h oen i c i a th at the y s till w o rshi p pe d th e go d

who m they had vene rated w hen o n the m ainland I t w as fo u n d .

by an i dle r at Lim asso l an d w as w ritte n by the go ve rno r of Q arath ,

k h ad ash t o r Ne w to w n Q arath k had ash t w as the n am e o f Car

‘ ’
-
.
,

Jh
o ann e s Lyd us , De M e n s ib u s , 4 5 .

2
T it
ac us, H i st , II , 3
. .

3
T it
ac us , H ist .
,
II, 3 .

‘
Cl me ent of Alexan d ria , Pro trepti k o s pros Hellen es pp ,
.12, 13 ; Arno b iu s , ad v .

Gentes , V , 19 ; J us tin , XVI I I ,

5 . H e ro d o tu s , af te r d esc rib in g the imp ure rites o f this
“
go d de ss at B ab y lo n (I , ad ds In s o me part s o f Cy rp u s th e re is a c u sto m ve ry
”
simi lar .
5
Cf . J o u rn al o f H ellen ic S tudies V o l , . IX , p 228 , No 8 ; p 23 5 , NO 33 ; p 236, NOS
. . . . .

3 5 , 3 9 ; p 23 7 , No s 4 1, 4 2
. . .

6
Cf D
y e r, The Go ds of Greece, c h VI I , an d
. river in H ast in gs
’
icti on ary of the . D D
B i ble, I , 17 0 T
hat vegetatio n w as t h o u gh t t o b e c o nn e c t e d w it h the go dd es s at Cy
—
.

Arab ia is sh o wn in Ohne f als c h Ric ht er s Kypros , pp 118 126

’
pru s as in anc ie nt -
. .

7
CI S , I , No 5 . .
 WE S T S EM ITI C REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 30 1

th age No rth Af ri c a an d it is po s sible that the bo wl m ay have be en

ln ,

b ro u ght then ce to C y p ru s I t is ho we ve r qu i te as po ssible th at .

, ,
’
the re w as a P h oen ic i an New to w n in Cy rpu s
‘
Whe the r the settle .

me n t s at Ki tio n an d I d ali o n were e qu ally o ld w e do n o t k n o w , .

At Ki ti o n the re w as a large temple—app are n tly a t em ple o f Ash

tart I f the who le tem p le w as n o t he rs it ce rtain ly c o n tain e d a
.
,

shr i n e to h e r A fragme ntary in sc rip tio n re co rded when in tac t the

.
1

paym en t s fo r a m o n th m ad e to th e attac h é s o f the te mple The re .

we re b u ilde r s o r re p airer s o f the temple o f Ash tart do o r keepe rs ,

-

fi re kin d le rs ( P
-
) se rvan ts s ac rifi cers se rvan ts pe rfo rm in g the se rv
, , ,

ic e b o y s b arb e rs sto n e c u tte rs a chi e f sc ribe n am e d Ab d E shm u n

, , ,
-

,
-
,
“ ”
yo u n g wo m en an d do gs
2
S o do m ite s) an d Ab do b ast the m an
3
,

o f Q arath k h ad ash t
4
I n addi tio n to the se pro vi sio n is m ade fo r
-
.
,

pe rso n s o f the ho u se whi ch is by the pillars o f M ek al P ro vi sio n

5
.

app e ars al so to b e m ad e fo r the sac rifi ce o f s in o ffe rings an d pe ace

6 ‘ ’ ‘

’
o ffe rin gs an d sac rifi ce s w e re p ro vi de d fo r the feast o f the n ew
7
,

mo o n 8
T he who le e qu ipm e n t reve als a te mple o f the m o th e r
.

go dde ss wi th all its p ro vi sio n s fo r e xe rc isin g th at re li gio u s sexu al

m agi c by whi c h it w as b e lie ve d th at the go d s c o u l d b e in flu en ce d to
give l arge f amili e s an d go o d c ro p s An o the r in sc rip tio n wh i c h
9
.

w as wi tho u t do u b t de di c ate d to Ashtart c all s h e r th e gi rde d (o r

‘ ’

m igh ty ) mo the r
‘ ’ ‘
.

1
CIS , I , 86 .

T h e w o rd f o r y o u n g w o men is alarno th, t h e p lu ral of t he w o rd in I sa

2 ‘
.

t ran slate d b y the LXX 1r a p 0évo s . I t s p arallelism t o k elab i rn in the n ex t lin e sho w s

that h ere it is emp lo ye d f o r q dasho th

e
.

I t is pro b ab ly th u s th at th e term T h e te r m k i lab i m

‘ ’
3
,
d o gs, sho u ld b e in terpreted .
_

o cc u rs in eu t D 18 , w h ere i t see ms to m ean male priestly p ro stitu t e ( c f

.
‘ ’
river s
’
. D
D D J
/

eu teron omy, mi u m )
’
p . 264 ti ,
an d S teu ern agle s eu tero n o u nd oshu a, p . 86 ii .

Cl m
_

e en t o f Alexan d ria so u n d ersto o d th e t erm an d re n d ered it f o rnic ato r

‘ ’
(Pai dago go s
III , On e c o n se c rat e d to go d w as p erhap s so c alled b ec au se o f his fi d elity in f o l
a

lo win g his go d ( c i W R S mi th , R eli gi on of the S emi tes, 2d e d , p We h ave a

'

. . . . .

B ib li c al in stan ce in aleb , i C . e .
,
“
the d o g w h o f o llo w ed Y ah w e
”
in Nu m . Th i s

u sage p ro b ab ly ex ten d ed to B ab ylo n ia, f o r th e real n am es o f t he ki n gs of L agash

c alled Ur Nin a
-
an d Ur—
B au , w ere p ro b ab ly Kalb i—
Nin a Kalb i B au ( c f R adau ,
an d -
.

E arly B ab ylo n i an H i story, p 144 ) i e , Do g o f Nin a and D o g o f B au

’
‘ ‘ ’
. . . .

4 “
C
T h e yp rian Ne w to wn m ay n o t, t heref o re , h ave b een f ar a w ay .

5
Thi s seem s t o b e th e sam e as the go d of B eth -
sh an ; see b elo w .

6
F ac e A, 1 9 . .

7
F ac e B , 1 4 . .

8 F ac e B , 11 2 . an d 3 .

9
CI S , I , 13 .
30 2 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

F ro m the fac t that in the fe w i nsc ri pti o n s w hi c h w e have f ro m

Ki ti o n the n am e o f the go d E shm u n appe ars as a c o n stitu e n t el e m e n t
o f a n u m b e r o f p ro pe r n am e s it se e m s s afe to i n fe r th at the ve ge ta
‘
,

ti o n go d w ho se w o rship alw ay s ac c o m p ani e d that o f Ash tart w as

-
,

in Cyp ru s c alle d E s hm u n , I n the i ns c ri p ti o n s w hi c h c o m e f ro m

.

I d alio n o b j ec ts are d ed ic ated to the go d R e she p h 2

I t s ee m s p ro b .

abl e the re fo re t hat the re w as at I d alio n a te mpl e to the fi re go d

, ,
-
.

I n o ne o f the m he is call e d Ros/rep}: k /16 § w hi c h h as b e e n u n de rsto o d

3
,

to m e an Apo l lo w i th the arro w I t is p ro b abl e that the s hri ne

‘ ’
.

at I d ali o n w as the re fo re n o t o ri gi n al ly a n ati ve S e m i ti c s h ri n e

, , ,

b u t an o l de r H el le ni c te m ple o f A po ll o .

O u tsid e th e vi ll age o f L arn ax Lape tho s n e ar the an c i en t L ap e ,

tho s o n th e n o rth si d e o f the i sl an d o f Cy p ru s is a b ili ngu al in sc rip

ti o n c arv e d o n a ro c k I t c o n se c rate s an altar to A n ath the
‘ ‘ ‘
.
,

stre n gth o f 1ife

— c alle d in the G re e k tex t A the n a vi c to ri o u s d e
’ ‘
,

live re r —an d
’
to the l o rd o f ki ngs P to lem y
‘
T he as so c i ati o n o f .
’
,

th e go dde ss An ath wi th the kin g o f E gy pt as tho u gh h e to o w e re a

‘

d i in t ti T h i sc ri ti o n b e a rs wi tness to the f ac t th at
g o ,
s e re s n g e n p .

in the fo u rth c en tu ry B C the go d d ess A n ath w as w o rshipp e d in

‘
.

Cyp ru s A no the r an d mu c h l o nge r i n sc rip tio n f ro m the sam e

.

p l ac e
6
at te st s t h e e xi ste n c e o f a te m pl e to M e lq a rt a t thi s pl ac e in t h e

fo u rth c e n tu ry B C Thi s co lo n y w as then an o flsh o o t o f Ty re

.
, ,
.

A no the r P h oeni ci an co lo n y w as at so me ti m e establi she d o n the

i sl an d o f M alta I t l e f t at l east o ne i n sc rip tio n whi c h tho u gh
.
6
,

f ragme n tary re ve al s the fac t th at they b u il t thr e e san c tu ari e s o n e

, ,

to a go d w ho se n am e is b ro ke n aw ay ; o n e to S adam the l o rd ( b aal) , ,

p ro b ably a n ati ve M al te se d ei ty an d o n e to Ash tart A m o n g the ,

.

p ro p e r n ame s whi ch o ccu r in the i n sc rip tio n tw o c o n tai n the n am e ,

o f the go d E shm u n as a c o n sti tu en t e lem en t I t is p ro b abl e there fo re .

th at in M al ta as in C y p ru s E shm u n w as th e n am e by w hi c h the
so n o f t h e m o th e r go d d e ss w as w o rshipp ed -
T h e i n sc rip tio n is .

tho u gh t to d ate n o t late r th an 15 0 B C A n o the r in sc ri p tio n sho w s .

1
Cf CI S , I ,
. no s . 44 , 4 7 .

2
CI S , I , 9 0, 9 1, 9 2 and 93 .

3
CI S , I , 10 .

CI S , I , 9 5 .

5
Cl erm o n t -
C ann e au , Alb u m d Antiq u ité s
’
orien tales , pl LII I ;
. X cf . G A
. . C o o k e,

Nor th S emi tic I nscr ipi o ns , p 8 2 fl .

'

. an d Lidz b ars ki , Altsemiti sche T exte . n o . 36 .

CI S , I , 132 .
 WE S T S E M ITIC REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 03

t h at the g B a a l H a modo n w a s w o r shi ppe d th e re

-
I n M alta the n .
, ,

the po pu lar P h oen i c ian cu l t b le n de d wi th the n o n S e mi tic c u l t o f the -

n ati ves A ve ry im po rtan t an d an c ien t se at o f it w as at E ryx in

.

the i slan d o f Si c ily wh en c e its i n flu e n c e spre ad th ro u gh th at i slan d

,

to C arth age an d i n to m an y parts o f I taly e xte n d in g e spec i ally to ,

Ro em 1
I n Si c ily th e go d de ss w as as e lse whe re serve d by a tro o p o f
.

fe m ale p ri e stesses who se c h arac ter an d fu n c tio n s w e c an fro m o u r

2
,

p re v i o u s kn o wl e d g e e a sily d i v i n e H e re t h e d o ve w as also s ac r
.e d to

th e go dde s s an d the re we re tw o fe asts in re ali ty part s o f the sam e

, ,

fe stival th e d ate s o f whi c h were su ppo se d to b e co nn e c te d wi th the

,

fli gh t o f the d o ve s 3
I t is c l e ar f ro m the e vi d en c e already c ited that
‘
.

in the P h oen i c i an c o lon i e s o f th e M ed i te rran e an islan d s all the e s

s en tial f e atu re s o f th e o ld S e m itic m o th e r— go dde ss we re p re se rve d .

At e ac h s an c tu ary a ce rtain lo c al c o lo rin g w as give n to h e r m y th s as ,

w as n atu ral an d as w as th e c ase in o th e r

place s ; n eve rthe le s s she
rem ain e d th e u n m arr e d i m o the r -
go dd e ss , fo ste ring sexu al l o ve ,
m ain tain in g i
a re t n u e o f pri e sts an d p rie ste sse s w ho kep t the at
m o sphe re of so c i al li fe im pu re by perp e tu atin g u n de r the gu ise o f
religio n th e lo n g o u tgro wnb arb arou s c ivilizatio n
c u sto m s o f a .

T h e l arge st an d m o st n o table o f all the P h oen ic i an c o lo n ie s in the

M e dite rran e an w as Qarath —k h ad ash t o r New to w n co rru p te d b y ‘ ’
,

th e R o m an s to Carthgo o r C arth age o n the so u the rn c o ast o f the

‘ ’

M edi terran ean in No rth Afri c a A cco rd ing to an an c ien t tradi tio n .

it w as a co lo n y o f th e c ity o f Ty re an d is tho u gh t by so m e to h ave

been fo u n de d abo u t 8 25 B C At C arthage P h oeni c i an s mingle d .

wi th n ati ve H ami ti c B e rb e r tribe s an d fo rm ed a n ew an d vigo ro u s

state in w hi c h th e S e m i ti c strain w a s t h e ru lin g ele m en t S o vig .

o ro u s w as thi s P u n i c c i vil iz atio n th at in the thi rd c e n tu ry b e fo re o u r

e ra it c o n te ste d wi th R o m e th e do m i n i o n o f th e w e ste rn M edi

te rran e an b asin At C arthage as e arly as t he thi rd o r fo u rth c en

.

tu ry B C th e re e xi ste d a l arge te m ple o f a go d w ho w as kn o wn as

. .

B aal Th at epithe t w as ac co m pan ied by ano the r elem en t b u t as

.
, ,

th e sto n e in sc riptio n is at th at p o in t im pe rf e c t w e d o n o t k n o w ,

w h at i t w as I n n u m e ro u s vo tive in s c rip ti o n s m e n ti o n is m ade o f

.

1
Cf D io d o ru s S ic u lu s , I V , 83 ; Pau saniu s
. . VI I I ,
24 , 6 ; P o ly b ius , I , 5 5 ; S trab o , V I ,
V
2, 5 ; an d irg Aen , I , 7 50 . . .

2
S trab o , VI , 2, 5 .

3 Aelian , De Natura An i maliu m, I V , 2 .

304 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

a m ale go d c al le d B aal H amo n , a name w hi c h w e have al re ady fo u n d

-

in the n ei ghb o rho o d o f T y re I

Whe the r thi s Carth agin ean d ei ty .

is i d e n ti c al wi th the go d o f H amo n ne ar Ty re havi ng b een b ro u gh t ,

to A f ri c a by e m i g ran ts f ro m that re gi o n o r w he ther the n ame o ri gi ,

n ated i n d e pe n d e n tly in A fri c a w e c an no t no w d e te rm i n e b u t t he , ,

“ ”2
i n sc rip ti o n to the B aal o f Le b an o n fo u nd in Cyp ru s sho w s tha t
s u c h a t ran s fe r w as p o s sibl e Ho we ve r that m ay b e the i nsc rip ti o n
.
,

fo u n d at M arsei lles wi th its f ragme n tary co m p ani o n fo u nd at Car

1

t h a g e
‘
s h o w s th at a t e m p l e to t hi s go d e xi s ted e q u i pp ed wi th a ,

p ri e s th o o d a n d a l t ars a n d a t ar i ff fo r d i f
f e re n t ki n d s o f sac rifi ce s ,

w hi ch i m plies a hi ghly o rganize d c u lt p arallel in its devel o p me n t

to that o f po s t e xili c J u d ai sm -
Ano the r i n s c rip tio n no w p rese rved
.

in the m u se u m at C arthage sp e ak s o f the b u i ldi ng o f n ew san c tu

5

ari e s to As htart an d T an ith in L e b an o n — mo t o f co u rse the L e b ano n , ,

in Sy ri a b u t so m e em i ne n c e in o r ne ar C arthage so n am ed b e cau se
,

o f its w hi te sto n e Ashtart is the S e mi ti c go dde ss wi th w hi c h w e

.

have b ec o m e so f amili ar b u t T an ith is a ne w n am e no t fo u n d in ,

o the r p arts o f the S e mi ti c w o rl d .

I n the n u m e ro u s vo ti ve in sc rip ti o n s w hi c h h ave b ee n fo u n d in the

Carthagine an di s tri c t the c hi e f go dd e s s is T anith ,
T he n ame o f .

Ashtart is q u i te di spl aced by he rs T an ith is u su ally asso c i ated .

wi th the l o rd ( Ado n) B aal H amo n an d is m o st o f te n c all ed

‘ ’ ’
-
,

T an ith pn b aal — T an ith o f the face o f B aal o r T ani th b e fo re B aal

‘ ’ ‘ ’
,

o r T an ith in t he pre sen ce o f B aal

‘ 6
Wh at is the m e an in g o f these .
’

fac ts ? Thi rty ye ars ago the w ri ter regarde d T an ith as i den ti c al
wi th Ashtart and su ppo se d that the n am e Ashtart h ad b een di s
,

pl ac e d by an e pi the t de ri ve d fro m the ro o t ytn to give an d m e ani n g

‘ ’
,

T he give r m u l tipli e r o r in c re ase r Whi le the fo rm atio n o f

‘ ’ ‘ 7 ’ ‘ ’
.
, ,

su c h an e pi the t is po s sibl e it d o es n o t so far as the w ri ter k n o w s , , ,

o c c u r e lse wh e re Thi rty ye ars ago the w ri te r di d no t app re c iate

.

as he d o e s n o w th at n o n e o f the S e mi ti c n ati o n ali ti es is a p u re d e ve lo p

1
I n t he f o rm of E l H amo n , in o ne o f t h e Umm -
el- Aw ami d in sc riptio ns ,
L idz b ars ki , Alts emitisc he T
exte , no . 13 .

1
S ee CI S , I , 5 an d ab o ve .

3
CI S , I , 165 .

CI S , I , 16 7 .

5
Cf L idz b arsk i , E phe meris , I , 19 ff
. .

3
As in CI S , I , 180 , an d pas si m, e spe c ially in CI S , vo l . I II .

7
S emitic Or igi ns , p 253 , . n . 6 .
 WES T S EM ITIC REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 05

m en t f ro m S emi ti c sto c k b u t that all o f them h ave bl en de d wi th ,

po p u l atio n s that we re in the l an d s whe re th e y se ttle d b efo re the m .

T h e P u n i c peopl e s we re n o ex ce ptio n T he part o f No rth Af ri c a .

ab o u t C arth age w as a part o f th e c rad le l an d o f th e H ami to -

S emi ti c rac e I n th i s gen e ral regio n Ham i ti c di ale c ts h ave su rvi ved
.

in a m o re pri mi tive pu ri ty than in o ther p arts o f the wo rld Wh en .

Ph oen i cian s se ttled in C arthage the y in vaded the l an d o f a ve ry o ld

Ham i ti c p eo ple an d do u b tle ss in acco rd an c e wi th an an c ien t po in t
, ,

o f vi ew th at is n o w w e ll re c o gn iz ed p ro pi ti ate d by wo rshi p the p rin ,

c ipal H am i ti c d ei ty o f th e regi o n Thi s dei ty w as w e b elieve . .

, ,

T an ith a go dd ess o f fe rtili ty

, S he w as regarded as th e give r o f li fe .

T he w riter h as co m e to thi nk that she w as lik e

’

an d ble s sin gs
‘

.
,

Alein a tree d ivin i ty

,
I n an c i en t E gypti an tn t fo llo we d by the
- 1
.

de te rm in ative f o r tree den o ted a tree o r a fru i t an d in Tu areg a

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
, ,

m o de rn H ami ti c d ialec t tadent f ro m a ro o t dn still design at e s a , , ,

k in d o f tree 2
I t seem s p ro b able t h e re fo re th at T an ith w as a pre
'

.
, ,

Phoen i cian go ddess o f fe rtili ty o f the Hami tes an d that they h ad

iden tified he r wi th a tree an d th at she w as so po pu l ar that afte r ,

th e c o mi n g o f th e P h oen i c i an s they to o wo rshipp ed h e r to su c h a

degree that she l arge ly di splac e d thei r n ative go ddess Ash tart
What th e epi thet pn b aal m ay m ean is pro blemati c al P e rh ap s the
.
.

g o dd e ss m a y h av e b een re p re se n t e d by an i d o l th at h ad a m ascu lin e

he ard b u t it is qu i te po ssible th at the epith e t m ay m e an n o m o re
,

than th at sh e to o k p re ce den ce o f B aal .

Tan ith w as a m o the r go dde ss an d S t Au gu stin e bo re wi tn ess -

,
.

th at in th e fif th cen tu ry o f o u r e ra h er wo rshi p p e rsi sted an d th at

o n h e r fe stal d ay s i n d e c en t play s w e re en ac te d i mm o d e st so n gs ,

were sun g an d the em o tio n s o f the peo ple we re stirre d to o rgie s o f

,

f u ry 3 .

T he i den tity of T an ith

lo n g b een rec o gn iz ed an d D i d o h as .
4

I t seem s to the w ri ter less like ly th at D id o is a co rru ptio n o f T ani th

th an th at D ido is an e pi th e t c o nn e c te d wi th th e S em i ti c ro o t d ad ,
‘
lo ve A deity Yadu d go in g b ac k to a po ssible D o d has alre ady
.
’
, ,

1
Cf E rm an. und Grap o w , Worterb u ch V , ,
3 13 .

2
F o u c auld , Di ti c o nn aire ab rege To u areg-F ran cai s , pu b li é e p ar R . B asset , Algiers,
19 18 , vo l . I , p 14 7 . .

3
De C i vitate Dei , I I , 4 .

Cf Ge o rg H o flm an , Ueb er ei ni ge pk oen I n sc hr if ten an d W R S mith ,

'
4
. .
, p . 3 2, . .

R eli gi o n f
o the S emi tes , 2u d ed .
, p 3 74
. .
306 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC OR IG I NS

be e n trac e d in P hoeni c i a ; l in No rth A fri c a the e pi the t m ay h ave

b e e n ap plie d to the go dde ss Ho we ve r the n am e Di do m ay have
.

o ri g in ate d o f the i de n ti ty o f he r fi g u re wi th t ha t o f T an ith the re

,
’
c an b e no d o u b t T he s to ry o f Di d o s lo ve fo r fE ne as as to l d b y
.

Ve rgil is the re fo re ano the r so u rce o f i n fo rmatio n o f the n atu re o f

2

he r c ul t F arne ll has po i nte d o u t that the w ho le s to ry o f the w an

.
1

d e rin gs o f A n e as an d o f Di do s lo ve fo r hi m is p ro b ab ly b u t a tran s
i ’

l atio n i n to po e try o f the my ths o f thi s c ul t .

T he te m pl e o f T an ith Di do w as in the fo u rth c e n tu ry o f o u r e ra

-

i
s tu ate d a li tt el o u i d
ts e t e h o ld c i ty o f C a r th a ge i n h
a t o r n y j u ng el ‘
.

T he po pul ar i m agi n atio n p o rtraye d it as i n habi te d by asp s an d

d rago n s w ho we re the g u ard ian s o f he r san c tu ary O u tsi de its .

w all s a py re w as e rec te d e ac h ye ar and the go dd ess w as tho u gh t to

th ro w he rsel f i n to its fl am e s as Di do did in Ve rgi l s s to ry
’
, V e rgil .

re p re se n ts he r a s d o in g it fo r l o ve o f f E n e as ; in the c u lt it w as d o u b t

l ess a p assio n pl ay d e pi c ti ng he r lo ve fo r A do ni s E shm u n B aal -

,

Ham o n o r w hate ve r the n am e o f the d e ad vege tati o n go d may

,
-

h ave b o rn e in N o rth A fri c a I n the acco u n ts o f the ce le b ratio n s

.

o f the d e ath o f A d o n i s in A si a the re is n o parall e l to thi s fe atu re o f

the C arth agi n i an ri tu al I t w as p ro b ab ly i n tro d u ce d f ro m t he

.

c e remo n i e s o f the o ld e r H am i ti c T an ith an d w as n o d o u b t d ue , ,

to the w arm e r an d m o re passio n ate n atu re o f the A f ri c an s T he .

g o d d e s s a s a c t u a l ly w o r shi p p e d w as n o t a t ree g o dd e ss o nl y b u t o f -
,

vege tat o i n ge e n r a lly T e r tu lli a n

5
c.al le d h e r C r
e es
6
.

I t has be en n o ted ab o ve that in the fo u rte e n th c e n tu ry B C

7
.

Am o ri tes we re wo rshippi n g a go dde ss A shi rat in th e te rrito ry afte r

ward inhabite d b y the Heb rew trib e o f A she r I n J u dge s the .

plu ral B aalim and Ashero th is emplo ye d to de sign ate th e C an a

,
‘ ’

ani te go d s an d go dd esses i n ste ad o f B aali m an d A sh taro th w hi c h

‘ ’

is fo u n d in m an y passage s 8
Nu m e ro u s all u sio n s in the Old Te sta
.

Cf p 29 1i
ab o ve ,
1 . .
.

z E ne id , B k I V
1
. .

3
Call s f
o the Gr eek S tate s , I I , 63 8 64 2 — .

Cf . J us tin , XIX , 1, and W . R S mi t h , Reli gi o n

.
f the S emi te s
o ,
2n d cd .
, p 3 74
. .

5
Ad Uxor em, I , 6 an d De E xho rtati o ne Castitas , 15 .

5
A P u ni c insc rip tio n f ro m C f ro m th e p erio d o f it s as c end anc y, is a tab ella
art h age ,

devo ti on is to a go dd es s Haw ath, p erh ap s a s e rp en t go dd e ss , o f w h o m no t hing e lse is

-

k no wn . Cf Lidz b arsk i , E phe mer is , I , 26—

. 34 .

ab o ve , p 88
7
S ee . .

3
Cf .
J ud . 1 S am . e tc .
 WE S T S EM ITI C REL I GIOUS ORIGI NS 30 7

m en t reve al th e f ac t th at b e fo re th e Heb rew o c cu patio n the c u lt w hi c h

w e h ave trac e d th ro u gh P h oen i c ia the islan d s o f th e Medite rran e an , ,

an d No r th A f ri c a h ad spre ad o ve r the w h o le o f agri c u ltu ral P ale s

,

t in e E ve ry imp o rtan t to wn h ad its lo c al B aal w ho as the l ate

.
, ,

W R S m i th sho we d w as b elieved to b e the o wn e r o f its spring

. .
1
,
.

w atered o r rain wate re d lan d Thi s go d w as e ve rywh ere ae co m

-
.

p a n ie d by hi s c o n so r t A sh ta rt w h o se n am e h a s b ee n p e rverte d in ,

the Old Te stam e n t b o o k s as w e have th e m to A sh to re th E ach .

B aal w as the n u m en o f hi s lo c ali ty Po ssibly in their m yth s lo c al .

d i ff e re n ce s e xi ste d b u t fu n d am en tally the B aal s an d the A sh to re th s

,

we re i den ti c al wi th the deitie s o f the Amo rite s an d C an aan i te s who se

wo rship h as alre ad y b een stu die d T h e Old Te stam en t refe ren ces .

to it s imm o ralitie s an d m in iste r s o f i m p u ri ty le ave n o ro o m fo r

_

do u b t o n thi s po i n t 2
T he m ateri al s d o n o t e xi st fro m whi c h to
.

m ake a stu d y o f the se m an y d e iti es an d if they di d w e sho uld fi n d ,

the m in th e i r ge n e ral fe atu re s id e n tic al wi th th e c u lt s o f the

, ,
-

P hoen i cian s F o r the m o st part the se B aals an d Ashto re th s were

.

wo rsh ipped in o pen — air sh ri n e s o r hi gh plac e s On e su c h high ,

‘
.
’ ‘

pl ac e that at Gez e r h as b een ex c avate d an d its p illars whi c h

’ “ ”
, , ,

sym b o liz e d th e m ale o r an o f fe rtility an d its m an y A starte plaq u e s

g ,

h ave bee n in part re ve ale d 3

M an y an c ien t e lem en t s we re fu se d .

in it s wo rshi p On e o f the se w as th e ven e ratio n o f s ac re d se rpen ts

. .

So mewh at similar evid en ce s o f the re ali stic sym b o ls o f the wo rship

—
o f th e m o th e r go dd e ss h ave b e en fo u n d at o th e r Pale sti n i an si te s
4
.

T he m ix tu re o f Am o rite s an d C an aan ite s in P ale stin e h ad by the

fo u rteen th ce n tu ry B C in tro d u c e d the wo rshi p o f the go d E 1 .
,

1
R eli gi o n f
o the S emi tes , 2n d
pp 9 7 ii , 109 ff ed .
, . .

2
Cf 1 Kgs . if , 33 ff : 2 Kg s
. fl ; eu t . . D .

3
S ee R A S M ac aliste r, The E x cavati o n of Gez er, I , 5 1, 10 5 10 7 ; I I , 3 8 1—
_
. . . 4 04 -
.

4
I n c o n n e c t io n wi th th e w o rsh ip o f this go dde ss in Palestin e a w o rd sh o u ld b e said
c onc ern ing th e te mple o f a similar go ddess at Ash k elo n to w hi c h H ero d o tu s ( I , 10 5 )
b e ars w itn e ss— a te mple w h ic h w as in e xiste n c e in his d ay T h e c h arac t er o f th e w o r .

ship , as h e d e sc rib e s it , id e n t ifi es t h e go dd e ss with Ashto re th T h e p ro b ab ili ty is t hat .

h er c u lt w as p lant e d th e re b y t h e Am o rite an aan ites b ef o re t h e c o min g o f th e C

hili s
-
'

P
tin e s . I f th e Phili ti s n es c a m e to P ale stin e
b y w ay o f re te , as is n o w f ro m C re te , o r C
o f te n su p p o sed , th e y w o u ld m ain tain t h e w o r ship as t h e w o rship o f th e p rimi tive

C retan go d d e ss o f f ertility w h o se c u lt in th at islan d reac h e s f ar b ac k in to prehi sto ric

time ( S ee the w riter s R eli gi o n s of the Wo rld

’
. 3 rd e d p 244 f an d t h e ref eren c e s given
, . . .

) L at e r w riters lik e Dio d o ru s

th e re .
,
S ic u lu s ( II , 4 ) an d Ovid ( M etdmorphow s , I V ,
44—
4 6) id en tif y h er w ith the S y rian go dd ess Atargatis . On th e last —
men tio n ed d eity
se e b elo w , p 3 18f . .
30 8 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C O R IG I NS

w ho se igin w e h ave trac ed amo ng the A mo ri te s I n the pe rio d

or .

re pre se n te d by the E l A m arn a l e tte rs his p re se n c e is vo u c he d fo r -

in the S he phe lah by the n ame s o f Y ab n i c l o f L ac hi sh w ho se n ame

1 -
,

m e an t El has c re ate d an d M alki e l ( M y ki ng is

‘ ’
the n am e
2 -
‘

o f w h o se c i ty is l o s t b u t w ho li ve d ap pa re n tly in t he regi o n o f G ez e r

an d K e i lah
1
T he w o rshi p o f E l c an al so b e t rac e d at a n um be r o f
.

o the r po i n ts by m e an s o f the Old Te s tam e n t in p as s age s w he re it ,

is e vid e n t that an o l d e r c ul t is b ei ng f u se d wi th the c u l t o f Y ahwe h .

Thus in Ge n w e l e arn o f E 1o f B e the l

. H e is al so m e n tio ne d in .

Ge n . tho u gh in that p assage the exi gen c y o f the sto ry has

le d the n arrato r to p re fix the arti cl e as tho ugh E l w e re a ge ne ri c
‘
te rm I n Ge n
. w e he ar o f El Ol am o f B ee rshe b a
. If w e .

ac c e pt th e p re se n t po i n ti n g o f the tex t it w o u ld m e an R l e te rn al
‘ ’
-
,

(a me an in g u n thi nk able he re) b u t it is q u i te po ssibl e that it m e an t

"
,
’
T he hi dde n El I n Ge n w e h e ar o f E 1 R o i El w ho see s
‘ ‘
. .
,

I n Ge n an d 5 w e he ar o f E l S h add ai p e rh ap s E 1o f -
‘
.
, ,

T he c h apte r is f ro m P the l atest o f the P e n ta

’
the hil l co u n try 6 -
.
,

te u ch al s trata and is o n e o f its au tho r s favo ri te te rm s ( c f Ex

’
,
it . .

is po ssible ho weve r t hat he has he re p re serve d a m e mo ry that E 1w as

, ,

o n c e w o rshi ppe d in th e m o u n tai n o u s re gi o n o f c e n tral P ale s ti n e .

I n Ju d w e l earn th at E 1 w as wo rshi pped at S he chem tho u gh

.
,
‘
in J u d the e pi th e t b a al is su b sti tu te d fo r E 1 I n the l ate mid
. .

rash w hi c h no w co n stit u tes Ge n 14 th e go d o f J e ru sale m i s c alle d El .

,
‘
E lyo n El ex al te d o n e ( Gen ,
if ) While it is pro b able that ’
. .

th e adj e c tive E lyo n is a l ate ad di ti o n it m ay we ll b e th at the p as

‘ ’
,

s age p re se rves the m e m o ry o f an Am o ri te C an aan i te w o rshi p o f El -

at Je ru s alem Ho weve r thi s m ay b e the re c an b e no do u b t o f the

.
,

wi de di strib u tio n o f thi s c u lt in Pale stin e .

1Winc k le r un d Ab el Tho ntaf eln vo n E l Amar n a n o 124

Cf .
,
-
, . .

2
Winc kle r u n d Ab el o p ci n o s 10 8—110 an d B ez o ld an d
Cf .
,
. .
,
B u dge , T bl t f
a e s ro m
Tell el—Amarna in the B ritish M useu m no s 62 and 63
-
,
. .

3
Cf Win ck ler u n d Ab el o p ci t n o 106
.
,
. .
, . .

Thi s su gg es ti o n meanin g o f these rad ic als in E cc l

is b as e d on th e p ro b ab le .

w he re w e sh o uld p o in t el em an d translate ign o ran c e , t he m eanin g ign o ran c e aris ing

‘ ’ ’ ‘

’—
t h at b ein g apparen tly t he o rigin al mean in g
’
f ro m th at w hi c h is hi dd e n u n k n o wn
‘ ‘
,
’
o f th e ro o t ; se e t h e w ri te r s C
o mme n tary o n E cclesi as tes in th e I ntern ati o n al r iti c al C
C o mmen tary, p 105 I t may b e , h o w e ver, t hat in the phras e b e fo re u s al m is the n am e
. .
‘

j
o f s o m e c ul t o b ec t as it app are n tly i s in a m u c h later uni c ins c rip tio n f ro m ar thage ; P C
c f Lidz b ars ki , E phe mer is , I , 17 lin e 3 , an d Lidz b arski s c o mm e n ts
’
. .

I’
T h e w rite r is, o f c o u rse aw are th at t he re are o th e r in terp retat io n s o f this term
, .
 WE S T S EM ITIC REL IGIOUS ORIGI NS 30 9

I n the I srael itish p erio d o n e to wn w as c alle d B e th S hem esh o r the -

,

tem ple o f the su n go d I n the ti m e o f the E l A m arn a l ette rs it w as

-
.
-
,

c all ed B e t h Nn i u r ta 1
I t h as alre ad y be en sho wn th at Nin u rta
- -
.
-

w as o rigin ally a B abyl o n i an go dde ss o f f e rtili ty tho u gh sh e w as ,

af ter w ard tran sfo rmed in to a go d S un wo rship at l e ast u n de r

2 -
.
,

th at n am e do es n o t app e ar am o n g th e We st S e m ite s e x ce pt am o n g
,

the A ram ae an s Thi s will appe ar m o re c le arly as w e pro c ee d

. .

I t is p ro b able therefo re that the wo rship o f th e su n at B eth—

, she
,

m e sh w as no t intro d u ce d u n til afte r the c o min g o f the A ram ae an s .

At B eth ; sh an whe re th e Plain o f Je z ree l u n i te s with th e Jo rd an

,

Valley ,
in re cen t ye ars bee n exc avate d 3
.

Thi s te 4 60 to 1225 B C h avi n g bee n . .

,

re b u ilt e s I I I to R am se s

d wi th a se rpen t
g o dd e ss
4
N o i n.s c r ip t io n s h ave c o m e t o li h
g t to re ve al to u s the
c o n c e p tio n s wh i c h w e re e n tertain e d o f hi m On e wo u ld e xp e c t hi m .
_

to b e a n atu re go d o f fe rtility Pe rhap s h e is i d en ti c al wi th the

-
.
.

M e k al m en tio n e d in an in s c rip tio n fro m Ki tio n in Cypru s b u t th at 5

,

in sc riptio n le ave s u s qu ite in the d ark as to the n atu re o f the di vin ‘

ity . Po ssibly hi s n am e m e an t H e w ho c au ses to e at i e the give r ‘

,
’
. .
,

o f fo o d T he statu e o f a se rp en t go dde ss d atin g abo u t 17 00 1600 — -

,
.

B C w as fo u n d at Te ll B e i t Mi rsi m b u t w e kn o w n o thi n g o f h e r
.
,

wo rshi p 6
.

T he M o abi tes w ho dwe l t in th e e levate d lan d s b e tween the D e ad

,

S e a an d the de se rt wo r shipped a deity C he m o sh who m M e sha king

, ,

o f M o ab c alls A sh tar C h e m o sh Thi s go d w as the n atio n al go d

7 -
.
,

1
S ee Knu dtz o n , D ie E l—
Amarn a Tf l a e n , no . 290 .

2
S ee ab o ve, c h , VI II , p 269 f
. .

3
S ee t h e art ic le b y Ro we an d Vin c en t in th e Qu arterly S tatemen t o f the P ale s tine

E xp lo ratio n F un d f o r J anu ary , 193 1 .

4
F ive se rp ent - c ult o b ec ts j w ere f o un d . On e w as a serpent h aving h u man b re asts
wi th a milk b o w l b elo w t he m ;
-
an o th er, a serpe n t h avi ng h u m an b reasts and ano th er

se rp ent ab o ut it s n ec k . Th ese in dic ate a go dd ess . T he n am e Beth shan , -

T mpl
‘
e e of

serpen t- go d d ess w as w o rshi pp ed w h o w as c alled S h an (c f

’
sh an su gge st t hat h ere a .

t h e B ab ylo n ian S akh an , D m el, Pan theon B abylo ni cu m,

ei no . Wh ether M ekal
w as d evelo ped he r, o u t of at p resen t b e de termi ne d
o r b ec ame h er c o n so rt , c ann o t .

f C n o 86 , an d ab o ve , p 3 0 1
f C I S I
’
. . . .
, ,

6
S ee W F Al b righ t , Archaeolo gy of alestin e and the B i b le, Ne w o rk , 19 3 1, p 8 7 if
. . P Y . .

7
In the f amo u s M o ab i te S t o n e ; c f , e g , Lidz b arsk i , H and bu ch tier No rdsemitischen
'

. . .

E pi graphik , p 4 15 , . an d S id ersk y , L a S tele de M esa .

3 10 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

of M o abB o th M e sha and the Old Te stam e n t re c o gniz ed that he

.

bo re th e s am e relatio n to M o ab that Yahwe h b o re to I srae l Of his .

n atu re w e k no w o nly w h at hi s n a me re ve als S o far as the pre se n t .

w ri te r k n o w s no o ne has ve n tu re d to pe ne trate the m e ani ng o f the

w o rd C hemo sh by o ffe ri ng an e ty mo lo gy o f it A sh tar is o f co u rse .
, ,

the m asc uli ne Ash tart wi th w ho m w e h ave b e c o me ac q u ai n ted in

So u th Arabi a As C hemo sh w as a d ei ty w ho co uld b e e q u ated wi th
.

Ath tar he m u st have b e en a go d o f fe rti li ty

,
M o re than thi s c an .

no t at p re sen t b e s ai d I n a ti m e o f n atio n al s tre s s M e sha s ac rifi ce d

.

h is so n to hi m .
1

It rem a n s i to y the go d s
b ranc h o f the w est
s tu d o f the o the r gre at
e rn S em i te s th e A ram a e an s I t h as b ee n po i n ted o u t in C hap te r
,
.

I I I th at the y fi rst app e ar in hi s to ry in the fo u rtee n th c e n tu ry B C . .

,

an d that the y w e re d i ff e re n ti ate d f ro m the o the r S e m i ti c peo pl e s

”
p artly by th ei r re si d e n c e in the se a l an d s o f A rabi a and partly
by the mi nglin g o f the n o rthe rn se c tio n o f them wi th the H u rri .

Altho u gh thei r p re se nce in the regio n w hi c h afterward b o re thei r

n am e c an b e t race d thu s e arly w e h ave n o w ri t te n m ate ri al w hi c h ,

th ro w s li gh t o n thei r reli gi o n e arli e r th an the e i gh th c e n tu ry b e fo re

C hri st .

I n re vi ewi n g thi s m ate ri al it will b e c o n ve ni e n t to b egi n wi th the

in sc rip tio n s T he e arliest o f these is an i n sc rip ti o n o f Kilam u
.
2

w ri tten in P hoeni c i an an d d atin g fro m the n in th cen tu ry B C .

Kilam u m en ti o n s t h ree d e itie s B aal S e m e d B aal Khamm an o f ,

-
,
-

an o th e r pl ac e the n am e o f w hi c h is n o t c le arly m ad e o u t an d R ak eb ,

el o r T he m e ssenge r o f El T he tw o b aali m are c le arly the we ll

‘ ’
.
,

kn o wn C anaani te an d S emi ti c go d s o f fe rt ili ty R ak eb e l is a go d .

-

wi th w ho m w e h ave no t hi th erto m e t in o u r stu dy o f the S e mi ti c

p a n th e o n s H i s n am e h o w .e ve r p resu pp o se s th e re c o gni ti o n o f t h e
, ,

Ph oen i c ian go d El w ho sto o d at the he ad o f the P h oeni ci an p an theo n

, .

C en tu ri e s l ate r in the n eighb o rh o o d o f Tyre there w as as w e have ,

see n a go d M alak Ash tar t T he m e s se n ger o f Ashtart w ho if w e

‘ ’
-
, , , ,

are n o t mi stake n w as a f o m o f A d o n i s C o uld th e R ak eh el b e

3
r ,
.
-

an o the r w ay o f allu di n g to th e s am e go d ? Wh il e it is po ssibl e the ,

1
Cf 2 Kgs. . 27 .

2
F . vo n Lu sch an , A u sgrab u n gen m S endschi rli , iv, 3 7 4 ; Lid z b ars k i , E phemeris,
I I I , p 218 . .

3
S e e ab o ve , p p 289 . and 29 2fl .
 WE S T S EM ITI C REL IGIOUS ORI GI NS 3 11

fi i ly c lo se to b e c o nvi n c in g True I sh tar s

an alo g e s are n o t su f c en t
i .
,
’

d e scen t to the lo we r wo rld w as c alled by the Akk ad i an s T he Mi ssio n

‘

b u t o the r c o n ce ptio n s o f missio n also e xi ste d in the

’ ‘
h
’
o f I s ta
1
r ,

S emiti c wo rld I t is n o w generally rec o gnize d th at the mal ak

.
’

Y ahw eh in the J do cu m en t o f the Old Te stam en t w as n o t a b ein g

separate f ro m Yahwe h b u t Yahweh h i m se lf go n e o n a parti c u l ar ,

mi ssio n an d R ak e b el m ay h ave o rigin ate d in a parallel co n ceptio n

2
,
-
.

I n Kilam u s i n sc rip tio n h e is the p atro n d ei ty o f the ho u se o f

’

Kil am u .

Abo u t a c entu ry l ater th ree in sc riptio n s we re w ritten at Zen dji rli

by Panamm u and B ar R e ku h a father an d so n 3
T he so n re c o rd s
-
,
.

hi m self as a se rvan t o f T iglath pile ser I I I o f A ssyria w ho ru le d fro m

_
-
,

7 4 5 to 7 27 B C These in sc riptio n s are in Aram ai c sho win g that

.
,

in the interval be tween Kilam u an d th e e i gh th c e n tu ry Aram man s ,

had o ccu pie d the plac e T he p an theo n m en ti o n e d by Pan am mu .

co n si sted o f fi ve d ei ti es : H ad ad El R e sh e ph R akeh el and S he , , ,

-

m e sh E l an d R akeh el we re c le arly t aken o ver fro m the Ph oeni

.
-

c ian p an th eo n o f th e pre Aram ze an in h abi tan t s as th e i n sc riptio n -

,

o f Kilam u p ro ve s P rob ably the same is tru e o f R e she ph the fi re

.
,

go d as w e h ave p revio u sly fo u n d hi m in P h oeni c i a I mmigran ts

4
.
,

en tering a n ew lan d alw ays did ho n o r to th e p rin c ipal go d s w ho we re

'

b elieved to alre ad y c o n tro l th e plac e : su ch wo rship o f the go d s o f

thei r p re de c esso r s is th e refo re wh at w e sh o ul d expec t
, ,
.

At the head o f Pan am m u s pan th eo n sto o d the A ramae an go d

’

Hadad t he Aramaean e qu ivalen t o f the Akkadian Ad ad the we athe r

, ,

go d o f th e Akk adi an s w ho in B abylo n i a afte r 2200 B C to o k the

,
.

pl ac e o f E n lil as th e thu n de re r
5
T h e n am e Hadad is de rived f ro m .

a S emit ic ro o t w hi ch me an s to c rash
’
m ak e a lo ud n o i se ; in ‘ ’ ‘ '

,
l

Heb rew hadad an d in Arabic hadda I t w as an appro priate n ame

,
.

fo r a w e ath e r— go d T h e po sitio n o f H ad ad at th e h e ad o f Pan

.

am mu s p an th eo n b e tray s
’
w e b elieve Hu rri—Hittite in flu en c e , ,
.

Th e Hu rri an d Hi tti tes b e lo n ge d to th e sam e rac i al sto c k an d at ,

1
T h e mo n th E lul w as c alled ara h Ei pri i starati , literally , th e m o n th
‘
of t he mi ssio n
of th e go dd esse s ; KB , I I , 25 2—25 3
’
cf . I t w as th e m o nt h w h e n I sh tar was . b elieved
t o h ave go ne to the lo w er w o rld f o r amm u z T .

S ee th e w rite r s R eli gi o n of I srael, p 174 E

2 ’
. .

Lidz b arski , H an db u ch, p 440 ; G A o o k e , No rth S emi tic I n scri pti o n s, p 15 9 if

. . . C . .

S ee ab o ve , p . 29 5 .

5
S ee ab o ve , c h . viii , p 24 6
. .
3 12 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

o ne ti me a po rti o n f the
H u rri had bee n u nd e r the sw ay o f the
o

Hi tti te e m pi re At the he ad o f the Hi tti te p an theo n s to o d the

.

w e athe r go d T e sh u b S inc e in the arc hi te c tu ral d e co ratio n s o f

-
.

th e p alace o f Panam m u Hi tti te i n fl u e n c e is m ani fe st in al mo st e ve ry

line i t see m s b u t n atu ral to see H u rri Hi tti te i n flu e n ce in the e le
,
-

vati o n o f T e sh u b to the fi rs t pl ac e i n thi s p an the o n .

Sim il arly th e p re se nc e o f S ham ash in Panam mu s p an theo n is ’

d u e to Aram azan i n fl ue n c e As w e have se e n the s u n go d w as n o t .

,
-

wo rshi ppe d u n de r thi s nam e by A mo ri te s C an aan ite s an d Ph oen i , ,

ei au s I n S o u th A rabi a S ham s w as a go dd e ss
. Whe the r the w o r .

ship o i th e s u n dei ty h ad b e e n b ro u gh t by th e Aram ze an s f ro m th e i r

-

A rabi an ho m e an d its sex changed by c hanged co n di ti o n s o r whe the r ,

its w o rship am o ng them had b e e n d u e to lo n g expo su re to B aby

lo n i an i nfl u e n ce is an o pe n q u e s ti o n
,
T he p re sen ce o f thi s w o rshi p .

is ho w e ve r i n di sp u tabl e
, ,
.

Wh a t sho u ld pe rhaps b e regarde d as a six th d ei ty A raq R e shep h

, , ,
-
,

is m e n tio n e d by Pan amm u T he n am e if p u re Aram ze an m ean s .

, ,
‘
—
T h e l an d R e she p h o r the R e she ph b elo n gi n g to the l an d
,
’ 1
It .

seem s p ro b abl e t h at this is n o t a di ff e re n t go d f ro m t he R e she p h

p revi o u sly m e n tio ne d .

T h e in s c rip ti o n o f B ar R e k e b lik e that o f his f athe r gi ve s H ad ad

-
, ,

th e su prem e pl ac e in th e p an th eo n I t i m pli e s th at the p an theo n .

w as o f c o n si d e rabl e siz e b u t m en ti o n s by n am e n o n e w d ei ti e s
,
.

“
Had ad E l R e k eb e l l o rd o f the h o u se an d S ham ash an d all the
, ,
-
, , ,
”2
go d s o f Y adi is th e phr ase by w hi c h he refe rs to th em At thi s .

tim e then an d at thi s place w e fi n d tw o n ew d ei ti e s i n t ro du ced b y

, ,

the Aram ze an s .

An A ram ai c i n sc riptio n also f ro m the eigh th c en tu ry that lay , ,

3

fo r so m e twe n ty y e ars in th e ho u se o f the sh e ik o f the vil lage o f

S efi re tw en ty fi ve kilo m e te r s so u the ast o f Al eppo rec o rd s a tre aty
,
-
,
"
in w hi c h a kin g o f a plac e c alled Ke th ek (its rad i c al s are Inn;
w e do n o t re ally k n o w ho w it w as vo c aliz e d) an d a ki n g o f A rp ad

1
P e rhap sit w as in te n d e d b y t he phrase to exp ress th e fac t th at R e sheph w as a na
t ive o f t h e lan d o f Y
ad i I t is tem pt in g to c o nn e c t ar aq wi th the araq a, b e w ak ef u l,
.
‘ ’ ’ ’

an d e xp lain th e n ame to me an R es h eph w h o ne ver slu mb ers , b u t th e in sc ri p tio n is

‘ ’

no t Arab ic .

2
Lidz b ars ki , H and b u c h, p 44 2—443 , 1 22 . . .

3
R o nz evalle , M é langes d e l Un i vers ité S t o seph,
’
. J XV , fas c 7 ,
. an d H B auer, Archi v
.

u er Or ie ntf o rsc hu n g, VI II p 1 . .
 ’‘
WE S I
, S EM ITI C REL IG IOU S ORIGI NS 13

( A rv a d ) p a r ti c i p ate d T h e i n s c ri p ti o n whi c h h as b u t re c en tly

.
,

b e en pu b lished n o t o nly reve al s the e xi sten ce o f a hi therto u n kn o wn

,

Aram ae an kingdo m b u t al so sho w s th at th e c i ty o f Arvad the mo st

, ,

n o r th erly o f the an c i en t P h oen i c i an si ste rho o d o f to wn s h ad p ass ed ,

u n d e r the sw ay o f the A ram a ean s T h e kin g o f A rvad w as at thi s .

‘ ‘
tim e Atar sam ak a n am e m e an in g Atar is a su ppo rt
‘
-
,
Atar is .
’

the fo rm wh i c h th e p rim i ti ve S em i ti c m o the r go dde ss as su m e s in -

Aram ai c T he n am e pro ve s wh at w e sho uld expe c t that the p rim i

.
,

ti ve moth er go ddess w as kn o wn an d reve red an d also th at th e k in g

-
,

o f A rvad w as an A ram aean T h e tre aty is atte ste d by the in vo .

c atio n o f m an y go d s afte r th e m an n er o f th e tre atie s o f th e Hi t ti te

kin gs wi th th eir vassals an d like th e Hittite tre atie s th e li st b egin s , ,

wi th B abylo n ian d ei tie s 1

Ho w eve r the re i s a diff e ren ce fo r whe re
.
, ,

as th e Hi tti te d o c u m en ts i n vo k e th e d e i ti e s o f the o l d e r S u m e ri an

p a n th e o n t h e d o cu m
,
e n t b e f o re u s in v o k e s t h o se o f th e late r B aby

lo hian p an th eo n an d go es so f ar in so m e c ase s as to m o d if y the o ld

,

syz igie s Thu s w e h ave M ardu k an d Zarpan i t N ab u an d Tash

.
,

mit Ne rgal an d L asa S am ash an d N a

,
2
h r
3
S i
,
n an d Nik al 4
N akar , ,

an d K ad ah
’
5
th e go d s o f th e e xpan se an d th e l an d th e seven
, ,
‘

( s pi ri t s) 6
E l a n,
d E ly o n f ’
T h e y d o n o t s t o p wi th th e i n vo c atio n

o f d e i ti e s b u t app e al f o r wi tn e ss al so to th e h e aven s th e sea to

, , ,

sprin gs to d ay an d ni gh t
,
T h e su rp ri sin g f e atu re o f thi s li st is the
.

ab sen c e o f H ad ad A t ar an d the d e iti e s th at o n e asso c iate s p articu

, ,

larly wi th th e A ram aean s Thi s c an p artly b e e xpl ain e d it wo u ld

. .

seem by the f ac t th at th e d o c u m e n t b elo n gs to a typ e o f tre aty

,

whi ch th ro u gh Hi ttite in fluen c e had b e co m e c o n ven tio n aliz e d an d ,

co n se quen tly d o e s n o t re ve al th e re li gio n o f e ve r yd ay l ife .

I t is p o ssibl e th at A ram ai c w as em plo y ed as a li ngu a f ran c a an d

th at th e m o n arc h w ho w as im po sin g hi s tre aty o n the A ram ai c
kin g o f Arvad w as n o t a Semite at all S o m e o f the se d eitie s we re .
,

ho wever n atu raliz e d in thi s regi o n

,
At Ne rab a sm all village .
,

1
S ee E F . . Weidn er, P o litische D
Klein asi en , Leipz ig , 19 23 , p 49 fi o ku men te au s
/
. .

2
Evid en tly emplo ye d h ere as a sy n o nym o f E reshk igal .

T h e B ab ylo nian c o n so rt o f S h amash w as M alk a tu S ee ab o ve,

’
Lite rally , F ire
3 ‘
. .

245 .

A c o rru p tio n o f th e S u merian Nin gal .

5
Thi p i s a r are u n k n o wn to me .

5
P h p th
er a s e B ab ylo n ian I gigi .

7
Th ese are , o f c o u rs e , go o d West S e mi tic go ds .
3 14 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

s o u the as t o f
Al e ppo tw o i nsc ri pti o n s p e rh ap s o f the se ve n th c en
,
‘

tu ry w e re fo u nd w ri tte n by tw o p ri e s ts o f S ah r the m o o n go d in
, ,
-

Ne rah I n addi ti o n to S ah r the s e p ri e sts i nvo k e d S he m esh and

.

Nik al and N asik o r No she k T he fi rst th ree o f the se are al re ady .

fami li ar ; th e fo u rth is o f u n ce rtai n o ri gi n and c harac te r .

Pas si ng so u thw ard i n to Sy ri a p ro pe an i ns c riptio n o f Z ak e r

r
2
, ,

ki ng o f H am ath abo u t 800 D C aff o rd s so me i n fo rm atio n abo u t . .

,

the go d s w ho m he w o rs hipp e d H is i n s c rip ti o n is o n a m o n u m e n t

.

e re c te d to a d ei ty w ho se n am e has freq u e n tly b ee n re ad

Al u r T he l ate P ro fe sso r Cl ay in te rp re ted it as e q u i vale n t to
.

$k ( Al regard i n g Ur a s a c o rru p ted s pelli ng o f Am u rru

’ 1
,

a vi e w w hi ch h as n o t m e t wi th f avo r I n the j u dgm e n t o f the w ri te r .

the n am e sho ul d b e re ad E l w ar T he fi rst e l e me n t is c le arly

-
.

the ge ne ral S e m iti c w o rd fo r go d b u t m ay in thi s i n sc rip tio n as in , ,

P h oeni c i a b e a p ro pe r n am e o f the c hie f de i ty o f the p an theo n T he

,
.

el e m e n t w ar is p u zzl in g Po s sibly it m ay b e c o n n ec te d wi th the

.

A rabi c ro o t WR Y w hic h as a n o u n has am o ng its m e an i ngs fi re

,
‘

I f this b e its m e an i n g E l w ar c o u ld b e an
’
o r fi re b ran d
’
s ti c k
‘
- -
,
.
,

e pi the t o f R e she p h I t is pe rhap s m o re p ro b ab le that the go d

.
, ,

w as El an d th at w ar is an e pi the t o f his the m e ani ng o f w hi c h w e ,

have no t ye t l e arn e d T he i m p o rtan ce o f thi s go d is atte ste d by the

.

f ac t th at Z ak e r bu ilt hi s te m p le e re c te d thi s m o n u m en t an d c o u pled , ,

hi m wi th B aal sha m ain th e go d o f he ave n

-
,
.

H o we ve r i mpo rtan t E l w ar m ay have b een Z ake r attrib u te d hi s

-
,

s u cc e ss to the f avo r o f B aal sh am ain th e l o rd o f he ave n w h o appe ars

-

, ,

to h ave b ee n w o rshipp e d in the hi ghl an d s as we l l as o n the Ph oen i

c ian co as t Thi s d ei ty c o m m u n i c ate d hi s will to Z ake r thr o u gh
.

see r s an d so o th s aye rs S he m e sh the su n go d an d S ah r the m o o n

.
,
-

, ,

“
g o d ,
a re m e n ti o n e d an d al s o t h e g o d s o f h e av e n a n d t h e go d s of
”
e arth Tho u gh Z ak e r s wo rshi p appe ars to h ave c e n te red o n the
.
’

g o d s m e n ti o n e d hi s p an th ,e o n c o n ta in e d m an y o t h e r d e i ti e s .

Z ake r w as a co n tem po rary o f B e n — h ad ad I I o f D am asc u s w ho m ,

he c alls by hi s co rre c t A ram ai c n am e B ar H ad ad Ou r m ain ,

-
.

so u rc e o f in fo rm ati o n as to th e re li gio n o f th e Aramman s w h o ,

app e ar to h ave se ttle d in D am asc u s as e arly as 1000 B C is the . .

,

Old Te stam e n t Sin c e tw o o f its king s wi th who m the I s rae li te s

.

1
L idz b arsk i , H e ndb a ch, p 44 5 ; G A . . . C o o ke, North S emiti c I n scri ptio n s, p 146, 149 . .

2
L idz b arski , E phe me ris , I II , 1 .

1
S ee hi s Amurr u , the H o me f
o the No rthe rn S emi tes , Ph il a .
,
19 09 , p 15 8. .
 WE S T S EM ITIC REL IGIOU S ORI GI NS 3 15

fo u gh t b o re th e n am e B en had ad (B ar Hadad ) , w e i n fe r th at the - 1 -

wo rshi p o f the Aram man we ather go d Had ad , w as po pu lar the re -

.

Thi s is co n firm ed by an o ther passage whi ch m ake s it clear that at

“

thi s pe rio d th e re w as a t e m ple of Had ad in D am ascu s , tho u gh the

passage in que stio n c alls hi m Rimmo n ,

2
a c o rru p tio n o f th e A ssyri an
n am e of R amm an fro m the stem
th e w e ath e r go d R amm an -
,
.
,

raman u to thu n de r h as t he sam e m e an in g as Had ad

’
,
‘
, D o u b tle ss .

o ther d e i tie s we re also w o rshi ppe d at D am asc u s b u t at prese n t w e ,

have n o in fo rm atio n co n c e rn in g them .

I n th e seve n th cen tu ry b e fo re C hri st the Nab ath ae an s we re dwe ll

in g in No rth e rn Arabi a The y spo ke the Aram aic to n gue b u t .
,

o th e rwi se it is h ard to di stin gu ish them f ro m the A r ab s L ater .

the y c o n qu e re d E dom an d e stab lishe d a kin gdo m whi c h at tim e s

'

n o t o n ly p e n etrate d Arabi a o c c u pyin g o ase s as f ar as El Hegra ,

-

an d Te im a b u t mu c h o f tran s Jo rd an i an P ale stin e as well

,
Wh en -
.

Ashu rb an ipal fo u ght wi th them in the se ven th c en tu ry B C the y . .

,

— 2—
we re wo rshi ppin g the m o th e r go dde ss who m the y c alled Atar the
Aram man fo rm o f Ath tar I sh tar an d Ashtart , ,
.

E sarhaddo n Ashu rb an ipal s f athe r an d apparen tly S en n ache rib

,
’
, ,

hi s gran d fathe r had also fo u n d he r wo r shi p at Adu mm u o r Adu m

,

m atu whi c h w as p e rh aps D u m a in the Jauf

,
4
E sarhaddo n say s 5
.

th at he re sto re d to the kin g o f thi s plac e the i do l s o f the fo llo win g

deitie s whi c h S e nn ac he rib h ad taken to Assyria viz : Atarsam ain ,
.
,

D ai Nakh ai R u ld aiu Ab irillu an d Atarqu ru m a

, ,
Atarsam ain is
, ,
.

Atar o f t he h eaven s an d Atarq u ru m a is Atar Qarn aim o r the ho rn ed ,

Atar 6
T he f o rm o f the se n am es p ro ve s that the peo ple w ho w o r
.

shipp ed the m spo ke A ram ai c T he o the r n am e s are c le arly epi the ts

-
.

whi c h h ave be co m e separate di vin itie s 7

.

1
1 Kgs . 2 Kgs .
J er .

2
S e e 2 Kgs .

3
KB II , 221 ( R assam y lin der,
. C col . vii i , l . Ashu rb anipal h eard her nam e

as Atarsamain , Atar o f the h eaven s

‘
.

4
Cf E b elin g
. R eallex ik o n der Assyri olo gi e, p 3 9 f
In . .

5
S ee R . C amp b ell T
h o mpso n , The ri sms of E sarhaddo n P and Ashu rb an ipal f ou nd
at Ni neveh i n 1927 8 , Lo n d o n , 193 1, c o l iv, 1 14
-
. .

5
Cf Asht o reth—
. k ( q ) arn aim o f Gen .

7
Dai is , p erhaps, th e Aramaic eq uivalen t o f th e Arab ic Dhu o wn er, p o sse sso r
‘ ’

w h ic h appears in su c h d ivine n am es as Dhu l—

’
S hara If so , th e Assyr ian sc rib e did -
.

n ot re c o rd th e f u ll epithe t Nakh ai w o uld mean T h e restgiver R uldaiu w o ul d b e

‘ ’
.

t e Assy rian f o rm o f ro i dai , T h e c hief p o sse sso r o f ( so m et hin g) th e o b ec t po ssesse d

h »
‘
-
’
j
again b ein g o mi tte d .
—
Ab irillu is an Assyrianiz atio n o f Ab ir el, T he migh ty go d
‘ ’
-
.
3 16 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

T he N ab athmans w ho li ve d in Tei ma wo rshipp ed Sal m S hingala , ,

Salm T he b o l d o r b rave o ne cl e arly is a n ame that

’
an d A shi ra
‘ ’ ‘
1
.
, ,

w as at fi rst an e pi the t I t do ub tl e ss c o n ce al s a go d w ho m w e sho uld

.

re c o g ni z e if w e had h is o ri gi nal n ame S hingala H e w ho gi ve s

‘
.
, ,

p ro ge ny is o n e o f the A rabi c d e i ti e s o f fe rti li ty

’
,
A shi ra is the .

A she rat o f P h oeni ci a and the Athi rat o f S o u th A rabi a T hi s pan .

theo n l ik e the p an theo n s o f M ai n S ab a the Q atab an ian s and Ak

, , , ,

s u m c o nsi ste d o f th re e p ri ncip al d ivi ni ti es the thi rd m e mb e r o f t he

, ,

t ri ad b ei ng a go dde s s 2
I f w e had m o re i n fo rm ati o n p ro b ably o ne
'

.
,

o f the m al e d ei ti e s w o ul d t u rn o u t to have be e n o ri gi n al ly an Ath tar .

D o u b tle s s o the r d ei tie s we re k no w n an d re ve re n ce d at Te i m a b u t ,

thi s t ri ad he l d the c hi e f p lac e .

At 1 1 H egra D u shara M an u thu an d Q aisha ap pe ar to have

5 -
, , ,

“
fo rm e d a sim ilar tri ad t ho u gh in o n e i n sc ri pti o n fo u r go d s are ,

n am e d :
‘
D u shara A ll at M an u th u and Qaish a ,
D u shara is the
, ,
.

D hu l S hara o f A rabi a w hi c h de sign ated so m e go d ( pe rhaps

’
- -
,

Ath tar) as the o wn e r o f S hara M anu thu is the go dde ss M anat .

o f the C o ran Q aisha is the go d Qai s who se n ame fo rm s a part o f the

.

n am e o f the p o e t I m ru l Q ai s an d w ho w as w o rshi p ped do w n to the

’
- -
,

tim e o f M o hamm e d All at is o f c o u rse the A rabi an m o ther go d

.
, ,
-

d ess wi th w ho m w e h ave b e c o m e ac q u ain ted in a pre vi o u s c hap ter “

.

m m “
H u b alu t e go d Ho b l w o
h ,
a h we a l so ave e t in the M ec can
h
p a n th e o n i s als o m e n
, ti o n e d A d e i ty R a b e l ( a n am e m e an ing .

‘
d ) i m d h h s to have
’

g r e a t g o s al so e n ti o n e T i s p an t eo n app e ar .

c o n si sted o f a p u re ly A rabi an gro u p o f go d s Of these D u sh ara is .

m e n tio n e d m o re o f ten than an y o the r de i ty ; n e x t in f re qu e n c y

7
,

M anu thu .
“

At P e tra a go d Wathra is m en ti o ned ab o u t w ho m w e k no w n o th ,

in g m o re ; D am asc u s — i the t m e an i ng ki ng ’
go d M ele k
9 10 ‘
at ,
a an e p ,

1 Cf CIS , I I , 113
. .

2
S ee ab o ve , Ch VI I . .

Cf CI S , II , 19 7
. .

p 19 8
I bid .
,
. .

5
Ch VII . .

CI S , II , 19 8 , and ab o ve , c h . VI I .

7
Cf CI S , II , 19 9, 206 , 208 , 209
. an d 3 50 .

8
I b id .
,
no . 206 .

1
Cf CI S , II , 3 5 4
. .

1°
Cf CI S , I I , 16 1
. .
 WE S T S EM ITIC REL IGIOUS ORIGI NS 7

whi c h c o n ce als his re al n ame ; an d at I m tan n e ar B o sra a go d Ara 1 ,

‘
.

No t e n o ugh is kn o wn o f any o f the se to i den ti fy hi s o rigin In .

s c riptio n s fro m the sam e regi o n atte st th e wo rshi p o f th e go dde ss

Al l at at vario u s po in t s in the H au ran 2

I n deed p atri sti c an d o the r .

ref e ren ces to th e wo rshi p o f the mo th e r— go dd e ss at vario u s po in ts

in th e N ab ath aean an d n o rth Arabi an t e rri to ry le ad u s to b eli eve
th at h e r w o rship pe rh ap s u n de r vario u s n am e s w as pe rp etu ate d
, ,

u n t il th e fi e rce f an ati c i sm o f M o h am m ed swept it aw ay He ro d .

“ m h “ m “
h t e S y ri an h i
pip a u s S t Je o e an d I saac
4
o tu s E
, p aer E n r , ,
.
,

o f An tio ch
7
b e ar witn e ss to he r wo rship to the i den tifi c atio n o f her
, ,

with the pl an e t Ven u s to her b o i ste ro u s and i m pu re fe stivals at , ,

whi c h sexu al o rgie s to o k place E piph ani u s identifie s D u shara .

with A do n i s E shmun Tamm u z - -

.

T he gre at o asi s o f P alm y ra w as fo r ce n tu rie s a cen te r o f N ab a

th aean lif e B egin n in g with th e seco n d cen tu ry o f o u r e ra w e h ave
.

in scrip tio n al m aterial fro m thi s pl ace F ro m the in scrip tio n s w e .

“
le arn that B aalsham ain w as wo rshipp ed I n o n e in sc ripti o n .

S ham ash Allat an d R ahm an app ear as a triad an d are c alled the
, ,
‘

g o o d g o d s
9
Lik e the o the r Arabian triad s thi s o n e i n c lu de s a
.
’
,

go d dess S ham ash the su ngo d and All at the mo the r go dde ss
.
,
-
, ,
-
,

are alre ad y well k n o wnto u s R ahm an is an e pi th et m e anin g T h e ‘

.
,

m e r c i fu l o n e I t is in te re stin g to fin d it he re sin c e M o h amm ed

’
.
,
.

cen tu rie s af te rw ard applied it so o ften to All ah Wh at deity do e s .

it de sign ate ? Po ssibly it is A sh tar Thi s is o f co u rse n o t c e rtain .

, , ,

b u t is su gge sted by th e f ac t that A shtar appe ars in an o th e r P alm y

1“
ren e in sc ript io n as the n am e o f a m an a n am e th at is e vi de n tly a -

hypo c o ristic o n .

I n the pre ce di n g paragraph s w e have gathe re d mate ri al fro m sc at

te re d in sc rip tio n s S o m e adde d kn o wle dge o f the religio n o f the
.

1
D u ssau d et M ac ler, Vo yage é
arc h o lo gi qu e, P ari s , 190 1, no . 36 .

2
C18 ; I I , no s . 17 0 , 18 2, 183 an d 18 5 .

3
H ero do tus, I I I, 8
4
E phraem S yru s, Opera, vo l I I , p 4 57 E , 4 5 8 , 1 1, 4 5 9 . . . C .

E piphani u s, F an ari o n , LI .

J me , Vita Hilari o n i s ,
ero 25 C . .

I saac o f Antio ch , in B ic k ell s edi tio n , p 244 , 1 449 sq

7 ’
. . .

8
E u ting, Nab ataisc he I n sc hr if ten , 1886 n o 4 , an d V o giié , La S yri a
'

,
. C en tr al,
9
V o gtié , o p c it , n o 8 . . . .

1“
é
Vo gu , op cit , no 4 . . . .
3 18 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

i
an c e n t Aram ze an s may b e gathe re d f ro m tw o g re at Sy rian s hrine s at
M ab u g (Hi e rapo li s) B aalb e k ( He lio po li s) Fo rtu n ately fo r
an d .

the fi rs t o f t he se w e have t he d e sc rip ti o n o f L u c i an f ro m w ho m w e

1
,

l e arn that it w as re b uil t by S trato n ic a t he wi fe o f S el e uc u s I w ho m ,

he d ivo rc e d so t hat she co u l d m arry his so n A n ti o c hu s I 2 T he .

te m pl e that s he th u s c all e d in to e xi s te n c e w as s ti ll s tan di ng w he n

Lu ci an w ro te an d he de sc rib e s its fo rm its p ri e stho o d a nd its
, , ,

fe sti vals Lu ci an s de s crip tio n s e nabl e u s to di sc e rn that the ge ne ral

.
’

fe atu re s o f the c u l t w e re tho se o f the S e mi ti c m o the r go dd e s s -

.

F ro m i nsc ribed vo ti ve o ff e ri ngs that have c o m e f ro m thi s regio n

and f ro m re p re se n tati o n s o f th e d e i ti e s in s to n e an d te rra c o t ta
1
we ,

le arn that tw o d ei ti e s w e re w o rshi pp ed he re H ad ad an d Atargatis ,

.

I n e pi graphi c m ate ri al the n am e o f t e go dd e ss is sp el led Atar atu

h
‘
‘

“
o r Atar atah T he n am e is a c o m po u n d o f w hi c h t he fir st el e me n t
'
.

is c l e arly that o f t he A ram aean go dde s s A tar S e ve ral theo ri e s .

have b ee n ad van ce d to e x plai n t he s eco n d hal f o f the n ame b u t ,

the m o s t p ro b ab le is that ad van c e d by the l ate E d u ard M e y e r

as l o n g ago as w ho s u gge ste d that Atah is a fe mi n i n e fo rm
‘

o f the P h ry gi an go d A tti s the v ege tati o n go d ,

T he flo o d o f li gh t -
.

th at h as b e en she d in re cen t y e ars o n t he hi sto ry o f th e u pp e r E u

p h r ates v all e y by t h e i n s c rip ti o n s f ro m B o gh az K o i e n abl e s u s to

un d e rs tan d h o w S e mi te s an d H u rri an s w e re f u se d in the Aram ze an

race an d also h o w c l o se ly th e H u rri an s w e re rel ate d rac i al ly to t he

,

At aratah co rru p te d by G ree k w ri te rs to

.

pe o ple s o f An ato li a .
,

Atargatis w as a f u sio n o f a d ei t y o f e ac h o f the tw o race s that had

,

fu sed in th e Sy ri an m el tin g po t T he sam e w as tru e o f H ad ad

. .

T he H ad ad o f Hi e rapo li s w as u n do u b te dly a c o m bin ati o n o f the

S e mi ti c A dad and the Hi tti te Hu rri an T e shu b tho u gh in his c ase
-
,

the S e mi ti c n am e o f t he d e i ty alo n e su rvive d T he i m po rt an c e o f .

thi s c u l t in th e thi rd ce n tu ry B C is sho w n by the f ac t th at S trato ni ca

.

se lec ted it as th e o bj ec t o f h e r ro y al patro n age I t m u st the n h ave .

b een sac red wi th a h o ary an tiqu i ty an d have lo n g b e e n the go al o f

1
De S yr ia Dea, —60 .

2
S ee L uc ian , De S yr ia Dea, 18 ; E B e van , The H ou s e of S eleuc u s , I , p p 62—
. 65 . .

3 “
F o r so m e o f t hese see A p ro p o s d Ata rgat is b y
’
au l Perdiz et , in S yr ia, X I I P
267 —273 .

1
S ee Z D M G, VI , 4 72 ff .

C
V o gtié , S yri e e ntral , n o 3 . .

R ealen cylo pad i e f ur pro tes tanti sc he

'

Th e o lo gi e u nd Ki rche , 2 Au f . .
,
I I , 17 16 , 175 .
 WES T S EM ITI C REL IGIOUS ORIGINS 3 19

man y pilgrim s fro m the su rro u n d n g

i c o u n tr H e r patro n age an d
y .

the qu en t
c o n se wmen ts helped to
en d o pe rpetu ate the p re stige o f
the shrin e u n t il th e regio n w as C h ri stian iz e d Su c h w as the fame .

o f t h e te m ple an d o f it s go dd es s th at he r wo r ship sp re ad to P al my ra

an d o the r po in ts an d as alre ad y n o te d D io d o ru s S icu lu s an d O vi d

, ,

iden tifie d the Ashtart o f A shke lo n with he r .

A c co rdin g to Lu c ian th e temple sto o d o n a hill in the mid st o f

Hie rapo li s I t fac ed the so u th and had a fo re co u rt so me 60 0 feet in
.

len gth I n it sto o d tw o phallo i o r masseb o th whi ch ac co rd ing to

.
,

1—
n r ,
m
Lu c ia we e so e 6 feet hi g 00 h a stat e m en t whi c h is d o u b tle ss

an e xa gg e r a t i o n I t .w a s d eco ra t e d wi t h m u c h g o ld I n the n ao s .

w as a ho ly o f ho lie s in to whi c h o n ly th e prie st s e n te red I n it w as .

a st atu e o f Z e u s (H ad ad ) an d Ju n o (Atar atah ) I n th e n ao s o n the

2 r .

left sid e w as a th ro n e fo r the su n ( Sh am ash) b u t n o im age o f him 3 , .

Near thi s thr o n e w as an im age o f Apo llo ( Re sheph ) 4

B e side Apo llo .

we re a tri ad who m he c alls Atl as Herm e s (Ado n i s) an d ,

Lu cin a O u tside the temple in the c o u rt we re im age s whi c h

“
Lu c i an to o k fo r hu m an be in gs an d so me o f them at le ast were
, , ,

su c h
— Alex an de r th e Gre at an d S trato ni c a Pe rhap s the y all we re .
,

o n ce hu m an S o m e o f them repre sen t Ho m e ric he ro e s Their

.
.
.

p re sen ce he re w as d o u b tl e ss d u e to the Helle n i c o rigi n o f S t ra

to n ica an d he r ad vi se rs .

T h e im age s o f the d e itie s in the n ao s te l l a sto ry o f grad u al d e ve lo p

men t . Had ad an d Atargatis we re at thi s perio d wo rshippe d in the
ho ly o f ho lie s as th e prin c ip al di vin itie s T he i m age s o f A shtar ( P
.
) ,

Ado n is an d A tar po in t to an e arli e r c u lt in whi c h a triad o f go d s

,

were reve red as in Ph oen icia S o u th Arabia an d Aby ssin i a Apo llo
, ,
.

is the S em itic R e sh eph 111 Gree k d re s s H is p re emi n en ce o ve r th e

.

m o re po pu lar tri ad as i ndic ate d b y hi s p o si ti o n in the te m ple is

, ,

do u b tle ss d u e to th e fac t th at h e w as re gu l arly i de n tified wi th Apo llo ,

ago d so po pular am o n g the Hellene s th at h e p artic u larly appe aled

to S trato n ic a an d h e r c o ad j u to r s .

1
De S yri a D ea, § 28 .

2
§3 1 .

3
§34 .

4
§3 5 .

5
§38 .

§40 .
3 20 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

T he te mp le w as t he ho m e of
flo ck s o f do ve s w hi c h w e re c o nside red 1

s ac red Ne ar it w as a sac red l ak e c o n tai ni ng sac red fi she s o f all

.

so rts and s ize s

2
An e n clo su re hard by c o n tai ned sac re d c attle
.
,

“
ho rse s b e ars and lio n s
, ,
.

B aalb ek w as no t so fo rtu n ate as to fi nd a L u c i an to d e sc rib e it ,

b u t it had the go o d fo rtu n e to re cei ve th e p at ro n age o f t he A n to n

i ne s and the rui ns o f the spl e ndi d s tru c tu re s they re ared b e ar to thi s
,
’
d ay m u te w i tn e ss to its po p ul a i ty
r
‘
T he n am e B aalb ek (b a al .

Lo rd o f the tak e s u s b ack to the shr i n e o f an Aram ze an

‘

B aal w ho se w o rshi p at thi s si te is d o u b tle ss co e val wi th the c o m i n g

o f th e Aram ze an s I nd ee d it is p ro b abl e tha t b e fo re the co m i ng o f
.

the Aram ze an s the A m o ri te s h ad w o rshippe d he re an earth go d o f -

agri cul tu re I n th e p e rio d o f the A n to ni ne s an d l ate r t hi s go d w as

.

i de ntified wi th J u pi te r and w as k no w n as Jupi te r Op ti m u s M axi m u s

H elio po litan u s T hat the e arth go d w ho w as Lo rd o f the valley ‘ ’
-

,
.

b e twe en the Le b ano n an d A n ti Le b ano n m o u n tain s co u l d b e -

,

i de n tified wi th J u pi te r is e vi den ce th at he h ad b eco m e a cel esti al

d ei ty b e fo re the R o m an ti m e s h avin g b e e n i d en tified e i the r wi th ,

B aal sham ain o r S heme sh the su n go d o r wi th b o th T he fac t

-
,
-
,
.

th at the G re ek s c alle d hi s c i ty He lio p o li s argue s p e rh ap s rathe r , ,

fo r S hem esh th an fo r B aal sham ain Under the i m pe ri al pa -

.

t ro n age the go d w ho h ad b egun as l o rd o f the valle y and h ad l ater

b ec o m e l o rd o f the sk y c o n tin u ed to e xert his i n flu en ce an d attrac t
his w o rshippe rs do w n to the ti m e o f C o n stan tin e .

I n the We st S emi ti c w o rld as e l se w he re the w o rshi p o f the go d s

at ce rt ain s e aso n s c ulmi n ate d in gre at f e stival s T o o n e o f these .
,

the gre at sp rin g fe sti val o f P h oen i c i a o u r atte n ti o n h as al re ad y ,

b een c al led T he po em s f ro m R as S ham ra reve al to u s ho w the tre e

.

go d Al e in w as m o u rn e d an d di sc lo se s so m e o f the ri tu al by whi c h
,

“
hi s re su rre c ti o n w as i mp lo re d Lu c i an vi vi dly de sc rib e s in an o ft
.

1
§ 54 .

a
W
S ee B aalb ek , e di ted by Th eo . Wiegan d ; th e d esc rip tio n of the an c ie n t c ult an d

t e mple is to b e f o un d c hi e y in V o l Hfl .
( w rit ten b y K re n c k e r , vo n L u pk e , and Winn e
fe ld ) , u nd e r Ch II I . B erlin , 19 23
. .

O Pu c hs te in , F u hrer d u rch di e R u i ne n
. vo n B aal b ek , B erlin , 19 05 .

Cf . J ACS LII 221—23 1

, , ,
an d t he w ri ter
’
s Arc haeo lo gy and the B i b le, 6th cd .
,
19 32,
p 53 3 f
. .
 WE S T S EM ITIC REL IGIOU S ORIGI NS 21

qu oted p assage the w ailin g fo r Ado n i s whi c h pre ced ed thi s fe stival
at Ge b al ( Byblo s) to geth e r w ith the re j o ic in g s in whi c h it c u l m i

n ated H e also d esc rib ed the sac rifi c e s o f h air o r vi rgin i ty by whi c h
.

it w as ac c o m p an ie d 1
T he sam e wri te r m e n tio n s at l e ast th ree
.

fe sti vals whi c h we re ke p t at Hie rapo li s (M ab u g) On e o f the se .

w as co n n ec te d wi th th e ce re m o n y o f ta kin g the im age s o f the go d s

in the te mple to the sac re d l ak e whi c h w as in the tem ple e n clo su re , ,

to b at e h 2
A se c o n d he say s w as kep t b y tho se w ho were go ing
.
, ,

o n a se a vo y age o f thi s he gi ve s n o de t ails . T h e gre ate st o f th ei r

fe stivals w as h e s ay s ,
h i
c ele b rated at t e b e g ni g o f su
n n ,
mm e r
4
.

S o m e c alled it the fi re an d o thers the to rc h fe stival A part o f the .

ce le b ratio n c o n si ste d o f cu tti n g gre at tree s an d plac i n g them in the

'

c o u rt . The y then b ro u ght go ats an d sheep an d o the r an im al s as ,

well as bird s an d hu ng them alive o n the tre es to gethe r with gar

, ,

m e n t s an d o bj ects o f silve r an d go ld an d m arc hi n g in pro ce ssio n ,

wi th their ido l s abo u t the trees the y bu rn ed them D u rin g the .

fe stiva l c o n sec rate d men pe rfo rm e d the i r o rgies an d yo u th s w restled ,

an d b o xed On e si gn ifi c an t rite co n si sted in selectin g a yo u th w ho

.

s tripped hi m se lf c astrat ed hi m se lf wi th an an c ien t sw o rd an d ru n

, ,

n in g th ro u gh th e to wn b e aring th e di sse vere d p art s in hi s h an d ,

th re w the m i n to a h ou se F ro m thi s ho u se h e rece ive d fem ale.

app are l w hi c h app aren tly h e afte rward wo re

,
Th i s is a n o n ,
.

S e miti c fe atu re b u t a fe atu re we ll kno wn in the wo rshi p o f the

,

m o the r go dd e ss o f A si a Min o r
-
I ts p re sen c e he re co n firm s the .

validity o f the vie w th at the re we re Hu rrian elemen ts in the cult .

[ Eli an be ar s Wi tn e ss to the ann u al o c c u rren ce o f thi s fe stival to the

m o ther go dde s s in Si c ily “ I ts ce leb ratio n at E ryx w as asso c i ated
-
.

wi th the go in g an d re tu rn o f the do ve s to Af ric a the d o ve b ein g ,

sac re d to Ash tart S t Au gu stin e is au tho ri ty f o r the exi sten ce o f

“ . .

a si m il ar f e sti val in h o n o r o f th e go d d e ss T an ith in No rth A fric a .

On the great fe stal d ay the go dd e ss w as b o rn e in a li tte r an d play s ,

whi ch C hristian s regard ed as o b sc en e we re en ac te d b efo re he r .

D an c e s we re en ac ted by tho se w ho we re rapt wi th fu ry an d ce re

1
De S yri a Dea, §6 .

2
I bid §4 7 . .

3
I bid .
, §4 8 .

I b id .
—5 7 .
,

De Natu ra An imali u m, I V , 2 .

De Ci vi atte Dei , I I , 4 .
3 22 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

mo n ie s w e re e n ac te d w hi c h had do u b tl ess
i gi nated in tho se e arlie ror

d ay s w he n it w as t ho u gh t that by sy m pathe ti c m ag ic t he go d s
c o u ld b e i n d u c e d to b e s to w o n t he e arth a n d o n ani m ate li fe t he

b le s si ngs o f fe rtili ty .

We c an t h u s trac e he re and the re in the We s t S e mi ti c a re a this

c e n t ral fe as t I ts lo c al fe atu re s d i ff e re d in d iff e re n t l o c alitie s in
.

ac c o rd an ce wi th lo c al c o n d i ti o n s an d t radi tio n s ; b u t its c e n t ral

p u rpo se w as e ve ryw he re the s am e H e re and the re w e o b tain .

g li m p se s o f o th e r fe s ti va ls T h u s a t Ki ti o n in Cy p ru s w e l e arn
.

that the fe as t o f the ne w m o o n w as k e p t e ve ry m o n th as it w as in

1

P ale sti ne 2
H ad w e m o re c o mple te i n fo rm ati o n do u b tle ss w e c o u l d
.

t rac e o the r fe s ti val s b u t w e c an se e e n o u gh in the li ttl e w e have

, ,

bo th o f the d ei tie s and the fe s ti vals to re ve al to u s e ve rywhe re the ,

i nfl u e nce s o f a c u lt that w as b o rn in the S em i ti c c radl e l and m o d i -

,

fi c d i nd eed in d i ff e re n t lo c ali tie s by l o c al o r fo rei gn i n fl ue n ce s o r by

bo th yet thro u gh all sti ll disce rn ibl e and exe rti n g a fo rmati ve
,

po we r .

1
CI S , l 86 , .

2
S ee , e .
g .
,
1 S am . 2 Kgs .
 X

Y A H WE H
HE hi ghly c o m po s ite n atu re o f th e
He b re w peo ple h as been
trac ed ab o ve in C h apte r I I I D u rin g the p ro gre ss o f o u r
.

stu d y it h as also b e en f re qu en tly de m o n strate d o r made hi ghly

pro b able th at when di ffe re n t elem en ts en te re d in to th e co mpo si tio n

,

o f o n e o f th e se an cien t peo pl e s the re ligi o n o f the re su l tan t n atio n

,

in su b se qu en t ge n eratio n s e xhibi te d a fu sio n o f e lem en ts deri ved

fro m th e vari o u s strain s th at had c o n trib u te d to n atio n al lif e It .

wo u ld b e strange in deed if thi s law h ad no t o p erated in sh aping the

re li gio n o f an c i en t I srael That it did o pe rate the re c an it seem s
.
, ,

b e n o qu e stio n b u t it is n o t so e asy to trac e it s influ en ce b e c au se a

,

mo n o the i sm alm o st u n iqu e in th e an c i en t wo rl d w as develo pe d by

th e He b re w p ro p he ts in c o n se qu e n c e o f whi c h s uch e arly de i tie s
,

as we re re m em b e re d we re iden tifie d w i th Yahw eh an d c am e to b e

regard ed as Y ah we h u n de r a diffe ren t n am e an d th e tradi ti o n s

,

co n ce rn i n g th e p atri arch al o ri gin s an d the p atri arc h al tim e s we re

’

re to ld in su ch a w ay as to m ak e it appe ar th at th e y to o w e re m o n o , ,

th e i sts . The re are n eve rth e le ss left in the bibli c al narrative s

, ,

th em se lve s m an y e vi den ce s o f th e e arlier co n d it io n s o f the re ligio n ,

an d wh e n the se are co m bin e d wi th th e i n fo rm atio n w hi c h arch mo

,

lo gi cal re se arch h as b ro u gh t to ligh t the re al hi sto ri c al o u tlin e c an

,

b e re sto re d wi th a gre at de al o f c o n fiden ce .

I n this fie ld th e pio n ee r wo rk o f su c h sc ho l ars as Wellh au sen ,

Ku en en W R S mi th an d S tad e is we ll k n o wn and in spi te o f the

,
. .
, , ,

c ri ti c i sm s o f l e s se r sc h o l ar s in its m ain Ou tlin e still stan d s

,
That .

he re an d the re it sh o u ld b e po ssible as k n o wle dge I n cre ase s to c o r

, ,

re c t d etail s is wh at w e sh o u l d ex e ct an d in n o w a
p d e trac ts f ro m
y
the fu n d am en tal c o rre c tn e ss o f the sketch o f th e d evelo pm en t whi c h
the y se t fo rth . On e o f the b e st o f re cen t b rief re statem e n ts o f the
re sul t s o f th e i r stu d y to e th e r wi th th e m o re m o d e rn ad di tio n s to
g ,

kno wled ge is th at o f Geo rg B ee r Welches w ar di e tilteste R eligi o n

,

I sraels ? 1 B ee r h as po in te d o u t as h ad b een f re qu en tly d o n e b efo re

,

1
Gie ssen , 1927 .
3 24 S E M ITIC AND HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

by o the rs , that the e arly li gio n

I s rael w as po ly th ei sti c and
re o f
o l d ze mo n is tic — a the si s th at t he re is ab u n d an t e vi d e n c e in the
p y
O ld Te s tame n t to p ro ve T o d e ny it is to sh u t o n e s e yes to a p art
’
.

o f t he e vi d e n c e .

I n the d o c u me n ts w hi c h a re w o ve n i n to the e arlie r bo o k s o f t he

O ld Tes tam e n t tw o the o ri e s o f the e a rly relig io n o f the n ati o n are
,

se t fo rth A c c o rd ing to the J d o c u me n t w ri tte n in the trib e o f J u d ah

.

ab o u t 8 5 0 B C the wo rship o f Yahw e h w as p ri m e val ; it b egan in

. .
,

t he ti me o f E no sh g ran d so n o f A d am ,
A c c o rdi ng to thi s theo ry .

t he patri arch s as a m atte r o f c o u rse w o rshi ppe d Yahw e h A cco rd .

ing to the E do cu me n t w ri tte n in E ph rai m the go d o f the p atri arc hs ,

w as El o r El o hi m an d the w o rshi p o f hi m u n de r the n am e Y ahwe h

,

w as no t k n o w n u n til it w as i n tro d u c ed by M o se s at the ti me o f the

Exo d u s I n thi s vi ew o f the hi sto ry o f the religio n E is fo l lo we d by the

.

po st exili c do c um en t P I t is no w ge ne rally co n ce ded that in thi s

-
.

m atte r E an d P re fle c t the re al hi sto ry an d that the vi e w refl ec ted ,

by J is to b e acc o u n te d fo r b y the fac t that the K e n i tes w ho had ,

wo rshi ppe d Yahwe h f ro m ti m e i mm em o ri al h ad b ee n ab so rb ed by ,

th e highly co m po si te trib e o f J u d ah We m ay tak e it as e stabli shed .

,

th e re fo re th at u n ti l the tim e o f M o se s Yahw eh w as ei the r u nkn o wn

, , ,

o r h e l d b u t a ve ry su b o rdi n ate pl ac e in the rel igio n o f th e H eb re w

peo p le . We tu rn the n to the p atri arc h al sto rie s fo r i n fo rm atio n

, ,

as to w h at go d s w e re w o r shi ppe d .

T h e wri te r has p o i n te d o u t e l sew he re that the n arrati ve s co n

ce rni n g Ab raham w he n te sted by s u ch kn o wl edge a s arc h aeo lo gy
,

—
su ppli es appe ar to refl ec t c o n di tio n s in P al estin e 18 00 1400 B C
1
. .
,

b e fo re the co mi ng o f th e Aramman s I n o the r wo rd s they re ve al .

so m e thi n g o f the A m o ri te C an aani te p eri o d o r s tratu m o f I s rae l s

’
-

an c estry an d reli gi o n Wh e the r the Ab raham po rtrayed in the m

.

w as a hi sto ri c al c h arac te r o r wh e th e r h e w as o nly the i de al h e ro

,

o f th e saga is imm ate ri al

,
T he n am e Ab raham w as k n o wn tho u gh
.
,

b o rn e by qu i te a diff e re n t m an b u t as ye t the hi sto ri ci ty o f the

2
,

Bibli c al Ab rah am c an n o t b e e stabli she d E ven tho u gh Ab rah am .

b e as sh ado wy a figure as E n e as in Ve rgil s gre at po e m the c ul

’
,

tu ral f e atu re s o f th e sto ri e s are indi sp u table .

Ab rah am an d hi s family are repre sen ted se ve ral tim e s as w o r

1
P
H istory of the H ebrew eople, N Y , 1930 , ch III , . . .

S ee th e w riter s Arc hz o lo gy and the B ib le , 6th e d , p 3 5 2 f

2 ’
. . .
 3 25
i
—
whi c h w e h ave al re ady trac ed as a C an aan i te
El
shppi ng go d
1
a

Ph oen ician an d A m o ri te d e ity Alt re c o gn izin g thi s en ters u po n .

, ,

an e lab o rate argu m e n t to sh o w th at Ab rah am is a hi sto ri c al c h arac te r

h h
an d th at thi s is t e Go d h e b ro u g t wi t h hi m in to the c o un try 2
He .

c o lle c ts in stan ce s to sho w th at to refe r to a go d as th e go d o f su c h an d

an d su c h a m an w as a gen e ral S e mi ti c c u sto m an d th en argu es that , ,

be c au se so m e o f the in stan ce s whi ch he h as ci ted we re in stan ce s in

whic h th e m an so m en tio n ed w as a hi sto ric al c h arac ter all su c h ,

refe ren ce s m u st i n vo lve o nly hi sto ri c al pe rso n s Hen ce he co n .

,

elu d es Ab rah am ,
I saac an d Jaco b we re re al hi sto ri c al c harac ters
, , .

T he argu m en t is ho weve r f all ac io u s I f th e p rin c iple u n derlyin g

, ,
.

it we re so u n d th ere co u ld b e n o u n hi sto ri c al sagas ex ce p t f able s

, .

Po ets ho weve r an d wri ters o f fic tio n in e very age apply to the ir

, ,

c h arac te rs th e e xp re ssio n s applie d in real li f e to ac tu al m en On ly .

so c an th e y le n d ve ri simi li tu d e to th e i r sto ry M o re o ver S hedrach .

,

M e shach an d Abe dn ego in D an iel ch 3 w ho are fo u n d in Alt s

, ,
.
,
’

li st c an sc arce ly b e claimed as hi sto ric al figu re s On the o ther han d

,
.
,

when w e re c all th at o nly Amo ri tes wo rshippe d , so f ar as w e kn o w a ,

go d E l We c an sc arce ly do u b t the so u rce fro m whi c h hi s n am e c ame

in to 612He b re w tradi tio n s “
.

A stu dy o f the fac ts al so fu rn i she s p ro o f that Elo hi m whi c h ac , ,

co rdi n g to th e E d o cu m en t w as th e f avo ri te de sign ati o n o f Go d ,

do wn to the tim e o f M o se s w as also a C an aan it e u sage E l an d

,
.

E lah (E lo ah) are syn o n ym s bo th in P hoen ic i an an d He b re w ; the i r

plu ral s E li m an d E lo hi m we re ac c o rdi n gly syn o n ym s
,
I n the E l .

Am arn a tex ts an Am o rite an d his n eigh bo rs w ho we re writin g in ,

Ak k adi an e m plo y ilan i as a sin gular in a w ay w hi ch sho w s th at

,
4

the y we re ac cu sto m e d in the i r o w n to n gu e to u se E li m o r E lo hi m _

-

as sin gul ar T he sam e u sage c an b e t race d in P h oen i c i an in sc rip

.

1
S e e Gen . ff ; an d 33 ; (c f . and Jud . Cf .

also c h I X , p 308 ab o ve
. . .

2
S e e Alb re c ht Al t, D er Go tt der V ater, S t u ttgart, 1929 , pp 3 1—7 3
'

. .

3
R . P D
o u gh erty s argu m en t t h at , b e c au se E 1 w as a d eity in t h e Arab ian
.
’
sealan d

w hi c h w as not f ar f ro m Ur , an d th at t h eref o re th e H e b re w c o n c eptio n o f Go d w as

b ro u gh t f ro m th e se alan d b y Ab rah am , se e m s to th e w ri ter t o seek the w ro n g c h ann el

f o r th e tran smi ssio n of E l to th e w est . S ee R . P D . o u gh erty , The S ealand f An c ien t

o

Arabi a, 17 4 ff .

4
S ee e .
g .
,
Winc kler u nd Ab el, Tho n taf elnf u n d vo n E l Am ar na,
-
no s . 100 , 2 ; 122, 1;
23 , 1; 126, 2; 19 0 , 2 ; e tc .
3 26 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

tio n s o f l ate r ti m e . We fi nd cli m Ashtart ,

‘‘
the go dde s s Ash tart ;
’
eli m
’
Nergal ,
N e rgal ; an d e ve n as an i ndi vi d u al go d elim b a al
2 ‘
the go d
’
,

“
S id o n E li m l o rd o f S i do n T he E d o c u m e n t affo rd s e vi d e n c e
‘ ’
,
.
,

that thi s u sage p re vai le d in n o rthe rn I s rae l d o w n to the e i gh th ce n

tu ry and the P do c u m e n t p as se d it o n to late r J u d ai sm
, I t is no w .

c l e ar ho w e ve r that the A m o ri te C an aani te s w e re w o rshi ppi n g

, ,

E li m o r E lo hi m in the pe ri o d co ve re d by the Ab rahami c narrati ve s ,

an d the re is n o o the r k no w n so u rce f ro m w hi c h thi s sam e w o rshi p

in the sam e c o u n try c o u ld b e d e ri ve d .

I n th e Ab raham i c p e ri o d to o the A m o ri te s w ho w e re o cc u pyi n g , ,

th e te rri to ry o cc u pi e d l ate r b y the t rib e o f A she r w ho se de sc e n d an ts ,

late r co n sti tu te d the t rib e o f A she r w e re w o rshi ppi n g t he go dd e s s ,

A s e at o n e o f the e arlie st o f S e mi ti c m o the r go d desses l ate r c alled

h r
‘
,
-
,

A she ra I t h as b ee n sho w n in p re vi o u s c h ap te rs that the w o rshi p

.

o f thi s go dd e s s w as o f t h e s am e c h arac te r as th e w o rshi p o f Ash tart

the tw o n ame s b ei ng at ti me s i n terc h an ge abl e F ro m the hi sto ri cal .

an d p ro ph e ti c b o o k s o f the Old Te stam en t w e l e arn th at thi s w o r

shi p w as pe rp e tu ated an d p arti c i pate d in by I s raeli te s u n t il the

re fo rm ati o n o f Jo si ah in 6 2 1 B C F ro m the n atu re o f o u r Old .

Te stamen t so u rc e s whi c h advo c ate Yahweh m o n o l atry when the y

,

do n o t go fu rthe r an d te ach m o n o th ei sm Ab raham is n o t re presen te d ,

as parti c ipating in it b u t it is alm o s t c e rt ain th at n o S e mi te o f the

,

Ab rah ami c pe rio d wo ul d ign o re thi s im po rtan t di vi n i ty .

As al re ady po in ted o u t in the p rece din g c hapte r A dd u (A d ad , ,

Had ad) w as wo rshippe d by Amo ri tes b e fo re the tim e o f th e El Am arn a -

le tte rs “ His c u l t acc o rd ingly fo rm ed a p art o f the religi o n o f

.
, ,

th e Ab rahami c age .

I t is po ssible that Yahweh w as kn o wn in P ale sti n e as o n e o f the

min o r go d s in the Ab rah ami c p e rio d On a table t fo u n d at Taan ach .

th e n am e Akhi y ami o c c u rs Thi s wo uld b e the fo rm w hic h the

-
.

n am e Ak hi Yawi
“
M y b ro th e r is Y ahw i w o ul d take in Akk adi an
-
,
‘
,
’
.

As it wil l ap pe ar at a late r po in t th at the n am e Yahwe h co u l d b e

1
In an in sc rip ti o n o f ab o u t t he 2u d c e n t u ry B C . .
,
cf . e .
g .
,
Lidz b arsk i , E phe meris,
I, p . 15 7 .

2
CI S , I , 119 .

4
Cf Lidz b arski , H and bu c h, p 4 25 ,
. . no . 4 .

4
S ee ab o ve , c h III , p 88 . . .

S ee ab o ve , c h IX , p 285
. . .

4
Cf S e llin , Tell Ta o nek , p 115 , an d 12 1,
‘
. . no .
p . no .
 YAHWEH 7

spe lled in var o u s i way s it is pro b able that it ac tu ally fo rm s a part

,

of thi s an c ien t n am e in T an aac h E viden c e will b e pre sen te d b elo w

.

to w that the n am e Yahweh w as an epithe t Thi s n ame m ake s it

sh o .

pro b able th at the e pi th e t w as kn o wn an d e mplo y ed in the Ab ra

h am i c pe rio d b u t if so the d ei ty to who m it w as applie d w as re
, , ,

gard e d as o n e o f t he m i n o r de iti e s o f the lan d .

"
T he n arrative s c o n c e rn in g Jac o b p re sen t in saga fo rm the He bre w
re c o lle c ti o n s o f t he c o mi n g o f th e A ram aean s an d o f th e i r alli an ce s
"

with so m e o f the tribe s w ho Were in the l an d b efo re them I t is .

n o w re c o gn iz e d by m an y s c ho l ars th at th e E l Am arn a l ette r s affo rd -

/
c o n te m po rary e vi d en ce o f th e i r stru ggl e s to gain a fo o tho l d in the
/
l an d c alling them Habiri The re is ho we ve r li ttle in fo rm atio n :
,
.
, ,

in the Jac o b n arrative s abo u t n ew go d s We are to l d that R ach e l .

sto e he
l r f at e s te ap hi m
h r r — —
ho u se ho ld i do l s an d c arrie d the m to
’

P ale stin e wi th he r ( Gen an d the se te rap hi m are c alle d go d s

.

( elo hi m Ge n S u c h ho u seho ld i do l s c o n tin u ed to b e

’
.
,

che rishe d at l e ast u ntil th e t i m e o f D avi d ( 1 S am b u t al .

mo st n o thi n g is kn o wn o i thei r c u lt .

Pro b ably it w as at thi s tim e that the E ne I srael fo rm ed an allian ce

wi th the trib e o f Gad 1
Thi s tribe appe ars to have wo rshipp ed a
.

d eity Gad At le ast at a m u c h l ate r time w e fi n d a d ei ty Gad

.
, ,

o r hi
w s pped as a ge d o f go o d lu c k o r fo rtu ne an d it is at le ast pl au si
2
,

b le to c o n n ec t his o ri gin wi th the trib e whi c h b o re th e sam e n am e .

Whe ther the B u e I srae l (th e Le ah tribe s) fo u n d the tribe o f Gad in

the lan d as a p art o f th e Am o rite settlem en t o f whi ch the kin gdo m ,

o f “
He shb o n w as a p art o r whe the r Gad w as a rem o te ly kin dred ,

Aram man tribe that h ad al so c o m e fro m the e ast w e do n o t kn o w ,

.

"
I n the fo rmer c ase Gad wo u ld b e an Am o rite dei ty ; in the l atte r -
,

an Aram aean .

An o the r deity whi c h ce n tu rie s l ate r ido latro u s Je ws wo rshipped

, , .

alo n g wi th Gad w as M en i 4
As w e fin d the N ab athaean s l ate r
,
.

w s pp ng a go dde ss M an u thu t he re is so me b asis fo r su ppo sin g

o r hi i 5
,

th at M en i w as a go dde ss b ro u gh t by th e A ram aean s an d wo rshippe d

alo n g with Gad .

1
S ee ab o ve , c h II I , p 88
. . .

2
I sa . Olm ste ad , H i story f
o P alesti ne and S yria, 211, alsg tak e s Gad as th e

go d of t hi s t rib e .

5
S ee Nu 21 . .

4
I sa .

5
S ee ab o ve , c h . IX , p 3 16 . .
3 28 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

T he w o rship o f o ne o the r go d , S he m e sh appe ars to have b ee n

,

b ro ugh t b y t he Aram ze ans to P al e s tine The E l A m arna l e tte rs

.
-

c all a pl ac e B e th N in u rta an d in o n e O f th e se d o c u m e n ts w e are to ld

-
,

th t it
a h ad s u rre d e re d to the H abi ri i nvad e rs
n ‘
W he n n ex t w e .

he ar o f it t h ro ugh bib lic al so u rc e s it is called B e th S hem e sh ( J u d -

.

As Aram mans w o rs hi ppe d S he m e sh and the Am o ri te

C anaani te s did no t at l e as t u nd e r that n am e it w o u ld seem that
, ,

the H abi ri b ro u gh t h is w o rshi p to this sh ri ne S u c h are the gli mpse s .

w hi c h w e o b tai n o f t he p re M o sai c rel igio n o f the co mpo ne n t e le

-

m e n ts o f the He b re w p e o p le 2
.

A ne w e l em e n t w as i n tro d u c e d i n to the religi o u s li fe o f I srael by

th e w o rk o f M o se s T his w as no thi n g l e s s than the w o rshi p o f
.

Y ahw eh as a go d so j eal o u s o f hi s p re ro gati ves that he d em an d e d

th at n o o the r d ei ty b e w o rshi ppe d in his p re se n ce T hi s e ve n t .

w as e po c h m aki n g
-
I t se t in m o tio n i nfl u en ce s w hi c h in the l o ng
.
,

c e n tu ri e s w hi ch fo ll o w e d c alled i n to e xi ste n ce t h ree o f the fo u r

,

m o n o th ei sti c reli gi o n s o f the w o rld The re have b ee n tho se w ho .

do u b ted the hi sto ri c al c harac te r o f M o ses b u t to the p re sen t w ri te r , , ,

do u b t o n t hi s po i n t seem s u n j u stifi e d G re at po si ti ve reli gi o n s .

do n o t co m e i n to e xi ste n c e ex c e p t thr o u gh the re ligi o u s e xp e ri e n c e

an d w o rk o f gre at p erso n ali ti es B ack o f B u d dhi sm stan d s the pe r .

so n ali ty o f G au t am a ; b ac k o f J ai n i sm th at o f Vardh am an a : b ac k ,

o f T ao i sm th at o f L ao t se ; b ac k o f C o n fu ci an i sm C o n fu c i u s ; b ac k
,
-

o f Zo ro astri ani sm Zo ro aste r ; b ac k o f I slam

,
M o ham m ed ; b ac k o f ,

C hri sti ani ty Je su s ; an d it is as u n thi n k able th at J u daism sho u ld

,

have spru n g u p wi tho u t M o se s as th at o n e o f the sy stem s m en ti o n e d

sho uld h av e b e e n b o rn wi tho u t its fo u n d e r No o n e ac qu ain ted .

wi th the assu re d re su l ts o f bibli c al c ri ti c i sm wil l d en y that th e w o rk

o f M o se s as d epi c te d in the P e n tateu c h is o ve rlaid w i th m an y t ra

ditio n s o f l ate r d ate u n til the task o f d eli mi ting hi s ac tu al w o rk

is d iffi c ul t an d pe rh aps in all o f its d e tail s i m po ssibl e
, ,
H is pe r ,
.

so n ality ho w e ver an d th e re al n atu re o f hi s re li gio u s e xpe ri e n c e an d

, , ,

1
S ee Winckler und Ab el, o p . c it.
,
no . 106 .

2
I n t hi s o u t lin e w e have t rac e d H u rrian e le m en t s as ex hypo the s i th ere
no H itt it e or

sh o uld b e I n th e n am e o f Ab di H ep a, kin g o f eru sale m in t he E l Am arn a le tte rs ,

.
-
J -

w e h ave in d ee d t h e Hi tt it e H u rrian go dde ss H ep a

-
As t he H ab iri af t er t heir se ttle .

P
me n t in ale st in e ado pt ed t h e lan gu age o f th e Am o rite an aani tes , su c h a go dd ess -
C
w o ul d be e q u ated w ith Asht art an d c alle d b y th e S e mi tic n ame . P r o b ab ly it is f o r
su ch r ea so n s t h at t h e Hi tt ite H u rrian
-
e le m e n ts h ave b een o b li t erate d .
 YAHWEH 3 29

th e m ain li
o u t ne o f hi s wo rk c an , in s pite o f all difficu lties ,
b e di sc ern e d
in ru gged o u tlin e .

T he wo rk o f M o se s c o n sisted o f tw o parts : th e d elive ran c e o f

He b rews fro m E gypt an d th e e stabli shmen t o f the co ven an t b et ween
th e se Heb re w s an d Yahw eh wh e re by Yah weh b e c am e th ei r Go d
an d the y agre ed to wo r shi p hi m alo n e I n c o n n e c tio n wi th thi s .

wo rk a n u m b er o f im p o rtan t qu e stio n s ari se as fo llo w s : 1 D id , .

M o se s le ad fro m Egyp t all the He b rew s o f hi s tim e o r o nly a po rtio n

o f th em ? 2 When did he d o thi s ?
. I n th e fif tee n th c en tu ry B C . .
,

o r th e thirte en th c en tu ry B C ? 3 When ce did M o se s de rive hi s .

kn o wledge o f Yahweh ? 4 Wh at led M o se s to u n de rtake thi s .

mi ssio n ? 5 What was the n atu re o f the de i ty to wh o se wo rshi p

.

He b rew s then b o u nd them se lves ? 6 What w as the n atu re o f the .

c o ve n an t b e tween Yah we h an d th e He b rew s in th e tim e o f M o se s ?

7 Wh at we re the im plem en ts o f th e c ul t in th e t im e o f M ose s ? 8

. .

Wh at w as the hi sto ry an d n atu re o f the Yahweh c u l t b efo re th e

ti m e o f M o se s ? T o e ac h o f the se qu e stio n s so m e stu dy m u st b e

give n They will b e di sc u ssed in the o rd er state d

. .

1 I t is we ll kn o wn to sc ho l ars th at b o th the bibli c al an d arc haeo

.

'

lo gi c al d ata c o n c ern in g th e exo do u s o f I srael fro m E gypt are c o n

fli c tin g Ac c o rdi n g to Ex 1 : 11 it w as R am se s I I 1292 1225 w h o
.
—
, ,
.

o ppre ssed th e He b re w s b u t acco rdi n g to th e E l— ,

Am arn a letters th e
,

Habiri who m w e h ave adm i tte d to have b e en He b re w s we re c o n

, ,

qu ering P ale st ine in the p revio u s cen tury I f Ram se s I I w as the .

ph arao h o f th e o ppre ssio n M e rn e p tah m u st h ave b e en the ph arao h

,

o f th e exo d u s b u t a stele o f M ern ep tah b o ast s th a

,
t h e h ad d e
stro yed I srae l In P ale s ti n e T he b o o k o f Jo shu a re c o rd s the in
1
.

vasio n o f P ale stin e by th e H e b re ws f ro m the e as t b u t Nu 2 1 an d ,

.

Ju d 1 rec o rd its in vasio n fro m the so u th Su c h f ac ts as these h ave

. .

led to a diff e ren ce o f o pin io n as to the d ate o f th e e xo du s A rc h .

bi sho p Us sh e r d ated at—im 149 1 B C Afte r th e e stabli shm en t o f a _

. .

f airly reli able E gypti an c hro n o lo gy m an y scho l ar s d ated it o n th e , ,

b asi s o f th e E gyptian refe ren ce in E x ab o u t 1220 B C

2
. . .

Sin c e th e di sc o ve ry o f the E l A m arn a l ette rs an d th e iden tific atio n

-

An ci ent R eco rds , E gypt, I II , 264 if

’
Cf B re asted Archx o lo gy and
1 ’
. s ,
or the w riter s

the B ib le, 6th cd .

, p 3 75
. .

2 Thi s is t h e vie w of th e E gyp to lo gi st s , an d , u nt il rec en tly , o f t he ma j o rity o f b ib lic al

sc h o lars .
33 0 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

o f t he He b rew s s c ho lars s uc h as J W J ac k have d ated

H abi ri as , . .
‘

it ab o u t 1400 B C Pa to n be c ause o f the c o nfl ic ti ng n atu re o f the

2
.
,

e vi d e n c e b o th s c ri ptu ral a n d a rc h ae lo g ic al re ac he d the c o n c lu s io n

, ,

t hat the re w e re tw o pe rio d s w he n H e b re w s e n te re d P ale s ti n e an d

gain e d a fo o tho ld the re o n e in the re ig n o f A m e no p hi s I V 13 7 5 , ,

13 5 0 B C w he n the H abi ri the B n e I s rael e n te re d the l an d and

.
, ,

s e ttl e d in i t ; an d an o the r ab o u t 1200 B C w he n the R ac hel t ribe s . .

, ,

w ho alo n e had b ee n in E gy p t an d h ad b e e n d e li ve re d by M o ses ,

p u s hed t hei r w ay i nto the co u n try T he fo rm e r he tho u ght .

, ,

e n te red f ro m the s o u th the l at te r f ro m t he eas t ; t he co n q u e s t o f , ,

t he fo nn e r is re co rde d in Nu 2 1 an d J u d ge s 1; th at o f t he l atte r .
,

in the b oo k o f J o shu a I n tw o p re vi o u s w o rk s the w ri te r has ac

.

c e p te d an d ad vo c ated the vi e w o f a d u al H e b re w se ttl e m e n t in

“
Pal esti ne and he s ti ll b eli e ve s in spi te o f ce rtain difli c ultie s that
, , ,

that is the o nly sati sfac to ry exp lan ati o n o f t he c o nfli c ti n g e vi de n ce .

T he arc haeo lo gi c al re se arc he s o f G ars tang c arri ed o n in re ce n t ye ars

at J e ri c ho Al and o the r s ites l e ad s him to b e li e ve that J e ri c ho w as
, , ,

b u rn ed and Ai and sim il ar si te s d e stro ye d ab o u t 1400 B C 4

Thi s . .

e vi d e n ce te nd s to s ho w that the H abi ri an d n o t the R ac he l t rib es , ,

de stro ye d the se to w n s as the p re se n t w ri te r fo rm e rly tho u ght .

O lm ste ad w ho ac cep ts the i den tifi catio n o f the H abi ri and He

,

b re w s and w ho fin d s B e nj ami n an d Jo shu a men tio n e d in o n e o f the

,

“
E l Am arn a l e tte rs su ppo ses th at o nly the t rib e o f Le vi w as in
- “
,

E gyp t an d th at it w as the Le vi tes who m M o ses led o u t o f that l and

o f b o n d age Olm ste ad thu s ac ce pt s the theo ry o f tw o se ttle m e n ts
.
,

an d app aren tly w o u l d d ate t he w o rk o f M o se s ab o u t 1225 1200 —

B C .
7
Thi s theo ry is n o t wi tho u t its diffi c u lti e s fo r as B u d de l o ng
.
, ,

“
ago po in te d o u t it is n o t at all ce rtain that th e Le vi te s w ho w e re
, ,

p ri e sts h ad an y thi ng to do wi th the trib e o f Le vi

,
M o reo ve r the .

1
S ee hi s D ate o f the E xo dus 1925 , . So also Gusta v H o lsc he r, Geschichte der israelit
i sc he R eligi o n , 19 22, p 59 . .

2
Cf B ib l
.ic al W or ld ,
L I , 8 2—88 X V an d 173 —180 , and JE L, XXXII ,
1—53 .

5
T h e R eligio n f
o I srael , ch . III , an d H istory f
o the H eb rew P eo ple, ch . I V —V I I .

4
S ee hi s F o und atio n s o f the B ib lical T rad iti o ns , Ne w Y o rk , 193 1, pas si m .

5
H i s to ry of P ale sti ne and S yr ia , 193 1, p 19 7 ff . .

p 24 7
5
I bid .
, . .

7
Ch r o n o logy u sed t o b e th o u gh t t he b ac k b o ne o f hi st o ry , b u t Olms tead
’
s H isto ry
f Palesti ne and S yria c o ntain s n o dis c ussio n o f c hr o n o lo gy
o ,
an d t he w o rd d o es no t o cc u r

in th e in dex ! No att e m pt is mad e t o d at e man y of th e impo rtant e vents .

5
R eli gi on of I srae l to the E xi le, Ne w Yo rk , 189 9 , p 80 . fl .
 YAHWEH 1

Ephraimi ti sh traditio n that the wo r ship o f Yahweh w as defin i te ly

,

in trodu c ed by M o se s as so me thi ng n ew is a po werful argu m en t in ,

favo r o f th e the o ry th at it w as th e R ac he l trib e s o r a sib th at w as ,

af te rw ard i n c o rpo rate d in them th at w e re in E gyp t an d w e re le d ,

o u t by M o ses Th at mi ght b e th e hi sto ri c al fac t an d in the lap se

.
,

o f ce n tu ri e s hi sto ric al n am e s like B e n j ami n an d Jo shu a w hi c h

, , ,

h ad o rigin ally b elo n ge d to L e ah trib e s an d w ho h ad previo u sly

“ ”
inh abi te d the h ill co u n try o f Ephraim befo re them m ay h ave 1
,

b een taken o ver as their o w n an d wo ven in to the epi c saga in the

p l ac e s in w hi c h t h e d o c u m e n t s n o w p o rt ra y th e m an d wi th th e f u n c

tio n s there asc rib e d to them F o r th e se re aso n s the w ri te r is still

.

in c line d to b eli eve th at it w as th e R achel trib es w ho su ffe re d E gyp

ti an b o n d age an d we re delive re d by M o ses tho u gh h e is fran k to ,

ad mi t th at his th eo ry is n o m o re c ap able o f p ro o f th an th at o f Olm

ste ad Whe ther it w as the R ac hel tribe s o r Levi that experien ced
.

th e e xo du s the n u m b e r o f pe o ple in vo lved w as co m p aratively sm all

,
.

Sixty six so u l s wen t do wn to E gypt the traditio n s rem em b er an d

- 2
, ,

tw o midwi ves co u ld c are fo r all th ei r co n fin em en t c ase s 2

I t w as .
,

the n a sm all co m p an y th at M o se s le d fro m b o n dage an d it w as

, , ,

w e b e lieve a p art o r all o f the R ac h e l trib es

,
.

2 Ou r seco n d qu e stio n as to th e d ate o f the w o rk o f M o se s has

.

been alre ad y an swe re d in the co u rse o f the previo u s di scu ssio n ; I t

fe ll n e ar th e en d o f the thi rteen th cen tu r y B C .

3 As lo n g ago as 1862 it w as su gge sted by Ghillan y that Yahwe h

.
4

w as the go d o f th e M i di an i te Ken ite s an d that it w as f ro m th e i r -

,

prie st o f Yahwe h who se d au gh te r M o se s m arrie d th at M o ses

, ,

“
le arn ed to wo rshi p hi m Thi s vie w w as su ppo rte d by Tiel e .
,

“
stro n gly u rge d by S tad e m o re ful ly wo rke d o u t b y B u dd e an d
,
7
,

1
Th ere is n o re al pro o f t h at th ey o c c u p ied the h ill c o u nt ry o f E phr aim in t h e E l -
Am
arn a p e rio d Th e le tte r in q u e sti o n plac e s th e m in e lla
. I n d ee d th e re is re aso n to P .

b elie ve th at th ey did n o t w in the hill c o u nt ry ; se e t h e w rite r s H i sto ry of the Heb rew

.
’

People, pp 38 . an d 70 .

2
Gen .

3
Ex .

4
Th eo lo gi sc he B ri ef e an di e Geb ild eten der deu tsc hen Nati o n , I , 216 , 408 .

5
V ergelijk end e Ges chi edni s van d e E gypti sc he en M eso po tami sche Godsdi ensten p , .

5 59 .

Gesc hi chte des V o lk es I srael, I , 13 0 f ; B i bli s c he . Th eo lo gi e, pp 4 2 f

. .

7
R eli gi o n of I srael to the E xi le, c h I . .
33 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC OR I GI NS

acc e p te d by Gu the H P S mi th Wilde bo er C he yne 4 P ato n “

,
1
. .
,
2
,
3
, ,

Bu y G
r n e
“ r essm an,
n
7
G B e e an d o thers T he w ri te r has ex
r
“
,
.
,
.

p re sse d hi s ac c e ptan c e o i t he theo ry in n o l ess than fi ve p u bli c a

tio n s “ O the r theo rie s have b e e n u rge d
. F i ed i c D e li tz sc h
r r h 10
.

u rge d th at Yahweh s n am e w a s o ri gi n ally Y ah an d th at it w as

’
,

b o rro w ed f ro m the B abylo n i an E a Ho mmel Wi n c kle r Zim 11 12

.
, ,

1“
m e rn an d Nielse n 11 h ave b e li eve d that Yahweh w as a m o o n go d
,
‘
-
.

Gu n ke l an d E du ard M e ye r fo u nd reaso n s fo r believi ng that

1“ 1“

—
Yahweh w as a vo l c an o go d Ward believed th at Yahweh w as a
17
.

sto m go d
r
— sim ply H ad ad u n d e
-
r a ot e
n h r e pi the t while Hau p t 1“
,

ad vo c ate d the the o ry th at Yahwe h w as b o rro w e d f ro m E d o m an d

th at his n am e w as b u t a tran sl ati o n o f th at o f a go d E sau T he .

w ri te r h as f ully di scu ssed the se theo ries e l sewhe re an d it is u nn eces

19

sary to rep e at th at d i sc u ssio n he re T he E a theo ry the m o o n go d .

,
-

th e o ry an d the E sau theo rie s fal l o f th e i r o w n w e igh t

,
The re is .

tru th in the theo ry th at Yahweh c o n tro lled rain an d sto rm s b u t ,

the re is n o e vi de n c e th at he w as e ve r a H adad I t is do u b tle ss tru e .

,

to o th at Yahweh w as b eli eved to b e the go d o f a vo l c an i c m o u n

,

tain — a c o n su mi n g fi re
2“
b u t thi s fu n c tio n w as i n c i den tal to the -

1
Gesc hi chte des V o lk es I srael, pp ; 21, 29 .

2
T
Old estamen t H isto ry, p 5 7 . .

5
J ahvedi en st en V o lksrelegi e i n I srael, pp 15 ff . .

4
E ncyclope di a B ibli ca, c o l 3208 . .

5
B i b li cal World XXVI I I
, ,
116 f .

6
J ou rn al o f Th eo lo gi cal S tu di es ,
IX , 33 7 f .

7
M o se u nd sei n e Z it
e pp 3 7 , 49, 434 f , 443 , 44 7 fl , 4 69
, . . . .

5
Welches w ar di e altes te R eli gi o n I sraels ? p 16
‘

. .

2
S emiti c Ori gi ns , 27 2 f 27 5 f H astin gs
.
’
i cti o n ary of the B i ble i n On e Volu me,
. D
p 4 10 ; S tudi es i n the H i story of Reli gi o n presented to
. rawf o rd H o well To y, 19 12, p p C .

18 7 —204 ; The R eli gi o n of I srael, c h I V ; an d H i s tory of the H ebrew Peo ple, c h VI . . .

1“
S ee hi s B ab el B i ble, tran slate d b y
and J o hn s , pp . 7 0 if .

Auf scz tz e u nd Ab hndlu n gen , pp 15 9 , 160

11
' '

. .

12
Geschi c hte I sraels , passi m .

1“
Keili n s chrif ten u nd das alte ment, pp 364 E ( 3 rd T esta . .

14
Di e altarabi sc he M ond reli gi o n u nd di e mo s ai sc he Ueb erli ef eru n g, S trassb u rg, 1904 .

1““ ”
Gen esis , p 19 5 , in No w ac k s H andk o mmen tar ; Au s gewahlte Ps almen , pp 80 ff ,
’ ‘

. .

117 , 180 ff .

1“
Di e I sraeli ten u nd i hre Nac hb ars tamme, Halle , 19 0 6, pp 69 if . .

17
AJ S L , XXV 0
17 5—18 7 .

18
I n OLZ, XI I , 211—214 .

1“
I n th e vo lu m e p re sen t ed to P r o f esso r To y alre ady ref erred to .

2“
Cf H eb
. .
 YAHWEH 333

h abi tat of M idi an ite s an d n o t fu n d am en tal to the n atu re o f

the
Yahwe h No o rigin fo r Yahwe h has ever b een pro p o sed that h as
.

in its f avo r a tithe o f th e re aso n s in its su ppo rt th at the Mi di an i te

’
Ken ite theo ry h as I t is th e write r s c o n vi c tio n therefo re that the
.
, ,

an swe r to o u r thi rd q u e sti o n is : M o se s b ec am e ac qu ai n te d wi th

Y ahweh an d w as co n ve rted to hi s wo rshi p in the lan d o f M i d i an

in th e K en ite s ib
4 T he re aso n s whi ch le d M o se s to b ec o m e the m e sse n ge r o f
.

Yahweh an d u n dertake the rm s sro n o f d eliverin g his peo ple fro m

bo n dage an d ple dgin g them to Y ahweh s servi ce w e c an b y re adi n g ’
,

th e a at ve
n rr i o f Ex 3 : 1— 14 in the li gh t o f o u r kn o wle dge o f psy
.

c h o lo gy an d o f th e hi sto ry o f reli gi o n re c o n stru c t wi th a go o d

,

de gree o f ac cu rac y I n all p art s o f the wo rl d an d in all reli gi o n s

.

m en o f a c e rtain typ e o f p sy chi c con stitu ti o n af te r see kin g fo r the ,

so lu ti o n o f a re ligi o u s p ro ble m and b ro o di n g lo n g o ve r it h ave ,

fo u n d th e i r p ro blem so lv e d in a fl ash o f in si gh t so su dd en an d c l e ar

th at th e y h ave seem e d to he ar a vo i ce u tte rin g th e wo rd s in whi c h

’
the i r th o u gh t to o k sh ape S u ch exp e rien ce s are c alle d au di tio n s 1 ‘
.
,

an d th o se w h o h ave e xp e ri e n ce d them h ave b elie ve d that the vo ic e

c am e fro m Go d I n m an y in stan c e s the illu min atio n thu s expe ri

.

en ce d h as b een th e b e gin n i n g o f a p ro ph e ti c c are e r T h e re c ipi e n t .

is m o re su re o f wh at h e h as he ard th an o f hi s o rdin ary e xperien ce s

an d is the re by stre n gth e n e d to e n d u re o ppo si ti o n an d p e rse c u ti o n

an d to sp eak wi th an i n ten se au tho ri ty whi c h c arri e s c o n vin c tio n

to hi s he are rs I t w as in thi s w ay th at Am o s I sai ah Je re m i ah S t

.
, , ,
.

P au l S t Au gu stin e M o h am m e d Geo rge F o x S adhu S u n d ar

,
.
, , ,

Singh an d a ho st o f o thers : re ce ived in the c rise s o f th ei r live s the

'

illu mi n atio n whi ch m ade them what the y we re Hu m an p sy c ho lo gy .

do e s n o t c h an ge Ri tu al s develo p an d traditio n s gro w b u t the

.
,

w o rkin gs o f th e hu m an mi n d re m ain c o n stan t Ho weve r m u c h .

kn o wled ge m ay b e enl arged th e fu n d amen tal wo rkings o f the ,

hu m an m in d re m ain the same I t is fo r thi s re aso n th at in the

.

sto ry o f th e b o o k o f Ex o du s w e c an b e su re o f the hi sto ri c al c h arac

te r o f th e re li gi o us e xpe rie n c e o f M o se s N0 o n e in an tiqu i ty c o u ld

.

in ven t it w ho h ad n o t had su c h an exp e rien ce an d if h e had had , ,

su c h an e xpe rie n ce h e w o u l d h ave b een to o in te n t o n hi s o w n pro

,

ph etic wo rk to in ven t su c h an exp e rien c e fo r an o the r .

1
S ee R uf u s M . J o n es, S tu di es i n M ysti cal Reli gi o n Lo n d o n
, ,
19 09 , an d th e artic le

M ystic ism in H astings E n cyclo paedi a of R eli gi o n

” ’
and E thi cs .
3 34 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

T he i
c rc u m s tan c e s
M o se s i ndignan t at the w ro ngs w e re the se .
,

infli c te d o n his b re thre n in E gyp t had k ille d an E gyp ti an an d fle d ,

t he c o u n t ry He fo u n d asyl u m w ith J e th ro a p ri e s t o f M i di an
.
, ‘
,

m arri e d his d au gh te r and te nd e d J e th ro s fl o c k s

’
T he Mi di ani te s
, .

we re a no m ad fo lk the range o f w ho se mi g rati o n s e x te n de d far ,

d o w n to w a rd the p re s e n t d ay M e di n a w he re the re a re ex te n si ve -
,

b e d s o f l ava w hi c h te s ti fy to c o m parati vely re c e n t vo lc a ni c ac ti vi ty ‘

.

One m o u n tai n the re w as in ac tive e ru p ti o n as l ate as the ye ar 125 6

A D
’
.
2
. T he d e s c ri pti o n o f Y ahw e h s d e sc e n t o n the ho ly m o u n tai n
is as a n u m b e r o f s c ho l ars have p o i n te d o u t the de s c ri p ti o n o f a
, ,

vo lc ani c e u p ti o n
r 1
No s u c h e ru p ti o n h as tak e n p lac e in the pe n
.

i nsula o f Si nai wi thi n hi s to ri c ti me T he Ho re b o f M o se s vi sio n .

’

m u st the re fo re h ave b e e n fu rthe r to the so u the ast in the p eni nsul a

, ,

o f A rabi a Wande ri ng wi th the flo c k ami d the sti ll ne ss o f the

.

d e se rt f astne sse s M o se s b ro o de d o n the acu te p ro bl e m s o f l ife as

,

he h ad e x pe ri en c e d it T he w ro n gs o f hi s b re thr e n hi s o w n e xile .
, ,

t he n atu re o f the de se rt go d w h o m his f athe r in law se rv e d Li fe - -

.

in the d e se rt w as fi e rce an d re l en tless an d so w as Y ahw eh Ne arby ,

.

w as the vo lc an i c m o u n tain the sm o k e o f w hi c h w as b e lieve d to ,

i n di c ate Yahw eh s p re sen ce an d w ho se b el c hi ng fi res e xp re sse d at

’

tim e s Yahw eh s w rath No wo n d e r that Yahwe h w as b elieve d t o

’
.

b e a j e al o u s go d ! T hi s b elie f gave c o u rage to hi s fo llo w e rs in the i r

co n fli c ts wi th th ei r n e i gh b o rs an d th ei r vi c to ri e s m ade the m b e ,

li eve th at Yahweh w as in vi n c ible in w ar 4

T he K eni tes w e re the .

“ “
smi th s o f the i r d ay They c o u l d m ak e m e tal we apo n s w hi ch gave
.

th e m a gre at ad van tage o ve r the i r fo e s w ho h ad o n ly flin t arro w s ,

an d s to n e s
7
T h e go d o f the smi th s w as n e c e ssarily a vi c to ri o u s go d
. .

U n de r the ci rc u m stan ce s the tho u gh t that if his peo pl e c o u l d o nly ,

gain the hel p o f Yahw eh th ey m i gh t e sc ape f ro m the i n to l e rab le ,

c o n di ti o n s o f E gy p t m u st o f ten h ave c ro sse d hi s min d On e d ay

,
.

1
Cf S tud ies i n the H is to ry
. Reli gi o n presen ted to rof esso r Toy, p 19 5
f
o P . .

2
S ee Wiis tenf eld s ’
t ranslat io n o f S amh o u di s H i story of the c i ty of M ed i na,
’
an d

Z D M G, L XI I I , 506 —530 .

5
Cf E x 19
. . .

Ex .

Q eni ( Keni t e ) is f ro m I t is fro m

’
m ean in g fi t to ge th e r, f ab ric at e , fo rge
5 ‘ ’ ‘
a ro o t .

th e sam e ro o t as th e n am e C ain , an d C
ain w as f at h e r o f m e tal w o rk e rs -
.

6
Cf Ge n
. .

7
Ge n . 24 .
 YAHWEH 35

as hew at c he d th e flo c k grazin g at the b ac k o f th e sac red m o u n tai n ,

h e saw a fl am e sh o o tin g f ro m th e m o u n tain sid e whi ch se em e d like

a b u sh o n fi re H e app ro ac he d to o b tain a b e tte r vi e w w he n h e
.
,

see m e d to h e ar a vo i c e bi dd in g him ac t as th o u gh o n ho ly gro u n d .

C o n tin u in g the vo ice declare d i tse lf to b e the vo ice o f Yahweh ; i t

,

in fo rm ed M o se s th at h e h ad seen the affli c tio n o f th e Heb re ws in

E gypt an d c o m m i ssio n ed M o se s to go an d in Yahweh s n am e le ad
, ,
’
,

th em o u t Thi s w as a religio u s experien ce as genu in ely re al as

.

that whi c h any p ro ph e t eve r h ad an d its m ain e lem en ts shin e o u t ,

still thro u gh th e phr aseo lo gy of late r trad i tio n Th at phraseo lo gy .

assu m e s th e re su lts o f hi sto ri c al p ro ce sses whi c h w e n o w kn o w to

h ave b een l ate r b u t the re ligio u s e m o tio n al b ro o di n g o ve r th e p ro b

1
,

lem s o f hi m se lf an d hi s p eo ple an d the su d den c o n vi c tion th at thi s ,

po we rfu l go d o f the d e se rt in who se terri to ry he h ad hi m self fo u n d

,
.

asylu m h ad sen t h m to resc u e his peo ple b e ar s all the m ark s o f

i

, ,

p sy c h o lo gi c al re ali ty an d a lo n e a c c o u n t s
,
f o r th e su b se qu en t c are e r

o f M o se s I n o b ed i en c e to th e vo i ce o f Ho re b h e w en t to E gy pt
.

an d p re ac he d wi th su c h in te n se c o n vi c ti o n th at he p e rsu ad e d an

in c red ulo u s p eo ple to fo llo w h m in to the de se rt to th e sac re d m o u n

i

tain When they re ac hed it Jethro c ele b rate d a sac rific e by w h ic h

.
,
’
he in iti ated M o se s an d A aro n i n to Yahweh s p riestho o d 2
af te r ,

whi ch M o ses an d Aaro n o ffi c iating a co ven an t san c tified by sacri

, ,

fi c e w as m ade whe re by the pe o ple bo u n d them selve s to serve

3
,

Yahweh an d Yahweh b e c am e thei r go d T he first step w as thu s

,
.

taken in the d iffe ren ti ati o n o f the re ligio n o f the He b re w s f ro m the

re ligi o n o f o the r S e mi te s I t is to b e n o te d that thi s exp e rien c e w as
.

in terpre te d by Mo se s in ac co rd an c e wi th the i de as an d co n ce ptio n s

o f th e u n iver se whi c h p revail e d in his ti m e H e do u b tle s s ce ase d .

to wo r shi p o the r go d s an d pai d hi s h o m age to Ya hweh alo n e as he ,

b e lieved Yahweh d em an ded b u t th is did n o t m ake him a m o n o ,

th e i st A m o no th ei st b elieve s that th e re is an d c an b e no Go d b u t
. .

o ne . The first co m m an dm e n t as J give s it is : Tho u shalt wo rship

“

”4 “
n o o the r go d ; as E give s it : Tho u shalt h ave n o o the r go d s in

1
S uc h i s th e ph rase Go d of thy f ath e rs, w hic h identifi e s Yahw eh wi th o t her go d s .

2
Ex .

2
Ex .
—11, verses 1—2 an d 9 —11 give th e J acc o u n t o f th e sac ri fi ce . V
e rses 3—8
give the E ac c o u n t o f it .

4
Ex .
3 36 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C O RIG I NS

”1
m y p re se n ce . I n e i the r fo rm t he c o m m and p re su ppo se s the re ali ty
o f the xiste n ce o f o the r go d s and re ve als
e ,
the fac t th at H e b re w
m o n o th e i s m w as n o t ye t bo rn 2 .

5 T hi s b ri ng s u s to the p ro bl e m o f the re al n atu re o f Yahw e h

.
,

the m e an ing o f his n am e hi s o ri gin a n d h is re latio n to o the r S e m i ti c

, ,

g o d s T. h a t h e c a u s e d t he vo lc a n i c m o u n ta i n to bl aze and smo ke

( G e n . Ex a n d t h a .t h e w a s a m an o f w ar ( Ex .

has be e n al re ad y n o te d F ro m thi s l ast c harac te ri sti c o n e.

o f hi s m o s t co m m o n e pi the ts Yahw e h Se b ao th Yahwe h o f arm ie s ‘ ’

, ,

or Yahw e h o f ho sts is d e ri ved T ran sl ate d by the LXX a s

‘
,
’
.

w a vr o xp dr w p it e n te re d the C h ri s ti an c ree d s a s Go d Al mi gh ty
‘ ’
,

a p h ras e in w hi ch the o ri gi n al si gn ifi c an c e h as b ee n t ran sfi gu re d .

B u t Yahw e h had o th e r f u n c ti o n s also H e w as the sto rm go d .

-
.

H e m an i fe s te d hi m sel f in c lo u d an d th u n d e r an d li gh tni ng ( J u d .

Ps . 1 8 am 7 : 10 ; Jo b In .

p a rt s o f th e h a bi ta t o f t h e M i di a n i tes s u c h a s t h e p e n i n su la o f ,

Sin ai vi o l en t thu n de rsto rm s o c c u r at so m e seaso n s o f the y e ar an d

, ,

it w as n atu ral to attrib u te these to the sam e d ei ty w ho c au sed the

sm o k e an d fi re o f the vo lc an o B u t Yahw e h pe rfo rm ed fo r his .

pe o pl e m o re vi tal f u n c ti o n s as we ll H e w as the Go d o f fe rti li ty . .

I t w as he w ho o p e n e d the w o m b ( Ge n
’
‘
Ex . .

Ps o r sh u t u p th e w o m b ( 1 S am
’
8 0 sa
‘
. .

c re d w e re th e gen i tals to hi m th at o ath s by Y ahw eh w e re tak e n u po n

the m ( Ge n H e c au se d grass to gro w an d he rb s to fe ed c attle

.

an d m e n ( Ge n 12 ; Ps l o4 zl 4) . Of all th ese fu n c ti o n s the re

. .
,

c an b e n o qu e s ti o n as to w hi c h is o ld e st an d m o st o ri gin al in th e

min d o f o n e w ho has po n de re d the evi de n c e p resen te d in the p re

c edin g c h ap te r s .

The S emi ti c c ul ts w hi c h w e re u ni versal an d o ld w e re c u l ts o f

fe rt ili ty ; the dei ti e s we re o ri gi n ally the spiri ts o f sp rin gs an d o f
trees an d b ecam e the gi ve r s o f li f e an d the c re ato rs o f c hi l dr e n
,
.

There c an b e li ttl e do u b t th en th at Yahweh w as o rigin ally a go d , ,

o f this c ul t th at hi s n am e w as gi ven as an e pi the t d e sc rip ti ve o f hi m

,

a s o n e w h o pe rf o rm e d fo r hi s w o rshipp e rs th e f u n c tio n s o f su c h a

1
Ex .

2
Alb righ t ’
s argu m e n t f o r th e m o n o th eis m of M o ses ( Archaeolo gy of P alesti ne and

the B ible, p . 163 E .

) is p arti c ul arly w eak . T he e ff o rt o f Ik hn ato n h ad di e d in E gyp t
a c en t u ry an d a M o se s, an d there is n o
q u art e r b ef o re e vid en c e f o r th e su ppo se d Kassite

mo n o th eis m ; cf Ge o rge F o o te M o o re, H isto ry of Religio ns , I , Ne w

. Y
o rk , 19 13 , p 242 . .
 YAHWEH 33 7

de i ty ,
an d th at hi s fu n c tio n s we re as l
vo c an o -
go d an d ra n - go d
i
late r ac qu i si ti o n s du e to the fe atu res an d the c lim ate o f the regi o n
in whi c h the Ke n i te Mi di an i te s ro am e d an d th at hi s re pu tatio n -
,

as a go d o f w ar grew o u t o f the su c c e ssfu l i ssu e o f the i r co n te sts wi th

o the r trib e s Sin ce thi s is so o n e sho uld lo o k fo r the o rigin o f his

.
,

n am e in an epi th et d e sc rip tive o f hi m as a gi ver o f f e r ti lity an d li f e .

T he n am e is su pp o se d to h ave exi s ted in thre e fo rm s : Yah we h ,

Yahu (o r Yaho ) an d Y ah
1 2 “ I n re ali ty b u t o n e re al fo rm o f the
m
.

n am e e xi ste d an d th at w as th e fu ll f Y we h h h
Ya u sho u ld
4
o r a .

b e re ad Y ahw an d is m e re ly a defe c tive w ri ti n g o f Yahweh Y ah is ,

simply a hyp o c ho ristico n Wh at then is the m ean in g o f the n ame .

, ,

Yahweh ?
M an y etymo lo gie s h ave b een o ffe red an d m an y m ean in gs o f it
p p
ro o s e d I t h a s b ee n e.xp la in e d a s a K al f o rm o f th e H e b rew verb

n n m e anin g H e w ho is o r T h e self e xi ste n t o n e as K al in

’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
-

, ,

a fu tu re sen se m e an i n g H e wi ll b e i e all th at hi s servan ts lo o k ‘

. .
, ,

fo r o r H e w il l appro ve hi m self in th e sen se th at h e will give e vi den ce

‘ ’

o f hi s b e i n g o r assert his b ein g o r reve al hi m sel f o r en ac t hi sto ry 7

in b attle as a Hiphil m
, , , ,

“
o r h e wil l b e wi th u s i e ean i n g H e w h o
‘ ’ ‘
, . .
, , , ,

fro m mm rvn m e an in g eithe r H e w ho c au se s

‘
c au ses to exi st
9
,

o r H e w h o give s exi sten c e o r H e w h o b ri n gs to

’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
b ein g o r life 10
,
11
,
‘

p e rf o r m s h is p ro m i se s ; a s a H ip hil f ro m m n ,
m e an in g
1
,
T he f o rm so read o ccu rs in t he Aramaic p ap yri fro m E leph an tin e ; cf . S ac hau ,
Aramcti sche Pa u nd Os tr ak a au s E lephanti n e, L eipz ig, 19 11, n o 1
’

lpyru s . .

2 I n H eb r
e w pro p er n am e s su c h as Y eho s hu a . I t is d o u b tful, h o w ever, w he th er
thi s w as th e o riginal p ro n u n ciati o n . I t m ay h ave b een Y ahw eshu a .

5
Cf E x. . etc .

4
Thi s vie w ge n erally is no w acc ep ted . Wh en t he w rite r t ran slated th e p apyru s
f o r hi s Arc haeo lo gy and the B i ble, Phil d lphi a e a, 19 16, p 38 7 . fl . he f o llo wed the o pini o n
t h en p re vailin g am o n g sc h o la f san d re ad the n am e Yh a u .

5
S o Dillm ann , Co m ub E x .
'

. . ad F ranz D eli tz sc h , Co m . u b er Genesi s , 18 7 2, pp .

26 an d 60 ; an d Oehl er, Th eo l . o f O . T §39 .

5
So W . R . S mith , B ri tis h and F o rei gn E van geli c al R evi ew , 18 7 6 .

7
S R
. . Di r ve r , S tudi a B i b li c a, I ,
“
I7 ; H o mm el An ci en t H ebrew ,
T r adi ti o ns , 114 ; an d

Marti ,
Th eo lo gi e, 3 te Au f p 6 1 n 20 .
, . .

5
S k ip w ith in J ewi sh Qu ar terly R evi ew , J u ly , 189 8 .

9
W . F Alb righ t, Arc haeo lo gy
. o f P alesti n e and the B ible, 19 3 1, p . 164 .

1°
Geseni u s , Th es au r u s , 1839 , p 57 7 n ; E . . S c hrad er in S c hen k el
’
s B ib el Lexi k o n ;
an d S c h ultz , Th eo lo gi e, 2t e Auf , 48 7 if . .

11
Kuen e n , R eli gi on of I srael, pp 27 9 , 3 98 . .

12
L agarde , ZD M G, XXI I , 33 1, S ymmi cta, I , 104 ; Ps alteri u m ju xla H ebraeos H i ero
n ymi , 15 3 ff ; Ori en tali a, I I , 27 —30, an d G533 gel Anz ei gen , 188 5 , p 9 1; also Nestle , I sr » . . .

E i genn amen , p 88 ff . .
3 38 S E M ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

He
‘
w ho se nd s A fel o f HWY me ani ng he w ho
do w n as a n ,
‘

1—
and f ro m J ah an e x cl am ati o n o f aw e
’
c au se s to lo ve pas si n ate ly ;
2
o

“
o r ho no r o r a bo rro wi ng f ro m B abyl o n i a I s it po ssib le to si ft
‘
.

the se varyi ng o pi ni o n s and re ac h any so li d g ro u n d o n w hi c h to re ly ?

I t s ho u l d b e no ted that s tri c t p hi lo lo gi c al ac c u rac y e x cl u d e s f ro m
c o n si de rati o n all e tym o lo gi e s w hi c h d e ri ve the n am e f ro m the ro o t

new I f d e ri ved f ro m that ro o t the n am e sho u ld b e Y ahye h

‘ ’
.
, ,

b u t it is in re ali ty Yahw e h “
We are c o m pell ed the re fo re to d e ri ve .
, ,

it f ro m a ro o t mm and the o n e k no w n ro o t w hi c h affo rd s a ,

m e ani ng th at harm o n iz e s wi th any o f the k no wn pre M o sai c attri -

b u te s o f Yah we h is the ve rb H WY If the n am e o ri gi n ate d amo ng .

the K e ni te M i di an i tes the re m i gh t b e so m e q u e s tio n as to w he the r

-
,

the y s po k e A m o ri te w hi c h w as p rac ti c al ly i de n ti c al wi th e arly ,

He b rew o r A rabi c b u t si nce He b re w aff o rds n o sati sfac to ry

, , ,

e tymo l o gy an d A rabi c do e s an d s in c e the re is so m e re aso n fo r ,

b elie vi ng that t he epi thet is o ld er t han t he M i d i an ites d eriva ,

t io n o f the n ame f ro m the A rabi c ste m p ro po se d see m s j u s tifie d

by all c o n side rati o n s I t apparen tly applied to a go d o f lif e and .

fe rt ili ty an d ch arac te rize d him as H e w ho c au ses to l o ve p assio n

‘

T he c au sati ve fo rrn o f th e n am e is an alo go u s to the c au sa

’
ately .

t i ve e lem en t in th e n am e o f the P h oeni c i an go d S hepe sh 7

A fte r .

Yahwe h h ad b e en ado p ted by the He b rew s as thei r Go d it w as ,

in evi table th at th e Arabi an o rigin o f hi s n ame sho u ld b e fo rgo tten ,

an d th at atte m pts lik e that o f Ex sho u l d b e m ad e to expl a

,
in .

i t f ro m He b re w .

Th at the n am e Yahweh w as o ld e r th an the M idi ani te Ke n ite s -

is in di c ate d by its o c c u rre n c e in S em i ti c B abylo ni an pro pe r n am e s

“
at a m u ch e arli e r tim e Y a w a ilu m e an in g Yahw e h is go d w as
‘ ’
- -
,
.
,

1
W . R S mi th , 0
. . T i n the
. J w i h Ch
e s u r ch, 4 23 , an d B art o n , Ori e a S tu dies o
f the
Or . Cl b f P hil d lphi
u o a e a, I, 87 .

2
D . B . Mac do nald in t he Ne w ,
Y N ati o n , LXXV, 190 2, p 15 B arto n , in Has t
o rk .

in gs Dic tion ary Vo lu me , p 4 11; in S tudies i n the H is to ry of Re ligi o n

’
f
o the B i b le i n One .

prese nta i to P f
ro es sor To y, Ne w Y 19 12, p 193
o rk , . .

5
S o F redr ic h D e li tz s c h and D . G B rin t o n
. .

4
B rinto n in Arc hi vf ii r Religi o n s Wissen sc haf t ,
I I , 18 99 , 226 —
23 6 .

5
D eli tz sc h , in Wo
lag das arad ies ? , 18 8 1, 158 e sp 16 1 E P . .

T
hi s is sh o w n b y t h e Gre e k sp e llin g ( in w hi c h 3 is pro n o u nc e d v, ) as w e ll

as b y t he u nif o rm H e b re w spellin g o f t h e et ragramm at o n itself T .

7
S ee ab o ve , ch IX , p 29 0 . . .

Cf . CT ,
VIII ,
20 , 3 a and 3 4 , 4a .
 YAHWEH 33 9

a pro p e r B ab ylo ni a as early as the first dyn asty o f B abylo n

n am e in .

Waw in B abylo n ian wri tin g is o ften repre sen ted by m ; hen ce
Y a u m ili i s in re ali ty the sam e n am e
- 1 -
Jo hn s c alled atten tio n to .

th e f ac t that b an d p are so n e arly i d e n ti c al in c u n e i fo rm th at if ,

Yahwe w as p o no u n ce d Ia B as
h r e
2
T h e o d o re t te stifi e s —
Y a pa ili 2
, ,
-

is al so a n am e in whi c h Yahw e h fo rm s an ele me n t F ro m the Kas .

—
site pe rio d co m e s the n am e Y a u b an i whi c h appe ar s also to c o n
4 -
,

t ain th e n am e Yah weh in an o the r cu n ei f o rm tran sliteratio n an d a ,

gran dd au gh te r o f N aram S in bo re a n am e th at m ay b e read Lipu sh

-

I au m “ Verily I ahw eh c re ate s

,
‘
The re is also a serie s o f B abylo n ian .
’

n am e s Arad Y a A rad Y au
,
Arad Yam a Arad Yab a an d Arad
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,

Yap a in whi c h the n am e Yahweh seem s to o c c u r I n addi tio n to

“
.

the se B ab y lo n ian o ccu rren ce s o f th e n am e it appe ars to h ave e n tered ,

in to the bo m po sitio n o f th e n am e o i a re si den t o f Taan ac h in P ale s -

tin e in the fo u rteen th cen tu ry B C and in to the n am e o f Y au

7
. .
,

bid i a king o f Ham ath in the eigh th cen tu ry B C

,
8
While th e ,
.

ex e gen c ie s o f an c i en t tran slite ratio n an d th e ab sen ce o f th e d e

te rmi n ative fo r go d b e fo re the se o c c u rren c es o f Yah we h are th o u gh t

‘ ’

by so me to ren der the eviden ce o f these n am e s i n secu re th e pro b ,

abilit y is that th e y testi f y to the an tiqu i t y an d wi despre ad u se o f

Yahweh as a S emiti c d ivin e epithe t I t w as n o t app aren tly the .

, ,

m o st po pu lar e pithe t o f o n e o f the go d s o f fertilit y “b u t n e ve rthe le s s ,

a pe rsisten t o n e an d a wi d ely distrib u ted o n e I t w as m ade b y t he .

Ken ite M idi an ite s the so le de sign atio n o f the ir deity a n d fro m the m
-
'

t ake n o ve r by the He b re w s .

6 ; T he w ay is n o w c le ar fo r a c o n si de ratio n o f the p ro b le mas to

wh at w as the b asis o f the c o ven an t be tween Yahweh an d I srael? I n
1
Cf . CT ,
I V , 27 , 3 a .

Th e f ac t th at th e Greek B w as pro n o u n c e d v d o e s
2
no t in vali d at e t h e c o r rec tn ess

o f the eq u ivalenc e o f th e B ab y lo n ian c o n so n an t s .

3
Vorderasi ati s che S chrif td en k maler, VI I I , n o 16, 3 9
'

. .

4
BE , XV , n o s 184 , 7 ; 200 , i , 3 7 ; ii , 16 an d 25
. .

5
Co mptes rend u s o f th e P aris Ac ad émi e, 189 9 , 3 48 .

Cf . Cl y P pa , ro er N ames, passi m .

7
Cf . S lli
e T ll Tn, e a an ek ,
‘

p 115 ,
. no . 2, 2 an d p 121, . no . 2, 2 . S e e also ab o ve , p 3 26
. .

5
Cf KA T 66
’
.
, p . .

9
Th at su c h w as t h e base is c o nfi rm e d b y th e B ab ylo ni an n am e I lu —
I B ilu Y au ,
- -

M y go d I B i s the go d Y au
‘
.
’
I t has b e e n sh o wn ab o ve th at I B w as a d eity of f ertility,
an d t hi s n am e eq u ate s it wi th th e go d Y au or Y ah w eh .
( S ee C ambridge B i bli c al E ssays,
p .
3 40 S E M ITIC AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS

o th e rw o rd s w hat d id M o se s and his c o n te mpo rari e s u nde rs tand

,

th at the y h ad b o u n d them se lve s to d o in o rd e r to re tain Yahwe h s

’

favo r an d the be ne fi ts o f hi s p re se nc e and help in thei r c o rpo rate

life ? T he Old Te s tame nt c o n tai n s fi ve d i ffe re n t an sw e rs to thi s
q ue s ti o n A c c o rdi ng to the J d o c u m e n t it c o n si sted o f the
.
1

D e c alo gu e o f J no w o ve rl ai d wi th D e u te ro no mi c e di to ri al e x
,

p an sio ns in Ex A c c o rding to E it c o nsi s te d o f the D e c a

.

l o gu e no w e m bo di ed wi th so m e D e u te ro no m ic and P ri e stly expan

sio n s in Ex 20 an d in the agri c u ltu ral an d ri tu ali s ti c c o de n o w
.

fo u n d in Ex an d c al le d by E T h e B o o k o f t he C o ve
‘
.

n an t A c co rdin g to A m o s and I sai ah the b asi s o f the c o ve nan t

.
’

w i th Yah w e h w as p u re ly e thi c al ; h e re q u i red n o t ri tual b u t j u s ti c e ,

b e twee n m an and m an 2
T he c o m pil e r o f the c o d e o f D e u te ro no m y
.

regard e d the D e c al o gue o f D e u t 5 an d the l aw s o f D e u t —

12 26 . .

as t he o bl igati o n s i mpo se d by the c o ve n an t Fi n ally the P d o c u .

m e n t re garde d all Le vi ti c al re q ui re m e n ts an d i n sti tu ti o n s in

.
— —
Ex 25 3 1 an d 3 5 40 the b o o k o f Le vi ti cu s an d the b o o k o f , ,

N u m b e rs as em b rac ed in the dem an ds o f Y ahweh an d the o bli gatio n s

o f th e c o ve n an t Of c o u rse n o t all o f these m u tu al ly ex c l u si ve regu
.

latio n s an d d e m an d s c an go b ack to M o ses M o de rn rese arc h has .

d em o n strate d th at the regulati o n s o f P and D gre w u p o r w e re

c o difi e d in t he c o u rse o f I srae l s P ale s ti n i an hi sto ry u n d e r the ia
’

flu e n ces o f hi sto ri c al si tu atio n s whi c h are c l e arly trace abl e T he .

ide als o f the ei gh th c e n tu ry p ro phe ts are the i de al s o f po we rf u l

-

p re ac he rs b u t n o t the wo rk o f well i n fo rm e d hi sto ri an s T he agri

,
-
.

c ul tu ral co de o i E w as c l e arly b o rro w ed f ro m t he C an aan i te s afte r

“
t h e se ttl e m e n t in P ale stin e T he M i di an i te K en i te s an d the fo l .
-

l o we rs o f M o se s we re at the tim e the c o ven an t w as m ade all , ,

n o m ad s
‘
Yahw eh w as a Go d o f the n o m ad s an d fo r cen tu rie s
.
,

1
I t is assu med th at read e rs o f thi s b o o k w ill all b e familiar wi th t he exten sive lite ra
tu re on t hi s j
su b ec t . Th o s e w ho are n o t may o b tain th e reaso n s o n w hi c h th e m o d e rn
analysis is b ase d f ro m C A . . C
B riggs , The H i gher r itici s m of the H exateu c h, New Y o rk ,

1893 ; J . E . C arpe n t er an d G H arf o rd —

. B attersb y , The H exate u ch, Oxf o rd , 19 00 ; W . E .

Addis , D o c u me nts o f the Hexate uc h, L o n do n , 1898 ; or J . A Be w e r, The Old

. T esta men t
as Li terat u re, Ne w Y o rk , 19 22 .

2
Cf Amo s
. 7;12, 14 , 24, 25 ; an d 8 14 - 7 ; and I sa .
—17 .

5
S ee Olms te ad , H i sto ry of P
al es ti n e and S yr i a, c h . VI II .

4
Cf . B u d d e , R eligio n of I sr ael to the E x ile, Ch I , . an d n o te t h e n o m adi c ideals of

th e R ec hab ites , 2 K in gs 10 : 15 —17 an d J er . 3 5 : 2—19 . T he p assage f ro m e remiah J

sh o w th at th ey m ain tained t h e n o m ad ic id e al u n til t he fall o f the ki ngd o m o f u d ah J .
 YAHWEH 41

af te rw ard his m o st de vo te d fo l lo we rs i deal c he r shed i th e n o m adi c

'

T he E do c u m en t th erefo re do e s n o t affo rd the re al b asi s o f the co ve

'

n an t at Ho re b
1
Ou r n e are st app ro ac h to the ac tu al term s o f that
.

fatefu l hi sto ri c al agree m e n t is fo u n d in the D ec alo gu e o f J tho u gh ,

e ven th at h as in th e p ro ce ss o f lo n g tran smi ssio n by an agri cu ltu ral

,

peo ple receive d tw o o r three agri c u l tu ral ad di ti o n s

,
When the se .

are re m o ve d the D e c alo gu e re ad s so m e wh at as f o llo w s :

,

1 Tho u sh al t wo rship n o o the r go d

.
2
.

2 Tho u sh alt m ak e thee n o m o l ten go

. ds 3
.

3 Th e fe ast o f th e P asso ve r tho u sh al t keep

.
4
.

4 Th e fi rstlin g o i an ass th o u shal t e de em wi th a l am b “

'

. r .

5 All the fi rstb o rn o f thy so n s tho u sh alt re d eem

.
“
.

6 No n e shall appe ar b efo re m e empty

.
7
.

h h
Six d ay s shalt tho u wo rk an d o n the seven t t o u sh alt re st “ .

8 Tho u sh alt o b se rve th e fe ast o f ingat e i g

. h r n “ .

9 Tho u shalt n o t o ffe r th e blo o d o f m y sac rifice wi th le aven ed

.

b read n eithe r sh all the sac rific e o f the Passo ver rem ain
,

u n til the m o rn i n g
10
.

10 T o u shalt n o t see the a kid in its mo th er s milk

h 11 ’
. .
_

I t will b e o b serve d th at these ten re qui re m e n ts are sim ple state

12

m en t s whi c h c o u ld b e n u m b ere d o n the fin gers an d b e c arri e d in

the m em o ry A stu dy o f them is m o st illu m in atin g T h e first o n e
. .

e xp resse s Yahwe h s j e alo u sy ; h e wi ll n o t to le rat e th at hi s fo llo w ers

’

sh o u l d di vi d e th e i r allegi an ce wi th an o th e r go d Thi s is no t mo no .

th ei sm as th e reality o f o ther go d s is n o t de n i e d
,
I t is o nly an .

e xpre ssi o n o f th e fierc e i n to l eran c e o f th e go d o f th e vo lc an o an d o f

1 Fo r a rec en t pen e tratin g stu dy of t he law s of E see J u lian M o rge n stem ’

s B oo k
f
o the Co ven ant, C in c inn ati , 19 28—3 0 .

2
Ex .

3
Ex .

4
Ex 3 4 : 18 a
. . P ro b ab ly u nle aven e d
‘ ’
b re ad is an agricultu ral e m en d atio n .

5
E x 34 : 20a
. .

E x 3 4 : 20c
. .

7
Ex . 34 : 20 d .

3
Ex .

9
E x 3 4 : 22c
. .

1“
Ex .

11
E x 3 4: 26b
. .

‘
28 that t hese re q u ire me n ts are
’
12
I t is st at e d in E x .
_
th e te n w o r d s , o r, as

co mmo nly tran slat e d ,

‘
c o mm an d m e n ts .
’
34 2 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI GI NS

the d e se rt I do ls c arve d o u t o f wo o d are no t p ro hi b i ted b u t o nly

.
,

‘
m o lte n g s o d — e x pe n si ve m e tal i d o ls
’
~

T his c o m m and is a su rvi val .

o f t he m o re p r i m i ti ve f o rm o f Y a h w e h w o r s h i —
p a fo rm an te d ating
-

the ti m e w he n a po rti o n o f h is fo llo w e rs b ec am e m e tal w o rk e rs o r -

K e ni tes T he w ho le D e c alo gu e is ri tu ali sti c in c harac te r I t

. .

lay s d o w n the si m ple thi n gs w hi c h Y ahw e h ask e d o f his n o m adic

wo rshi ppe rs T hey w e re to o b se rve the tw o g re at fe asts o f the
.

S emi ti c d e se rt w o rl d : the fe ast o f the y e ani ng ti me in the e arly

-

m o nth s o f the y ear c alle d pos e lak c o mm o n to the w ho le S e mi ti c

, ,

wo rl d b u t by P i n te rp re te d as a c o m m em o ratio n o f the exo d u s f ro m

,

E gyp t an d th e fe ast o f the i ngathe rin g o f the d ate harve st At

,
.

“
the se festi val s e ve ry o n e m u st b ri ng an o ff e ri ng : No ne shall appe ar
T he fi rstb o rn o f ani m als an d m e n are Yahw e h s
”
b e fo re m e e m pty .
’

an d by ri gh ts sho u l d b e s ac rifi c e d to him b u t th e fi rstlings o f a sse s ,

and o f h u m an b ei n gs m ay b e re d e em ed by s u b sti tu tin g a l am b

1
.

No sac rifi ce m ay b e e ate n wi th l e ave n e d b re ad an d the sac rifi ce ,

o f the Pe s ak h m u st b e c o n su m e d b e fo re m o rn i n g A k id m ay n o t
2
.

b e b o il e d in its m o the r s m i lk an d e ve ry se ven th d ay is tab o o to

’
,

Yahw eh ; no w o rk m ay b e d o n e in it 3
S u c h w e re the si mpl e re .

n t s o f Yahw e h s ri tu al h e se si m ple d e tail s fo rm e d a

’

q u ire m e T .

p art o f all su b seq u en t c o de s M o di fie d in so m e re spe c ts an d el ab o .

rat e d in d e tail t h e y wi th o n e o r tw o e x cep ti o n s rem ain c o n stan t

, , , .

Thi s sim pl e D ec alo gu e is no t in te re ste d in e thi c s b u t in wo rshi p ,

.

I t in f o rm e d the He b rew s w hat Yahweh the i r ado p te d Go d d e , ,

m an de d o f them in t he w ay o f se rvi ce I t w as n o t u n til l ate r th at .

th ey c am e to thi nk o f him as in te re ste d in th e i r c o n d u c t to ward

o n e an o the r At this tim e the y c am e in to hi s servi c e as a gro up ;
.

t hei r atti tu de to w ard s o n e an o the r re m ain e d w h at it h ad b ee n ;

this ri tu al servi ce Yahw eh d em an d e d o f the m all ; it w as o n c o n di

1
H ad t h e anc ien t S e mi t e h ad a se n se o f h u m o r, he w o uld h ard ly h ave allo w e d t he
ass pre c ed en ce o ve r his first b o rn so n .

2
T he sac ri fi c e o f a ca mel, w i tn e sse d b y Th e o d u lu s, so n o f Nilu s, amo ng th e Arab s
in th e fo u rth c en tu ry A D , in w hi c h th e : fl
e sh h ad to b e c o n su m ed b ef o re su n rise ,
. .

p ro ve s thi s to h ave b e e n in ac c o rd an c e w i th an an c ien t S e mitic c u s to m , w hic h , am o n g

the Arab s, pe rs iste d f ar in to th e hr istian e ra C

Cf Ni li o per a qu aed am n o nd u m edita, . .

P aris , 163 9 , p 27 an d W R S mi th , R eli gi on of the S emi tes, 2n d c d , pp 166 , 227 , 28 1,

.
. . . . .

33 8 3 6 1, 3 63 , ar d i 364 .

On t he o rigin o f the S ab b at h , se e S ab b at h , C iti

r c al Vi
ew i n th e J wi h E
e s nc yclo

pedi a .
 YAHWEH 3

tio n of the bringi ng of the se fi rstlin gs or thei r su b stitu te s ,

o ffe re d

in t he w ay de m an de d , the o b servan ce o f the se tim e ho n o re d fe stivals , -

c e ssatio n o f th e wo r shi p o f o the r go d s , d o i n g wi tho u t mo l te n i d o l s ,

an d o b servin g the d ay that Yahweh had re served fo r hi s o wn th at ,

Yahweh wo u ld b e their Go d fight their b attle s give them fo o d an d , ,

o ff sprin g an d do f o r th e m all th at an y peo ple co u ld d es ire a go d to

,

do . Wi th a Go d o f su c h a repu tatio n fo r po we r vi c to rio u s in w ar , ,

ab le to smi te with thu n d erb o lt o r vo lc an i c fl am e an d l ava b u t to , ,

tho se w ho wo rship p ed him abl e to o p e n the wo mb an d al so gi ve

‘ ’
.
, .

fo o d t he e sc ap e d b o n dsm en o f E gypt fe l t safe

,
S o fie rce ly d e .

vo te d to hi m did the y bec o m e th at in tim e they c o nverted to Y ah

w eh s se rvi ce s tho se ho were in P ale sti n e b efo re the m an d am o n g
’

w
wh o m the y se ttled .

F o r a peo ple to c h an ge it s go d w as so me thi n g n ew in the S emi ti c

wo rld Go d s were re lated it w as tho u ght to their wo rshippers by
.
, ,

kin shi p ; the y eOu ld n o m o re c ast o ff the ir wo rshi pp ers than a m an

c o u l d di so w n hi s relatio n s
— an ac t wh i ch in an c i en t dese rt so c i ety , ,

g e n e ra lly m e an t d e ath B u t Y a h w e h h ad c h o se
. n t h ese H e b rew s ;

the b o n d whi c h b o u n d th em to him co n tai n e d c o n d i ti o n s I f th ese .

c o n di tio n s we re n o t fu lfi lled he m igh t c ast the m o ff an d c ho o se ,

an o ther p eo ple I n thi s f ac t th e re lay in the p ro vi d en c e o f Go d

.
, ,

the po ssibili ty o f the fu tu re bi rth o f a re ligio n su ch as th e wo rld

h ad not ye t seen .

I t is n o te wo rthy that no thi n g isb o u t c ir sa id in thi s c o ven an t a

cu m cisio n an d th at in th e J d o c u m en t th e li ttle th at is s aid c o n

,

c e rn i n g thi s ri te le ave s u s so m e w hat p erple xe d as to it s re al place

in the cu lt at thi s p e rio d We are to ld in Ex .26 th at when .

,

M o se s w as o n the w ay to Egyp t to p e rsu ade hi s b re th ern to c o m e o u t ’

,

“
On th e w ay at th e lo dgin g Yahweh m e t him an d so u gh t to kill h im ,
.

Then Zippo rah to o k a fli n t an d c u t o ff the fo reskin o f her so n an d

c ast it at hi s f ee t ; an d sh e s ai d S u re ly a b ri d e gro o m o f b lo o d art ,

t h o u to m e S o h e le t him alo n e
. Then sh e said A b rid egro o m o f .
,

blo o d b ec au se o f the c irc u m c i sio n

,
T he im pli c atio n s o f thi s .

state m en t are m o st in stru c tive Yahweh seeks to kill M o se s b e .

c au se M o se s h as n o t b e en c i rc u m c i se d I n ste ad o f ci rcu m c i sing .

M o se s Zippo rah ci rc u m c i se s h er so n Gersho m an d smears the blo o d

,

o n M o se s ( fee t is a eu phemi sm fo r ge n i tals ) an d s

‘
ai d Tho u art
‘ ’ 1
, ,

1
Cf R u t h
. 7 an d I sa .
344 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C OR IG I NS

my b lo o d y b rid e gro o m ; w he re u po n Y ahwe h d e sisted f ro m his

’

atte m pt to k ill M o se s I t w o ul d appe a r the n that Yahw eh w as

.
, ,

b e lie ved to re q ui re ci rc u m ci s io n o f m ale s and t hat thi s ri te w as

u s u al ly p e rfo rm e d at t he ti m e o f m a rriage an d t h at M o se s had ,

n e gle c te d to c o n fo rm to the re gu lati o n He fe l l s ic k an d it w as .

b e lie ve d that he w o u ld d ie b e c au se Yahw e h w as ang ry at the n e gle c t

o f t hi s ri te By c i rc u m ci si ng t he b o y and sm e ari ng the b l o o d o n
.

t he app ro p ri ate p art o f M o se s bo dy an d stati ng t hat he w as a

’

b loo dy b ri deg ro o m ( all the anc i e n ts had g re at fai th in the m agi c

p o w e r o f a s po k e n w o rd ) Y a hw e h ac c e p te d M o se s a s a c i rc u m c ise d
,

p e r s o n a n d p e rm i tte d hi m to p o c e ed o n his m i ssi o n

r T he o n ly .

o th e r re fe re n ce to c i rc u m c i s io n in t he J d o c u m e n t is in J o sh u a

w he re it appe ars that the fightin g m e n o f I srae l had n o t b ee n c ir

c u m ci sed an d th e ri te h ad to b e p e rf o rm e d j u st as t hey w e re
1
,

e n te ri n g o n a w a r F ro m the se ac c o u n ts it w o u l d appe ar that

.

Yah w eh re q u i re d c irc u m c isio n an d th at the p ro pe r tim e to pe rfo rm

it w as at th e ti m e o f m arriage b u t th at the p rac tic e w as n o t ri gi dl y
,

e n fo rce d I f ho w eve r o n e we re go ing o n a difli c u lt mi s sio n su c h

.
, , ,

as w agin g a w ar o r u po n a pro ph e ti c mi ssi o n lik e th at o f M o ses in , ,

’
o rd e r to se c u re Y ahw e h s c o ope rati o n an d h e lp c irc u m c i si o n w as ,

d ee m e d to b e n ec e ssary Yahw eh w o u l d resen t in su c h pe o ple a

.

n eglige n c e w hi c h h e mi gh t o ve rlo o k in pe rso n s e ngage d in l e ss

ho ly o r h az ardo u s task s .

7 T h e i m ple m e n ts o f th e c u l t o f Yahw e h in ti m e o f M o se s we re
.

ve ry s im ple M o se s h ad a ten t pi t ch e d wi tho u t the H e b rew cam p

.
,

c all e d th e Te n t o f M ee ti n g to w hi c h h e re so rte d to o b tain o rac l e s

,

f ro m him 2
L ate r ge n e ratio n s b elie ve d th at Yahw eh spo k e to hi m
.

th e re f ace to f ace I t is p ro b abl e th at th e t en t c o n tain e d an e ph o d

.

o r so m e i n strum e n t o f d i vin atio n o r t h e c astin g o f l o ts by m e an s o f

w hich o racl e s we re o b tain ed I t is po ssibl e that M o se s w ho had

'

.
,

re c e i ve d hi s p ro ph e tic c all in an au di ti o n at th e b u rni n g m o u n t ain ,

he ard in au di tio n s in t hi s te n t w he re Yahwe h w as b e lieve d to c o m e

, ,

o th e r m essage s .

’
T he phrases again an d a se c o n d t im e are c lea rly th e w o rk o f a la ter edi to r w h o
1 ‘ ‘ ’

w as sh o c k e d th at t h e re gul at io n in f o rc e i n hi s day t o c irc um ci se o n t h e e ighth d ay had

no t b ee n o b se rve d , an d , w h o adde d th ese w o rd s th at m e n mi gh t no t be enc o ur age d by

t he e xam p le o f t h e an ci e nt s t o n e gle c t so im p o rt an t a law . Th ey c o uld h ardly circu m
c is e t h e mselve s a sec o n d ti me w ith o u t an ti c ipatin g t h e wi sh of St . P aul : 6<p é h o v xa l
5t7u r es b u d s ( Gal
’
d rr o xbgbo vr a t OL
'
a va.o r a r .

2
Ex .
—11 .
 YAHWEH 34 5

In ad d i tio n to th e te n t the re w as an
‘
ark
’
or b o x in whi ch w as a
s ac re d sto n e . L ate r traditio n b e lie ved th at it co n t a n e d
i tw o sto n e s

an d th at the ten c o m m an d m e n t s h ad b e en in scrib e d on th e m by

Yahweh him se lf M an y peo ple s h ave fo u n d an an ae ro lite a sac re d
.
_

sym b o l given f ro m h e aven i t self an d it is p ro b ab le th at thi s ark

1
,

held a vo lc an i c sto n e f ro m Yah we h s o w n m o u n t ain

’
Whe re ve r
the n o m ad s ro am e d this sto n e w as a sym
.

b o l o f Yah weh s p re sen c e

,
’
.

T h e P d o cum e n t h as t ran sfo rm e d the Te n t o f M ee tin g i n to a c u r

tain e d te m ple p atte rn e d o n the te mple o f S o lo m o n an d filled the ,

simple b o x wi th o th e r im agi n ary thi n gs b u t th e p re sen ce o f t hi s ,

ark in th e te m ple at S hi lo h an d it s h i sto y u t l t e e ign o f D avid

i h
2 3
r n r

vo u c h fo r it s hi sto ric al c h arac te r I t w as pro b ab ly ke pt in th e .

Ten t o f M eetin g P ro b ab ly M o se s c ast th e sac re d lo t b efo re it

.
,

an d po ssi bly th e aw e b e go tten by it s s ac red sto n e helpe d hi m to

o rac u lar au d i tio n s .

I n th e J do c u m en t the sac ri fi ce s o f thi s p e ri o d are th o u gh t to h ave

in vo lved feasts in the in te re st o f the wo rshi pper i e the y h ad a ,
. .
,

c o mm en s al e lem e n t M o se s an d Aaro n Nad ab an d Abihu an d

.
, ,
” ”
se ven ty eld ers o f I srael b eheld Go d an d did e at an d d rin k : ( Ex .

F o r lo n g af terw ard thi s w as th e c hi e f f e atu re o f th e sac ri

fi c ial fe asts ; cf . 1 S am 1 . an d 2 .

8 . T he qu estio n as to the hi sto ry an d n atu re an d wo rship o f Y ah

w eh b efo re the tim e o f M o se s has alre ady b een an swe re d b u t fo r , ,

the sake o f c le arn e ss a f ew wo rd s o f re c api tu l atio n m ay n o t b e o u t

,

o f pl ac e Yahweh w as an epi th et applied to o n e o f the deitie s o f

.

fertili ty apparen tly fo r m o re th an a th o u san d ye ar s b efo re the

,

tim e o f M o ses S o m e o f tho se w ho e mplo yed the epi thet w an

.

d e re d f ro m A rabi a to Babylo n ia an d so m e to P alestin e The re is .

n o thi n g to i n di c ate th at at first an d f o r several c en tu ri es the d e i ty

wo rshipp ed u n de r this n am e diffe red fro m o ther S emi tic go d s o f

fe rtili ty H is fo llo we r s like o ther S emi te s cele b rate d th e tw o
.
, ,

gre at fe sti val s o f the S e mitic wo rld an d we re exp ec te d to c ircu m c ise ,

the ir m ale s at m arri age The y repre sen ted Yahweh by in expen sive
.

im age s c arved fro m wo o d Thi s epi th e t w as appro p riated by the .

’
1
S u c h w as t h e sym b o l of Artemi s at E ph esu s ( Ac t s an d th e
‘
b lac k sto n e

in t h e Kaab a at M e cc a .

2
1 S am 3 —6. .

3
2 S am 6 . .
3 46 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORIG I NS
M i di a ni te s as the so l e appe l lati o n fo r thei r go d As they ro ame d in .

a te rri to ry a t o ne e nd o f w hi c h a vo lc a no w as si tu ate d an d in the

o the r e nd o f w hi c h he avy rai n s o c c u rre d in wi n te r thei r Y ahwe h ,

be c am e the go d o f the sto rm and o f the vo l c ano as we ll as the gi ve r

o f l ife T hei r s u c c e s s in w ar wi th thei r neighbo rs m ad e hi m to o
.
, ,

a go d o f w ar A s ib o f thi s g ro u p b ec am e smi ths a fac t that gave

.
,

the m a spe c i al ad van tage as fi gh te rs an d e n han ce d Yahw e h s w arlike

’

re pu tati o n S u c h see m s to have b ee n the p re vio u s hi sto ry o f t he

.

d e i ty w ho se me sse nge r to the o p pre sse d H e b re w s M o se s b e ca m e in

th ei r ho u r o f n e e d an d to w ho m b e b o u nd the m by s ac rifi c i al c o ve
,

n an t

H avi ng o b tai ned as c l e ar a vie w as the so u rce s o f i nfo rm atio n ,

wi ll pe rmi t o f the p ro bl em s c o n nec ted wi th the o ri gi ns o f Yahwe h

and the wo rk o f M o se s atte n ti o n sh o u l d n ex t b e gi ve n to t he p ro b
,

le m o f ho w Yah we h be c am e t he Go d o f all the H eb re w tribes and

_
,

ho w the se ttle me n t i n P ale stin e aff ec ted hi s w o rshi pp e rs co n ce ptio n

’

o f hi m an d t hei r w o rshi p o f hi m I t see m s c l e ar t hat b u t a f rac tio n

.

o f t h e an c e sto rs o f the He b rew s h ad b een in E gyp t an d t h at by the , ,

ti m e o f M o ses the m aj o ri ty o f the t rib e s th at e n te red i n to the co m

,

po si tio n o f the I srae liti sh n atio n had b een se ttl ed in P ale sti ne fo r a
c e n tu ry an d half The se trib es we re p artly A m o ri te an d p artly
.

Aram ze an and alre ady h ad thei r o w n de i tie s

,
E ac h c o n side rable .

village h ad its go d an d go d dess o f f e rt ili ty its B aal and Ash tart ,

.

A m o ng the t rib e o f A sh e r thi s de i ty h ad b een kn o wn as A she rat .

At B e thel S c he c hem B e ershe b a an d e l sew he re the go d E l h ad

, , , ,

l o ng h ad san c tu ari e s I n Gad the dei tie s Gad and M en i we re w o r

.

shi ppe d an d d o u b tless the re w e re o the rs w hi c h w e c ann o t n o w

,

trac e .

Whether the He b rew s w ho were Egypt we re the trib e o f Le vi in ,

as O lm ste ad thi n k s o r the R ach e l t rib e s as t he p re se n t w ri te r

, ,

wo u ld p refe r to b e lie ve w e c an trac e thei r p en etratio n o f the lan d

,

at tw o p o in t s th e t rib e o f Ju d ah an d th e t rib e o f E phraim

,
By .

t e tim e o S au l t e Ke n ite s we re li vin g in so u the rn J u d ah an d b y

h f h 1
,

th e ti m e o f D avi d the y p o sse ssed seve ral c i tie s whi c h we re re gard e d

as c iti es o f th at t rib e L ate r th e C hr o ni cle r traced the li n e age o f
2
.

the C ale bi te s an d B e thl e he mi te s to the K e ni te s an d te lls u s th at ,

1
Cf 1 S am
. .

2
1 S am .
—
29 .
 YAHWEH 7

e ve n D avi d him se lf c am e o f a Ken ite fami ly . I n the pe rio d o f

th e Ju dge s Jo n ath an so n o f Ge rsho m an d the
, , , gran d so n o f M o se s ,
w as b o rn i n H ef hlé he m an d starte d f ro m th at c ity to see k his f o r

tu n e 2
. T he Yahwe h wo rshippin g Ke n i te s w e t hu s kn o w c o n sti
-
, ,

tu te d an im po rtan t p art o f th e trib e o f Ju d ah in whic h th e f am ily ,

o f M o se s h ad se t tled
3
Th at parti cip an ts in the c o ven ant wi th
.

Yahweh h ad settle d in E phraim is vo u c h ed fo r by th e fac t th at th e y

h ad e stabli sh ed at S hillo h a te m ple to Yah weh in th e h o ly plac e o f ,

whi ch w as th e ark th at h ad b een b ro u ght fro m the wilderne ss 4

.

Altho u gh the detail s o f the actu al hi sto ric al pro c e ss whi c h fo l lo wed
h ave b e en lo st in the m aze s o f tradi tio n e n o u gh is kn o wn to e n able ,

u s in o u t lin e to re c o n stru c t th at pro ce ss wi th c o n sid e rab le c o n fid en ce .

T h e fi rst ste p wo u ld b e th e e st ab lish m en t by thu in vade r s o f

alli an c es wi th th e i r n e igh b o r s Thi s tho u gh a gradu al pro c e ss w as .
, ,

a n e c e ssary co n di tio n o f su rvival T h e sec o n d st e w as th e sp re ad

pM .

by the ard en t M d Ya we h o f the ta les O f hi s p ro wess am o n g

h
th e ir n e igh b o r s an d allies? T he sto ry o f th e i r de liveran c e fro m
“

E gy p t by the pro vi den ti al blo wi n g b ac k o f th e R e d S ea by Y ah

web s win d s the tale o f Yahweh s awe fu l app earan c e o n the b u m
’ 5
,
’

“
in g m o u n tain spre ad thro u gh th e lan d like m agi c an d so o n b e c am e
, ,

th e po pu l ar sagas o f all th e p eo ple Yahweh as an epi thet h ad b een .

, ,

kn o wn to so m e o f their Am o rite an c e sto rs an d it w as n o t diffi cu lt fo r

7
,

the m all b y m e an s o f thi s e pith e t to see in thi s awf u l go d o n e o r

, ,

an o th e r o f th eir o w n an c e stral d eiti e s Th ro u gh the alli an c e s the .

pro c e ss sp re ad rapid ly so th at b y th e ti m e the so n g o f D e b o rah w as ,

c o m po se d Yah w eh h ad b e en so f ar ad o pt ed as a di vi n e n am e b y
,

all th e t rib e s th at th e p o et c an assu m e th at th e y we re all hi s w o r

shi pp e rs
“
Th ro u gh o f t r epe titio n in th e gate s o f th e to wn s wh e re
.
-
,
,

in all age s th e m en o f P ales tin e h ave c o n g egate d fo r c o n verse the

r “
,

1
1 Ch r 2 . up t o v e rs e 5 5 .

2
Cf .
Ju d . an d 18 : 3O .

3
As m any sc h o lars h ave n o te d , thi s m e rgin g of the Ken ite s in th e trib e of J u d ah

explain s w hy th e J u d aean w rit e r J th o u gh t th e w o rs hip of Y ah w e h w as p rim eval .

4
S ee 1 S am 3 —
6 . .

5
Ex . 14 : 21b .

Ex . 19 .

7
E g . .
,
t o t h e p are n t s of Akh i - Y aw i in T aan ac h ; see ab o ve , p 3 26
. .

Ju d 5,
3
. an d 23 .

9
Fo r an exc elle nt stat e m e n t o f ho w e ffec t ive a m ean s th e ci ty gate still is, see W
.

E win g, P aters o n o f H ebr o n ,

L on d o n , 193 0 , 17 9 .
3 48 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITI C OR IGI NS

th ri ll in g xpe ri e nc e s o f the f ugi ti ve s f ro m E gyp t and the m arve lo u s

e

de ed s o f Yahw e h b ec am e so po pu lar th at the y fo rm e d in bo th n o rth

and s o u th the c e n tral t he m e o f t ri b al an d n ati o nal e p ic S o po pu .

lar d id they be co m e that si nge rs o f po p u lar so ng s c el e b rate d the m

in thei r l ay s A f ragm e n t o f o ne o f the se is p re se rve d in Nu 21:
. .

27 —3 0 . I n ti m e a c o m pil ati o n o f s u c h po e m s c alle d T he B o o k

” 1—
o f the W ars o f Yahw e h w as m ad e o n e o f the e arli e st pi e c e s o f

He b re w li te ratu re o f w hi c h w e have k no wle dge By all the se .

me an s the Y ahw e hi z atio n o f the Ol d e r c ul ts w as haste ne d .

A thi rd ste p w as the co alesce nc e o f the c ul t o f Y ahwe h wi th the

c u l ts o f the de i ti e s p re vi o u sly w o rshipp ed S c ho l ars have o fte n .

po i n ted o u t that afte r the se ttl e men t in Pale sti ne and the tran s
,

fo rm ati o n o f the no m ad s i n to an agri c u ltu ral p eo ple Y ahweh w as ,

tran sfo rm e d i n to an agric u l tu al d ei ty and b e c am e a B aal

r
2
.

D o u b tl e s s fo r the ce n te rs in w hi c h the f u gi tives fro m E gyp t w ho

,

had ac tu ally ad o p te d Yahwe h at Ho re b o r thei r imm edi ate de ,

s c e n d an ts se ttl e d t hi s is t ru e ; b u t if o nly a sm all p art o f the H e

3
, ,

b re w s w e re in E gy pt an d the p ro ce ss o f the sp re ad o f Y ahw ehism

j u st sk e tche d is at all tru e the Y ahw ehiz atio n o f the B aal s w as
,

m u ch m o re ext en si ve than the B aaliz atio n o f Yahwe h By the ap .

p li c at i o n t o th e E 15 a n d th e E lo hi m o f d iff e re n t sh ri n es o f the

n am e Yah w e h the se shr i ne s wi th all the i r c u l ts m y th s tradi

, , ,

tio n s an d p arap he rn ali a b e c am e Yahw eh s

’
,
Tradi tio n s as to .

ho w Ab raham had b u il t the al tar o f El at B ethe l an d ho w J aco b 4

,

had se t u p hi s m asseb ah an d ho w El app e are d to hi m the re c am e “

,

to b e re garded as ac c o u n ts o f ho w the se thi n gs h ad b e e n fo r

Yahw eh an d by hi m un d e r an o the r n am e A ltho u gh the n am e .

1
A q u o tati o n f ro m th is su rvives in the Old T estame nt in Nu . 15 .

’
2
S ee eg , B u dd e , R eligio n of I s rael to the E xi le ,
. . ch . II , an d the w ri te r s S emitic
Or gi ns ,
i -
p 29 7
. fl
an d his R eligi o n of I srael, c h
. . V .

3
I t w as an axi o m am o n g all an c ie n t p eo ples t h at , if t hey se ttle d in a n ew lan d
t hey m us t, in o rd er t o avo id di sas te r, p ay h o m age t o t he go d o f t he lan d . Th us ,

w he n D avid fle d t o M o ab he said :
“
T
h ey have d rive n m e o u t this d ay t h at I sh o uld

n o t c leav e u n to the inh e ri tan c e of Yh

a w e h , sayi ng , Go s erve o ther go ds
”
( 1 S am .

T he re q u es t o f the fi ve p eo ple s se tt le d b y S argo n in S amaria t o ha ve a p riest

t o teac h th em t he w ay
‘
of th e go d of
’
th e lan d is also a c ase in p o in t . E ve n Y ’
ah w eh s

c o mm an d , Th
‘
o u shalt w o rshi p n o o the r go d
’
w as n o t su ffi c ien t ly p o w e rf ul t o in d uc e
c o m ers i nt o a new lan d to p rac t ise c o n tin u al ru d e n ess t o it s c elest ial o verlo rds .

4
Ge n .

5
Ge n 28 . and
 YAHWEH 3 49

Yahweh w as n o w applied to all the fo rm e r dei tie s o f the l an d the ir ,

o l de r ti tle s an d n am e s we re n o t all di su se d The y we re still c alled .

B aal o r Yahweh in di sc rim in ately S au l an d D avi d bo th arde n t

1 2
.
,

wo rshipp e rs o f Yahweh applie d the n am e B aal to him Yahweh ,

.

w as wo rshipp ed alo n g with Ashtart (A sh to re th) in all the o ld

sh rin e s o f th e lan d an d af te r the b u il di n g o f th e tem pl e b y S o lo m o n
3
,

the A she ra the so do mi te s an d sac re d wo m en fo rm ed a part o f hi s

, ,

c u lt u n ti l th e refo rm O f Jo siah I n o n e an c ien t po e ti c passage

4
.

“
Yahweh is him se lf c alle d A she r Un de r the se c irc u m stan c e s it .

w as in evi table th at in all the sh rine s o f th e l an d the imm e mo ri al

c ul ts sho u l d go o n as b e fo re A n ew n am e fo r de i ty h ad b e co m e .

the suprem e de i ty o f th e ir tho u gh ts ; the tradi tio n s c o n n e c ted wi th

hi s awfu ln e s s an d po we r thr illed them ; the ho p e that h e wo u l d
gi ve th em vi c to ry o ve r the i r e n e mi e s an d sec u ri ty in the i r l an d ro se
stro n g wi thin the m b u t hi s co mi n g h ad w ro u gh t n o gre at ref o rm
,

in the i r wo r ship an d n o appre c i able e levatio n o f their m o ral i de als .

I n M Oun t E ph raim Mi c ah bu il t a te mple to Yahwe h an d pl ac e d

‘
‘ ’
h “

“
in it b o th a c arve d i do l an d a m o lten i do l tho u gh the l atte r w as ,

c o n trary even to th e se c o n d c o mm an d o f J Jo n ath an the gran d so n .

,

o f M o se s w ho m Mi c ah h ad e m plo ye d as a pri e st u po n b e in g per

, ,

su ad e d th at it wo u l d b e m o re p ro fitable to b e pri e st to a trib e th an

to o n e m an sto le all o f Mi c ah s m o vable p araphe rn ali a an d ran

’
,

aw ay wi th it to th e c i ty o f D an wh er e h e e stab li she d a n e w te mple , ,

b e c ame its prie st an d tran smi tted its o fli ce to hi s d e scen dan ts

7
,
.

Where ver He b rew plac es o f wo rshi p have b een un co vere d ab und an t

e vi d en ce o f th e p erpetuation O f th e o ld fe rtili ty c u lts do wn 59 ; o r .

1 He n a
me d hi s so n i
l b B aa}, 1
-
Ch r . T he c o m pilers Of S amu el di sto rted it
t o I sh b o sh eth ; 2 S am .

2
S ee 1 Ch r .

3
Thi s is re ve ale d by exc avatio n s su c h as t h o se at Ge z e r an d at T ll
e -
eu - Nasb eh .

F o r th e disc o ve ries th ere see R A S

. . . M ac ali st e r, th e E xcavati o n of Gez er , L o n do n , 19 12,
an d W . F B ade,. P alesti n e I n sti tu te P u b li cati o n s , n o . 1 ff , B e rk eley 1928 , 1930 .

4
Cf 2 Kgs
. 7 . .

D
_

5
Cf eu t 33 : 29 T h e p assage sh o uld b e tran slat e d
-

. . .

H appy art t h o u , O I srael,

A p eo ple save d b y ah w e h , Y
T h e shi eld o f thy h elp ,
An d Ash er, t h e sw o rd o f thy exc e llenc y .

“ ud
J . 5 .

7
Ju d . 17 an d 18 .
3 50 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C O RI G I NS

alm o st to t he
B yl i ab o n an e x ile
fo u n d in ab u n d an c e J e ro
a re .
1

b o am s go l de n b u llo ck s w e re sy m b o ls o f the go d o f this re sul tant

’

2—
c ul t th e Y ah w e hiz e d B aal and the B aaliz e d Yahwe h T he .

the o ry o f t he E lc h is t t hat fo r n o rthe rn I s rael the fathe rs w o rs hi ppe d

,

El o hi m u n til M o se s i n tro d u c e d the n am e Yahwe h is fo r the l arge r ,

par t o f I s rae l the hi s to ri c fac t I t w ast the ge n e ral re ligi o n o f the l an d

. .

I t s ho u ld b e c are fu lly n o te d ho w this rel igio n d ifle re d f ro m the

Yahwe h c u lt o f M o s e s I t w as no t th at th e o ne w as m o no thei sti c
.

a n d th e o the r no t ; n o r t hat o n e w a s wi tho u t p hy si c al re p re s e n ta

ti o n s o f Y ahwe h an d the o the r n o t ; n o r that o n e w as h ighly e thi c al

an d the o the r n o t ; n o r th at o n e w as d e vo i d o f all fe atu re s o f the

fe rtility c u l t w hile the o the r re ve le d in the m T he d i ff e re n c e w a s .

b e tw ee n tw o c u ltu re s ; the si mpl e c u ltu re o f the n o m ad and the m o re

l ux u ri o u s c ul tu re o f an ag ri c u ltu ral p eo pl e T o the si m pl e no m ad .

th e imm o ral fe atu re s o f fe rti lity w o rshi p w e re re d u c ed to a min i

m u m by the ve ry c o n d i ti o n s o f hi s li fe ; to the mo re pro spe ro u s agri
c u ltu ri sts the y c o u ld b e m ad e an e n d in the m selve s T o the d e se rt .

dwel le rs w i n e w as a d e b asin g lu x u ry ; to the dw el le r in P al estin e it

w as the gi f t o f Go d T o the n o m ad a ho u se as a d well in g plac e w as
.

a si n f u l ab o mi n atio n ; t o th e se ttle d p o pulatio n o f fe rtil e regi o n s a

p rim e n ece ssi ty o f li fe I n spi te o f all the am algam atio n an d tran sfo r
.

m ati o n th at to o k pl ace the n o m adi c i de al n e ve r d i ed T h e R ec h a .

“
b ite s k e pt it ali ve d o wn to th e B abylo ni an exile O the rs to o in .
, ,

th e e ast Jo rd an l an d s wh i ch lie c lo se to the de se rt c h e ri she d it

-
,
.

Then c e came the p ro phe t E lij ah who se mi ni stry in au gurated a ,

m o ve m e n t o f gre at sign ifi c an c e to m anki n d .

As M o se s w as th e l e ad e r w ho m ad e th e c ult o f Yahw eh th e re li
g i o n o f I s rae l E li j ah w,
a s th e p ro p h e t w h o m a d e t h at re li gi o n m o ra l .

Elij ah m ay b e c alled the se co n d fo u n d e r o f Heb re w religi o n Nei th er .

th e m o ve m e n t in au gu rate d b y M o se s n o r th at ini ti ate d b y Elij ah

re ac h e d f ru i tio n in t he lif e ti m e o f i ts f o u n d e r As M o se s b o u n d to .

Yahweh a sm all gro u p o f He b rew s an d it w as le f t to o the rs to

Y ahw e hi z e the re st o f the n ati o n so E lij ah b u t i n iti ated a m o ve m e n t
,

1
S e e the re fe re n c es in p 3 49 n 3 . .

2
He c o uld say :
“
T h ese b e t h y go d , 0 I s rael, t h at b ro u gh t t he e o ut o f the lan d o f
”
E gyp t , 1 Kgs .

3
Cf 2 Kgs
. . ff . an d J er .
—19 . Th e ir vo w w as t o dr in k no w in e , b u ild n o
h o u ses t o d w e ll in , p lant n o vin eyard , see d n o fi e ld , b u t t o d w ell in t e nt s .
 YAHWEH 51

whi ch late r pro phets c arried to ful l fru itage D o wn to the reign o f .

kin g Ah ab Y ahw ehiz e d B aalism w as e ve rywhe re ac ce p ted an d

,

p ra c ti se d w ith o u t q u e sti o n S au l D avid an d So lo m o n we re all

.
, , ,

it s de vo te e s an d c ham pio n s S o f ar as w e kn o w the c o n sc i en ce o f

.

n o o n e w as tro u bled by it T he di vi sio n o f the kin gdo m after S o lo

.

m o n s d e ath c re ate d an an o m o ly in th e an c ie n t wo rld in th at th e re

’

were n o w tw o n atio n s wo r shi pping the same Go d b u t the re ligio u s ,

impli c atio n s o f thi s we re n o t at first fe lt T he syn c reti sti c cu l t .

,

the o rigin o f whi c h h as bee n sk e tc hed held u n qu e sti o n e d sw ay ,

.

T he j e alo u sy o f Yahwe h whi ch in the de se rt the He b re w s w ho h ad

, ,

b een de live re d fro m Egypt an d w ho had witne ssed the fire s o f the
bu rn in g m o u n tain h ad felt so keenl y h ad b een so to n e d do wn that
, ,

S o lo m o n p e rm i tte d his fo re ign wives to h ave c h apels to thei r go d s

in Yah weh s ve ry p resen c e an d Ahab pe rmi tte d hi s Ty rian wi fe
’

Je ze be l to do the sam e .

I n to thi s c o rru p t an d c o ntente d syn c reti sm E hjah a de vo tee o f ,

th e n o m adi c i de al c ame in the pro spe ro u s re ign o f Ah ab as a d is

,

tu rb in g e le m en t H e w as a so n o f the steppe an d li ve d in ac c o rdin g

.

to the sim pl e id e as o f th e ste pp e T he Yahwe h in whi c h he b e

.

lie ved w as the au ste re an d j e alo u s Yahwe h o f the d e se rt T o Elij ah .

the Y ahw e hi z e d B aal s we re n o t Yahwe h at all Tho se w h o were .

wo rshipping Yah weh u n der th e se fo rms were to his mi n d apo state s , ,

fro m the religio n o f Yahweh ; th e y we re de votee s o f B aal As su c h

'

he d en o u n ce d them ; th ei r p ro phe ts h e c alled p ro p h e ts o f B aal .

Eli jah s pre ac hi ng ho wever w as n o t all n egative H ad it b een

’
, ,
.
,

he wo u ld h ave m ade n o pe rm an en t i m pre ssio n There w as a n e w .

n o te in hi s teachi n g Yahweh w as as h e pro c l aim ed him a m o ral

.
, ,

Go d . H e w as in terested i n th e e thi c s o f hi s peo ple I n parti cu lar .

,

Yahweh w as the c h ampio n o f the c o mmo n m an ; o f the sm all again st ,

the gre at ; o f th e o ppre ssed su bj ec t as again st the u n j u st so ve re ign .

I t w as this e thi c al n o te that ro u se d the ho p e o f the o pp re s se d an d

gripped the c o n sc ien c e s o f lo vers o f j u sti c e th ro u gho u t the n atio n

“

so th at af te r th e spe c tacu lar c areer o f E lij ah h ad p assed o th e rs

1
, ,

we re raised u p to c o n tin u e the wo rk whi ch he had b egu n .

Jehu w ho o ve rth re w the d yn asty o f Ah a

,
b allied hi m se lf fo r a ,

tim e wi th t he R e c h abite s b u t it w as m o re fo r th e s ak e o f ge ttin g

,

rid o f p ri e sts an d p ro ph e ts w h o h ad b ee n su p po rte rs o f th e f alle n

1
S ee 1 Kgs ch s 17—19 an d 21
’

. . .
35 2 S EM ITIC AND HA M ITI C ORIG I NS

dy n as ty than b e c au se o f l o y alty to e thi c al c o n ce ptio n s o f reli gio n .

Eli sh a w ho fo llo w e d E lij ah w o n a g re ate r re pu tati o n fo r wo rkin g

, ,

s u pe rn atu ral m a rve l s than as a c ham pi o n o f e thi c al i d e als l At .

so m e tim e in the e i gh th c e n tu ry in n o rthe rn I s rae l th e au t ho r o f the

E do c u m e n t li ve d and w ro te I n h is c o n ce ptio n o f the b as is o f the .

co ve n an t o f Y ahw e h wi th I s rae l t he e thi c al D e c al o g ue h e l d the

fo re m o s t p lac e I ts co mm an d s w e re
.

1 T ho u shal t have n o o the r go d s in m y p re se n c e

. .

2 T ho u shal t no t m ak e u n to thee any g rave n i m age n o r the

.
,

like ne ss o f any thi n g that is in the he ave n abo ve o r that ,

is in the e arth b e n e ath o r that is in the w ate r u n de r the ,

e arth ; tho u sh alt n o t b o w d o w n to th e m n o r s e rve the m .

3 T ho u shalt no t tak e t he n am e o f Yahweh to a vani ty :

.

th o u sh al t no t swe ar to a lie ) .

4 R e m e m b e r the S abb ath d ay to k ee p it ho ly

. .

5 Ho n o r thy fathe r and thy m o the r

. .

6 T ho u sh al t d o n o m u rde r
. .

7 T ho u shal t n o t c o mmi t ad u l te ry
. .

8 T ho u sh al t n o t s te al
. .

9 T ho u sh al t n o t b e ar fal se wi tne ss agam st thy n eighb o r

. .

10 T ho u sh al t no t co ve t
. .

N ex t to thi s D ec alo gu e he plac ed the agri c ultu ral co de o f l aw s

th at h ad gro w n o u t o f th e e xp e ri e n ce o f th e S e mi ti c po pu l ati o n o f
P al e sti ne th ro u gh fif te en hu n d red o r m o re o f y e ars o f agri c ultu ral
lif e s
. H e the n c o m ple ted hi s c o de by addin g so m e o f the ri tu al
re q u i re m e n t s o f th e e arli e r D ec alo gu e wi th agri c u l tu ral e xp ansi o n s
‘
.

I t is
’
F o r o u r p rese n t p u rpo se in te re st cen te rs in E s D e c alo gu e .

n o m o re m o n o th ei stic th an t h at o f J ; it d o e s n o t d e n y th e e xi sten c e
“
o f o th e r go d s ; it o nl y p ro hi bi ts th e i r w o rship in Yahw eh s p re se n c e
’
.

I n sym b o li sm it go es fu rthe r th an its p re de c e sso r b y b an i shin g all

i m ages e ven c he ap i do ls I t i n si sts lik e the D e c al o gu e o f J o n
,
.
, ,

1
S e e 2 Kgs . c hs . 1 8 -
.

2
Cf E x . .
—17 . As t h e pas sage st an d s t h ere are e dit o rial exp an sio n s f ro m D
an d P .

3
Ex .
—23 zl 3 .

Ex .
—18 .

5
T h e H eb re w ph ras e liphnai mi gh t m e an b ef o re , i e , p rio r in t im e I n that case
’
‘
. . .

t he c o mma nd w o uld m e an i n su b st an c e w o rshi p m e fir st ; th e m ean in g given in th e

‘ ’

t e xt is , h o w e ve r, m o re p ro b ab le .
 YAHWEH 53

t he o b servan ce Seven o f its regu l atio n s are ho w

of the S abb ath .
,

ever n e w an d th e y are all e th i c al

,
Three o f them ( swe arin g to a .

lie b e ari n g false wi tn e ss an d c o veti n g) are p ro hi bi tio n s o f what

, ,

ac tu ally o c c u rre d wh e n Ah ab an d Je z e b e l to o k N ab o th s vi n e
’

yard an d it is temptin g to b elieve that the se c o mm an d s we re u t

,
1

te red b y Elij ah I n any e ven t the i r e n u n c i atio n by hi s fo llo wer as

.

‘
th e t e n wo rds an d t h eir c o n se q u en t ac c e pt an c e in l ate r Ju d ai sm as
’

the T en C o mm an dm en t s is du e to th e qu i c ken in g o f th e m o ral ,

co n sc1en c e m au gurate d by the mi n i stry o f Elij ah an d to the co n ,

vic tio n th at Y ah weh is a m o ral Go d an d j u dge s hi s fo ll o w e r s by

m o ral stan d ard s whi c h Eli j ah w as the first to pro clai m,

.

T h e m o ral c o n c e p t o f Y ahw ehi sm w as c o n tin u e d an d advan ced

by the p ro phets o f t h e e igh th cen tu ry I t thro b s thro u gh every .

u tte ran c e o f th e p ro p h e t Am o s w ho wen t fu rthe r th an his pre

2
,

de ce ssors an d de clare d th at Yahweh c o n tro lle d n o t o nly th e tw o

kingdo m s o f I srae l an d Ju dah b u t al so th e kingdo m s o f all thei r ,

n e igh b o r s
3
I t w as Yahweh w ho b ro u gh t the Phi li stin e s fro m
.

C aphto r an d the Aram aean s f ro m Kir an d it is he w ho will pu n i sh

4
,

th e sin s o f E do m M o ab D am asc u s Tyre Gaz a an d th e re st , , , ,

.

Others had tho u ght an d p erh ap s still th o u gh t th at C h emo sh ru le d

, ,

in M o ab 5
fo r ex am ple as Yahweh rul ed in I srael
,
No t so A m o s ;
,
.

h e w as a prac ti c al m o n o the i st I n hi s c o n cep tio n o f the affai rs o f .

th e wo rld Yahweh ruled all ,

H o w he c am e to m ake hi s ad van ce .

in tho u ght w e c an o nl y co n j ec tu re
,
I t h as b een su ggested that .
,

as Yahwe h ru le d th e affai rs o f th e tw o He b rew kin gd o m s it w as a

lo gi c al e xten sio n o f tho u ght to su ppo se that he co n t ro lled all king

do sm 6
Whether the divi sio n o f the He b rew kin gdo m w as a fac to r
.

in th e bi rth o f thi s c o n ceptio n o r n o t the f ac t rem ain s th at Amo s ,

w as a prac ti c al m o n o the i st .

Ho se a a yo u nge r co n tem p o rary o f Am o s tau ght the sam e do c

'
, ,

tri n e .H e also adde d th e d o c trin e th at Yah we h w as a Go d o f lo ve

— affe c tio n ate lo ve As w e h ave seen Yahweh had alway s been in .
,

so me sen se a go d o f lo ve His n am e sign ifie d H e w h o c au se s to ‘

.

1
S e e 1 Kgs ch 21
—
, . .
.

2
Cf . e .
g .
, Amo s 7; 12, 14 , 24 , 7 .

3
Am o s c h s 1, 2 . .

4
Amo s
5
S ee J u d ge s a passage f ro m E 2 .

6
Cf .
J . M . P . S mith , The Prophets and thei r Ti m Chies , c ago , 1925 , 5 0—
52 .
3 54 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITIC ORI G I NS
"
l o ve pass io nate ly ; b u t that l o ve w as w hat the G reek s ca l led p 9 .

I t w as se Ho se a the l o ve o f Y ahwe h w as family

x ual attrac tio n . To
“
I t w as a fathe r s l o ve : Wh e n E ph rai m w as a
’
af fe c ti o n gpt k la ,
.

”2
c hild t he n I l o ve d hi m a n d c alle d m y so n o u t o f E g yp t
, I t w as ,
.

the lo ve o f a d e vo te d h u sb and w ho b u y s b ack a fai thless wi fe f ro m ,

s lave ry
8
Ho sea like Elij ah he l d to the no m adi c i deal o f Y ahwe h
.
, , ,

an d to p re ve n t in fu tu re the c o n fu si o n o f Yahw e h wi th the B aal s ,

he fo rb ade fo r the fu tu re the appli c ati o n to Y ahw eh o f the te rm

ba al ‘
‘

I sai ah w ho se mi ni stry p ro b ably be gan b e fo re that o f Ho se a

,

e n de d c o n ti nu e d to p ro clai m b o th Yahwe h s c o n t ro l o f the n ati o n s

’
,

and Yahwe h s p ri m e i n te re st in m o rals

’
B o th he and A mo s go so .

far in th ei r d e nu n c i ati o n o f i m m o ral ri tu al as to d ec l are that e thi c s ,

h h “ ’
n o t ri tu al i t
s h e b as i s o f
,
Y a w e s c o ve n a n t wi th hi s p e o pl e .

Lik e Ho se a I sai ah hel d that Yahwe h c o ntro lle d di stan t an d po we r

,

f u l A ssy ri a as w ell as the n ati o n s n e ar at h an d Nei the r o f these .

p ro phe ts c o ul d as ye t thi nk o f Yahweh as c ari ng e qu ally fo r all

, ,

m an kind The y tho u ght o f him as c arin g p rim arily fo r his c ho se n

.

peo ple I s rael and his co n tro l o f o the r n atio n s w as gui ded by what he
,

wi shed to ac c o mpli sh fo r I srael I sai ah rep re sen ts A ssy ri a as a ro d .

'

wi th w hi ch a f athe r w hip s a b o y When the c hasti semen t is ac .

’
c o m pli shed to Y ahw eh s s ati sf ac ti o n A ssy ri a will b e b ro ke n an d ,

di s c arde d .
6
T he fathe r c are s no t f o r t he ro d , b u t fo r t he b o y .

T he m o n o the i s m of these p ro p h e ts w as thu s defe c ti ve Mi

. c ah.
,

th e fo u rth of t he q u arte t ighth c entu ry p ro ph ets

of e -
,
e m p h as z e d i
th e
’
in his pre ac hing th e s am e d o c trin e s Yahw eh s c o n t ro l ,
of wo rld
an d hi s e thi cal i n te re st
7
.

I n the d ark d ay s o f M an asseh tho se w ho c he ri shed

re ac t o n u n der
i
th e te ac hi n gs o f the p ro ph e ts o f the p reced in g ge n e rati o n saw t h at
re li gi o n c o u l d n o t li ve wi th o u t ri tu al an d wo r ship The re is re aso n .

to b e li e ve th at I sai ah hi m self h ad seen thi s an d h ad e n de avo red to

e stabli sh a re fo rm e d c ult wi th th e aid o f k in g Hez e ki ah that , ,

p 33 7 f
1
S ee ab o ve , . .

1’
H o sea
3
Cf H o sea
. c hs . 1 3 -
.

H o sea
5
S ee Am o s an d 25 an d I sa .
-
19 .

3
S e e I sa . ff .

7
Cf M icah
. c hs . 1—3 .
 YAHWEH 355

sh o u ld b e in wi th e thic al i de al s
ac c o rd an ce Thi s tho u ght w as .
1

c h e ri sh ed an d in th e rei gn o f M an asse h th e co d e o f D e u te ro n o m y

w as d raw n u p as an in stru m e n t t at h m ig t acc o m plish thi s ideal

h 2
.

I t pro po se d to abo lish all san c tu ari e s b u t o n e to c le an se the ri tu al

'

o f th e e ro ti c f e atu re s o f preh i sto ric o ri gi n an d it in t ro du c e d in to ,

’
l aws b o rro wed fro m th e B o o k o f the C o venan t a n u m b e r o f hu m an ‘

itarian fe atu re s whi c h the ethi c al te ac hi n gs o f pro ph e ts o f the

p re v i o u s ce n t u r y h ad e m p h a siz e d T h i s c o d e f o u n d i n th e t e m l
p e .
,

i n the reign o f Jo si ah an d pro n o u n c ed by th e pro phe te ss Hu ld ah

to b e the L aw o f M o ses w as m ade th e b asi s o f th e gre at re fo rm o f ,

the ye ar Th at refo rm fo rever diffe ren ti ate d the religio n

o f Ju d ah f ro m o th e r S e mitic re ligio n s .

T he mi ni stry o f the gre at pro ph et erem i ah fo llo we d i m m e di ately

J .

At first an en thu si asti c suppo rte r o f the n ew law Je remi ah so o n ,

p e rc e i ve d t h a t it w a s b e in g m a d e a b asi s f o r a re li gio n o f m e re fo rm
4
.

He ac c o rdingly in hi s late r mi n i stry so u gh t in c o n trast to in c u l c ate

a religio n o f the spi ri t remi ah w as t h e fi r st th e o re ti c al m o n o
J e .

th e i st in I srae l H e d e clare d that he athen go d s we re van ities

.
5
_
‘
,
’

. .
- —
i e n o n e xi sten t thin gs fi gme r1ts of the i m agin ati o n H e also ~
.
, .

pro c laim e d the co ro llary o f thi s tru th th at Yahweh c are s fo r all ,

pe o ple an d will welc o m e re pe nt an t wo r shippers fro m an y n atio n

wh atso eve r 6
H e al so tau ght the in wardn e ss o f re ligi o n
. Y ah .

we b s law in o rde r to b e effe c tive mu st b e written wi thin in the

’
, , , ,

he art 7 H e also de clare d th e in d i vidu al n o t the f amily o r n atio n

.
, ,

to b e the e thi c al u n i t 8
Jere mi ah w as in m an y re spe c ts the gre at
.
, ,

e st o f I srae l s pr o ph et s
’
.

1
Cf 2 Kgs
. .
—4 an d 22 .

2
T h e writer is n o t u n aw are Bf th e re c ent di sc u ssio n s o f Prhfesso r A
‘

. C . Welc h an d

o th ers co n cerning th e date of Deu t e ro n o m y, b u t, in hi s j u dgm en t , n o thi n g c o nvin c in gly

in c o n fli c t wi th the lo n g -
est ab lish ed c ritic al vie w h as b een e stab li sh e d . Th o se n ot

f amiliar with t h e di scu ssio n s are r ef er red to Welc h ,

The Code f
o Deu tero n o my, L o nd o n ,
1924 , an d h is D eu tero n omy: the F r amew ork o f the Cd o e, Oxf o rd , 19 32 ; also “
Th e P ro b lem

of D A S ympo siu m ,
e u te r o n o m y :
”
by J . A B e w er, L B
. . . P ato n an d G
. D ahl , in
_ JE L ,

XLVI I , 1928 , pp 30 5 —3 79 . .

3
Cf 2 Kgs c h s 22, 23
. . . .

1
‘
Cf .
J er .
—8 an d S ki nn e r ’s P ro phecy and R eli gi o n , S tu di es in the Lif e of J ere mi ah,
C mb ridge , 19 26,
a c hs . vi an d V i i .

5
Cf .
J er . and
‘
1
J er .
—21 .

7 —
3 4
J er . .

8
J er . 30 .
3 56 S E M ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS
T he s to r y o f the
B abyl o ni an e xil e t he w o rk o f Ezeki el o f the
, ,

au tho r o f t he C o de o f H o li n es s o f t he p ri estly w ri te r an d o f Ez ra
, ,

an d h
Ne e i m ah h s b ee n o fte n to l d an d is do u b tle ss k n o w n to
a ,
1
,

e ve ry read e r o f the se p age s I t n e e d no t b e repe ate d he re

. By .

the i r e ff o rts the w o rk b eg u n by t he au tho r o f the D e u te ro n o mi c

c o de w as c o mpl e te d Yahwe h w as i de ntified wi th the Go d o f th e
.

w o rl d th e C re ato r and R ule r o f all m ank i nd I n the P d o c um en t

, .

he is a Go d to o m aj e sti c to app ear to m e n as he o n ce w as b eli e ve d

to h ave ap pe are d to M o se s b u t he is a b e i ng w ho c o mm an d s the
,

wo rship and aw e o f m e n T he Yahwe h o f the J do cum e n t w ho

.
,

appe ared so m e ti m e s to his favo ri te s is l o st b u t in his ste ad th e re

, ,

is p re se n ted t he Go d o f the u n i ve rse .

Am o ng the ma ny b o o k s t h at m ight b e c ited

’
1 are t he writer s Religi o n f I srae l 2 e d
o ,
.

19 28, an d H is to ry f the H ebrew

o P eo ple 193 0
, .
 E PI LO G U E
HE taskwhi ch w e set o u rselve s at the b egin n in g has b een c o m
p le te d A. su rve y o f th e o ri gin s o f so c i al an d re li gi o u s li fe in th e

Hamitic an d S emiti c terri to ry h as b een m ade T he b e st m e th o d s .

kn o wn to the wri te r an th ro p o lo gi c al philo lo gi c al an d hi sto ri c al

, , , ,

h ave b een em plo yed The l a

. te P ro fe sso r Willi am Jam e s o n ce re
“
m arked ,
Y o u c ann o t tu rn u p the li ght qu i c k e no u gh to see the
”
d ark . Thi s is tru e b ec au se when the li ght is tu rned u p the re is ,

n o d ark ; it h as b e c o m e ligh t T he wri te r ven tu re s to ho pe that

.

m an y o f the pro blem s tre ate d h ave b ee n b ro u ght if n o t in to the ,

light at least in to p en u m b ra where the i r o u tline s c an b e m o re

, ,

c le arly di sc e rn ed so th at so m e fu tu re wo rk e r c an wh en st ill b e tte r

, ,

metho d s o f in vestigati o n h ave b een deve lo p e d o r fu rthe r f ac ts h ave

be en di sco vered b rin g them in to th e fu ll light o f day S u c h p avin g
,
.

o f th e w ay fo r his su c ces so rs is all that any in ve stigato r c an ho p e

to ac co mpli sh H e m u st le ave th e field to tho se w ho wi th fulle r

.
,

f ac ts an d im pro ve d imple m en ts c an c arry the to rch o f kn o wle dge

,

wi th m o re p o we rfu l rays in to regi o n s where he is stil l c o mpe lle d to

gro pe gratefu l if he c an h ave laid a f ew sto n e s o n whi ch th e y m ay
,

c ro s s di ffic u l t pl ac e s o r w arn in gs
,
by di sastro u s example that
, ,

an o th e r p athw ay sho u l d b e so u ght .

I t is po ssible th at m an y may b e su rpri se d that by c o m bin in g fac ts ,

gath ered fro m so wi de an are a an d in te rp retin g them by we ll te ste d

-

"

p rin ciple s so m u c h o f the e arly m o vem en ts o f peo ples an d o f the

,

b egin n i n gs o f c ivilizatio n c an b e di s ce rn e d o ver so wi de an are a ,

b u t by the sci en tific ally mi n ded su c h kn o wle dge will b e we l co m ed

, ,
.

He re an d there tho se w ho have espo u se d o the r theo ri e s o r are

we dded to metho d s l e ss sc1en tifi c will d emu r an d c riti ci se b u t su c h ,

c ri ti c i sm is to b e w e l c o m ed By it the we ak sp o ts in a wri te r s wo rk ’
.

are fo u n d an d kn o wled ge ad van c e d .

On e p art o f the l arge a rea in vesti gated w as i n habi te d by the

peo ple w ho pro du c ed the Old Te stam en t T o the fact s fro m P ales .

tin e the sam e m etho d s o f in te rp retatio n h ave b e en applie d as to

“

fac ts fro m o the r p o r tio n s o f the H ami to S e mi ti c te rri to ry an d to

-
, ,

35 7
35 8 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITI C ORI G I NS

w ri te r s mi nd wi th ill u m i n ati ng and help f ul re sul ts I t w o ul d

’
t he ,
.

se e m to b e axi o m ati c fo r e x am ple th at w he n w e i n te rp re t the

, ,

c o n n ec ti o n o f th e go d El wi th c e rtai n P al e sti ni an s an c tu ari e s by th e

n o w k no w n w o rshi p o f th e p re I srae li te W e st S e mi ti c w o rshi p o f a

-

g o d El w
,
e a re o n m o r e se c u re g ro u n d th an w he n f ro m p u re ly H e b re w ,

an alo gi es w e as su m e that Ab rah am b ro u gh t f ro m M e so p o tam i a

,

a w o rshi p o f El o f w hi c h the re is s c arce a t rac e am o n g t he E as t

Se mi te s Si mil arly w he n w e e xp lai n the o ri gi n o f the n am e Y ah

.
,

w eh f ro m a S e mi ti c roo t t hat h as a w o w fo r its mi dd le radi c al w e ,

are su re ly o n mo re se c u re s c i e n tifi c gro u n d than w e re that illu stri o u s

c o mp any o f s ch o l ars w ho in d e sp e rati o n b e c au se H e b rew c o n tai n e d

,

no p ro p e r ro o t wi th w o w at te m p ted to de ri ve it f ro m a ro o t wi th
,

yo dh as a sec o n d radi c al e ve n in fac e o f the fac t th at the c o n ve rsi o n

,

o f yo dh to w o w in su c h a po siti o n c ann o t b e p aral lel ed in t he w ho l e

ran ge o f th e S e mi ti c l an gu age s Si mil arly w hen the fac ts b efo re

.
,

u s are i n terp re te d by s cie n tifi c m e tho d s it app e ars th at M o se s w as ,

n o t a mo n o the i st an d that t he m o ral D e cal o gu e o wes m o re to Elij ah

th an to M o ses S u c h c o n cl u sio n s will b e u n w

. e l c o m e to all tho se

w ho h ave n o t ye t d i sc o ve re d th at the reve lati o n s o f Go d have al

way s b een m ad e th ro u gh the so u l o f a m an and that if the e thi c al , ,

o r spi ri tu al c o n c e p tio n b e li e ve d to b e re ve al e d c o mm e n d s i tse l f to

b e st religi o u s in sight an d mo st e nligh te ne d e thi c al se n se it is as ,

m u ch th e vo i c e o f Go d if it c am e thro u gh Elij ah Am o s o r Je re mi ah
, , , ,
“
as it w o uld b e if it c am e t h ro u gh Ab rah am o r M o ses
,
T he spi ri t .

”
o f m an is th e c an dle o f th e Lo rd ; it is th ro u gh th e m y sti c e xpe ri en c e
o f th e Di vi n e o n the p art o f h u m an b e in gs o n w hi ch all re li gi o n s are

b ase d an d in ac c o rdan c e wi th C hr i sti an b e li ef Go d c o u ld reve al

, , ,

him se lf in f u lln e ss to m e n o nly by b e c o m ing a m an assu min g a ,

hu m an p sy c ho lo gy p assin g thr o u gh a hu m an exp e ri e n c e o f the

,

fullne ss o f Go d by whi c h he b e c am e at o n ce an exam ple an d a re ve

,

l atio n to m en T he hum an so u l is the o nly in stru me n t thro u gh

.

whi ch Go d h as sp o ken to m en 1
.

I n th e se po st w ar ye ars m an y h ave l o st the vi rili ty o f f ai th w hi c h

-

al o n e c an e n ab le o n e to b e at o n ce a re li gi o u s d e vo tee an d a c o u

r age o u s s c i en ti st T hi s lo ss is m ani fe sted in m an y w ay s Fo u r

‘

. .

t yp e s o f it m ay b e c i te d h e re all o f w hi c h are c h aract e rize d by at

,

1
Thi s su b ec t j w ill b e e xt e n sively t reated in th e w rit e r
’
s ha n db o o k o n w o rld —
wi d e
myst ic is m , in p re paratio n .
 EPILOGUE 35 9

te mpts to gro u n d re ligi o n o n a b asis ab o ve an d be yo nd the i

ac t o n

of the m in d of m an .

T he m o st wo rthy o f the se is the th eo lo gi c al mo vem ent in

n o te

Ge rm an y le d by Karl B arth The su b stan ce o f the te achi n g o f

1
.

B arth an d hi s fo llo we rs is that Go d is tran scen den t ; w e c anno t

kn o w him ; o u r o nl y ho pe o f kno wledge is his mi racu lo u s re ve l atio n
in C hr i st ; th at revelatio n m u st si m ply b e ac cep te d ; w e c ann o t j u sti fy
it to o u r re aso n ; w e m u st si m ply b o w an d wo rshi p it Wh ile the .

B arthi an te achi n g c o ntain s elem en ts o f tru th ( eve ry erro r is a

“

tru th the y are so di sso c i ate d f ro m o the r e lem e n t s e qu ally

tru e as to see m to m an y he alth y min de d th in ke r s a co u n c il o f de -

sp ai r .

Le ss exagge rate d in their e m phasis than the B arthi an sc ho o l ,

b u t still th eo lo gi c ally aki n to it are tho se w ho in sist th at all m y s ,

tic ism is to b e di stru ste d th at th e mi n d o f m an cann o t by se arc hi n g

,

fi n d o u t Go d an d that hi s o n e ho pe o f kn o win g Go d is thr o u gh

,

re ve l ati o n M an y su c ce sso r s o f the C alvi n i stic theo lo gian s o f

.

fo rm e r tim e s altho u gh the y have in m an y w ay s d epart ed f ro m t he

,

the o lo gy o f th ei r pre de c e sso r s still m ain tain t hi s Vi e w ,

I t is dif .

fi c ul t to u n de rstan d h o w a re ve latio n c an b e grasp e d u nle ss it is ,

c o m pre h en sible t o the hu m an mi n d an d ho w su c h a graspi n g o f it ,

as to b e eff e c tive c an re sult in an y thi n g b u t a spiritu al m y st i c ex

p e rie n c e b u t su c h,
t h e o l o gi an s d o n o t see th e p r o b le m in hi s li gh t .

S till an o the r gro u p have go n e h alfway o ve r to the sc ien tific Vie w ,

b u t are still o b sesse d wi th the i de a th at so m e thin g is lo st to o u r fai th ,

if in the m ain the o lde r tradi tio n s o f Old Te stam en t hi sto ry are n o t
vi n di c ate d Ab rah am an d M o se s m u st h ave b een m o n o thei sts
. .

S to n e s m u st still b e c ast at Ku enen an d Wellh au sen altho u gh the ,

m aj o r fac ts fo r W hi ch th o se sch o l ars co n ten de d are acc ep te d H ad .

Ab rah am an d M o se s re ally b een m o n o thei sts all lo vers o f tru th

wo u ld gl adl y have ac kn o wledge d the fact b u t, if the great light ,

1
Ci .
,
fo r example , Karl B arth , D er R o merb ri ef , 3 te Auf M un c h en , 1924 , .
(re cently
t ran slate d in t o E n glish f ro m a 6t h e ditio n ) ,
an d H E mil B runn er, The
. Theo logy of
Cri si s , Ne w Y o rk an d T
L o n d o n , 19 29 ; R B irc h H o yle , The eo ehi n gs of K arl B arth, an
—
.

E xposi ti o n , L o n d o n , J
19 29 ; also The H i b b ert o u rn al, April, 19 27 , pp 3 8 5 4 00 ; The .

An geli can Th
R evi ew , 19 27 , pp 116 —
eo lo gi eo l 125 ; The Lu theran Chu rch Qu arterly,
. J uly,

1929 , pp 27 1 28 8 ; Walt er L o w rie , Ou r Co n cern wi th the heo lo gy of Cri si s, Ne w

.
-
T Y o rk ,

19 32 . T
h e se are b u t e xample s T he lit eratu re o n t h e su b ec t is ve ry e xte nsive
. j an d

is c o n stan tly gro w in g .

360 SEM ITI C AND HAM ITI C ORI G I NS
“
of the t ru th o f m o n o thei sm
fi rs t sho n e th ro u gh o the r c an dles o f th e
”
Lo rd no thi ng is l o st to the fai th by ad m i tti ng the fac t
,
.

Fi n ally the re are tho se w ho we l c o m e c ri ti ci sm as ap pl ied to the

Old and Ne w Te stam e n t b u t wi ll n o t p e rm i t it to b e appli e d to the
,

C h risti an c ree ds The se m u s t b e acc e pted in thei r e n ti re ty as re

.

p re se nti ng hi sto ri c fac t S uch p e rso n s are u su al ly sac ram e n tari ans
. .

In a m y sti c e xpe ri e n ce u nle ss m edi ate d ri tu ali sti c ally thro u gh the
“
s ac rame n t the y h ave n o f ai th T he y s u b c o n s ci o u sly re alize that
.

th e p rac ti ce is d e ri ve d f ro m a c o n d u c t patte rn w hi c h u sed to as

”1
s au ge t hei r p sy ch i c n ee d s The y ap prehe nd thei r ne ed b u t fail
.
,

to see t hat o f te n th e theo ry o f the s ac ram e n t t au ght l e aves asi de

as a b y p ro d u c t the p sy c ho l o gic al as so c i ati o n an d q u i ck e ni ng w hi c h
-
,

w a s its o nly re al b e n e fi t .

T o all these cl asse s e x ce pt p e rhap s the l ast so m e o f the c o n c l u

, ,

sio n s w hi ch w e h ave re ac hed will b e u n wel c o m e I t is ho we ve r th e

.
, ,

w ri te r s c o n vi c ti o n that a C h ri sti an sc ho l ar m ay wi th o pe n mi nd
’

fo llo w e vi de n c e w he reve r it m ay l ead an d that so u n d c o nc l u sio n s

,

o f th e mi n d are n eve r re ally in o pp o si tio n to the d e e p est e xp e ri en c es

o f th e s o u l n o r o b stac les t o tho se e xp e ri en c es B ec au se o f thi s

.
,
“ ”
w e c an d o n o thi n g again st the tru th b u t fo r the tru t h .

1
Cf Ge rald Heard
.
’
s S o c i al S u bs tance f Religio n New
o ,
Y o rk , 19 3 1, p 9 6
. .
 A D D I T I ONA L NO T E
I NCE the man u sc ript o f thi s b o o k wen t to the pu bli she r a thi rd
po eti c al tex t fro m R as S h am ra h as been pu blish ed by V iro lle au d
in S yri a, vo l X I V, pls X V I I I an d X I X , whi ch
. . firm s m an y o f the co n

po sitio n s take n in thi s bo o k , an d pu ts so m e o f th e p ro blem s di s

cu sse d ina n ew pe rsp ec tive Like po em s I an d I I fro m R as S ham ra

.
,

al re ad y re f erred to in th e pre c e di n g p age s thi s thi rd po e m i s a lit ,

u rgy They were ho wever litu rgie s re cited at the fe stival s o f Alein
.
, ,

at Aph e k e ast o f G eb al ; thi s is a li tu rgy fo r a festival at S alem ,

whi ch is I b e li eve to b e i den tifie d wi th Je u salem

, ,
r l
Ale in i s n o t .

n am ed in it an d it c o n t ain s n o thi n g to c o n n e c t it wi th any P h oen ic i an

sh rin e Like c e rtain B abylo n i an litu rgie s th at we re co pie d b y

.

A shu rb an ipal in B abylo ni an temple s an d taken to Nin eveh fo r hi s

lib rary P o em I I I app e ars to have b een c o pie d an d taken to the
,

te m ple l ib rary o f Ugari t ( R as S h am ra) fo r its li te rary o r anti qu ari an

in te rest P o s sibly it w as be c au se it co n tain s th e ritu al fo r c o m
.

’
pellin g A sherat o f the se a to do the wo rshipp e r s will an d c o n tain s ,

also th e ri tu al o f th e q dasho th
e
.

T h e wri ter h ad re ach e d th e c o n c lu sio n fro m a stu dy o f P o e m s I

an d I I th at th e s e li tu rgi e s we re c o m po se d while the b o d y o f th e

an ce sto rs o f th e P h oen i c i an s we re livi n g to th e so u th o f P h oen ic i a ,

fo r th e sh rin e o f Al ein at Aphe k is co n stan tly refe rre d to in tho se

po em s as in the h eigh ts o f the n o rth altho u gh Aphe k is co n side r
‘
,
’

ably so u th o i Ugari t As lite ragie s are alway s m ade u p o f o lde r

.

m ateri als th at wo u l d b e po ssible an d n o t at all su rpri si n g

,
Thi s .

thi rd p o em co n firm s th at in fe re n c e I t n o t o n ly w as w ri tten fo r a .

c i ty c alled S al em b u t m en ti o n s th e f o u n di n g o f A sh do d an d th e
2
,

T h e w rite r h o p e s so o n to pu b li sh a f u ll tran slatio n o f th e p o em an d a disc ussio n

1

o f all th e p o in ts in vo lved , p ro b ab ly in th e J
o urno l of B ibli c o l Li teratu re H e h as also .

a f ull tran slatio n of P

I I p re pare d , w hic h h e h o p e s so o n to pu b li sh in the o u rn ol
o em J
of the Ameri c an Ori ental S oci ety H is translatio n o f o em I w as p u b lishe d in th e las t
. P
J
m e n tio n e d ourno l, V o l LII , 221— 23 1 . .

2
T h e re adin g Ash d o d is n o t ab so lu tely c er tain , as o n e o f th e ch a
‘ ’
rac te rs is defec tive
in p art ow in g to th e c ru mb lin g o f th e tab let T h e re ading c o uld , h o w e ver, b e o n ly
.

Ashld , As k ed, o r Ashd o d As n o su c h plac e n ames as th e fi rst tw o w o uld pre suppo se

.
-

are k n o w n , th e re ading Ashdo d is pro b ab ly c o rrec t .

3 61
36 2 S EM ITI C AN D HAM ITIC ORIG I NS
d e vi si n g o f the s ac re d s h r ne at
Q ade sh in the w i ld e rn e ss ( K adesh
i
B arn e a) Wh e n the po e m w as w ri tte n the re fo re the ance sto rs o f
.
, ,

the P hoeni c ian s w e re livi ng in P al e s ti n e in the fi el d b e twe e n th e

‘ ’ ‘

b o rde r o f the e arth e)

’
h h d h b ‘
t e o de r o f the de se rt 1 ’
t es e a s o r a n r .

M o re o ve r an o bj e c t fo un d by P ro fe s so r G ran t at Ain S he m s ( B e th
S he m e sh ) in P al e s tin e in the s u mme r o f 19 33 w ri tte n in t he alp ha ,

b e t o i R as S ham ra sho w s that the re g io n w as i nh abi te d by a pe o ple

,

w ho e m pl o y e d the s ame s c ri p t 2
T he o bj e c t w as fo u n d in a s tratu m
.

o f th e s am e age as th at w hi c h yi e l d e d the tabl e ts a t R as S hamr a .

The se fac ts c o nfi rm the po siti o n tak e n ab o ve in Ch I I I as to the .

ro u te tak e n by th e A mo ri te s in re ac hi n
g P hoeni c i a I t e xpl ai n s .

al so a p as sage in P o e m I I iv 13—19 in w hi c h Q ade s h an d A m u rru

, , ,

fi gu re as tw o spi rits whi c h e s co rt A she rat b ac k f ro m he r b ani shme n t :

Q adesh Am u rru shall p repare to d epart

an d ,

They shall place Ashe rat o n the b ack o f th e c o lt ,

V e rily th ey shall p u t h er o n th e b ack o f th e s ta llio n ,

Qade sh shall take them b ehin d ( P) ,

Am u rru like a s tar b efo re

, , ,

T o th e sh rin e o f th e virgin An at
An d B aal .

Qade sh w as the so u the rn bo u ndary as Am u rru w as the no rthern

bo u n d ary o f the pe o pl e w ho c o m p o sed the se li tu rgi e s .

I t sho u ld al so b e n o te d th at the l angu age o f the se po e m s is bo th

in vo c ab ul ary an d gramm ar m u c h mo re c lo se ly re l ate d to Arabi c
th an is th e c ase w i th Bibli c al He b re w Wh i le it is cle arly H eb re w .

in an e arly stage o f d eve lo p m e n t it h as n o t yet slo u ghed o ff m an y ,

e le m e n t s b ro u gh t f ro m Ar abi a w hi ch w e re l ate r lo st T h e e tym o lo gy .

o f th e n am e Y ahw eh p ro po sed o n p ,
3 38 mi gh t the refo re h ave .
, , ,

b een a go o d A m o ri te u sage .

In P o e m I I I w e h ave reve al e d m o re c le arly the e xplan ati o n o f the

fac t th at A she rat is c all ed A she rat o f the se a As I h ave po in ted
‘ ’
.

o u t e l sew he re th e e n mi ty o f A sh e rat an d th e ve nge an c e p re di c ted

,

o n th e so n s o f th e se a see m s to b e a rec o llec ti o n o f th e co m in g in to

‘ ’

th e lan d o f th e n e an C yp ri o te o r H u rri an peo pl e s w ho b ro u gh t

, ,

th e po tte ry o f Cyp rio te typ e fo u n d b o th at R as S h am ra an d at

Je ru salem an d wi th who m th e S e mi ti c po pu l atio n h ad to c o n tend
,

1
P o em III , lin es 6 1, 62 .

2
Cf B ulleti n
. of the Americ an S cho o ls of Oriental Re search, no . 5 2, pp 4 , 5 . .
 ADD ITIONAL NOTE 3 63

fo r the m aste ry M D u ss au d ,
o n th e b asis o f a pass age in H e ro
1
. .

do tu s V I I 89 explain s the se fe atu re s as re co llec tio n s o f the stru g

, ,

g le s o f th e an ce sto r s o f th e P h oen i c ian s o n th e R e d S e a o n th e i r n o rth

ward tre k fro m A rabia o r in their se a trade wi th S o u th Arabi a— a
,

vie w wh i ch seem s to m e di stin c tly le ss pro b able than that pu t fo r

ward he re .

I f th e b eli ef o f the pre sen t wri te r th at P o e m I I I w as co m p il ed ,

as a li tu rgy f o r a fe sti val at J e ru sal em is co rrec t it affo rd s an o th e r ,

link in the ch ain o f e vi d en c e co n n e c ting the go d E l wi th the

l ater c apital o f P ale stin e an d co n fir m s the statem en ts o f Gen e si s
,

14 that E 1w as wo r shi ppe d the re in th e day s o f Ab rah am Fu r the r .

,

it aff o rd s e vi den c e o f th e t ype o f wo rship p rac ti se d at Je ru salem in

th e p atri arc h al pe ri o d .

As th i s thi rd po em gi ve s the fu lle st ri tu al o f the q dasho th ye t dis e

c o ve re d it m ay n o t b e o u t o f pl ac e to qu o te an e x trac t
,
.

Th e wo m en as E l shall pass b y th em
, ,
2

T h e wo m e n sh all c ry :
“
0 M o th M o th , ,

We se t lim its to th y Scep tre ,

Tearing away the staff o f th y h an d .

T h e b ird shall warm o n the fi re ,

B ro ilin g on th e c o als .

“
We are wo m en ,
eac h a wif e o f E l
An d his slave , eve n 3
th o se wo m en
Wh o cry, 0 migh ty o n e,
‘

We se t lim its to th y scep tre,

Tearing away th e staff o f th y h an d .

T h e b ird sh all warm on th e fi re ,

Even b ro ilin g o n th e c o als .

“
We are h o u se s eac h a h o u se ,
of El
An d his slave, an d are th o se wo m en
Wh o c ry 0 M o th M o th
,
‘
, ,

We se t li m its to thy p o wer ,

Tearin g away the s taff o f th y h an d .

T h e b ird sh all warm o n th e fi re ,

1 ’
R evu e de l hi sto ire des reli gi o n s , CVII I (J ,
u ly- Au g . 6—
49 .

2
P ,
—
o e m I I I lin es 39 54
‘
.

T h e w o rd is o lmah, sam e e mplo y e d in th e w ell k n o w n p ro ph e c y in I sa

3
th e -
.

P erh ap s we sh o u ld tran slate yo u n g w o man

‘
.
’
B u t see ab o ve p 3 0 1 n 2 . . .
3 64 SEM ITIC AND HAM ITIC ORIG I NS
E ve n b ro iling o n the c o als .

“
We are wo me n eac h a w ife
, o f El,
”
And h is s lave .

He s hall p u rify th e ir lips ,

He shall lif t th e m u p .

The ir lips are swee t ,

Swee t as the po megranate .

With th em is k iss in g and c o ncep tio n ;

B y e mb rac ing th e pas s io nate o n e s hall b e impregnate d
S he shall b ring fo rth .

S hakhar w S halem wo rd to El shall b ear

- -
,

Thy w ife 0 E l h as b ro ugh t f o rth

, ,
.

What has she b ro ugh t fo rth

As my c h ild re n ? 0 S hak h e r w - -
S halem ?
O ff er a pe rfe c t o ne to S h e p e sh , th e Lady ,
”
An d to th e s tars .

Wi th so me var at o n s i i the i tu al is then repe ate d T he tex t reve al s

r .

o f the wive s o f El
‘ ’
f rank ly the f u n c tio n s an d the p urpo s e o f the i r
,

in sti tu tio n to sec u re o ff sp ri n g to pe rpe tu ate t he t rib e th at e m pl o ye d

th e c ul t .
 A D D E N DA
CAU S AT I VE S TE MS

0 THE di sc ussio n ive stems o n p age 22 th ere sho uld

o f c au sat ,

b e adde d t h e f ac t t h at th e L at i n su per b e co m es in Gre e k

hu per . M y c o ll eagu e Pro fesso r S peiser an d gramm arian s su ch
, ,

as B ro c k e lm ann an d L an d sb erger do u b t th e rel atio n b e tween ,

the s an d h c au sative stem s wh ic h I h ave p o stu l at e d abo ve ,

o n t h e gro un d th at th ere is elsewh ere in th e S em i ti c l an gu ages n o

a n alo gy f o r th e c h an ge o f s to h H e Pro fesso r Sp e i ser t e ll s m e

.
, ,

th at h e exp e c ts so o n to p u bli sh a p ap er se ttin g f o rt h th e Vi ew t h at

t h e c au sative verb al stem s were f or med by p lac m g b efo re th e
s im p l e st em t h e pro n o un o f th e t hi rd p erso n an d th at th ere w e re ,

o ri gin ally tw o o f t h e se su an d hu z h en c e t h e s an d h f o rms o f t h e

,

c au sat ive Th i s is a b ril lian t e xpl an atio n o f th e o rigin o f th ese

.

f o rm s an d is so satisfac to ry th at o n e wo n d ers th at it h as n o t b e en
,

p ro p o sed b e fo re .

M o st l an gu ages po ssess tw o o r three p ro n o un s f o r th e third

p erso n an d p rim it ive H am i te S em it ic m ay h ave d o n e th e sam e
-
.
,

I n add it i o n t o th e s pro n o u n it c ertainly p o sses sed a y pro n o u n

-
, ,

b ec au se th e 3 rd s in g f o rm o f the imperf ec t o f th e v erb is fo rm ed

.

w i th y b o th in H ami t i c an d S em it i c I s it th o u gh so c ert ain .

, ,

th at p rimi t ive H am ito S em i t ic p o sse ssed t h e s an d h—

-
p ro n o u n s
f ro m th e begin n in g ? S u c h an swer as it is p o ssibl e to m ak e to t h i s
in quiry wo u l d seem to b e de du c ibl e f ro m th e f o ll o win g f ac ts
’
t
.

T h e s pro n o u n is fo u n d in b o th f am ilies o f l an gu ages : o f th e S emi ti c

-

to n gu es it is fo und in Akk adi an A ss yr i an M in aean M ehr i Am

, , , , ,

h ari c an d T igreri a : o f th e H am itic in E gypti an C o p ti c R edam e s

‘ '

, , , , ,

K ab ylee T am e sh e q B e d au ye S ah o Gall a Hau sa a n d N am a

, , , , _ , ,
.

T h e h p ro n o un is f o un d in S em it i c o n ly : in He bre w A ra bi c
-
, ,

Aramaic S ab aean S o qo tri (in th e m asc u lin e b ut s in th e f emi n in e)

, , , ,

Ethi o p i c (in su ffi x es ; o th er wo rds h ave di spl ac e d th e S emi ti c fo rm s

.

o f th e i n dep en d en t p ro n o u n s) an d Ti gre No h pro n o u n s h ave

,
.
-
.

su rvive d so f ar as I k n o w in H am i t i c th o u gh in N am a wh ic h h as
, , , ,

lo st th e simple h—so un d there is a pro n o u n i (co mm o n gen d er)

,
’

365
3 66 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC ORI G IN S

w hi c h m i ght h ave d e sc e nd e d f ro m a fo rm hi I t exi s ts si d e by si de , .

wi th an s p ro no u n I n S hilk h and T am e she q t he re are al so

-
.

t p ro no un s w hi c h by w ell re c o gn iz e d H am ito S e mi ti c pho n e itc

-
, ,
- -

l aws are d eri vabl e f ro m the s p ro n o u ns Thi s e vid e n c e wo ul d

,
-
.

se e m to s ho w th at the h p ro n o u n w as n o t a p ri mi ti ve Ham ito -

S em iti c wo rd b ut w as d e ve l o ped in a res tri c ted se c ti o n o f the

,

S em i ti c fi e l d f ro m w hi c h it w as c arri ed by m i grati o n T he pro

,
.

no un i in t he rem o te N am a to n gu e w hi c h h as b e en s u bj e ct e d to
'

B ushm an i n fl u e nc e is no gu arantee t hat an h p ro no un w as kn o wn to

,
-

th e H ami te s On t he fac e o f t he e vi d en c e t h e re fo re t h e s pro n o u n

.
, ,
-

is f ar o ld e r t han the h p ro n o u n an d h as b e en far mo re wi d ely

-

e m pl o y e d .

If i t we re t rue that s c o uld n o t in H am i t e S e m i ti c b e c han ge d to ,

-
,

11 tho se l an gu ages w h i c h e mpl o y the h p ro no u n o n ly o ught to

,
-

em p lo y th e h c au sat i ve o nly an d o u ght n o t to m ak e t h ei r c ausati ve

-
,

re fle x ive st em wi th an s I n t hi s resp e c t h o we ver th e y are n o t

.
, ,

c o n si st e n t T h e H ami ti c d i al e c t s wit h f ew e x c epti o n s fo rm t h ei r

.

c ausat i ve s t em s wi th s an d em p l o y t h e s p ro n o un ,
Bilin ho wever -
.
, ,

p o s sesses b o t h a n s an d i c a u s at i ve b u t e m p lo y s u i as
-
a p r o n o un ,
.

M as ai fo rm s it s c au sati ve by i yi o r ye and emplo ys u i ne as its ’

, ,

p ro n o un Nam a fo rm s the c au sative b o th by s and i an d h as b o t h

.
’

s and i — p ro n o un s Li tt l e c an b e in fe rre d h o we ver f ro m these few

'
.
, ,

e x c ep t i o n s in m o d ern H ami ti c d ial ec t s si n c e th e l an gu age s w h i c h ,

e xh ibi t th e vari ati o n s sh o w by m an y o th er f e at u re s t h at t h ey h ave

b een m o dified in m an y respe c ts by f o rei gn in fl u en c es Amo n g the .

S em iti c l an gu ages Syri ac wh i c h em plo ys t h e h p ro n o un u se s a

, ,
-

S h aph e l an d Aph e l ( d eri ve d f ro m a Haph el) c au sati ve fo rm si d e by

si d e . T h e s am e is t ru e o f t h e n o rth P hoen i c i an ( R as S h am ra) ,

tex ts o f t h e f o u rt ee n t h c e n t u ry B C A rabi c Syri ac an d E thio pi c .

, ,

al l o f w h i c h h ave p re se rve d t h e h pr o n o u n an d lo st t h e s pro n o u n - -

,

c o n tin u e t o m ak e th e i r c au s ati ve re fle xi ve f o rm s wi t h i st es t in -

wh i ch t h e c au sati ve e lem en t is n o t h b u t s ,
.

T h e e vi d en c e t h en seem s to p ro ve th at th e s p ro n o un an d t he
, ,
-

s c au sativ e st em s b e l o n g to t h e p rim i t i v e H amit o S em i t i c s p eec h

- -

an d c an b e t rac e d b ac k t o ye ars B C o r e arli er whi le t h e . .

,

h pro n o un an d t h e h c au sat ive s tem s b elo n g to a gro up o f S em i tic

- -

di al e c ts o f p eo pl es w ho r adi at e d fro m S o u th Ar abi a an d t h at th e y ,

are n o t un if o rmly o r c o n si st en t ly app li e d e v en b y th o se p eo pl e s .

 ADD E NDA 7

M o reo ver th ey c an n o t b e h i st o ri c ally t rac e d b ac k of 2000 B C .

T he sc h o lar w ho i s b se ssed b y t h e i d e a o f
o u n i fo rm i t y o f t h e ri gid

p h ilo lo gi c al l aw s w ill e xplai n th ese f ac t s b y so m e su c h th eo ry as

t h at t h e h fo rms m u st always h ave b ee n in e x ist en c e b u t o n ly

-

h app en t o c ro p o ut h e re H e wil l say t h at if w e h ad e arli e r

.
,

e vi d en c e w e sh o u l d fi n d t h at t h ese di alec t s always po ssesse d th e se

,

f o rm s . I t h app e n s h o w eve r t h at in M in aean in scrip ti o n s an d R as

, ,

Sh am ra texts w e h ave evid en c e t hat th e se fo rm s did n o t u n ifo rm ly

x

p re vai l even am o n g th e peo p l e w h o e vi d en tly c am e to pre f er t h em .

T h e wri ter is n o t c o n v i n c ed t h at ph il o lo gi c al law is ri gi d ly un ifo rm .

Hum an b ein gs are so m e o f them re b elli o us in all sph eres o f life

, ,
.

So m e phi lo lo gi sts adm it th at th ere is a sm all p erc en t age o f lin gu isti c

ph en o m en a wh i ch d ef y all ru le s Wh en all th e h i sto ri c al an d
.

lin gu isti c f ac ts relating to th e pro bl em o f th e re l atio n b e tween th ese

s an d h p ro n o mi n al an d c au s at ive f o rm s are tak en in t o ac c o un t it ,

st i ll se em s t o th e w r i t er th at th e t h eo r y t h at t h e h— fo rm s were
d erive d fro m th e s f o rm s by a p ho n e t i c c h an ge wh i c h did n o t
-
,

p re v a il w h e r e th e s e l e tt e r s o cc u rre d in o t h er p art s o f s p ee c h an d ,

wh i c h is ac co rdi n gly an ex c eptio n to o rdin ar y l in gui stic rule s is ,

s imp l er an d mo re pro b a bl e th an an y o th er .

TH E LAN GU A GE S OF A S I A MI NOR

T h e stat em en t s on
pp 4 8 f c o n c ern i n g th e lan gu ages in whi c h th e
. .

m at eri als o f t h e ar c hiv e s o f B o gh az K o i w e re wr i tt en are c o n firm e d

-

an d amp lifi e d in Al b re c h t Gotz e s

’ “
Klein asi en ”
in Walter O tto s ’

H and bu c h der Altertu msw i ssen sc haf t, d ri tt e r Ab schn itt e rst e ,

Li ef eru n g M un c h en
, ,
1933 , e sp ec a i lly p . 55 .

AHIJ I Y AWA I N AS I A M IN OR

D o u bt w as e xpre ssed b o ve as to th e c o rrec tn ess o f th e

on
p.5 0 a

t h e o ry o f Emi le F o rre r th at Gree k s we r e in A sia M in o r in th e p eri o d

—
1 00 1200 B C
4 F o rre r h ad i d en tifi e d t h e Ahhiyawa wi th th e
.

Ac h man s Att arissia wi th A treu s an d L az pa wi th L esb o s

, ,
F e rd i
,
.

n an d S o mm er h as n o w given t h e m att er an e xh au st iv e ex am i n atio n

in a vo lu m e o f so m e 4 5 0 pages in wh i c h all t h e p ert in en t t ex t s are

,

l l l —
f u y pu b ish e d an d di sc u sse d D i e Ahhijavd Urk u n deii , M un c h en ,
“ ”
193 2 . T h e wo rk is o n e o f th e Abh an d lu n gen o f th e B avarian .

A c ad emy o f S c i e n c e s E ac h te xt is tran sliterated tran s l ated an d

.
, ,
3 68 S EM ITI C AND HAM ITIC ORI G I NS

ann o tated wi th all the e x ac ti tud e of a gre at sc ho lar He do es no t .

l eave F o rre r s theo ry a leg to stand o n

’

,
an d c h arac t eriz e s h is w o rk as

f ull o f i nacc u rac i e s ab s u rd i ti e s an d e rro rs T h e Ahhiyaw a w e re

, ,
.

no t G re e k s an d t he y lived o n t he so u th o r so u thw e s t c o ast o f A si a

,

M ino r n o t in the w este rn e nd o f t he p e n i ns ula F o r S o mm e r s

-
.
’

—
c o n c l usi o n s se e espe c i ally pp ix 3 5 7 an d 3 7 2 3 7 8 o f h is gre at w o rk .
, .
,

S E MI T IC AND E G YPT IAN V OCAB U LAR I E S

T o th eli st o f wo rk s o n t hi s su bj e c t c i te d o n p 94 n 1 the re sho ul d . .

—
b e add ed Alb ri ght s arti c le in JAOS XL V I I 19 8 23 7 an d A aro n
’
, , ,

E mb e r s po sth um o u s E gypto S cmiti c S tud ies L eipzi g 19 3 0

’
-
, ,
.

TH E LE V I RAT E AM ONG T HE H I TT I T E S

In c o nne c t o n S em i ti c L evi rate m e ntio ne d o n p 10 1 it

i wi th t he .

sho u l d b e n o t e d th at th e Hi tt i te C o d e § 19 3 ( s e e B art o n s Arc hw

’
,
“
o lo gy an d the B i ble 6 th e d p p ro vi d es th at
,
if a m an t ak e s a
.
,
.
,

wi fe an d di es h is b ro ther sh all take his wi fe ; t h en h is f ath er shall

,

t ak e h e r ; if t h e f at h er d i e s t h e wo m an wh i c h h e m arri e d his b ro th er
,

sh all t ak e I t is n o tewo rth y th at it seem s to b e j u st thi s t yp e o f

.

L evi rate wh i c h T am ar is sai d to h ave fo rc ed J u d ah to o b se rv e

( Ge n . As t h e P ro to Hi tti t e s w ere aki n t o th e H u rr i it is -
,

d o u b tl ess t ru e t hat so m e o f th e H e b re w L e vir ate c u sto m s w ere

t ak en o ver f ro m th i s e l em en t o f t h e i r an c e st ry .

ME NH IR S AND G I L GAL S

T o t h e st at em en t co n c ern n g i t he d istru b t io n of m enhi rs an d gi l

l
ga s o n pp . l 5 0f
l d n o w b.e ad
,
d e d t h ere
a re f e re n sh o u
c e to th e
o bj e c t s o f t hi s n at u re f o un d by Az ai s an d C h am b ard in th e p ro v

in c es o f H arar an d Gu ragh é an d so ut h e rn Abys si nia ; see R P . .

Azais et R C h am b ard Ci n q o u n ces de recherches archéo logi qu es en

’

. .

E thi opi c P ari s 19 3 1 pp 8 4 15 5 162 165 an d 227

, , ,
Th e se
.
, , , ,
.

st ru c t u res are t hu s re veal e d as e xi sting in an o t h er o f t h e H am i ti c

:

c o un t ri es .

CIR CUM CI S I ON

P ro f e sso r Jam es H B reast ed in The Dawn of Co n sci ence New .

,

Yo rk 193 3 p 3 5 3 ali gn s h im sel f wit h No wac k an d B en zi n ger in

, ,
.
,

h o l di n g t h at H e b re w c irc um c i si o n w as d e rived f ro m E gyp t To t he .

p re sen t wri t er t hi s vi ew seem s t o b e b ase d o n an un derstan di n g o f a

p art o f th e e vi den ce o nly Th o se h o l di n g t hi s theo ry app ear to .
 AD D E NDA 369

h ave m m i n d E gyptian an d He brew c u sto m s o n ly an d o verl o ok ,

th e e vi den c e f ro m t h e l arger are a c it e d o n p 15 7 ab o ve . .

‘ ’
NU N, F I SH

I t is assum e d a o b ve (pp ,
. 62f 233 ,
. an d 25 6) th at nu n w as t h e wo rd
‘ ’
fo r fi sh in th e lan gu age C en tral Asiat i c c ac e I t is in tere st
of th e .

in g t o n o t e th at th e o n ly S em it i c l an gu age s in whic h n u n m e an s .

fi sh are th e A r am ai c an d He brew an d in to t h e c o m po si t i o n o f
‘ ’
,

Aram aean s an d He b rews a l arge Hu rri an elem ent en t ered Th at .

fac t sh o u ld h ave b een c it e d in f avo r o f th e assum p t i o n .

T HE TE NT OF ME E TI N G
’
On pages 344i w e h ave disc u sse d th e Ten t o f M ee t in g, whic h
‘
.

w as I srae l s san ct u ar y in t h e d ays o f M o ses , an d th e im p l em en t s o f

’

wo rshi p an d whic h it m ay h ave co n t ain ed I t sh o u l d

d ivin at io n .

b e n o ted th at the S ep tu agin t c al ls it a mjvr) uo p r vp io v th e Ten t o f

‘ ‘
,
‘
T h e H e b rew wo rd f o r wi tn ess is edh I n P o em I I I
’ ’
Witn e ss .
'
.

fro m R as S h am ra (S yri a X IV pls xvi ii and xix) th e E dh at

‘
.
, , ,

Q ad esh is c alle d th e h o u se o f El (line In an e arlier li n e

‘ ’

an o th e r E dh i s so m e th i n g o n wh i ch c resc en t s c an b e p lac e d ( lin e 12)

'

—
an d rem o ve d (lin e 18 ) p erh ap s a sto n e al tar o r a massebah Th i s .

rai se s th e q u est io n wh et h er M o ses t en t w as n o t a st ru c tu re ere c t e d

’

in co nn e c tio n with an al tar o r a masseb ah I t is po ssibl e h o we ver .

, ,

th at th e ae ro lit e m ay in M o se s t en t h ave b een th e re al B ei t cl

’
-

, ,

j u st as th e massebah w as at B eth e l (c f Gen 28 : 16 . .

,

T HE GOD ANU

I t h as o n ly ly b e c o m e c l e ar to m e th at An n is a dei t y o f th e
r e c en t

C en tral A siatic rac e wh i ch f o u n d ed th e c i ty o f S u ripp ak (see

, ,

ab o ve p ,
. I t is th ere fo re e xplain e d w h y h e h ead s th eli st o f
, ,

th e S u rippak pan th eo n H e w as b ro u gh t in l at e preh i sto ri c tim e

.

to B abyl o n ia f ro m C en t ral A si a wh en c e h e w as al so c arri ed to ,

C h in a I n C h in a h e w as c all ed Tien ; in B abylo n i a An u At

.
,
.

E re c h wh ere An u w as al so wo rshi pp ed a S em i ti c settl em en t h ad

, ,

o verl aid th e A siat ic f o un d at i o n (abo ve pp 5 8 th e wo rshi p o f

, ,
.

an u w as f u se d wi th th at o f t h e S em i tic go d d ess I t seem s pro b able .

t hat o ri gin ally E n lil w as an ep i th e t o f An n wh i c h in th e p ec ul iar

-

, ,

B abylo n i an en viro nm en t b ec am e so p o pu l ar as to drive An u in to

,

t h e b ac k gro u n d .
 OF S C RI PT U RE RE FE RE N C E S .

GE NE S I S—co ntinu ed:

33
34
308 3 25 n 1, 3 48n 4 .

13 1 .

—
19 87n 5 .

8 7 n4
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 290n 1 .

33 1n 2 .

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 104 .

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 71 .

33 6 .

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 72 I ND E X OF S CRI PTUR E REFERE NCE S

E X O DUS — i o nti n u cd
'

J OS HUA— c o n ti n u ed
-
14
23 zl 4 18 ~

-
11

25—31 .

17
-
11
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

D E UTE R ONOM Y

5
6 112—
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

26
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

20 17
-

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

23 : 17 , 18
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

J OSHUA

23 , 27
 I NDE X OF S CRI PTURE REFERE NCE S 3 73

2 S AM UE L—contin u ed:
”

S ONG OF S ONGS ( Can tic les)

13 :3 7
17 : 27
I S AI AH
1 KI NGS 1 : 10—
19
1—2 . 1 : 12—17
7 : 14 .

10 : 1fi
11 : 5ff 10 : 5 fi .

—11

17 —19 , 21 3 27 n 2, 4 .

21

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

2 KI NGS

27

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10 : 15fi
—
17
EZE KI EL
—
4 ,
22

7 3 49 n 4 .

13 7 , 29 7 m, 3 0 7 n2
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

1 CH R ONI CLE S
2 : 1—55 D ANI E L

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O
l
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
12, 14 , 24 .

12, 14 , 24 , 25
E CCLE SIAS TE S -
25
—
.

30 8114 . 7
3 74 I NDE X O F S CRIPTURE REFERE NCE S

C
M I AH H E BR EWS
3 5 40 7 . 33 20 20 .

H AB AKKUK RE V E LAT ION ( Apo c alypse o f J o hn )

14 5 112.

2 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 5 n 2.

C
Z E HAR IAH
C
R EF E R E N ES T O A O R P C YP HA
E thio pic E n o c h
M AT H EWT

P sal ter o f S o lo mo n
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 17 14 5 n 2.

C
R EF E RE N E S T O T H E C ORAN
3 45 n 1 .
S u ra
O O O O O O O O O O O O O

1 C ORI NTH IANS

T
GAL A I ANS 5 3 : 19 f
3 44 n 1 . 6
 I N D E X O F A UT H O RS
Ab el, L u dw ig, 8 5 n , 3 0 8 n , 3 25 n , 3 28n . B o rc h ard t, G .
,
15 1n , 180n .

Addis, W E , 3 40n . . . B o rk , F .
,
3 6n , 44 .

E lian , 188 , 3 21, 3 03 n . B o sc h Gimpe ra, 10

-
.

Alb righ t , W F , S l n , 94n , 13 5 , 188n , . . B o t ta, E .

, 7 9n .

28 7 n , 309 11 , 33611, 33 7 11, 368 . B o ule , M .

,
l 4n , l 5 n , l 6n , 3 1 .

Al t, Alb rec h t , 3 25 . B o yd , H arrie t , 5 3n .

Ammian u s M arc e llinu s, 102 . B re aste d , J am e s H .

,
10 , 7 4n , 8 7 n , 9 2n ,
Am o s , 333 , 3 5 3 ; see als o S c rip tu re I n d ex . 106n , 10 7 , 127 n , 13 4 , 13 5 n , 15 1m, 164 ,
Andrae , W , 36n , 7 6h , 7 7 , 125 , 27 4n
. . 183 n , l 9 6n , l 9 9n , 203 , 29 1n , 329n , 3 68 .

An tiphan e s, 299n . B riggs , CA . .

,
3 40n .

Ark e ll, W J , 89 , 9 0n , 106n

. . . B rin to n , D . G .
, 7 , 9 , 33 8n .

Arn o b iu s , 3 00n . B ro c k elmann , C arl, 5 , 19 , l 18 n , 3 65 .

Au gustin e , S t , vu , 149 , 15 3 , 29 3 n , 3 0 5 ,
. B ru gsc h , H e in ric h , 19 7 11 .

B ru nn er, H E mil , 3 5 9 n . .

Au tran , C , 36n . . B runn o w , R E . .

,
155 n , 27 1n .

Ayyar, V aidyan ath a, 3 7 n . B ru n to n , Gu y , 89 , 9 l n , 121n, 122n .

Az ais, R P , 368 . . . B ryn mo r—o n e s, J

avid , 26n D .

B u dd e , Karl, 13 1n , l 44 n , 15 2n , 330 , 33 1,
B adé , W . F .
,
5 2, 3 49 n . 3 4 ou , 3 48n .

B ae d ek e r, Karl 18 5 n , 19 1n . B u dge , E A . . Wallis ,

124 , 164 , l 7 4 n , 180n ,
B aly, TJ . . C .
,
13 5 n , 16 5 n . 182n , l 84n , l 8 7 n , 18 8, 28 5n , 3 08n .

B ank s, E dgar 36n J . . B u rn ey , C . F .

,
3 3 2;
B arth , Karl, 3 5 9 . B u tin , R F . 7 5 , 283 n .
,
.

B arto n , J am e s L .
,
220n . B ux to n , L H .u dley, l4n , 3 1, 3 9 , 40
. D .

B asse t , R .
,
l 9n .

B au e r, H .
,
l 9n , 28 7 n , 3 12n . C arp en ter ,JE . .
,
34ou .

B au er, Th eo , 7 2n , 7 4 . C ar ti M 15
er, .
,
n.

B eer, Geo rg, 3 23 , 3 3 2 . C asan o va , P l au ,

109 n .

B ehn k , F rida, 10 , l 3 n . C a ont Th mp

— o so n , Gertru de , 84n , 89,
B elk asse n b en S e dir a, l 9 n . 9 l n , 121n , 122m
B en t, Th e o do re , 13 0n , 15 4 n , 221n , 222n , Cau lf e ild , A S t G . . .
,
l 77n , 180n , 18 1n .

224n . Ch mb d R 168
a ar ,
.
,
.

Be nz inge r, I mm an u el, 14 8 n , 15 7 . Ch l R H 13 1
ar es , . .
,
n .

B ertin , G .
,
6 , l 15 n . Ch y T K 3 3 2
e ne , . .
,
.

B evan , E .
, 3 18n . Chi Edw d 40 44
e ra, ar , , ,
4 5n , 5 4 , 6 l n , 7 4n ,
B ew e t , J A 340 . .
,
n, 3 55n . 7 6 , 8 4 , 8 5 n , 25 7 n .

B ez o ld C l 25 7
,
ar ,
n, 28 5 n , 289 n , 3o8n . Chu d e au , R , 15 n . .

B ic k ell , E .
,
3 l 7n . Clay , Alb e rt T , 8 , 9 , 7 l n , 7 2n , 8 2n , 25 0n , .

B issu e l, H .
,
l 9n . 263 n , 268n , 284n , 3 14 , 339 n .

B lac k , D avid so n , 32 . Cl m t f Al
e en o e xan dria, 39 0n , 3 0 1n .

B lack man , A . M .
,
l 9 7n , 19 8n . Cl m t G
er on -
ann e au , Ch .
,302n .

B le ek , W . H I . .
,
l 3n . C d i gt R
o r n on, . H .
,
9 7n .

B lu n t , Lady Ann e , l 15 n . Co e , G A . .
,
162n .
3 76 I NDE X OF AUTHOR S

Co llitz , He rma nn , 299 n . E rman , Ad o lf , 10 , 19 , 26, 7 4 n , 9 4 n, 123 n ,

Co lliz z a , Gio vann i, 19 n . 168 n , 17 0 , ”I n , l 7 4 n , 17 5 n ,
Co nte ne au , G , 5 8 n . . l 7 6 n , l 7 7 n , f 7 8 n , 18 1n , 183 , 184 n ,
Coo k, S A , 6 . . . 18 6 n , 18 7 n , 18 8 n , 18 9 n , 19 0 n , 19 1n ,
C o o ke, G A , l 3 7 n , 222n , 29 6 ,
. .

3 0 2n , 3 11n , 3 14 n . E u se b ius , 286 n , 29 2m, 29 6n .

C o ry , I P , 23 3 m
. . . E u t ing , J .
,
l 15 n , 117 n , 3 17 n .

C o w le y , A E . .
,
46 n , 7 4 , 283 n . E vans, S ir Arth u r, S3 .

C rai g , J ame s A , 27 l n
. . E w ing , W .
,
34 7 n .

C ro s , G .
,
40 . E z e k ie l, 3 5 6 ; s ee also S c rip tu re I n dex .

C us t, R .
,
l3 n .

F aid he rb e , G .
,
19 n .

D ahl , G .
, 35 5n . F a m e ll, Le w is R .
,
306 .

D avie s , N G . .
,
l 7 9 n , l 87 n . F e ll, W .
,
20 2, 204 .

d e Ge no u illac scc Ge no u illac d c F is c he r, Th e o b ald , 115 , l 16n , 118 , 14 7 0 .

d e la F u ye sec F u ye . F isk e , J o hn ,
162n .

D e im e l, An to n , 6 1n , 63 n , 125 n , 126m, 227 , F landin , E .

, 79 n .

F o rre r, E .
,
4 7 n , 5 0 , 63 n , 7 7 n, 36 7 i .

25 1n , 25 3 m, 25 4n , 25 5 n , 25 6 n , 25 7 n , F o th e ringha m , J . K .
,
73 a .

25 9 m, 26 2, 263 , 26 7 n , 268 n , 27 0 , 27 2n , F o u c au ld , 305 m .

27 6 , 309 n . F o x, Ge o rge , 3 3 3 .

D e li tz s c h , F ran z , 33 7 n . F ran k , C arl, 46n .

D e li tz s ch , F rie d ric h , xv .
,
3 6n , 62n , 65 n , F rankf o rt, H .
,
3 4, 3 5 n , 3 6n , 57 m, 5 9 m, 60 n .

F raz e r, S ir J G . .
,
96, 15 6 n , l 9 7 n .

De re nb o u rg, H artw ig an d J o s e ph , 20 1n , F rie d ric h, Jh o ann e s , 4 7 n , 50 , 7 l n , 88 n ,

210 . 263 n .

Dh P , 262n , 27 5 , 28 7 n
o rm e , . . F uy é , Allo tte d e la, 268n .

Dillmann , Au gu st, 33 7 n .

Dio do ru s S ic ulu s, 3 03 n , 3 0 7 m, 3 19 .
Gadd , C . I .
, 3 7n .

D o u gh e rt y , R P , 5 5 , 8 2, 225 n , 325 n
. . . Gardi n e r, Allan H .
,
23 n , 7 4, 124n, 17 1n ,
D o u gh ty , C . M .
,
104 , 114n , l 15 n , 116n , l 7 4 n , l 7 6n , 18 2n , 18 5 n , 186n , 18 7 , 188 ,
117 n , 129 n , 148n , 150m, 15 3 , 154 n , 19 0m, 19 2n , l 93 n , 19 7 , l 98n .

156n , 218 n . Garro d , D o ro th y , 51 .

D rive r, S R . .
,
3 , 3 00 n , 3o1n , 33 7 n .
Gars tang, J .
,
46n , 4 7 n , 7 9n , 88n , 330 .

D ru mm o n d , H e nry , 162n .
Gau tie r, E F . .
,
15 n .

Du e mi c hen , 18 5 , l 9 7 n .
Gau tie r, J . E .
,
180n .

Gay e r, A l 9 7n
Dilrk o p , E 15 n
. .
,
. .
,

D u ssau d , R en é ,
3 l 7 n , 3 63 .
Ge hm an , H e nry S .
,
ix .

Ge no uillac , H d e , xvi 25 0n , 25 5 n , 269 n ,

Dy e r, L o uis , 3o0 n .

27 0 n , 27 1n .
. .
,

Ge rlan d , A A 6, 9
E b e lin g, E ric h , 7 2n , 7 7 n , 227 n , 25 1,
. . .
,
xv
W
.
,
Ge se ni u s, . 20 , 33 7 n .

27 4 n , 3 15 n
,
.

Ghillany , R .
,
33 1 .

E b e rs, Ge o rg, l49 n

Giddings, F 116
.

. .
,
E h e lo lf , H 48 n , 5 0
Giff o rd , E H 28 6n , 29 2n
. .
,
. . .
,
E m b e r, A 9 4 n , 13 5 , 3 68 96n , 110 n , 112n , l l 3 n
.
,
.
Gillen , J .
,
.

E ph rae m S yr u s , 14 9 , 15 3 , 2l 7 n , 3 17 .
Glas e r, E dw ard , 5 6, 99 , 117 n , 200 , 20 1 .

E phrae m t h e S yrian see E ph rae m S yru s Go eje , M .

J de .
, ,
15 , 13 0n .

E p iphani u s, 214, 217 n . Go le nisch efl , W .

,
20 1n .
 INDE X OF AUTHOR S 77

Go o drich —
F re e r, ( M iss) , 148n . Hish am , I b n , see Ib n Hish am
Gotz e , A .
,
50 , 367 . Ho b ley , W , l 3n C . . .

Go w e n , H H . . 4 8n . H o ff ma n , Geo rg, 3 0 5 n .

Gran t ,
E lih u , 362 . H o fi man , W J , 9 6n . . .

Grap o w , H .
,
l 23 n , 168n , 17 0 , 17 1n , l 7 3 n , H o garth , D . G .
,
4 6n .

l 74n , 17 5n , l 7 6n , l 7 7 n , 17 8n , 18 1n , H olsc h er, Gu s tav, 33 0n .

183 n , 184n , 186n , l 8 7 n , 188n , 189 n , H o m er, 3 19 .

l 9 on , 19 1n , 19 2n , 193 n , l 94n , 3 o5 n . H o mm el, F ri tz , 5 6n , 7 5 n , 116n , l 34n ,

Gray , G B . .
,
164n , 284 . 18 1n , 20 1, 2ol u , 2o4n , 20 5 , 206,
Green , F . W .
,
17 2n . 256 , 25 7 n , 33 2, 3 3 7 n .

Gre ssmann , H 33 2 H o ni gman n , E 7 2n

'

. .
, .
, .

Griffi th , F L . .
,
18 2n . Ho o k e , S H . .
,
19 7 , 19 8n .

Grimme , H u b ert , 5 '

. H0 pfn er, Th eo d o r, 122n , l 64n , l 74 n ,
Griin e ise n , C .
,
14 5 n . 180n , 182n , 184n , 18 6n , 18 7 n , 188 ,
Gu id i, I gn az io , 2, 3 , 115 n . 188n .

Gu nk e l, H .
,
l 47n , 3 32 . H o se a, 13 0 , 3 5 3f ; . see also S c rip tu re
Gu th e , H .
,
33 2 . I n d ex .

H o tan eau , A , l 9n . .

Haarb ru ck e r, T .
,
148n . H o w it t, A . W .
,
9 6n .

H alevy , J .
,
l 9 n , 5 6, 200, 212m, 216 . H o yle , R B irc h , 3 5 9 n
. .

Hall , E di th , 53 n . H rdli ék a, A , l4n . .

Hall, H R . .
,
3 1, 3 4 n , 39 n , 5 7 n , 7 9n , 228n . H ro z ny, F .
,
4 7 , 48n .

Hamilto n , (an E n glish traveller) , l oz u . H u b e r, E .

,
269 n .

H and c o c k , P . S P , 79n . . . H umann , C .

,
8 2n .

H ardi n g, E E , 15 2n . . . Hurgro nje, CS . no uck , 102n , 148n .

Harf o rd B attersb y, G , 340n

-
. . Hu rw itz , S T H . . .
,
20n .

Harp e r, W . R .
,
8 2n . Hu ssey, M ary I -
. 253n , 25 5n .

Harris, Zellig S .
,
ix .

Harriso n , P . W .
,
27 , 3 8 . I b n Hisham , 217 n .

H artmann , R o b ert, 9 . Ib n Khaldo un ,

J
Hastings, ame s, 3 n , 8n , 25n , 116n , l 3 7n , I saac An tio ch , 217 n , 3 17
of .

148n , 15 2n , l 6on , 3 00n , 33 2n , 333n , I saiah , 3 33 , 3 54 ; see also S c rip tu re I n dex .

338n .

Hau p t, P aul, xv .
, xvi .
,
129 n , 14 5 n , 146n , J ac k , J . W .
,
33 0 .

15 5 n , 27 5 , 3 3 2 . J acu t , see Y aq u t .

H aw es, C . H .
,
5 3n . J am e s , William ,
357 .

H aw e s, H .
,
53n . J as tro w , M o rris J r 7 , 129n , .
,
l 4 6n , l 4 7 n ,
H e ard , Ge rald , 113 n , 3é 0n . 15 2n , 155 , 23 2n , 238n , 267 n , 27 0 , 27 1,
H e arw o o d E dw ard 15 n , , . 27 2n .

H ehn , Vic to r ,
115 , 116n . J au sse n, A , 211n , 284
. .

H e ro d o tu s, 112, 113 n , 148 , 149, 15 3 , 15 7 , J e n se n , P , 14 1n , 24 1n , 25 1n , 266n , 26 7

. .

15 8 , 15 9 , 160 , 19 8 , 218 , 27 9 , 39 6, J e q u-i e r, G .

,
180n .

3 00n , 3 0 7 n , 3 17 , 363 . J ere mias, A .

,
15 5n .

He ss, J .
J .
,
212n . J e ro me , S t .
,
19 1, 217 n , 3 17 .

H euz ey, Leo n , 29 5 m . J esp e rse n , Otto , 28 .

Hild erb ran d , R .

,
116 . J e vo n s , F B . .
,
96 .

H ilpre ch t , H V . .
,
xv, 3 7 n , 65 n . J o h ann e s L y du s, 152, 299 , 300n .

H ilto n S imp so n , M
-
. W .
, see S imp so n , H . J o hn s , C . H . W .
,
3 3 2n , 3 39 .

109 . J o hn sto n , H H . .
,
13 n .

H in k e , W J . .
,
262n . J o n es , R ufu s M .
,
33 3 n .
3 78 I NDE X OF AUTHOR S

J o rd an , J u lius ,
3 5 n , 57 n , 5 8 n . M acalis te r Ale xa nd e r 5 2 , , .

J o se ph us , 148 , 29 7 . Macalis te r R A S , S l n 8 4, 148 n , 149 n ,

, . . .
,

J o u rd an A , .
,
l9 n . 30 7 n , 349 n .

J us t in , 300 n , 306 n . M ac d o nald 3 38n ,

D . .

J u ve nal, 17 5 . M ac k ay E 3 9 l 9 9 n , .
, , .

M ac k e nz ie , D S l n .
, .

Ke ane , A 7, 9 . . M ac le r 3 l 7n
, .

Ke asb y, I M , 9 5 . . M ac ridi Be y, 4 9 n -
.

Ke ith S ir Arth u r 14 n , 3 1, 3 9 40 4 1, 7 9 n
, , , ,
. M ad e r E , S ln
,
P . . .

King L W , 5 4 2n 45 n , 49 n , 68 n , 7 9 n ,
,
. .
, ,
M alin o w sk i B ro n islaw , 110 1l 1n , ,
.

23 7 n , 264 n , 267 n , 27 2n , 27 4 n . M allo n ere , 5 1 ,

P .

Kn u d t z o n , J . A 7 l n 80 n , 8 6n , 88 n , 134n ,
.
, ,
M arie t te A l 9 7 n ,
.
,
.

M ars hall, S ir o hn , 3 7 n , 3 8 n , 60 n , 65 0 , J
Ko ld e w ay R , 8 2n , . . 253 n .

Kre me r, Alf re d , F re ihe rr vo n , 2, 3 , 115 n .

,
C
M arti arl 13 1n , 33 7 n , .

Kre nc k e r, an ie l 3 20 n D , . M artial 29 9 n ,
.

Kre tsch me r, P , 48 n . . M aspero , G 9 , 15 8 .

,
.

Ku e ne n , A 3 23 , 33 l n , 3 59 .
,
. M asq ue rey , E , 19 n . .

Ktlgle r, F X , 26 7 . . . M au nie r, R en , 10 9 é .

M c Co w n , D 51 T . .
,
.

Lagard e , P , 33 7 n . . M cL e nnan F , 9 5 9 8 10 1, 110 , J . .

, ,
.

Le b ac he , J .
,
15 n . M e inh o fi ,
C
arl 9 , 12 l 3 n 14n l 6n , 19 , , , , ,

Lan d sb erge r, 60 n , 365 . 25 n .

Lan e , E . W .
,
103 m, 13 8n . M e issne r B 7 2n 7 7 n 227 n 25 7 n 25 9 n
,
.
, , , , , ,

Langd o n , S .
,
3 1, 3 6n , 39 n , 5 9 n , 60 n , 6 2n , 264n, 274 n .

64 n , 66 , 6 7 n , 7 3 n , 112n , 23 4n , 236n , M e rc e r, S A B , 165 , 259 n . . . .

250 n , 253 n , 26 2n , 264n , 266n , 26 7 n , M e sse rsc hm id t, L , 44 , 46n , 7 9 n . .

M e ye r, E d uard , 7 9 n , l 78n, 180 n 3 18 , 3 3 2 ,

.

Laragasse , E d e , 19 n . . M eyers o hn L 6 ,
J .
,
.

Layard , H .
, 7 9n . M ill H R 15 9 n
,
. .
, .

Legrain , L eo n , 7 3 n , 7 9 n , 128n , 228n , 268 n , M illigan Geo rge 108n , ,

.

269 n . M olle r He rman 25 n

, ,
.

Le psiu s, E .
,
l 9 8n . M o n te t , P , 286n , 29 3n 294n .
,
.

Le to u rn e au , C .
,
l o1n . M o n tgo me ry , A , 29 0 n J . . .

L eu b a, J . A , l 62n . . M o o re G F 13 1n 3 36n
,
. .
, ,
.

Lid sb arski , M ark ,

l 3 7n , 212n , 222n , M o ran t , S M l 4 n 3 1, 3 9 .
,
.

296n , 298n , 302n , 3 04 n , 30 6n , 3 o8n , M o rd tma nn , H , 20 7 n 2l 1n J . .

,
.

M o rgan , J
d e 10 , 14 15 n , 26 27 , 33 , 3 4n
.
, , , ,

Likh atch e f , N P , . . xv .

L ittmann , E nn o , 212n , 221n , 222n , 224 n . M o rge nstem , ulian , ix , 3 4l n J . .

Lo re t , V .
,
l 9 7n . M o tylinski A d e C , l 9 n ,
. . .

Lo w i e , R o b e rt H .
, 95 . M u ir , Sir Willia m, 220n .

Lo w rie , Walte r ,
35 9n . M ulle r, D
H , 136n , 2ol u , 2l 1n , 221n
. .
,

Luc ian , 112, 155 , 29 4 , 29 5 , 29 8 , 3 18 , 3 20 . 222n , 223 .

Lu c k e nb ill, D . D .
,
8 l n , 82n , 263 n . M ulle r F rie drich , 10 , 12n 27
, , .

L ti pk e , Th e o d o r vo n , 3 20 n . M ulle r, W M ax, 9 , 10 19 l 49 n , 15 8n , .
, ,

Lu sc h au , F e lix vo n , 9 , l 2n , l4n , l 6n , 3 1, 164 .

5 on , 8 2n , 3 10 n . M u sil, Al o is 7 9 n ,
.

Ly d as , J o h an n e s , see J o hann e s Ly das M uss Arno lt, W 62n 15 5 n , 289n

-
.
, ,
.
 I NDE X OF AUTHOR S

Nath , D r ran , 6 5 n . P . Rad au , H .

,
3 5 , 30 1n .

Navill e , E , 164 , l 7 4n , 19 7n . . R an dall M ac I ver, D-

.
,
9 l n , 109 .

Ne stle , E , 33 7 n . . R athje n s, C . 3 8n .

Neu ville , R e n , 5 1 é . Raw lin so n , H en ry , xvi .

Niels o n , Ditle f , 6, 5 6n , 7 0n , 7 2n , 74n , R e c lu s , E .

,
5 6n , 200n , 20 1 .

l 3 4n , l 36n , 20 1n , 202, 203 , 204 , 20 5 , R e ic h , Nathaniel, J ix .

, .

206 , 20 7 , 208n , 209n , 211n , 212n , 213n , 1

R einisc h , L e o , 19 , 21n , 102n , 106, 148n .

215 n , 220n , 24 1, 33 2 . R e isn er, G A . .

,
25 9 n , 260n , 262n , 268 n .

Nik o lsk y, M V , xv 268n . . . . Rh o do k anakis, N .

, 7 2n , 117 n , l 34n , 20 2,
Nolde k e , T h , vo n , 4 , 7 , l 9 n , 105 , 13 0 n . . 204 n , 206n , 208 , 209 n .

No w ac k , W , 14 8n , 15 7 , 33 2n . . Rh ys,J 26 . n .

Ripl y Willi m Z
e ,
a .
, 7 , 9 , 14n .

Oehler, G F . .
,
33 7n . Ritt C l 117
e r, ar , n .

Ohn ef als c h Ric hter, M ax , 13 3 , 3 00n-

. R o ge rs, R . W .
,
3 5 , 68n , 7 7 n .

Olmstead , A T . .
,
8 8n , 29 5 n , 3 27 n , 3 30 , R o llan d , G .
,
15 n .

33 1, 340n , 346 . R o nz evalle , M .

,
3 12n .

Osb o rn e , H F . .
,
l 4n . R o ssini , C arlo C o n ti , 221n .

Osian d e r, E .
,
5 6, 200 . R o st, P , 8 2n . .

Otto , W .
,
l 64n . R o w e , Alan , 188n , 3 09 n .

Ovid , 3 0 7 n , 3 19 . R ii pp e ll ( He rr) ,
223n .

Ow e n , M ary A .
,
96n . R u tte r, E .
,
217 n , 220 .

P algrave , W . G .
,
6 , 104 , 115 n , 116n , 117 . S ac hau , E .
,
8 2n , 3 3 7 n .

P ato n , L B . .
,
80 n , 8 7 n , 13 7 , 284n , 330, S ac y, S .
,
d e , l 18n .

33 2, 3 5 5 n . S amh o u di, 3 34n .

P au l, St . 14 7 , 333 ; see also S crip tu re S anf o rd , K . S .

, 89 , 9ou , 106n .

I n d ex . S arz ec , E rnst d e , 3 6n , 40 , 63 n , 79 n ,
P au san ias, 299 , 303 n . 248 .

Perdiz e t, P aul, 3 18n . S avign ac , Pe t e, 8 5 n , 2l 1n , 28 4 .

P e ise r, F E . .
,
10 5 . S ayc e , A H . .
, 4, 3 7 n , 283 n .

P e te rmann , A .
,
xvi .
,
115 n , 118n , l 4 7 n . S c haefi e r, F A , 45 n , 28 7 . . .

P e te rs , J o hn P, 8 . . S c harfi , Alexand e r, 10 , 89 a , 93 .

P e tri e , W . F M . .
,
3 4, 7 4 , 89 , 9 1, 9 2, 93 , S c he il, V .
,
36n .

10 6n , 15 8n , 164 , 18 1n , 199 n . S c h e nk el, D ani e l, 33 7n .

Philb y H S t
I

,
. . S c hifle r, S in a, 8 2n .

Phil f Byb l
o o o s, 286, 29 2, if . S ch mid t, E ric h, 5 7 11 .

Philo sto rgiu s, 148 . S chmi d t, Nathani e l, 8 .

Pie tsch mann , R .

,
15 5 n , 294n . S c hn ab el, H .
, 7 2n .

Pi n c h es , Th eo philu s G .
,
xvi . S c h rad e r, E b e rh ard , xv .
,
5 , 3 5 n , 8 2n ,
Po eb el, Arn o , 36n , 264n . 128n , 141n , l43 n , 33 7 n .

Po k o m sk y, 10 . S c hr ad e r, Ot to , xv .

Po lyb ius , 3 03 n . S c h rad er, au l, 8 l n P .

P tti E 46 60
o e r, .
,
n, n. S c hu h le in , F , 6 . .

P t i F l9
rae o r u s, n . S c hu ltz , H .
,
33 7 n .

P i I M 42
r ce, . .
,
n . S e ligman , Ch arle s , l 4n , 3 1 .

Pu c h ste in, Otto , 3 20n . S elli n , E . 3 26n , 339n .

Pump elly, R .
,
3 4n . S e rgi , G .
,
9 , l 4n , 3 1, 15 8n .

S e th e , Ku rt, ix . 7 5 , 94n , 123 n , 124n , 127 n ,

Quib ell J ,
. E .
,
17 211, l 9 9 n . 13 4 n , 135 n , 165 , 166, 167 , 168 , 169 , 17 0 ,
3 80 I NDE X OF AUTHORS

17 1, 17 2, 17 3 , 17 4 , 17 5 n , l 7 6 n , 17 8 n , T he o d o re t, 33 9 .

17 9 , 18 0 n , 18 1n , 182n , 18 6 n , T he o d u lus , 3 4 2n .

18 7 n , Th o mas , B e rt ram, 3 8 n .

194 , 19 5 n , 19 6 n , 19 7 , 19 8 m, 19 9 n . Th o mps o n , R . C .
,
6 2, 8on , 14 1n , 143 n ,
S ha ras tan i 148 , . 24 1n , 3 15 n .

S id e rs k y , D .
,
3 09 n . T hu re au- D angin , F .
,
xvi , 25 1n , 263 n ,
S im pso n , H .
,
109 . 26 5 m, 27 9 n .

S ingh , S adh u S u nd ar, 33 3 . Ti l C P 3 3 1

e e, . .
, .

S k inn e r, J .
,
355n . T mb ll H C
ru u , . .
,
15 0 .

S k ipw ith , G H . .
,
33 7 n . T se re the li, ( S ig ) , 3 6n .

S lan e , Le Baro n d e , 109 n . T u rville P

e t re , F , 5 1 . .

S me nd , R .
,
137 n , 222n . Ty l o r, E B . .
,
120 , 128 .

S mith , E llio tt , l 4 n , 3 1 . T o y, C . H .
, 8 n , 129 n , 144 m, 15 5 n , 33 2n,
S mi t h , H P , l3 l n , 3 3 2
. . . 334n 33 8 u . .

S mi th , J . M P , 353 m . . .

S mith , S id ney, 3 6 n , 3 7 n , 3 8 n , 45 n , 69 a , Unge r, E c khard , 60 n , 274 n .

S mi th , W . R o b e rtso n , 7 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 9 7 , 98 , Velan , C .
,
15 n .

105 , 113 , 116n , 120 n , V e n is , Arthu r, 3 7 n .

l 26n , 129 n , 13 0 , 13 8 , 149 , 15 2, 154n , Ve rgil 30 6 3 24

, , .

15 6, 162, 2 14 n , 215 n , 216 , 217 n , 219 , Vin c e n t H u ghe s , ,

5 2n , 309 n .

224n , 30 1n , 305 n , 306n , 3 0 7 , 3 23 , 3 3 7 n , V iro lle au d , C .

,
28 7 n , 28 8 n , 29 0n ,
338 n , 3 42n . 29 2n , 3 6 1 .

S o c in , A .
,
l 3 7 n , 222n . Visc he r ,
H .
,
15 n .

S o mm e r, F .
,
4 8n , 5 0 , 3 6 7 i . Vlo c k , W .
,
3 .

S o z o m e n , 148 . V o gtié , C o mte de , 3 l 7 n , 3 l 8n .

S pe nce r, B 96a , 10 1, 110n , 112n , l l3 n

Wdd ll
. .
,

S pe ise r, E A , 3 5 n , 40 , 4 5 n , 5 7 n , 5 8 a , 5 9 ,
. . a e ,
L A , 25 n , 3 7 n
. . .

6 1, 68 , 69 , 7 6, 7 7 , 7 8n , 84 , 8 5 n , 86n , Wainw righ t G l 99 n ,

.
,
.

23 0 n , 263 n , 365 . Wallac e A R 114 ,

. .
,
.

S prenge r, A , 4 , 5 , 28 . . Walth e r J 15n ,

.
,
.

S tad e , B .
, Ward W H 3 5 127 n
,
. .
, , ,
l 28a , l 42n , 228 n ,
'

S tarb u c k , E .
,
162n . 24 5 n , 27 3 n , 33 2 .

S tarck e , C . N .
,
10 1 . Web er G 8 5 n 20 1n
,
.
, ,
.

S te in d o rfl, G .
,
23 n , 164 , 169 , 17 0n , 17 5 , We idn e r E F 3 l 3 n ,
. .
,
.

180n , 19 5 n , 196 . We issb ac h F H 35 , . .

, ,
60 n .

S teu e m agle , C .
,
30 1n . Welc h A C 3 5 5 n
,
. .
,
.

S trab o , 109 , 149 , 15 8 n , 17 5 , 29 9 , 3 03 n . Wellh au se n J 10 5 ,

.
, ,
l 18n , 120n , 130 ,
S tras smaie r, J . N 25 0n . l 49 n , 15 2, 15 4 , 20 2, 213 , 214n , 215 n ,
S tre c k , M axi milian 8 ,
.

S tahlmann , F ranz , 10 9 . Wellste d J R l 15 n 117 118 15 4n

, . .
, , , ,
.

S tumm e , H .
,
19 n . We stermarck Ed w ard 9 8 10 1 113 n , , , ,
.

S tu rt evan t, E T . .
,
47n . Whitney W D 28 , . .
,
.

S nys , E .
,
15 8n . Wie demann A 10 126n 127 n 13 2 ,
.
, , , , ,

l 40 n , 164 , l 7 4n .

T ac itu s, 298n , 299n , 3oon . Wiegan d T 320 n ,

.
, ,

T allq uis t , K L . .
,
25 1n . Wildeb o e r G 3 32 ,
.
, .

T chihat ah ef , 15 n . Wilk en G A l 02n 103n

,
. .
, , .

T e rtullian , 3 06 . Wilkin Antho ny 9 1n 109 n

, , , .
 I NDE X OF AUTHOR S 38 1

Wilk in so n ,
G .
,
198n . Wrigh t W 3 n 5 7 8 2n
, .
, , , , .

Winckler ,
H u go , xv .
,
43 , 4 5n , 4 6, 99, Wii stenf eld 334n , .

15 2, 154n , 15 6, 20 5 , 3 08n , 3 25 n , 3 28n , Wylde A B 148n

, . .
, .

33 2 .

Winn ef eld H e rmann 3 20n , , . Y aq u t, 116n , z 17 n , 218n .

Win stanley W , 224n , . .

Wo lf W l 9 6n
,
.
,
. Zimm ern , H ei nric h , xv , 241n , 25 6n , 260n , .

Wo o lley C L 3 1 3 4n 3 5n
,
. .
, , , ,
3 8n, 39 , 40 , 262n , 264n , 27 9 n , 3 3 2 .

46n , 49 , 5 7 n , 66, 7 9 n , 128n , 142n , 17 6, Zimo lo n g, 263 n .

228n . Zittel, K A . .
,
15 n .

Wo rrell W ,
. H .
,
10 , 12n , l 3n , l 4n , 15 , Zw em er, S . M .
, 5 6n , 102n , 117 n , 118 ,
l 6n , 18n , 21n , 25 n , 29 , 3 0, 69n . 129n , 154n , 200 n , 2ol u .
3 80 I NDE X OF AUTHOR S

17 1, 17 2, 17 3 , 17 4 , 17 5 n , l 7 6 n , 17 8 n , T he o d o re t , 33 9 .

T he o d u lus, 3 4 2n .

Th o mas , Be rt ram , 3 8 n .

Th o m pso n , R . C .
,
6 2, 80 n , 14 1n , 143 n ,
S haras tan i, 148 . 24 1n , 3 15 n .

S id e rs k y , D .
,
3 09 n . T hu re au - D angin, F .
, xvi, 25 1n , 263 n ,
S impso n , H .
,
109 . 26 S n , 27 9 n .

S ing h , S adh u S u ndar, 33 3 . Ti l C P 33 1

e e, . .
, .

S k inn e r, J 3 5 5 n .
, . T mb ll H C
ru u , . .
,
15 0 .

S k ipw ith , G H , 3 3 7 n . . . T se re theli, ( S ig ) , 3 6n .

S lane , Le B aro n d e , 109 n . T u rville e t re , F , 5 1 P . .

S me nd , R .
,
13 7 n , 222n . T yl o r, E B . .
,
120 , 128 .

S mith , E llio tt , l 4n , 3 1 . T o y, C . H .
, 8 n , 129 n , 144 n, 15 5 n , 3 3 2n,
S mi th , H P , l3 l n , 3 32
. . . 334n 3 3 8 n . .

S mi th , J . M P , 3 53 n. . .

S mith , S id ney, 3 6n, 3 7 n , 38 n, 45 n , 69 a , Unge r, E c kha rd , 60 11, 27 4 11 .

S mi th , W . R o b e rtso n , 7 , 9 5 , 9 6, 9 7 , 9 8 , Vela n , C .
,
l 5n .

V e n is , Arthu r, 3 7 n .

126n , 129 n , 130 , 13 8 , 14 9 , 15 2, 154n , Ve rgil 3 0 6 3 24

, , .

15 6 , 162, 2 14 n , 2 15 n , 216, 2l 7 a , 219 , Vince n t H ughe s , , 5 2n , 3 09 n .

V iro lle au d , C .
,
28 7 n , 28 8 n , 29 0n , 29 1n ,
33 8 n , 3 42n . 29 2n , 3 6 1 .

S o ci n , A .
,
13 7 n , 222n . Visc he r ,
H .
,
15 n .

S o mm e r, F , 4 8 n , 50 , 367 i
. . Vlo c k , W .
,
3 .

S o z o m e n , 148 . V o gii é , C o m te de , 3 l 7 n , 3 18n .

S pe n c e r, B 9 6n , 10 1, 110n , 112n , 113 n

Wdd
.
.
,

S pe ise r, E A , 3 5 n , 40 , 4 5 n , 5 7 n , 58 a , 59,
. . a ell , L A . .
,
25 n , 3 7 n .

6 1, 68 , 69 , 7 6, 7 7 , 7 8n , 84, 8 5 n , 86n , Wain w righ t G l 99 n ,

.
, .

23 on , 263 n , 365 . Wallac e A R 114 ,

. .
,
.

S pre nge r, A , 4 , 5 , 28 . . Walthe r J 15 n ,

.
,
.

S tad e , B , 3 23 , 33 1
. . Ward W H 3 5 127 n
, . .
, , ,
128 n , 14 2n , 228 n ,
S tarb u c k , E .
,
162n . 24 5 n , 27 3 n , 3 3 2 .

S tarck e , C . N .
,
10 1 . Web er O 8 5 n 20 1n
,
.
, ,
.

S t e in do rff , G .
,
23 n , 164, 169, 17 0 n , 17 5 , We idn er E F 3 l3n , . .
,
.

180n , 19 5 n , 19 6 . We issb ac h F H 3 5 , . .
, ,
60 n .

S teu e m agle , C .
,
3 0 1n . Welc h A C 35 5 n
,
. .
,
.

S trab o , 109 , 149 , 15 8n , 17 5 , 299 , 3 o3 u . We llh ause n J 10 5 ,

.
, ,
118 n , 120n , 130 ,
S trassma ie r, J . N , 250n . . 149 n , 15 2, 15 4 , 202, 213 , 2l 4n , 215 n ,
S trec k , M axi milia n , 8 .

S tu hlma nn , F ranz , 10 9 . Wells te d J R 115 n 117 118 154n

,
. .
, , , ,
.

S tumme , H .
,
l 9n . We ste rmarck Ed w ard 9 8 101 113 n , , , ,
.

S tu rte van t, E T . .
,
47 n . Whitney W D 28 ,
. .
,
.

S nys, E , 158n
. . Wie demann A 10 126n 127 n 13 2 ,
.
, , , , ,

140n , 164 , l 7 4n .

T ac itu s, 298n , 299 n , 3oon . Wiegand T 3 20n ,

.
, ,

T allq uis t, K L . .
,
25 1n . Wildeb o er G 33 2 ,
.
, .

T chihat ah ef , 15 n . Wilk e n G A 102n 103n,

. .
, ,
.

T e rtullian , 306 . Wilkin An th o ny 9 l n 109 n

, , , .
 I NDE X OF AUTHOR S 38 1

Wilk inso n ,
G .
,
l 98n . Wright W 3n 5 7 8 2n
, .
, , , , .

Win c kler H u go , xv , 43 , 4 5n , 46, 99 ,

,
. Wii stenf eld 33 4n , .

15 2, 154n , 15 6, 20 5 , 3 0 8n , 3 25 n , 3 28n , Wylde A B i 48n

, . .
, .

3 32 .

Win n efeld H ermann 3 20n

, ,
. Y aq u t, 116n , 217 n , 218n .

Win stanley W ; 224n , . .

Wo lf W l 96n
, .
,
. Zimm ern , H e i n ric h , xv. , 241n , 25 6n , 260n ,
Wo o lley C L 3 1 3 4n 3 5 n
, . .
, , , ,
38n , 39, 40 , 262n , 264n , 27 9 n ,
46n , 49, 5 7n , 66, 7 9 n , i z 8n , 14 2n , 17 6, Zimo lo ng, 263 n .

228n . Zitt le ,
K A , 15 n
. . .

Wo rrell W , . H .
,
10 , 12n , 13 n , l4n , 15 , Zw em e r, S . M .
,
5 6n , 102n , 117 n , 118 ,
16n , 18n , 21n , 25 n , 29 , 3 0, 69 n . 129n , 15 4n , 200n , 20 1n .
 I N D E X O F S U BJ E CT S
Ao , S u me rian go dde ss , 244 Al E l w ar
‘ ‘

.
-
u r, see -
.

Ab irillu , Aramwan d eity, 3 15 . Al Uz z a, Arab ian go dde ss, 118 , 140, 203 ,
-

Ab raham , 83 , 104 , 13 0 , 324f , 3 63 . .

Ab u S h arein , 62 . Alashi a, an c ien t name o f yp rus, 299 C .

Ab u S ir, 189 . P
Al ein , h oeni c ian go d, 289f , 36 1 . .

Ab ydo s, 17 6, 17 7 . Alge ria, 15 1 .

Ab yssinia , 1, 221 . Algie rs, 9 1, 109 .

Ab yssin ian Ch u rc h , 224 . Ali , 103 .

Ab yssinian s , 16, 29, 13 0 , 221 . Allah , 218 , 220 .

Ac h aean s, 5 0 , 3 67 . Almo ravid e , 109 .

Ad ab , 62, 23 5 . Ama, B ab ylo n ian go d , 264 .

Adad , S e mitic w eathe r go d , 246, 28 5 -

. Amageshtinann a, B ab ylo ni an deity , 260 .

Adda, Amo rite go d , 28 5f , 293f . . Amamu tin ann a see Amagesh tinan n a .

Ad o d o s , Gre ek f o rm o f Adda, 292 . Ame n , E gyp tian go d, 173 , 17 8 , 18 7 .

Ad o ni s, 29 2, 294f , 3 19 . . Amen o phi s I , 106 .

[n an c iviliz atio n , 46 . Am e n o phis I V , k in g o f E gyp t, 44 , 80, 10 7 .

Af ars , 12, 106, 221 . Ame n re , E gyp tian go d , 193

-
.

Af ric a, 9 , 16, 5 5 ; u n ite d to E u ro p e in Ame rican I n dian s , 96f .

glac ial pe rio d, 14 . Am e ric an S c h o o l o f Orie n tal R esearc h at

Aga, M o un t , 214 . B agh d ad , 44 .

Agad e , a S emi tic c ity , 37 . Amh aric lan gu age, 3 65 .

Ah ab , 3 5 1 Am , Arab ian go d , 30 , 7 2, 208 , 209fi

‘
. .
,

Ahhiyaw a, 367f . 284 .

Ahmo se I , 10 6f . Amman , c ity in ale s tin e , 5 1, 284 P .

Ain S itti M iriam, 5 2 . Ammi an shi , 7 4 , 8 5 , 284

-
.

Y
Ak hi— ami ( Akhi aw i) , 326 -
Y . Ammi— b ail, 7 2 .

Akhmin , 17 6 . Amm i di tan a, 7 2

~
.

Ak k adi an language , 22, 23 , 24 , 47 , 69f .

,
Ammi n adab , 7 2 284
-
.

7 7 , 8 2, 3 65 . Ammi —
n adib , 7 2 .

Akk adi an s, 1, 16, 29 , 6 1, 68 , 69fi .

, 7 7, 78; Ammi— z adu ga, 7 2 .

at Nippu r, 64 . Amm o ni tes, 1, 284 .

Ak sh ak ( Opis) , 60 . Amo n , E gyptian go d , 15 8 ; see Amen .

Ak su m, 221i . Amo rite s, 1, 16, 29 , 49 , 7 1ff , 80, 8 5 , 8 8 , .

Al F akh r, Arab ian divini ty , 208

-
. 28311 , 308 , 3 20 , 3 26 .

Al F als , Arab ian go d , 214 , 219

-
. Amurru , 362 .

Al Galsad ; Arab ian go d ,

-
An at , (Anath) ,
'
Ph oenic ian go dd e ss,
Al L at, Arab ian go dd ess, 140 , 203 , 217 ,
-
3 02 .

218f .
,
3 16 . An ato li a, 33 .

Al maqq ahu
-
( Alma —
q hu ; I l maqq ahu ) ,
-
An az a, Arab ian trib e , 215 .

20 6f .
,
222 . Animals, S ac re d , 9 7 .

Al M o hads , 109 :
-
An im als , to tems : ass, po ssib le to te m ,
Al M u harriq , Ar ab ian d eity, 215
-
. 17 4 ; b ab o o n , 19 1; b e e tle , 190 ; b u ll,
Al sa ir, Arab ian d ei ty, 215
-
'
. 183 ; c at , 19 3 ; c o w , 17 5 , 17 7 , 183 , 184 ;
 I N D E X O F S U BJ E CT S
Aa, S u me rian go ddess, 244 Al E l w ar
‘ ‘

.
-
u r, see -
.

Ab irillu , Aramaean d e ity, 3 15 . Al Uz z a, Arab ian go dd ess, 118 , 140 , 203 ,

-

Ab rah am , 83 , 104 , 13 0 , 324f .

,
3 63 .

Ab u S h are in , 62 . Alashi a, an c ien t n am e o f

'

Cyp rus, 299 .

Ab u S ir, 189 . P
Alein , h oeni c ian go d , 289f , 36 1 . .

Ab yd o s, 17 6 , 17 7 . Algeria, 15 1 .

Ab y ssini a, 1, 221 . Algie rs, 9 1, 109 .

C
‘

Ab yssinian hu rch , 224 . Ali, 103 .

Ab yssin ian s , 16, 29 , 13 0 , 221 . Allah , 218 , 220 .

Ac h w an s , 5 0 , 3 67 . Almo ravid e , 109 .

Adab , 62, 23 5 . Ama, B ab ylo nian go d , 264 .

Adad , S emi tic w e ather go d , 24 6, 28 5 -

. Amageshtinann a, B ab ylo ni an deity, 260 .

Adda, Amo rite go d , 28 5f , 293f . . Amamu tin anna see Amagesh tin ann a .

Ad o d o s, Gre ek f o rm o f Adda, 29 2 . Am en , E gyp tian go d , 173 , 17 8 , 18 7 .

Ad o nis, 29 2, 294f , 3 19 . . Ame n o phis I , 106 .

[Egae an c iviliz atio n , 4 6 . Am en o phis I V , k in g o f E gyp t, 44 , 80 , 10 7 .

Af ars , 12, 10 6, 221 . Amen re , E gyp tian go d , 193

-
.

Af ric a, 9 , 16, 5 5 ; u n ite d t o E u ro p e in Am e ri can I n di an s , 96f .

glac ial pe rio d , 14 . Am e rican S c ho o l o f Oriental R esearc h at

Aga, M o un t , 214 . Bagh dad , 44 .

Agad e , a S emi tic c ity , 37 . Amh aric lan guage , 3 65 ;

Ah ab , 3 5 1 Amm, Ar ab ian go d , 3 0, 7 2, 209fl ,
‘
. .

Ahhi yaw a, 367f .

Ah m o se I , 106f . Amman , c ity in alestin e , 5 1, 284 P .

Ain S itti M iriam, 5 2 . Amm i —

an shi , 74 , 8 5 , 284 .

-
Y
Akh i ami ( Ak hi aw i) , 326 -
Y . Ammi —b ail , 7 2 .

Ak h mi m, 17 6 . Ammi— ditan a, 7 2 .

Ak k adi an lan guage , 22, 23 , 24 , 4 7 , 69 f .

,
Amm i—
n adab , 7 2, 284 .

7 7 , 8 2, 3 65 . Ammi n adi b , 7 2
-
.

Ak k adi an s, 1, 16, 29 , 6 1, 68 , 69ff .

, 7 7, 78 ; Ammi — z ad u ga, 7 2 .

at Nippu r, 64 . Amm o ni t e s, 1, 284 .

Ak sh ak ( Op is) , 60 . Amo n , E gyp tian go d , 15 8 ; see Ame n .

Ak su m , 221f . Am o rite s, 1, 16, 29 , 49 , 7 1fi , 80, 8 5 , 88 , .

Al F akh r, Arab ian divinity , 208

-
. 283 ff .
, 3 0 8 , 320, 326 .

Al—F als, Arab ian go d, 214 , 219 . Am u rru , 3 62 .

Al —
Galsad ; Arab ian go d , An at , ( Anath) ,
‘
Ph oenic ian go ddess, 289f f,
Al L at, Arab ian go dd e ss, 140 , 20 3 , 217 ,
-
3 02 .

An ato li a, 3 3 .

Al maq q ah u
-
(Almaq hu ; -
I l—
maqq ah u ) , An az a , Arab ian trib e , 215 .

z 0 6f .
,
222 . An imals, S ac red , 9 7 .

Al M ohad s, 109 :
-
An im als , to tems : ass, po ssib le to te m ,
Al-M u h arriq , Arab ian d eity, 215 . 174 ; b ab o o n , 19 1; b e e tle , 190 ; b ull ,
Al sa ir, Arab i an de ity, 215 183 ; 193 ; 17 5 , 17 7 , 183 , 184 ;
'
-
. c at, cow ,
3 84 I NDE X OF S U BJECTS

An imals —
"
c o nti n u ed Ashe r, trib e o f, 8 8 , 3 06 , 3 26 .

j
d o g ( ac k al) , 17 6 , 17 8 f .
, 19 0 ; As her ah, th e o rie s o f, 133 .

e ag le (o r vu ltu re ) ,
2 16 ; fi s h , sharp Ashe ra t ( As he rah ,
As h irat) , go dd ess ,
n o se d , 18 1; haw k , 17 2, 17 3 , 17 4 , 17 7 , 13 41
1 ,
13 8 , 288 f .
, 306f , 3 6 2 . .

19 3 ; As hira , Nab athxe an d e ity, 3 16 .

ib is , 17 9 , 19 1; ic hne u mo n , 19 3 ; jac k al Ashn u nak , 60 .

sec d o g ; latus - fi s h , 17 2; lio n , 19 1, 2 15 f ; . Ashtar, 13 6, 288 i 3 19 .

o k api, e x tin c t an imal, po ss ib le to te m , C

Ash tar he mo sh, 3 09 f
-
.

17 4 ; o ry x , 180 ; 0 x, 19 2; p ig , p o ss ib le As hta ro th , 3 0 7 .

t o te m , 17 4 ; m m, 17 0 , 17 8 , 18 5 , 19 2; As h tart, 29 , 13 7 , 29 7f ; in yp rus , 299 i . C .

se rp e n t , 188 , 19 2, 19 3 , 19 4 ; s h re w Ash to re th , 13 7 , 3061 .

mo u se , 193 ; vu ltu re , 17 2 . Ash u r, ( c ity) , 3 7 f ; S u me rian art at , 3 7 ,

.

An imis ti c s tage o f religio n , 120 . 7 7 , 7 8 ; o rigi nal name , 7 6 ; S u me rian

An ta po lis , 17 7 . name s , 7 6 .

An u , B ab ylo ni an go d , 125 , 227 , 245 11 , Ashu r, go d , 13411 , 13 8 , 274f , 3 40 . .

3 69 . As ia M ino r, 46, 48 , 49 , 54 , 3 6 7i .

Aphe k ( Aphaca) , 29 5 , 36 1 . As iatic race see e n tral As iatic C rac e .

Aphro di te , a Gre e k n ame f o r Ash tart, As s, po ssib le to te m , 174 .

Assuan , 17 0 .

Aphro di te spo lis , 17 7 , 179 . Assyria , 43 , 5 7 , 7 6, 27 4f .

Apo llo ( R eshe p h) , 3 19 . As sy rian langu age , 22, 23 , 24 , 7 7 , 365 .

Apo llo no spo lis M agna, 17 2 . Assyrians , 1, 16 , 17 ff , 7 6d . .

Arab ia, 411, 11, 27 11 , 5 5 11 , 200 fl . As tar, Ab y ssin ian go d , 223 .

Arab ia, No rth see No rth Arab ia . As tarte , 29 2, 294 ; see al s o As h tart .

Arab ia, S o u th sce S o u th Arab ia . Atar, Aramze an go dd ess , 13 7 , 3 13 , 3 15 ,

Arab ia F e lix , 5 6 , 20 1 . 3 l 8f .

Arab ic langu age , 22, 23 , 24 , 25 , 28 , 29 , Atargatis , 3 18f .

365 f . Atarkh as is , my th o f B a and , 262 .

Arab s , l , 16, 5 5 f . Atarq uruma ( Atar Q arn aim) , 3 15 .

Araf a, 2 14 . Atarsama in , 3 15 .

Aramz a n s , 1, 16, 8 l fl .
,
13 7 , 28 5 , 3 10fi .
,
Atej—
tree , 17 9 .

3 27 5 . Athirat , go dd e ss , 134 , 13 8 , 20 5, 209 , 217 .

Aram aic langu age , 22, 23 , 8 2f , 36 5 . . Athlit , n e ar M t arm el, 5 1 . C .

Arap kh a, 4 5 .
’
Athr ( Athir) , an e pithe t, 13 3 , 13 8 , 200 .

Ara r ( Lars a) , 67 . Ath rib is , 189 .

Arh ab , Arab ian t e rrito ry , 216 . Ath tar, Arab ian go d , 29 , 136 , 138 , 20 2,
Arpach shad , 45 . 203 , 204 fl ; 20 7 , 208f , 212, 217 . .

Arp ad ( Arvad ) , 3 13 . At h tar, Arab ian go ddess, 209 i .

Arrapac hi tis , 4 5 . Athtar, ep ith e t , 136, 200 , 2046 , 20 7 , 20 8f .

Ars in o ite , n o m e , 18 2 . At re us , 5 0 , 3 67 .

Am ru , B ab ylo ni an go dd ess , 14 1, 227 . Att is , Ph ygi

go d , 3 18
r an .

Aryan s, 44 , 4 7 . Atu m , E gyptian go d , 190 .

Arz aw a, 5 0 . A -
u sar, e arly n ame o f Ash u r, 7 6, 27 5 .

Ash at u , B ab ylo nian go d , 133 , 27 8 . Au stralia, 96f .

As h d ar, B ab ylo nian go dd e ss , 6 5 , 136, Aw a see Yh e a .

Aw an , 61 .

Ashdar m u ti, k in g o f Ki sh , 13 6, 23 7
-
.

Ashd o d , f o u ndi ng o f, 36 1 . B aal, Y ah w ehiz atio n o f, 348i .

Ash e r, n am e o f Y ahw e h , 349 . B aal H amo n , 303 , 3 04

-
.
 I NDE X OF S U B JECT S 85

B aal Kh ammam , Arama

-
e an go d , 3 10 . B rachio c ephals, 3 1f .
, 34 , 5 3 .

B a al—
lan d, 13 8 B ritish I sles, 15 1
‘
. .

B aal- S eme d , Arama

e an go d , 3 10 . B ro ad headed me n , 3 1f
-
.

B aal S hamaim , 293 , 3 14 , 3 20

-
. B ro nz e Age , 5 2 .

B aal- tamar, 13 1 . B u b astis , 193 , 198 .

B aalat , Ph oen ic ian go dd ess , 283 ; at B ulgaria, 15 1 .

Geb al, 293 f . B ull , to tem , 183 .

B aalb ek , 3 20 . B u rnab u riash I I , 80 .

B aals, 3 0 7 . B usiris, 189 .

Bab b ar see Utu . B u to , 6th L E . . n o me , 186, 18 7 .

B ab -el M an d eb , S traits o f , 27 , 5 7
-
. B u to , 18 th L E . . no me , 19 2, 193 .

B ab o o n , to tem , 17 9 , 19 1 .

B ab ylo n , a S emi tic c ity , 3 7 , 67 , 239 , 27 1f . Cl a e n dar, Assyrian , 77 , 7 9 .

B ab ylo nia, 3 511 , 5 5 , 5 7 , 22611 , and C an aani t es , 1, 16 , 80f .

,
283 , 28 5 11 , 3 0 7 .

passi m . Cann ab alism , in E gyp t, 199 .

B ab ylo nian s, 5 7 , 226fl .

,
and passi m . Carc hemi sh , 33 , 43 , 4 6, 49 , 5 0 .

B adari , 89 . C arth age , 16 , 17 , 303f .

B adarian c iviliz atio n , 89f .

,
121f . Cat, to tem , 193 .

Bak hde t, E gyp tian c ity of UE . .

,
17 1 . C i l g g dS m i
auc as an an ua es an u e r an , 36 .

B alish ( o r ali sh ) , 48 P . C T h 15 1
auc asu s , e, .

B altic , Ge rman h o res o f , 15 1 S . C ti fl i t m 24 3 66

ausa ve- re ex ve s e s, , .

B an tu lan gu ages , 13 . C ti t m 22f 3 65f

au sa ve s e s, .
,
.

B anu B au lan , 214 . C e dw ll 286

av -
e e rs, .

B anu T amin , 215 . C m 5 1f

ave- en , .

Bar H adad ,
-
see B e n Hadad -
. C t mpl 5 1f
ave- e e, .

Bar R e k ub 3 11f
-
, . C lti l g g 47
e c an u a es, .

B arras, Ab yssini an w e athe r go d , 223 -

. C t l A i 3 4 4 8 5 8 ; p pl
e n ra s a, , ,
eo es f ro m ,
B ast , E gyp tian go dde ss , 193 , 198 . 3 4 , 60 , 69 , 228 , 229 .

B au , B ab ylo nian g o d de ss, 139 , 25 5 . C e n tral Asiatic rac e , 59 , 6 1f .

,
63 , 6 5 , 6 6 ,
B e dauye , 12, 22, 23 , 24 , 221, 365 . 6 8 , 7 0 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 80 , 8 7 , 9 3 , 22811 ,

B een a-marriage , see M arriage , b een a . 25 6f .

,
263 , 27 2, 3 69 .

B ee tle , to tem , 19 0 . Ch ald a

ean s, 8 2, 83 .

B ekh de t , 2u d L E . . n o me , 184 . Ch ali ce - w are , 59 .

B ekhd e t, 17 th L E . . n o me , 19 2 . Ch ami r, 12, 21, 22, 24 ; 221 .

B ele aric I sles, 15 1 . Ch as tity , sac rifi ce o f , 113 , 15 3f ~

.

B elin , 12, 21, 22, 23 , 24 . Chemo sh , 136, 222, 3 o9i .

B elu c histan , 5 9 . Ch b im pl
eru , ex an atio n o f , 128 .

B en H adad , kin g o f
-
amasc u s , 3 14 D . Chi 48 369
n a, , .

j
B en ami n , trib e o f , 13 1 . Ch i 186 187
o s, , .

B erb e rs , 1, 109 . Ci m i i 7 7
rc u c s o n, ,
147f .
,
343f .
,
3 68 ; am o n g

H e b re w s , Arab s, 148f ;
14 7 amo n g
'

B e ro sso s, 129 . .

B eth shan , 3 09
-
. am o n g E gyp tians, 149 ; o riginally p rep

B e th S hem e sh , 3 09
-
. arati o n f o r marriage , 149f circ u m .

Bi- literal ro o ts, 1811 . c isio n - f e stival, 148 , 15 3 ; f e stival o f,

B illa, T lle see T ll Bill

e a . a mo ng Hami tes 15 7f ; ,
. early H amito
B n é I srael, 8 7 . S e mi tic c u sto m, 15 9 .

B o ghaz Ko i, 43 , 44 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 . Cl an s, 9 5 fi ; matrilin e al, 9 5fi ; patri

. .

B o o merang-go d , 254 . lin e al, 9 5ff ; H ami to S emi tic similar,

.
-

B o rsipp a, 67 , 273 f 15 9f
'

. .
3 86 I NDE X OF S UBJECTS

C o de : Assy rian 7 7 ; ,
D mi c , 3 5 6 ;
e u te ro no D at e p alm-
f o nti mwd

H am m u rab i c od e, 264 ; l l ittite c o d e , 15 8 ; palm-

t re e c u lt, 19 5 ; palm at

368 ; o f Ho line ss , 3 5 6 . Nakh la 217 , .

C o n f uc iu s , 3 28 . D a te s, 116 11 ; s taple artic le o f Arab ian

C o ppe r, 5 8 . d ie t , l 16 ff ; d is he s mad e f ro m , 117 ;
.

C o p tic la ng u age , 2 1, 22, 3 6 5 . M o hamm e d s ’

e st i mate o f , 118 .

C o p ts , 1, 11 . D e ca lo gu e , o f J , 3 4 1; o f E, 352 .

C o ra n , 9 9 , 3 16 ; see al s o S c rip tu re I nd e x . D e b o rah , 130 .

C i
o rs c a , 15 1 . D e ad , s p ri ts o i f , 121 .

C o ve nan t , Bo o k o f, 340 , De nde reh , 17 5 , 17 9 .

Co w to te m , 17 6 , 17 7 , 183 , 184
, . Desc e n t, h o w re c k o n e d , 9 5 1
1 , 108 .

C ra dle - lan d , Hami tic , 9 if ; 5 5 ; Af ric an . Dhe q a, 18 5 .

c o n tin e n t t he o ry , 9 ; No rth Af ric an D hu Gab at

-
( Dh u Gib t) , -
Arab ia n go d,
th e o ry , 9 f .
,
16 ; S e mi tic the o ry o f, 10 f . 212 .

C rad le -
lan d , S e mi tic , 2fl ; B ab ylo n ian
. Dhu l Khala sa, Arab ian d ie ty , 213
-
‘
-
.

t he o ry o f, 21
1 Arab ian t he o ry o f , 4fl , Dhu l S hara, Arab ian go d , 214 , 217
‘
- -
. .

11, 27 f ; Af rica n th e o ry o f , 6 tf ;
. . D id o, 3 05i .

Arm e nian the o ry o f , 8 ; Amu rru t heo ry Dilmu n , island o f , 23 9 .

8i ; S o u th Arab ia ,
o f, . rs t separate fi Di o spo lis P arva, 17 5 .

ho me , 28 f ; No rth S e mi t ic , 211
. . Do g (j ac k al) to te m , 17 6 , 17 8 f .
,
l 80 f .
,
190 .

C i l gy
ran o o ,
D o lic ho c e phals , 3 1f .
,
53 .

C t hi glyph
re an ero s, 38 . D o lm e ns , 51 .

C t 5 2d
re ans , . D o ves , sac red , 217 , 218 .

C t 5 2fl
re e , . Drehem , B ab ylo nian c i ty, 25 5 .

C im Th 15 1
r e a, e, . Du k a, 17 7 .

C dil p li 182
ro c o o o s, . Du m uz i, B ab ylo nian go d , 240 1
1 .

C ml h 5 1
ro ec s, . Du n -
animal, 25 3n8 .

C Ab y i i f
ro ss , s s n an e as t o f , 224 . Du n mu sh
-
( P) , B ab ylo nian d e ity, 254 ;
C 17 8
u sae , . see also Du n shagga .

Cu th a see Ku th a . D u n p a—
-
e , B ab ylo ni an d eity , 254 ; see

Cyp rus , 13 3 , 29 81 . also Du n shagga .

D un shagga, B ab ylo n ian d e ity , 253 i .

D agan , Ph oenic ian c o rn - go d , 29 1 . Duns ha ggan a, s ee D un shagga .

Dai, Nab athazan die ty , 3 15 Du sare s ; Dh u l S h ara

‘
. s ee - -
.

D am ascu s , 8 2, 83 , 3 14 . D u shr atta, ki ng o f M itanni , 44 , 4 5 .

Dan , t rib e o f , 8 8 . Dw gmw tf , ( Egyp tian go d) , 124 .

Dan ao i, 5 4 . Dw gw, ( E gyp tian tadp o le go d) , 124 -

.

D ank alis, 106 .

Dank ils ( Af ars ) , 221 . E a, B ab y lo nian go d , 129 , 23 3 , 262 ; -

s ee

D ate p alm , 5 6, 115 f ; f o u n d f ro m . C ana als o E nki .

Pen jab , 115 ; S e mi ti c na m e ,

’
ri e s to n am e f o r, B ab ani , Ak k adian of E nk idu s

115 n 5 ; imp o rta nc e to Arab s , 11611 ; 145f .

cu lti vati o n o f , l 17 f ; b i sexu al tre e , .

-
E agle ( o r vulture) , t o te m , 216 .

117 f 128 , 140 , 143 f ; in yr amid e x ts,

.
,
. P T E ann atu m , ki n g o f L agash , 34 , 4 1, 228 ,
127 ; in B ab ylo nian p ic tu re s , 128 ; an d pass im ; c o n q u ers E lam , 3 4 .

w o rshi pp ed in an c ien t tim e s , 13 01

1 ; in E b ed—
Ash e ra, 88 .

o as es, 13 8 ; e c o n o mi c impo rtan c e o f, E c o n o mic lif e , 11411 , 169 .

13 8 ; imp o rtan c e to o as is ‘
dw elle rs , E D o cu m en t , 7 1, 3 24 , 3 25 , 340 .

16 1f ; tre e
. of lif e , 14 2 ; p alm t re e go d , -
E do m , 3 15 .
 I NDE X OF S U BJECT S 38 7

E d o mi te s, 1 . E nz u , Asiatic m o o n go d , 24 13 -
.

E df u , 17 2 E rec h , 5 7 5 8 , 5 9 , 65 , 67 , 2263
'

. .

E gyp t , 5 3 , 5 5 , 5 7 , 8 7 f .
, 164ff ; E lami te . E re shkigal, Bab ylo nian go dde ss, 266f .

influenc e in , 3 4 . E ridu , 62, 66, 228i .

E gyp tian lan gu age , 21, 22, 23 , 25 , 94 , E ri m , part o f Lagash , 64, 260 .

E rnu te t, mi stre ss o f gran ary, 198 .

Egyp tians, 1, 11, 14 , 89fi , 164fi . . E ryx , 303 .

E hn as ( H e racle o p o lis) , 94 . E sh mu n , 29 2, 302 .

E ile ith yiasp o lis, 17 2 . E thi o pic lan guage , 24 , 3 6 5f .

E l, Amo rite and Ph oenician go d , 2861

1, E uphrate s, 6 1, 23 0 .

3 07 fi .
,
3 10 , 3 11, 3 13 , 3 25 f .
,
363 . B u yuk , 49 .

E l, S o u th Arab ian go d , 225 . E xo dus, H eb rew , d ate o f, 3 293 .

E l Amarna, 86
-
. E y e, 10 7
E l Amarna Letters , 8 6,
-
and passi m . E z ana, k ing of Ak su m, 222f .

E l E lyo n , 3 0 8 . E z ra, 3 5 6 .

E l Kab , 17 2 .

E l Ob eid , 227
-
. F akh r , Ar ab ian di vinity , 208 .

E l Olam , 3 08 . F amil y, o rganiz atio n o f , 14 1 .

E l R o i , 308 F ara ( S u rippak ) , 5 7 , 60 , 125

’
. .

E l S h addai , 308 . F atima, 103

—
.

E l Ul a, 8 5 , 211 . F ayu m, 89 , 18 2 .

El— w ar , go d o f Hamath , 3 14 . F easts see f e stivals .

B lagu , go dde ss o f E lam , 27 3 . F e stivals , reli gio u s , 15 1f ; . am o n g He

E lah, 3 25 . b rew s, 15 1f ; in yp ru s, 15 2; in B ab y
. C
E lam, 33f .
,
43 , 5 5 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 68 ; 92, 27 3 . lo ni a, 15 2 ; in Arab ia, 15 2; c ircu m
E lami tes, 3 3 f , 93 ; influ e nc e in E gyp t , 34
. . c isio n f e stivals,
-
15 3 ; p ring f e stival, S -

E lat , 288 . 153 ; t o palm— t ree go dd ess, 15 4 ; h ris C

E lephan tin e , 17 0 tian iz e d in Ab yssinia, l 54f to T am
‘

. .

Eli j ah , 3 5 1f . mu z in B ab ylo n ia, 155 ; t o Ado nis in

E lim , 13 1 . Ph oenic ia, 15 5 i ; tw o f estivals p rimi
E lo him , 3 25 . tive , 15 7 f ; sexu al laxity at , 160f ;
. .

E lyo n , Aramae an de ity , 3 13 . E gyp tian , o f Op e t, 19 6 ; o f Osiri s , 19 7f ; .

E miuen shi , 7 4 , 85 . S e d f e s tival, 198 ;

-
at M ecc a, 221; in
E mu tb al, 68 . Ab yssinia, 224 ; New ear s f e stival in Y ’

E n b i—Ash dar, ki ng o f Kish , 23 7 . t im e o f Gu de a, 277 f ; at B ab ylo n in .

E nk i , B ab ylo nian go d , 125 , 13 9 , 228f , . tim e o f Neb uchadrez z ar, 27 9f ; We s t .

232f . S emi tic , 3203 .

E nk h egal, k in g of Lagash , 4 1 . S
F ish , harp -
n o se d , t o tem , 18 1 .

E nkid u , B ab ylo n ian h e ro , 14 1 ; see als o F ishin g, 114 , 169 .

E ab ani . F ran c e , 15 1 .

E n lil , go d o f Asiatic
-
rac e , 64 , 125 , 139 , F ru it s o f Ym e en , 56 .

228f , 3 69
. . F u l langu age , 12, 23 , 24 .

E nni n , (I ninn a) ,
S u m e rian n am e of F u sio n o f rac e s, 331 .

I sh tar, 64 , 23 7 .

E ninn u , te mple at Lagash , 25 5 an d Gad , trib e o f, 8 8, 3 27 i .

p assi m . Gal -
ali m, B ab ylo nian de i ty , 25 2f .

E nshagk u h an a, 23 7 S -
. Galla, ( Gallas,
E n - shar, B ab ylo nian go d , 125 . Gatu mdu g , B ab ylo ni an go d de ss, 25 1f .

E n temena, 23 0ff . T
Gaw ra, e p e , see epe Gaw ra T .
3 88 I NDE X o r S U BJECT S

Ge b , Egyp t ian e arth go d , 140 . Hapi E gyp tian Nile go d , 140

, .

Ge b al, 28 5 3 . Haran , 82 .

Ge e z sc ri p t , 221, 222 Hara ppa , I nd ia, 3 7 , 5 9 , 6 5

‘

. .

Ge nd e rs in Ha mitic a nd S e mi t ic , 25 . Hare m , o f te m ple , 158 .

Ge rman sho re s of th e Balt ic , 15 1 . Hat ho r, 168 , 17 5 , 17 6 , 17 9 , 184 , 18 5 , 283 ,

Ge rs ho m , so n o f M o se s 147 , . 286 ; me a ning o f th e na me , 16 8 , 17 5 .

Ge sh tin an na see Amage sh tin an na . Hat s he p- su t, 10 7 , 17 4

-
.

Ge z e r, 5 1, 5 2, Hausa , 24 , 3 6 5 .

Ghab ghab , 2 17 . Haw k , t o te m 17 2, 17 3 , 17 4 , ,

G id e o n , 130 .

Gih o n , 5 2 . He b re w langu age , 22, 23 , 7 4 7 5 , 8 1, 36 5 ,

.

Gilgals , 5 1, 15 0 , 3 68 . He b re w s , 1, 16 , 29 , 833 , 3 233 .

Gilgame sh e p ic , 14 1, 143 , 226 . j

He az , 5 5 , 92 .

Ci rs u , a part 0 1 La gas h , 63 , 248 1 . He li o po li s ( On) , 126, 127 , 190 .

Gish kh u ( Umma ) , 6 1, 6 7 , 260 . Herakle o po lis , 18 2 .

Glac ial e po c h , 14 , 5 5 . He rm o po lis , 17 9 .

Go ds , 123 3 ; de ve lo pe d f ro m sp iri ts , 123 ; He rm es, 17 9 , 296 .

Bab ylo nian , n um b e r o f , 125 1 01 Hez ekiah , 354 .

ani mal f o rm , h u man w i th ani mal Hi e rac o npo lis , 94 .

h e ads , 132, 19 5 ; Egyp tian , Ch th o ni c , Hie rapo lis see M ab u g .

13 2; late r c e les tial, 132; o f lo ve , Hiero d u le s ee Q‘des ha .

Arab ian , th e o ries o f, 2021 . Hi mas , t rac ts sac re d to d e itie s, 154 .

Go urn ia , 5 3 . Hi tti te c ity, 46 , 4 7 , 48 , 49 , 50 .

Grain sp iri t , 262

-
. Hittite hi e ro glyp hs , 46 .

Grac c o Latin , 4 7
-
. Hi tti te language , 28 , 4 7 , 4 9 .

Gre e k s , 4 7 , 5 0 , 3 6 71 . Hi tti tes, 44 , 46, 49 , 5 0 , 3 111 3 68 . .

Gu dea , B ab ylo nian ru le r, 42, 112, 134 , Hmn , ( E gyptian go d) , 123

_
.

139 , an d passi m; an d pas si m . H o lin ess , c o de o f , 356 .

Gu gishk ha , 6 1 . H o re b , lo cati o n o f , 334 .

Gula , e p ith e t o f B au , 250 . Ho rites, 84 .

Gu ti , dynasty 0 1, 42, 68 , 69 , 7 7 . H o rus , 124 , 16 7 , 17 1, 17 7 , 17 8 , 180 , 184 ,

19 1, 196 .

Hab iri , 83 , 3 27 1 . Hypse le , 17 8 .

Hadad , Aramae an go d , 3 13 , 3 15 , Hey, ( ApiS ) , 124

3 19 . H u b al, ( H o b al) , Arab ian go d , 217 , 220 ,
Hadramau t, 5 6f .
,
214 . 3 16 .

H adr ian , 56 .
H un tin g, 169 , 17 1
T
.

H agia riada , 5 3 .
H urri , 8 6, 8 7 , 3 111 .

H amath , 3 14 .
H u rri language , 48 1 .

H amdan , Arab ian t rib e , 216

H yk s o s, 49
.

Hami te , 1 .

Hami te s , 10 51 .

I b i S in , ki ng o f Ur, 7 3
-
.

H ami tic language s, 3651 .

Ib is , to te m , 17 9 , 19 1
H ami tic peo ple s, 27 ; o f th e w hi te
.

I c hneum o n , to te m , 19 3
rac e , 14 ; mi grated to Arab ia, 5 5
.

Hamm u rab i , 4 2, 43 , 7 2, 7 9 , 25 9 an d I dalio n ( Adfl) , 300 .

“
I D KI B NUN , 61
ass i m
-

p
-
.
.

Hamo n ( Hamm o n ) , 29 5 f .
Ilah ( I1) as d e ity 212 213
, , ,
.

J
Ha mri n , e b e l, 33 , 43 . Ilat ( Ilah at) as d e ity 212 213
, , , .
 I NDE X OF S U BJECT S 389

Iliab rat, Ak k adian name of Nin shakh , Kab yle e s, 11 .

265 . Kad ah , a d e ity, 3 13

’
.

I lu , B ab ylo nian f o rm o f E l, 225 . Kad e sh , ( Qadesh) , 3 62 .

I ndia, 15 1 . Kata, 112 .

I nd o E u ro pean lan gu ages, 4 7 , 48

-
. C
Kaldu , hald ae ans, 8 2, 83 .

I n d ra, 44 . Kanish , 4 7 , 48 , 49 .

I ndus Valley ,
5 9 , 60, 6 5 . Kassite s( Ko ssa ans) , 80f .

I ninni , ( see als o E nnin ) , 23 7 . Kbshnwf ( E gyp tian go d ) , 124 .

I n te nsive ste ms , 211 . Kenite s , 33 1 3 .

I o nian s, 50 . Ke th ek , 3 12 .

I ro b S ah o , 12, 22, 23
-
. Kha, S u merian w o rd f o r fi sh , 62
‘ ’
.

I ro n Age , 54 . Kh allah , B ab ylo ni an ci ty, 23 7 1 .

I saac , 3 25 . Kh arga, o asis, 17 6 .

I sh tar, 29 , 65 , 13 6, 20 5 , 226, 3 11; e ty Khnu m , E gyptian go d , 15 8 , 17 0 , 17 8 .

m o lo gy o f , 13 7f , 228 , 23 7 3 . . Kh re itu n , Wady, in u dae a, 5 1 J .

I sh tar o f Arb ela, 27 6 . Khulan , 216 .

I shtar o f Nin e vah , 27 61 . Kin da , Arab ic trib e , 214 .

I sis, 13 3 , 134f .
,
18 5 , 189 , 19 5 . Kinshi p , 9 7 3 .

I srael, s o ns o f , 87 . Kirk u k , 44 .

I ssach ar, trib e o f, 87 . Kish , 67 , 23 7 , 2631 sk ulls f o u nd at, 391 . .

I ssesi, E gyptian king , 17 9 . R isat ra, 67 .

I taly, S o u thern , 15 1 . Kitab al Aghani , 9 9

-
.

Kitio n ( Ki ti) , 300 .

J k lttm
ac a ,
o e ,
s ee d o g, to tem . Kno sso s, 5 3 .

J b 86f 325
ac o , .
, . Ko m Omb o s, 17 1 .

J p 15 1
a an , . Ko pto s, 17 2 .

J D m t 71o cu en , ,
10 5 , 14 1, 28 2, 3 24 , 3401 . Ko ssae ans, 68 , 69 , 801 .

356 . Ko uyu njik , 33 , 43 .

J h 351
e u, . Krlzr ( Krlerw) , 123 .

Je mde t Nasr 5 7 5 9 , , , 60 , 62, 66, 67 . Ku pna, e arly name o f Geb al, 28 6 .

J e re mi ah , 33 3 , s ee also S c rip tu re Ku rigalz u I I , 80 .

Index . Ku th a, S u me rian co n tro l o f , 3 7 , 6 7 , 266 .

J i h ity f p lm t
er c o, c o a re es , 13 1 .

J l m 5 2 5 6 3 61
erusa e , , , . Lagash , 34 , 4 2, 100, 228, 240 ,
J 3 28
e su s , . L amassu , a gu ardian d eity, 25 2 .

J i th C
e su s , 130 n e o ran , . Lao tse, 328
-
.

J th 334
e ro , . Larak , 60 .

J b l 351
ez e e , . Larn ax Lap etho s, 302 .

Ji nn , 120 , 129 . Larsa, 3 4 , 6 7 , 68 , 244 .

J o n ath an , gran dso n of M dse s, 34 7 349 ,

. Lasa, a go ddess, 3 13 .

Jo seph , 104 . L ato po lis, 17 2 .

Jo siah , 35 5 . Latus—
fi sh , to tem , 17 2 .

Ju d ah , trib e o f, 8 7 , 13 1 . Law s, Assyrian , 7 7 .

Jun o , 3 19 . Leah , 861 .

J us pri mae n octi s, 110 . Le ah trib e s, 861 .

Lesb o s, 3 6 7 .

Kaab a, 217f , 220 . . Le to po lis, 184 .

Kab aso s, 189 . L evi , trib e o f, 8 7 , 346f .

Kab yle e langu age, 22, 24, 365 . Levirate , 10 1, 3 68 .

3 90 I NDE X o r S UBJECT S

Li b ya ns , 9 1 . M atriline al, 108 3 .

Likhyan , 212 . M a tt iu az a k ing o f M itan n i 44 , , .

L ik h yan ian s , 212 . M au re tan ia 109 , .

Lingu is t ic k inship 0 1 Hamit ic an d M b lu nge 12 , .

S e mi t ic , 17 11 . M e c ca 10 2 217 218 220

, , , , .

Lio n , to te m 19 1, 215 1 , . M e d ite rrane an rac e 14 1 5 3 , , .

Lo ng - he ad e d me n , 3 11 . M e d r Ab yssin ian e arth go dd e ss 223

, , .

Lo ve , d iffe re n t c o nc e p t io ns o f in c o nne c M e e ting e n t 0 1 , 3 69T , .

t io n w ith d e it ies , 16 2 . M e h ri langu age 3 65 , .

Lo w e r Eg yp t, 9 4 , 166 , 183 3 . M o k al a go d 3 0 1 3 09
, , , .

L u gal - E rim, Bab ylo n ian d e ity , 260 1 . M e la nes ians , 110 .

Lug alz a ggis i, k ing o f E rec h , 24 2, an d M e le k Nab athre a n go d 3 16

, , .

pas si m . M e lq art go d o f yre 29 61

, T , .

Lulu b i, 68 , 27 6 . M e mphis 94 , 166 183 1 , , .

Luyyis h , 48 , 5 0 . M e na k ing 0 1 E gyp t, 9 4 184 198

, , , .

Lyb ian s , 1 . M e nde s, 192 .

Lycao ni a, 48 , 5 0 . M en hi rs, 5 1,
Lycia, 48 . M eni, Heb rew d e ity , 3 27 .

Lyco po lis , 17 8 . M enk u re , Egyp tian ki ng 286 ,

.

M e rcu ry , 296 .

M a ab d e 17 8
'

, . M e rn e p tah ki n g o f E gyp t, 8 7 329 , , .

M ab u g ( Hie rap o lis) 3 181 , . M e sha k ing o f M o ab 222 3091

, , , .

M agic 112 121; to i n u enc e

, ,
fl go d s of M e s-k alam d im p rehis to ric kin g o f Ur 41
-
, ,

f e rtility , 112; re la ti o n to religio n , 113 n 3 . M e te lis 187 , .

M ain ,
20 1 ,
M idiani te Ken ite s 33 1 -
, .

M ala k Ash tart

-
3 10 ,
. M in , E gyp tian go d 17 4 17 6, 183 , ,
.

M alk atu Ak k ad ian name o f Aa 244

, ,
. M in aean langu age, 365 3 67 , .

M al ta 15 1 3 0 2
, , . M inaeans, 7 0 204 215 366 , , , .

M an af Arab ian go d , 214

,
. M ine t el B e ida 28 7 ; see also Ras S hamra
- -
,
.

M an ass e h kin g o f u dah 3 541 ,

J ,
. M in o an s 53 54 , , .

M an at Arab ian go d de ss 218 3 16

, , ,
. M ira, 5 0 .

M anda langu age 48 1 , . M itann i 4 7 4 9 86 8 7

, , , , .

M an daea ns 10 5 , . M itra 44
,
.

M anis h tu su k in g o f Ki sh 3 4 7 0 7 9 , , , , ,
M o ab 13 7 , 222 3 091
, , .

2441 c o n q u e rs E lam, 3 4 . M o ab ite s 1 309 , , .

M anu th u Aramaean go dd e ss 3 16 , , . M o cha 102 , .

M ao ris 140 , . M o hamm e d , 100 103 118 , 215 , , ,

M arash 46 ,
. 3 28 , 33 3 .

M ard u k go d o f B ab ylo n , 3 13 ,
. M o henjo d aro , In dia 3 7 , 5 9 60 65
-
, , ,
.

M ari 68 , . M o ngo li ans 4 7 48 , , .

M arria ge becu a 10 1 14 1; mo t a
,
’
, , ,
M o n o the is m 3 53 1 , .

14 1; m o n o gamo us , 111 . M o n t, E gyp tia n go d 17 2 , .

M ary , Virgin ,
M o hamm e d an t ra di tio n M o ro cc o 15 1 ,
.

o f, 13 0 . M o ses 8 7 14 7
,
369 ; n atu re o f his
, ,

M asai 12 22, 24 3 66
, , , . w o rk , 3 29 ; w o rk so m e thi ng n e w , 33 1;
M asc al Ab yss inian f e sti val o f th e
,
C ro ss , hi s d at e , 33 1; his vi s io n o f Yh h a we ,

154 , 224 . 33 3 ; m e dia te s c o venan t w ith Y hw h a e ,

M o sseb o 222 3 00 3 69 , , , . 335 ; his u n d e rs tan din g of Y hw h a e

’
s

M atriarch y 111 , . d eman ds , 340 ; is c ircu mcise d , 34 3 1 .

 I NDE X OF SUBJE CT S 39 1

M o t a marriage see M arriage mo l a

’
,
’
. Nink hursag, S u me rian go dde ss, 227 , 228 ,
,
P
M o th h oen ic ian go d o f d eath 29 11 , . 23411 , 240 .

M u allak at p o em s 1021
’
, . Ninlil, B ab ylo nian go ddess , 13 9 , 23 01 .

M u gh arah Wady el in Galile e , 5 1

, . Ninmar, B ab ylo n ian go ddess, 25 81 .

M uw atalli s , 4 7 . Nin shakh , B ab ylo n ian sw in e go d , 2651 -

.

M yc en ae , 5 4 . Nin shar, 268 .

Nin shu b u r see Nin shakh .

Nab ath aean s, 8 2, 214 , 217 , 3 151 . Nimsu a , B ab ylo n ian go dde ss , 2681 .

Nab u , B ab ylo nian go d , 3 13 . Nin tu d , Bab ylo n ian go dd ess, 13 9 .

Nahi , Arab ian de ity, 213 . Nin u rash see Nin u rta
- -
.

Nak ar, a de ity, 3 13 . Nin u rta, 2691

-
.

Nak h la, 118 , 217 . Nisab a, B ab ylo nian go ddess, 26 11 .

Nak rakh , Arab ian go ddess, 20411 . Names,E gyptian , 93 , 9 7 , 165 fi ; o f Uppe r .

Nama, 12, 22, 24 , 3 65 1 . E gyp t , 1, 17 0 ; 2, 17 1; 3 , 17 2 ; 4 , 17 3 ;

Nana, ( see also 23 7 . 5, 6 , 17 5 ; 7 , 8 , 17 6 ; 9 , 17 7 ;
Nandi, 12 . 10 , 17 7 ; 11, 12, 17 8 ; 13 ,
Nann ar, S u m erian mo o n go d, 24 111 -
. 14 , 17 9 ; 15 , 17 9 ; 16 , 180 ; 17 ,
Nan sh e , sc rib al e rro r f o r n ama§ § e, 256 . 18 , 18 1; 19 , 18 1, 20 , 2 1, 182; 22,
Nap thali , trib e o f , 88 . 183 ; of Lo w er E gyp t ; 1, 2, 184 ;
Nar, fir e go d , 3 13
-
. 3, 4 , 18 5 ; 5 , 6, 7,
Naram— S in , 34 , 7 0 , 7 9 ; c o nq ue rs E lam , 34 . 8, 9 , 189 ; 10 , 189 ; 11, 189 ;
Nasamo n e s, an c ien t B erb e r trib e , 15 8 . 12 , 13 , 19 0 ; 14 , 19 1 ; 15 , 191; 16 ,
Nasb eh , ell e n 5 2T . 17 , 19 2; 18 , 19 , 193 ; 20 ,
Nasr, Arab ian de ity, 212, 215 , 216 ; see 1931 .

also Nu su r . No ro b o , 12 .

Ne anderth al man , 84 . No rth Arab ia, 981 .

Neh emi ah , 3 5 6 . Nosb see M asseba .

“ ”
Ne ith , E gyptian go dde ss, 17 2, 18 5 . No se , R o man , 7 9 .

j
Ne d , 29 , 5 5 . Nu h m , Arab ian de ity , 213 .

Nek hb e t, 17 2 . Nu me rals, 3 0 .

Neo lithic man , 3 11 NUN , Asiati c w o rd f o r fi sh , 62, 63 , 369

‘ ’
. .

Nap t i , E gyp tian grain go d , 198 -

. NUN“ o ld e st name 0 1 E r du 62
, i , .

Nerah, 3 131 . Nu sk u , B ab ylo ni an fire go d , 27 01 -

.

Ne rgal ( see also Neu nu gal) , 3 13 , 3 26 . Nu su r ( e agle s) , Ara

b ian di vini tie s, 208 .

Neu nu gal, B ab ylo n ian go d , 2661 . Nu t, E gyp tian godd e ss, 127 .

New Gu in e a, 110 . Nu z i, 4 5 , 54 , 7 6 .

New J e ru salem , c o n c e p tio n s o f , 14 5 n 2 .

Nidab a see Nisab a .

Oann e s ( E a) , 129 .

Case s , Arab ian , 5 6, 13 8 , 143

“

Nik al, a deity , 3 13 , 3 14 .

T ll
.

Ob e id , e 3 4 ; 228 ; sk ulls f ro m, 3 91
-
e1
Nile R iver, 126, 164
.

Nile Valley 89f . 194 .

p o tt e ry f ro m, 5 7 , 5 8 , 2261 .

, ,
Ok api, exti nc t ani m al, p o ssib le to tem ,
Nippu r, 228 , 229 .

174 ,

Nin a, B ab y lo nian go dd ess , 25 61

Olives, M t o f, 52
.

. .

Nin a ( c ity) , 63 , 25 6
Oman , 3 8 , 66, 227
.

Nin e ve h , 33 , 43 , 5 8 , 63 .
Omb o s, 174 .

Ningirsu , deity o f L agash , 13 9 , 24 7 11 .

On ( H eli o p o lis) , 126, 127 , 19 0 .

Nin gishz e da, B ab y lo ni an d eity , 255 . Onu ris, E gyp tian go d , 17 6, 19 0 .

Nin I B , 269f , 309

-
. . Op e t f estival, 19 8 .
392 I NDE X or S UBJ E CT S
Op is , 60 , 6 1 . P ro no u ns , 21 .

O ry x, to te m , 180 . P ro p he ts , 0 1 I srae l, 16 2 .

Os iris , 124 , 133 , 18 2, 189 , 19 3 , 19 5 , 203 . P ro to - l l it t ite , 4 8 , 49 .

Os iris fe s t ival, 19 7 1 . Pt ah ,
Egyp t ian go d ,
Ox, t o te m, 19 2 . Ptahhe te p , 17 9 .

P un t , 1 .

Palmo lithic man , 5 5 , 89 1 . Pu t ( Pu n t) , 1 .

Palai k as tro S3 , . Pyrami d e xts , 123 , 1241

1, T
P l ti
a es ne , 49 , 84 ,
P li h (
a s or Balis h) , 48 , 3 66 .

P lm t
a re e scc D ate palm .
Q ad e sh 362 , .

P lmy
a ra , 8 2, 3 19 .
Q ais Arab ian go d 3 16
, , .

Panamm u , 3 111 .
Q aratb kh adash t to w n in yp rus, 3 001
-
,
C .

Papho s , 298 1 .
Q atab an 20 1, 208 1
, .

P aradise , in Py ram id T e xt s , 127 , Qatab an ians 7 2, 7 3 , 7 5 20 81 , ,

.

in J d oc u me n t, 14 1 s itu atio n 0 1, 14 2n 1 .
Q atar 104 ,
.

P t ili l
a r ne a ,
9 S H , 108 1
1 . .
c es ha 160 , 226 , 29 0 ,

PD m oc u e nt, 308 , 3 24, 342, 3 5 6 . 3 69 .

P ki m
e n- an , 3 2n 1 .
Q u ate rn ary Age 14 15 , , ,
27 .

Pelu siu m , 193 .

Q u raish Arab ian t rib e
, ,
214, 215 .

Pe p i, E gyp ti an kin g , 127 , 19 8 .

Pe pi I , E gyp tian ki ng, 183 , 28 6 . Rab i , Arab ian t rib e , 215 .

P ep i II , E gyp tian kin g, 28 6 . Rac h e l t rib e s , 8 7 , 3 27 1 .

P e rs ia, 38 , 5 9 , 15 1 . R agab -f e sti val, 154 .

P e rs ian , 22 . Rahma n , Aramaea n go d , 3 17 .

P e tra, 8 2, 214, 3 16 . Ra id h an , ( S ab a and ) , 221 .

Phaesto s, 53 . Rak ab E l, Aramae an go d , 3 10 , 3 11

-
.

Phallu s o f s to n e c irc u mc is e d , 7 7 . R am , to tem , 17 0 , 17 8 , 185 , 19 2 .

Phili ti s n es , 54 , 8 1 . Ramadhan , 219 .

Ph oznic ia, 4 5 , 28 511 . Ramman , ano th e r name 0 1 Adad , 24 7 .

Phoeni c ians , 1, 16, 8 1, 13 7 , 283 11 . Rams es II , 4 7 , 189 , 3 29 .

Pian khi , king o f Nu b ia, 183 . Ras S hamr a , 4 5 , 28 7 11 ,

3 20 , 36 1, 3 64 ,
Pig p o ss ib le
,
to te m , 174 . 3 66 1 369 . .

“
Pill ars
”
,
307 . R e , E gyp tian go d , 18 7 , 19 0 .

Pi tassa, 5 0 . R e d S e a, 9 2 .

Pi tu m , 188 . R
’
e da me s, 22, 3 65 .

P l ity 21
o ar ,
. R e fle xive pass ive stems , 23 11
-
.

P ly d y 96 ;
o an r ,
n air typ e , 98 , 113 ; Re gli i o u s o ri in
g s, 120 —163 .

Thi b t typ e an e, 98 , in B ab ylo ni a, R esh e ph , 29 2, 3 0 2, 3 11, 3 19 .

100 ; f rate rnal , 113 ; in E gyp t, acc o rdi n g R eu b e n , t rib e o f, 87 .

t o Mas pe ro , 158 . Rib -Adda , 8 6 .

P o lygam y , 103 . Rifi s , 11 .

P o tte ry : an an c ie n t typ e in M e so p o tami a Rimm o n , 3 15 ; see also H ad ad .

an d E lam , s to n e - age p o t te ry Rimu sh , k in g of Kish , 34, 7 0 ; co n q u e rs

in P ale s ti ne , po tte ry in M eso Elam , 3 4 .

po tamia, 5 811 ; in E gyp t, 9 11 . R o man n o se , 79 .

P o rtu gal, 15 1 . R o o ts , S e mi tic an d H ami tic , 1811 .

P re his t o ry in E gyp t, 9 11 . R o u n d h ead e d , 46

-
.

P r ess u re - arti cu lat io n , 17 . R u dh a , Arab ian d e ity, 213 .

 I NDE X OF SUBJE CT S
R u h at , plac e in Arab ia , 215 . S e t, E gyp tian go d , 17 1, 174 , 17 7 , 17 8 , 18 1,
R uldaiu , Nab ath aan d e ity, 3 15 194 , 19 5 .

S ex , d aw n o f k no w le dge 0 1, 14 2 .

S ab a, 7 5 , 20 1, 20 7 , 221, 222, 3 16 . S hamash , Ak k adi an su n -go d , 244 1 .

S ab aean language , 3 65 . S h ams, Arab ian su n - go ddess , 20 2, 20 7 ,

e an s, 14 8 , 2061
S ab a 1 , 222 . 209 , 215 .
S ac rifi c e , 28 2, 3 42n 2, 34 5 . S h argali sharri , 7 0
-
.

S a d , Ar ab ian d eity , 215

'
. S h e mesh , Aram ae an go d , 3 09 , 3 13 ,
S af a ( S af aite ) , 213 .

S af ar f e stival, 15 4
-
. S h epesh , Ph oeni c ian su n- go ddess, 29 01
.

S ah ar, m o o n go d , -
205 ; see also S in , S hilk h langu age , 23 , 24 , 366 .

mo o n -
go d . S hilk h s, 11 .

S ahara D e se rt , 11, 12, 15 , 16, 9 2, S hi n gala, Nab ath wan d e ity , 3 16 .

o nc e w e ll w atere d , 15 1 . S h rew mo u se , to tem , 193

-
.

S ah o , 12, 36 5 . S hul gi , B ab ylo ni an king, 255 an d passi m .

S ais , 186 . S hu q b ah in S amaria, 5 1 .

S ak j e - Ge u z e , 49 . S hushin ak ( Susa) ,
60 .

S alem , po e tic al n am e o f eru sale m , 3 6 1 J . S ib s, 9 5 5 .

S alm, Nab athaean d e ity , 3 16 . S ic ilians, 5 4 .

S an sk rit , 22 . S icily , 3 03 .

S an sk rit lan gu age , 28 . S ile , 19 1 .

S arah , 104 . S im e o n , trib e

“
o f, 87 .

S ardin ia, 15 1 . S in , S emi tic mo o n go d , 20 2, 20 5 ; in

-
.

S argo n of Agad e , 3 4 , 7 1, 7 7 B ab ylo ni a, 3 13 .

c o n q u e rs E lam , 34 . S in gara, 63 .

S argo n , kin g 0 1Assyri a, 50 . S in u h e, tale 7 4 , 7 5 , 284 o f, .

S can din avia, 15 1 . S ipp ar, 6 1, 244 , 25 7 .

S e alan d of Arab ia, 225 . S irara, a k in d o f fi sh , 25 6 .

S ea L an d s ( S e alan ds) , 82, 225 , 3 10 , S iu t , 17 8 .

3 25 n 3 . S k u lls , 3 011 , 3 91 .

S eals, I n di an , 3 7 ; w ri tin g on, 60n 1; S lavic languages, 4 7 .

c ylin de r, 5 9 . S o b ek , 182, 18 5 .

S eb enn yt o s, 1891 . S o cial lif e , 9 51 .

S e d—
1estival, 198 . S o do mi tes , 3 0 1 .

S efi re , 3 12 . S o lo mo n , te mpleo f , 13 1 .

S emite , 1 . S o mali lan d , 1, 12, 22 .

S emi te s, 6011 , 651 . 123 ; in vad e S o p du , E gyp tian go d , 193 .

Nil e valley , no t t o temi stic , 123 ; S o q o tri lan gu age , 36 5 .

see also S e mi tic p e o ple s . S o u th Arab ia, 5 6fi 7 0 , 7 3 , 7 5 , 8 5 , 98 , 10 2,

.
,

S emi tic lan gu ages , 1311 , 29 , 3651 . 200 , 3 66 ; dis t rib u tin g p o in t 0 1 S e mi tic
S emi tic p eo ple s , 211 , 1611 ; No rth ern , 69 ; p e o ples, 74 .

S o u th ern , 69 . S o u th Arab ian s, 5 611 ,

70 .

S e ndjirli , 4 6, 5 0 ; s ee als o Z e n djlrli . S o u th Arab ic , 7 0 .

S e nit , E gyp tian City , 17 2 . S p ain , 15 1 .

S eq u e n c e date s , 9 21 . S pdw ( E gyp tian go d ; sam e as S Opdu ) 124 .

S erab it el—
kh ad em , 283 . S pirit s , 120 ; e arly b e li e f in , 120 ; in di
S erap is, 124 . vidu aliz e d , 12011 ; 0 1 d e ad , 121; go d s
S erp e n t , to tem , 188 , 19 2, 193 , 194 . d evelo p e d out 0 1, n u mb e r in
S e t, ani mal, 17 4 . B ab ylo nia, 1251 .
3 94 I NDE X OF S UBJ E CT S
S prin gs , spirits 0 1, 126 ; in Arab ia, 14 7 . T 1H
e ns e s 0 ami l o -S e mi tic ve rb s , 24 1 .

S tra ta i n mo unds , 5 8 . Tp Gw
e e a ra , 5 7 , 5 8 , 59, 76, 7 7 .

S t rato nic a, S e le uc id q u e e n , 3 18 . T b i th
e re n , s ac re d tre e , 130 .

S to ne Ag e : at S usa , 3 3 , 7 7 ; me n 0 1, in T e s h u b , H ittite go d , 3 18 .

P ale s tin e , 50 n e ar Amman , 5 1; at T e t i, E gyp tian ki ng , 286 .

Ge z e r, in C re te , 5 23 . Th a mu d ( Th amu d ic ) , 2121 .

’
S u ai r, 2 15 . Th o th , E gy p tian go d , 17 9 , 19 1 .

S ub b iluli u ma, 49 . T ho th m e s I , 106 .

S ucc o th , 188 . Tho th me s I I , 10 7 .

S u m e r, 63 . T ho th mes I I I , 44 , 80 , 10 7 .

S u me rian a nd C a ucas ian lan gu age s , 36 . T h re sho ld , sac re d , 15 0 .

S u me rian langu age , 3 6, 4 7 , 66 . T igla th p ile se r -

S u me rian sylla b ary , 66 1 . T igre d iale c t , 3 6 5 .

S u me rians , 6 1, 68 , Tig n diro a a lec t , 3 65 .

e ntere d Bab ylo ni a f ro m th e so u th , 3 6; Tig i Rir s ve r, 7 6 , 230 .

no t f ro m I nd ia , 3 7 ; po ss ib ly f ro m O man Tiy, 10 7 .

or P e rs ia, 38 ; sk u lls o f , e arly king T C

ie n ( h in ese w o rd fo r H e ave n) , 369 .

0 1, 4 1; dyn as ty 0 1at Ur, 4 1; at L agas h , T o te mi sm , 122; H ami tes

t hi rd dynas ty 0 1at Ur, 42; le aders t o te mis tic , 9 7 ; S e mi tes no t t o temis ti c ,

of c ivili z atio n , 43 ; Ci rs u a S u me rian 123 , po ssib ly su rvi ved in Arab ia ,

c i ty, d e iti es 0 1, 24 7 3 . 217 .

S u n go d , B ab ylo n ian , 2433

-
. T o te ms : Animal -
to tems see Animal
S ur ippa k ( Fara) , 5 7 , 125 , 128 , 3 69 . t o te ms ; see als o t re e- to te ms .

S u sa , 5 8 , 60 . T re e s , s ac re d , 127 3 .

S uw a, Arab ian d eity, 215 . Ti r ad : M inaean ,

S ab azan ,
S yc amo re , sac re d tre e in E gyp t , 130 .
Q atab an ian ,
Ab yssin ian , 223 ;
S yllab ary , S u m e ria n , 661 fi rs t B ab ylo nian , 23 1, 234 ; s ec o n d

S yp ilu s , M o un t, 46 . B ab ylo nia n , 247 ; Aramzean , 3 17 .

S yria, 49 . T ri li te ral ro o ts , 18 3
-
.

S yriac diale c t, 3 66 . T ip li
r o ,
15 1 .

T biro r an ds , 110 .

T aa n ach , 3 261 . T g u are ,

11, 30 5 .

T ab al a, so u th o f M e cca, 213 .
T u leila t e l Gh assul, 5 1 -
.

T ab ni th , king 0 1 S ido n , 104 .

T un is , 15 1
T
.

aif , place in Arab ia, 218

Tut an k h - ame n , 10 7
.
-

T iyi
.

a Arab ian trib e , 214

Iyre , 29 61
. ’
,

T lma u d, B ab ylo nian , 8 2 .

.

Tm a a r, dau gh te r ia law - -
of J u dah , 13 1 .

Ugarit , 4 5 , 46, 3 61
Tm
.

( Davi d s dau gh te r)
’
a ar 104
,
Umma, 6 1, 6 7 , 260
.

T am eshe q , 11, 22, 24 , 365 1 .

Uni s , E gyp tian k ing, 199

T anis , 193 .

UNU , o ld est n am e 0 1 E rech , 65

G ki
.

T ani th , Carthagine an go dde ss , 3 041

.

Up i ( Op is) , 6 1
T arkalan , 44
.

T t 48
ar e rs , .
Upp e r E gyp t, 9 4 , 166, 17 03 .

T hmi t B b yl i g dd
as ,
a o n an o e ss , 27 4 , 3 13 .
Ur, dis c o ve ri es at , 4 1, 5 7 ; fi rs t dynas ty o f ,
T im 3 16
e a, .
39 t hird dyn as ty o f , 4 2; S um e rians
T ll B ill 45 46 59
e a, , ,
.
s e t tle at , 66 .

T ll l D hiy b 33 43
e -
e -
a , ,
.
Ur Nina , king 0 1Lagash , 4 1, 2403
-
.

T mpl B b yl i 27 71
e es , a o n an , . Uru az agga, p art 0 1 Lagash , 64 , 25 2 .
 , I NDE X OF SUBJE CT S 395

U R U DUd
- ‘i
, e arly S u me rian n am e of Y h w h—
a e co nti nu ed

E ridu , 62 . t Ta an ach , 3 26 ; in tro d u c e d to I srae l

Uruk , 5 9 . b y M o se s, vo lc anic go d , 3341 .

Uru k agina, king 0 1 L agash , 4 1 2303 . m e an ing of h is n am e , 3 69 ; pre

Urz age , k ing 0 1 Ki sh , vio u s hi sto ry , n atu re 0 1 hi s
“

Utu , S u me rian su n - go d , 243 1 . c o ven an t wi th I srael, 3 391 imple m en ts .

UT U- KI B —
NU Nk i , S u m erian n am e 0 1 S ip 0 1 h is w o rship , h o w h e b ec ame
p ar , 6 1 .
go d of all I srae l, 3461 . ho w he w as
UTU -
NUN ki
,
e arly n am e 0 1 Ad ab , 62 . mo ralia
ed, h o w h e b e c am e th e
UTU—
I JM — n am e 0 1 Larsa, 68 Go d , 3 5 3 1
'

M A, . o ne .

Y b A b i t it y 215
an u
'

,
ra an e rr or , .

Va dhamana fo u nde r o f Jainism 3 28

Y q A b i d ity 215 216
a u
'

,
ra an e , , .

Varun a 44 '
, , .

Y ha pl i Ab y i i 2211
e ,
ac e n ss n a, .

,
,

Ven u s plane t 20 2 203 3 17

.

, , , .
Y m 29 5 6
e en , , .

Y mn ( E gyp tian go d) , 123

Visio n mystic o f M o se s 3 3 31
, , , .
.

Y mnw ( E gyp tian go d ) , 123

'

Vu ltu re to tem 17 2 , , .
.

Y mst ( E gyp tian go d ) , 124 .

Y mt t ( go dd ess o f B u to ) , 124
-
.

Wadd Arab ian go d 203

, , ,
212, 215 .

Wady Bisha 215 , .

Z ab u l, epith e t o f Alein , 289 .

Wady T u mil at 18 8 , .
Z ak e r, ki ng o f H amath , 3 14 .

Wark a 5 8 65 , , .
Z ak ro , 53 .

Water sp ermato z o a 0 1 the

, go d s , 1391 .
z amama, B ab ylo n ian go d , 263 1 .

1601 .
Zarpan itu m , c o n so r t o f M ardu k , 27 3 ,
Wathra Nab ath wan , go d , 3 16 .
Zaw an , 6 1 .

West S e mi tes 283 3 ,

.
Z eb ulum , t rib e 0 1, 8 7 .

Z emz em , sac re d w ell at M e cc a, 217 .

Y adu d , Ph oeni c I an d e ity, 29 11 . Zen ange , 12 .

Y aghu th , Arab ian d eity , 215 ; 219 . Ze n djirli , sam e as S e ndji rli , 3 11 .

Y ah , sh o rte r n am e fo r Y hw ha e ,
33 7 . Z eus , 3 19 .

Y h (Y h
a u a o ) 33 7 ; s ee Y hw h
a e . Zimb ir ( S ipp ar) , 61 .

t s ( E gyptian
go d ) , 124 . Z o b air, Arab ian p o e t, 10 5 .

Y ahw eh , 88 , 128 , 14 1, 14 7 , 3 2311 ; th e o rie s Z o ro aste r, 3 28 .

o f o rigin , 3 3 2; Ke ni te go d , 324 , Zu -
e u , e ar ly f o rm 0 1 E n z u , 242 .

C O R R I GEND U M

On p 3 65 . line 4 in ste ad of L an d sgerger re ad B e rgstrasse r